Guide For Site Investigation PDF

Geoguide 2
Guide to
Site Investigation
Geotechnical Engineering Office

Civil Engineering and Development Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
Geoguide 2
Guide to
Site Investigation
Geotechnical Engineering Office

Civil Engineering and Development Department
The Government of the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region
2
© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
First published, September 1987

Reprinted, December 1990
Reprinted, December 1993
Reprinted, September 1996
Reprinted, October 2000
Continuously updated e-version, 18 December 2017
Prepared by:
Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Civil Engineering and Development Department,
Civil Engineering Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon,
Hong Kong.
This Geoguide is a continuously updated version incorporating amendments issued since the
Geoguide was last published. The continuously updated version is released in e-format only
on the CEDD website. This Geoguide is to be cited as “GEO (2017). Guide to Site
Investigation (Geoguide 2) (Continuously Updated E-Version released on 18 December 2017).
Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil Engineering and Development Department, HKSAR
Government, 349 p.”
3
Foreword
This Geoguide presents a recommended standard of good practice for site investigation
in Hong Kong, the need for which was formally recognized as early as July 1983 by the
Subcommittee of the Building Authority Working Party on Geotechnical Regulations. In its
format and content, the Geoguide follows closely the British Standard BS 5930 : 1981, Code
of Practice for Site Investigations, but the recommendations in the British Standard have been
adapted to suit local conditions and practices. It should be used in conjunction with the
companion document, Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions (Geoguide 3). These Geoguides
expand upon, and largely replace, Chapter 2 of the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes.
This Geoguide covers Sections l to 7 of BS 5930, while Section 8 is dealt with in

Geoguide 3. It has been prepared in such a way that the organization and format of the British
Standard have generally been preserved. Where portions of BS 5930 have been adopted in
the text without significant amendment, this is clearly denoted by the use of an italic typeface.
It should be noted that this Geoguide gives guidance on good site investigation practice
and, as such, its recommendations are not mandatory. It is recognized that the practitioner
will often need to use alternative methods. There will also be improvements in site
investigation practice during the life of the document which will supersede some of its
recommendations.
The Geoguide was prepared in the Geotechnical Control Office (GCO) under the general
direction of Mr J.B. Massey. The main contributors to the document were Dr A. Cipullo, Mr
K.S. Smith and Mr D.R. Greenway, with significant contributions during the final stages of
preparation from Dr P.L.R. Pang and Dr R.P. Martin. Many other members of the GCO made
valuable suggestions and contributions.
To ensure that the Geoguide would be considered a consensus document of the civil
engineering profession in Hong Kong, a draft version was circulated widely for comment in
early 1987 to contractors, consulting engineers and Government Departments. Many
organizations and individuals made useful and constructive comments, which have been taken
into account in finalizing the Geoguide, and their contributions are gratefully acknowledged.
Practitioners are encouraged to comment at any time to the Geotechnical Control Office
on the contents of this Geoguide, so that improvements can be made to future editions.
E.W. Brand
Principal Government Geotechnical Engineer
September 1987
4
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 1
Foreword 3
Contents 4
Part I : Introduction 17
1. Scope 18
2. Terminology 20
Part II : General Considerations 21
3. Primary Objectives of Site Investigation 22
4. General Procedures 23
4.1 Extent and Sequence of Investigation 23
4.1.1 General 23
4.1.2 Adjacent Property 23
4.2 Desk Study 24
4.3 Site Reconnaissance 25
4.4 Detailed Examination and Special Studies 25
4.5 Construction and Performance Appraisal 25
4.6 Site Investigation for Tunnel Works 26
5. Earlier Uses of the Site 28

5.1 General 28
5.2 Tunnels 28
5.3 Mines and Quarries 28
5.4 Waste Tips 28
5.5 Other Earlier Uses 28
5.6 Ancient Monuments 29
6. Aerial Photographs 30
6.1 General 30
6.2 Topographic Maps and Aerial Photographic Imagery 30
5
Page
No.
6.2.1 Map and Plan Scales 30

6.2.2 Aerial Photographic Imagery 30
6.2.3 Orthophoto Maps and Plans 31
6.3 Aerial Photograph Interpretation 31
6.3.1 Identification and Interpretation of Ground 31
Features
6.3.2 Examples of API in Hong Kong 32
Part III : Planning the Ground Investigation 33
7. Introduction to Ground Investigation 34

7.1 Objectives 34
7.2 Planning and Control 35
8. Types of Ground Investigation 37

8.1 Sites for New Works 37
8.2 Defects or Failures of Existing Features or Works 37
8.3 Safety of Existing Features and Works 38
8.3.1 Effect of New Works upon Existing Features and Works 38
8.3.2 Types of Effects 38
8.3.3 Procedure 39
8.4 Materials for Construction Purposes 39
9. Geological Mapping for Ground Investigation 41
10. Extent of the Ground Investigation 42

10.1 General 42
10.2 Character and Variability of the Ground 42
10.3 Nature of the Project 43
10.3.1 General 43
10.3.2 Slope and Retaining Wall Construction 43
10.3.3 Foundations for Structures 43
10.4 Preliminary Investigation 43
10.5 Location 44
6
Page
No.
10.6 Spacing 44
10.7 Depth of Exploration 45
10.7.1 General 45
10.7.2 Foundations for Structures 45
10.7.3 Embankments 47
10.7.4 Cut Slopes 47
10.7.5 Pavements 47
10.7.6 Pipelines 47
10.7.7 Marine Works 48
10.8 Specific Guidance for Silt- and Clay-rich Layers of Rock Cut 48
Slopes
10.9 Specific Guidance for Tunnel Works 50
10.9.1 Preliminary Design Stage 50
10.9.2 Detailed Design Stage 51
11. Selection of Ground Investigation Methods 53

11.1 General 53
11.2 Site Considerations 53
12. Effect of Ground Conditions on Investigation Methods 55

12.1 General 55
12.2 Granular Soils Containing Boulders, Cobbles or Gravel 55
12.3 Granular Soils 56
12.4 Intermediate Soils 57
12.5 Very Soft to Soft Cohesive Soils 57
12.6 Firm to Stiff Cohesive Soils 57
12.7 Cohesive Soils Containing Boulders, Cobbles or Gravel 58
12.8 Fill 58
12.9 Rock 59
12.10 Soils Derived from Insitu Rock Weathering 59
12.11 Discontinuities 60
12.12 Cavities 61
7
Page
No.
13. Aggressive Ground and Groundwater 62

13.1 General 62
13.2 Investigation of Potential Deterioration of Concrete 62
13.3 Investigation of Potential Corrosion of Steel 62
13.4 Investigation of Fill Containing Industrial Wastes 63
14. Ground Investigations over Water 64

14.1 General 64
14.2 Stages and Platforms 65
14.3 Floating Craft 65
14.4 Working between Tide Levels 66
14.5 Locating Borehole Positions 66
14.6 Determination of Reduced Levels 66
14.7 Drilling, Sampling and Testing 67
15. Personnel for Ground Investigation 68

15.1 General 68
15.2 Planning and Direction 68
15.3 Supervision in the Field 68
15.4 Logging and Description of Ground Conditions 69
15.5 Laboratory Testing 70
15.6 Specialist Advice 70
15.7 Interpretation 70
15.8 Operatives 70
16. Review during Construction 72

16.1 General 72
16.2 Purpose 72
16.3 Information Required 73
16.3.1 Soil and Rock 73
16.3.2 Water 73
16.4 Instrumentation 73
16.5 Tunnel Works 73
8
Page
No.
Part IV : Ground Investigation Methods 75
17. Introduction to Ground Investigation Methods 76
18. Excavations and Boreholes 77

18.1 Shallow Trial Pits and Slope Surface Stripping 77
18.2 Deep Trial Pits and Caissons 78
18.3 Headings or Adits 78
18.4 Hand Auger Boring 78
18.5 Light Cable Percussion Boring 79
18.6 Mechanical Augers 79
18.7 Rotary Open Hole Drilling and Rotary Core Drilling 79
18.7.1 General 79
18.7.2 Flushing Medium 80
18.7.3 Inclined Drilling 81
18.8 Wash Boring and Other Methods 82
18.8.1 Wash Boring 82
18.8.2 Other Methods of Boring 82
18.9 Backfilling Excavations and Boreholes 83
19. Sampling the Ground 84

19.1 General 84
19.2 Sample Quality 85
19.3 Disturbed Samples from Boring Tools or Excavating 85
Equipment
19.4 Open-tube Samplers 86
19.4.1 Principles of Design 86
19.4.2 Sampling Procedure 87
19.4.3 Thin-walled Samplers 88
19.4.4 General Purpose 100 mm Diameter Open-tube Sampler 88
19.4.5 Split Barrel Standard Penetration Test Sampler 89
19.5 Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler 89
19.6 Continuous Soil Sampling 89
9
Page
No.
19.6.1 General 89
19.6.2 The Delft Continuous Sampler 90
19.7 Sand Samplers 90
19.8 Rotary Core Samples 90
19.9 Block Samples 92
19.10 Handling and Labelling of Samples 92
19.10.1 General 92
19.10.2 Labelling 93
19.10.3 Disturbed Samples of Soil and Hand Specimens of Rock 93
19.10.4 Samples Taken with a Tube Sampler 94
19.10.5 Rotary Core Extrusion and Preservation 95
19.10.6 Block Samples 96
20. Groundwater 97
20.1 General 97
20.2 Methods of Determining Groundwater Pressures 98
20.2.1 Response Time 98
20.2.2 Observations in Boreholes and Excavations 98
20.2.3 Standpipe Piezometers 99
20.2.4 Hydraulic Piezometers 99
20.2.5 Electrical Piezometers 100
20.2.6 Pneumatic Piezometers 100
20.2.7 Installation of Piezometers 101
20.2.8 Varying Groundwater Pressures 102
20.2.9 Soil Suction 103
20.3 Groundwater Samples 103
21. Tests in Boreholes 105

21.1 General 105
21.2 Standard Penetration Tests 105
21.2.1 General Principles 105
21.2.2 Preparation for Testing 105
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Page
No.
21.2.3 Advantages and Limitations 106

21.2.4 Results and Interpretation 106
21.3 Vane Tests 107
21.4 Permeability Tests 108
21.4.2 Preparations for the Test 108
21.4.3 Variable-head Test 109
21.4.4 Constant-head Test 109
21.4.5 Analysis of Results 110
21.4.6 Formulae for Borehole Permeability Tests 110
21.5 Packer (Water Absorption) Tests 113
21.5.2 Packers 114
21.5.3 Application and Measurement of Pressure 114
21.5.4 Measurement of Flow 115
21.5.5 Execution of Test 115
21.6 Plate Tests 116
21.6.1 General 116
21.6.2 Limitations 117
21.6.3 Preparation 117
21.6.4 Bedding of the Plate 117
21.6.5 Application and Measurement of Load 118
21.6.6 Measurement of Deflection 118
21.6.7 Execution of Test 118
21.6.8 Uses of the Test 118
21.6.9 Supplementary Test 118
21.6.10 Horizontal Plate Tests 119
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Page
No.
21.7 Pressuremeter Tests 119

21.7.1 Test Description 119
21.7.2 Equipment Calibration 119
21.7.3 Forming the Test Pocket 120
21.7.5 Tests in Rock 120
21.8 Borehole Discontinuity Surveys 121
21.8.1 Impression Packer Survey 121
21.8.2 Core Orientators 122
22. Frequency of Sampling and Testing in Boreholes 123

22.1 General Principles 123
22.2 Determination of the Ground Profile 123
22.3 Routine Determination of Soil and Rock Properties 124
22.4 Double-hole Sampling 124
22.5 Special Techniques 124
23. Probing and Penetration Testing 126

23.1 General 126
23.2 Dynamic Probing 126
23.3 Static Probing or Cone Penetration Testing 127
23.3.1 General Description 127
23.3.2 Mechanical Cone Penetrometers 127
23.3.3 Electrical Cone Penetrometers 128
23.3.4 General Recommendations 128
23.3.5 Uses and Limitations of the Test 129
23.3.6 Presentation of Results 129
23.4 Static-dynamic Probing 129
Part V : Field and Laboratory Tests 130
24. Field Tests 131

24.1 General 131
12
Page
No.
24.2 Rock Strength Index Tests 132

24.2.1 Point Load Strength 132
24.2.2 Schmidt Hammer Rebound Value 133
24.3 Infiltration Tests 133
25. Pumping Tests 135

25.2 Groundwater Conditions 136
25.3 Test Site 136
25.4 Pumped Wells 136
25.5 Observation Wells 138
25.6 Test Procedures 138
25.7 Analysis of Results 139
26. Discontinuity Surveys 140

26.1 General 140
26.2 Discontinuity Surveys for Rock Cut Slopes 140
26.3 Discontinuity Roughness Surveys 140
27. Field Density Tests 142

27.2 Sand Replacement Method 142
27.3 Core Cutter Method 143
27.4 Immersion in Water Method 143
27.5 Water Displacement Method 143
27.6 Rubber Balloon Method 143
27.7 Nuclear Methods 144
27.8 Water Replacement Method for Rock Fill 144
28. Insitu Stress Measurements 146

28.1 General 146
28.2 Stress Measurements in Rock 146
28.3 Stress Measurements in Soils 147
13
Page
No.
29. Bearing Tests 149

29.1 Vertical Loading Tests 149
29.1.2 Limitations of the Test 149
29.1.3 Site Preparation 150
29.1.4 Test Arrangement 150
29.1.5 Measurements 151
29.1.6 Test Methods 151
29.1.7 Analysis of Results 152
29.1.8 Interpretation of Results 153
29.2 Horizontal and Inclined Loading Tests 154
29.3 Pressurized Chamber Tests 154
29.4 Insitu California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Tests 155
29.4.1 General 155
29.4.2 Test Method 155
29.4.3 Limitations and Use of Test 155
30. Insitu Direct Shear Tests 157

30.2 Sample Preparation 157
30.3 Test Arrangement 158
30.4 Measurements 159
30.5 Test Methods 159
30.6 Analysis of Results 159
31. Large-scale Field Trials 160

31.1 General 160
31.2 Methods of Instrumentation 160
31.3 Trial Embankments and Excavations 161
31.4 Construction Trials 162
32. Back Analysis 163

32.1 General 163
14
Page
No.
32.2 Failures and Design of Slope Preventive or Remendial Works 163

32.3 Other Cases 164
33. Geophysical Surveying 166

33.1 General 166
33.2 Land Geophysics 167
33.2.1 Resistivity 167
33.2.2 Gravimetric 167
33.2.3 Magnetic 167
33.2.4 Seismic 168
33.2.5 The Gamma Density Method 168
33.2.6 The Spectral Gamma Ray Method 169
33.2.7 The Neutron Porosity Method 170
33.3 Marine Geophysics 170
33.3.1 General 170
33.3.2 Echo-sounding 170
33.3.3 Continuous Seismic Reflection Profiling 170
33.3.4 Side Scan Sonar 170
33.4 Borehole Logging 170
33.5 Corrosion Testing 172
33.6 Identification of Weak Layers in the Ground 172
34. Principles of Laboratory Testing 173
35. Sample Storage and Inspection Facilities 174

35.1 Handling and Labelling 174
35.2 Storage of Samples 174
35.3 Inspection Facilities 174
36. Visual Examination 176

36.1 General 176
36.2 Soil 176
36.3 Rock 176
15
Page
No.
36.4 Photographic Records 176
37. Tests on Soil 178

37.1 General 178
37.2 Sample Quality 178
37.3 Sample Size 178
37.4 Test Conditions 178
37.5 Relevance of Test Results 179
38. Tests on Rock 180
Part VI : Reports and Interpretation 181
39. Field Reports 182
40. Site Investigation Report 183

40.1 General 183
40.2 Descriptive Report 183
40.2.1 Report as Record 183
40.2.2 Introduction 183
40.2.3 Description of Site 183
40.2.4 Geology 184
40.2.5 Field Work 184
40.2.6 Borehole Logs 184
40.2.7 Incidence and Behaviour of Groundwater 187
40.2.8 Location of Boreholes 187
40.2.9 Laboratory Test Results and Sample Descriptions 188
40.3 Engineering Interpretation 188
40.3.1 Matters to be Covered 188
40.3.2 Data on which Interpretation is Based 188
40.3.3 Presentation of Borehole Data 189
40.3.4 Design 190
40.3.5 Construction Expedients 191
40.3.6 Sources of Materials 192
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Page
No.
40.3.7 Failures 192

40.3.8 Calculations 193
40.3.9 References 193
40.4 Documentation for Site Investigation of Tunnel Works 193
References 194
Tables 215
List of Tables 216
Tables 217
Figures 233
List of Figures 234
Figures 237
Plates 284
List of Plates 285
Plates 286
Appendices 298
Appendix A: Information Required for Desk Study 399
Appendix B: Sources of Information 307
Appendix C: Notes on Site Reconnaissance 331
Appendix D: Information Required for Design and Construction 336
Appendix E: Safety Precautions 341
17
Part I
Introduction
18
1. Scope
This Geoguide deals with the investigation of sites in Hong Kong for the purposes of
assessing their suitability for civil engineering and building works, and of acquiring knowledge
of site characteristics that affect the design and construction of such works and the security of
adjacent properties. It is essentially BS 5930 : 1981, Code of Practice for Site Investigations
(BSI, 1981a), modified as considered desirable for use in Hong Kong.
While the basic structure and philosophy of BSI (1981a) has been maintained in this
Geoguide, topics of particular importance in Hong Kong have been supplemented or rewritten
in the light of local conditions and experience. Other sections of BSI (1981a) have been
repeated herein without significant amendment, and this has been denoted by an italic script.
Less relevant or rarely-used portions of BSI (1981a) have been incorporated only by reference,
or have been specifically deleted.
In this Geoguide the expression "site investigation" has been used in its wider sense. It
is often used elsewhere in a narrow sense to describe what has been termed herein "ground
investigation". The use of soil and rock as construction materials is treated only briefly;
further information on this is given in BSI (2009). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
From Part II onwards, this Geoguide is divided as follows :
Part II. Part II deals with those matters of a technical, legal or

environmental character that should be taken into account in
selecting the site (or in determining whether a proposed site is
suitable) and in preparing the design of the works.
Part III. Part III discusses general aspects and planning of

ground investigation, including the influence of general
conditions and ground conditions on the selection of methods of
investigation.
Parts IV and V. Parts IV and V discuss methods of ground

investigation, sub-divided as follows : Part IV deals with
excavation, boring, sampling, probing and tests in boreholes;
Part V deals with field tests and laboratory tests on samples.
Part VI. Part VI deals with the preparation of field reports and
borehole logs, the interpretation of the data obtained from the
investigation and the preparation of the final site investigation
report.
The last section of BSI (1981a), which deals with the description of soils and rocks, is
not covered in this Geoguide. A companion document, Geoguide 3 : Guide to Rock and Soil
Descriptions (GCO, 1988), has been devoted entirely to this topic, and the reader should refer
to it for guidance on the description and classification of Hong Kong rocks and soils.
19
It may be noted that there are some imbalances in treatment of the various topics, with,
in some cases, more comprehensive coverage given to methods that are less frequently used.
Because it would not be possible to include full coverage of all available site investigation
techniques, methods that are well documented elsewhere in the literature receive abbreviated
coverage in this Geoguide.
This Geoguide represents a standard of good practice and therefore takes the form of
recommendations. Compliance with it does not confer immunity from relevant statutory and
legal requirements. The recommendations given are intended only as guidance and should not
be taken as mandatory. In this respect, it should be realized that improvements to many of the
methods will continue to evolve.
20
2. Terminology
A few commonly-used descriptive terms for geological materials and types of ground
investigation are often interpreted in different ways and therefore require definition. In this
Geoguide, the terminology given in the following paragraphs has been adopted.
"Rock" refers to all solid material of natural geological origin that cannot be broken
down by hand. "Soil" refers to any naturally-formed earth material or fill that can be broken
down by hand and includes rock which has weathered insitu to the condition of an engineering
soil. Further guidance on the use of these terms is given in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
Excluding any boulders or cobbles, a "fine-grained soil" or a "fine soil" is one that
contains about 35% or more of fine material (silt and clay size particles). A "coarse-grained
soil" or a "coarse soil" contains less than 35% of fine material and more than 65% of coarse
material (gravel and sand size particles). Further guidance is given in Geoguide 3.
A "cohesive soil" is one which, usually by virtue of its fines content, will form a coherent
mass. Conversely a "granular soil" or a "cohesionless soil" will not form a coherent mass.
These simple terms are useful in the classification of materials during ground investigation for
the purpose of choosing a suitable method for sampling the ground. A fine soil is generally
cohesive.
The "matrix" of a composite soil refers to the fine-grained material enclosing, or filling
the spaces between, the larger grains or particles in the soil.
"Boring" is a method of advancing a cased or uncased hole (viz a "borehole") in the

ground and includes auger boring, percussion boring and rotary drilling, in which a drill bit is
rotated into the ground for the purpose of forming the hole. Although the term "drillhole" is
commonly used in Hong Kong because of the popular use of the rotary core drilling method in
ground investigations, the general term "borehole" is used throughout this Geoguide for
simplicity, whether the hole is bored, augured or drilled.
21
Part II
General Considerations
22
3. Primary Objectives of Site Investigation
Investigation of the site is an essential preliminary to the construction of all civil

engineering and building works, and the objectives in making such investigations are as follows :
(a) Suitability. To assess the general suitability of the site and

environs for the proposed works.
(b) Design. To enable an adequate and economic design to be

prepared, including the design of temporary works.
(c) Construction. To plan the best method of construction; to

foresee and provide against difficulties and delays that may
arise during construction due to ground and other local
conditions; in appropriate cases, to explore sources of
indigenous materials for use in construction (see Section 8.4);
and to select sites for the disposal of waste or surplus
materials.
(d) Effect of Changes. To determine the changes that may arise

in the ground and environmental conditions, either naturally
or as a result of the works, and the effect of such changes on
the works, on adjacent works, and on the environment in
general.
(e) Choice of Site. Where alternatives exist, to advise on the

relative suitability of different sites, or different parts of the
same site.
In addition, site investigations may be necessary in reporting upon the safety of existing
features and works (see Section 8.3), for the design of extensions, vertical or horizontal, to
existing works, and for investigating cases where failure has occurred (see Section 8.2).
23
4. General Procedures
4.1 Extent and Sequence of Investigation
4.1.1 General
The extent of the investigation depends primarily upon the magnitude and nature of the
proposed works and the nature of the site.
A site investigation wil1 normally proceed in stages, as follows : desk study; site
reconnaissance; detailed examination for design, including ground investigation, topographic
and hydrographic survey and special studies; follow-up investigations during construction
(Figure 1). This may be followed by appraisal of performance. Some of the stages may
overlap, or be taken out of sequence; for example, the site reconnaissance may well take place
before completion of the desk study.
The costs of a site investigation are low in relation to the overall cost of a project and
may be further reduced by intelligent forward planning. Discussion at an early stage with a
specialist contractor will help to formulate an efficient and economic plan. The technical
requirements of the investigation should be the overriding factor in the selection of
investigatory methods, rather than their cost.
As far as possible, assembly of the desk study information should be complete, at least
in respect of those aspects related to ground conditions, before ground investigation begins. A
preliminary ground investigation may be desirable to determine the extent and nature of the
main ground investigation. The extent of the ground investigation is discussed in Chapter 10.
For regional studies or site investigation of projects covering large areas, e.g. road,
tunnel or transmission line routes, techniques such as engineering geological and
geomorphological mapping, terrain classification and hazard analysis may be useful to
delineate critical areas so that detailed investigations can be concentrated in areas where they
are most required (Brand et al, 1982; Griffiths & Marsh, 1984; Hansen, 1982).
4.1.2 Adjacent Property
Because of the dense urban development in Hong Kong, construction activities can often
affect adjacent property. It is therefore essential that investigations should cover all factors
that may affect adjacent property, including features such as slopes and retaining walls (see
Chapter 7 and Section 8.3). Where possible, records of ground levels, groundwater levels and
relevant particulars of adjacent properties should be made before, during and after construction.
Where damage to existing structures is a possibility, adequate photographic records should be
obtained.
Adjacent buildings, structures and buried services, including pipes conveying water, gas
or sewage, should be specifically considered, as they may be affected by vibrations, ground
settlement or movement, or changes in groundwater levels during and after construction
activities on the site. Hospitals and other buildings containing sensitive instruments or
apparatus should be given special consideration.
24
Special permission or approval must be obtained when the site is above or near the Mass
Transit Railway Corporation's tunnels or structures, or is within the Mid-levels Scheduled Area
(see Appendices A and B; see also Chapter 7). The approximate locations of these two features
are shown in Figure 2.
4.2 Desk Study
As a first stage in a site investigation, a desk study is necessary and Appendix A indicates
the types of information that may be required. Much information about a site may already be
available in existing records. A summary of the important sources of information is given in
Appendix B. Readers are advised to take note of any warning messages on the data, check
with the relevant data owners on the reliability, accuracy and completeness of the data they
require where necessary, taking into account the needs of their project. Readers are also
invited to provide feedback to the GEO should the need to update this Geoguide 2 be identified.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
A new geological survey is currently underway in Hong Kong to replace the existing
1:50 000 scale geological maps and memoir (Allen & Stephens, 1971); new 1:20 000 scale
geological maps will become available between 1986 and 1991 (Figure 3). The new
geological survey uses different nomenclature for certain major rock divisions and rock types
(Addison, 1986; GCO, 1988; Strange & Shaw, 1986); this should be used wherever possible.
An important source of basic geotechnical information is the Geotechnical Area Study

Programme (GASP) publications available from the Government Publications Centre.
Systematic terrain evaluation has been undertaken at a scale of 1:20 000 covering the entire
Territory (Brand et al, 1982). These publications generally contain Engineering Geology,
Terrain Classification, Erosion, Landform and Physical Constraint Maps. Selected areas of
the Territory have also been evaluated at the 'district' scale of 1:2 500, but these have not been
published. The GASP programme and the areas covered by the GASP publications are shown
in Figure 4, and examples of some of the 1:20 000 maps are given in Figure 5.
The Geotechnical Information Unit also contains numerous records of boreholes from
throughout the Territory, as well as useful records of landslides, rainfall and piezometric data,
and laboratory test results on soil and rock samples. Relevant data can be easily accessed by
geographical location of the site. Further details of the Geotechnical Information Unit are
given in Appendix B.
A useful bibliography on the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong is

also available (Brand, 1992). Local maps and plans are easily obtained (Table 1), and as-built
records of private developments are retained by the Buildings Ordinance Office or the Public
Records Office (see Appendix B). Valuable information may often be obtained from aerial
photographs, as discussed in Chapter 6.
25
4.3 Site Reconnaissance
At an early stage, a thorough visual examination should be made of the site. The extent
to which ground adjacent to the site should also be examined is, in general, a matter of
judgement (see Section 4.1.2). In the intensely-developed urban areas of Hong Kong, it will
usually be necessary to inspect existing slopes and retaining walls within and surrounding the
site and adjacent properties during the site reconnaissance stage. Appendix C gives a
summary of the procedure for site reconnaissance and the main points to be considered but
should not be regarded as necessarily covering all requirements.
Nearby cut slopes can reveal soil and rock types and their stability characteristics, as
can old excavations and quarries. Similarly, in the vicinity there may be embankments or
buildings and other structures having a settlement history because of the presence of
compressible or unstable soils. Other important evidence that might be obtained from an
inspection is the presence of underground excavations, such as basements and tunnels. The
behaviour of structures similar to those intended should also provide useful information, and
the absence of such structures may be significant, as may be also the presence of a vacant site
in the midst of otherwise intensive development.
Examples of earlier uses of the site that may affect the new construction works are given
in Chapter 5.
4.4 Detailed Examination and Special Studies
For most projects, the design and planning of construction will require a detailed
examination of the site and its surroundings (see also Appendix D). Such requirements may
necessitate a detailed land survey (see Appendix D.2), or an investigation of liability to flooding.
The investigation of ground conditions is dealt with in Parts III and IV. Other requirements
may entail studies of special subjects such as hydrography (see Appendix D.3);
micrometeorology (see Appendix D.4); sources of materials (see Appendix D.5); disposal of
waste materials (see Appendix D.6); or other environmental considerations.
The possibility of disused tunnels affecting the site should also be considered (see
Section 5.2).
In areas where underground cavities are suspected (Culshaw & Waltham, 1987), it may
be necessary to carry out a special study to assess the suitability of the site for development (see
Section 7.1).
4.5 Construction and Performance Appraisal
Construction and performance appraisal are discussed in Chapter 16.

26
4.6 Site Investigation for Tunnel Works [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Pre-tender site investigation should be as comprehensive as possible to provide adequate

information for the design of tunnel works and contract preparation. In addition to the
geological and hydrogeological conditions, the site investigation should identify utilities and
buried installations to ascertain whether they will interfere with or be affected by the tunnel
works (see ETWB TC(W) No. 17/2004 for government projects). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
There are inherent uncertainties in the subsurface geology and hydrogeology, regardless
of the extent of site investigation. Also, physical constraints, e.g. existing buildings and
subsurface installations could limit the pre-tender site investigation for particular sections of
tunnel works. Therefore, it is essential to make provision for additional ground investigation
in the works contract to check and monitor continuously the actual conditions against those
assumed, and to take measures to deal with conditions not anticipated but having significant
impact on the design, construction, or on life and property.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
The US Army Corps of Engineers Manual (USACE, 1997) includes a practical guide to
the relative cost of site investigation as a proportion of the estimated construction cost. Based
on this guide, the typical cost of site investigation for a deep tunnel located in difficult ground
conditions and in a dense urban area is about 3-4% of the estimated construction cost.
Notwithstanding, the cost of site investigation for a particular project depends greatly on the
quality, suitability and adequacy of available information, and the data needed for the design
and risk management of the types of tunnel works involved. The client should include
adequate funding for site investigation in the project cost estimate. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Site investigation for projects involving tunnel works should be phased. This approach
is necessary as different phases of the project have different requirements. Also, the tunnel
alignment and design requirements can change during route planning or design.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Using the data obtained at each phase, the impact of the proposed excavation method on
the sensitive receivers identified and the geotechnical risks at each tunnel section should be
assessed. The risk assessment should be reviewed when the tunnel alignment is fixed and as
more information becomes available. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Some simple guidelines on site investigation for tunnelling are given in ITA (2009).
An outline of the engineering considerations and site investigation techniques for rock tunnels,
based on IMMM (2003), is given in Table 13. Supplementary information on ground
investigation techniques is given in Appendix F. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
For sources of information and expertise, reference should be made to Appendix B of

this Geoguide and GEO (2016) for general guidance on, and sources of information for SI and
tunnels in Hong Kong. Reference should also be made to Geoguide 4 (GEO, 1992), which
contains guidance on site investigation for cavern schemes, much of which is also applicable to
tunnels and shaft construction. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Information on the pre-Quaternary geology of Hong Kong is given in Sewell et al (2000).

27
The Hong Kong Geological Survey (HKGS) section of GEO/CEDD has the most detailed
information on the geology of Hong Kong and offers an advisory service. HKGS should be
consulted, especially at the planning stage of new projects involving tunnel works, in the
formulation of geological models, anticipation of difficult areas, and the verification of
significant geological features (faults, dykes, contact zones between geological units, etc.).
This consultation process in actual projects also allows feedback of important geological
information from the project to existing geological archives maintained by HKGS.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
28
5. Earlier Uses of the Site

5.1 General
If a site has been used for other purposes in the past, this can have a significant effect
on the present intended use. A careful visual inspection of a site and the vegetation it sustains
may reveal clues suggesting interference with the natural subsoil conditions at some time in the
past. Examples are given in Sections 5.2 to 5.6.
Due to the relatively short history of development in Hong Kong, many instances of
previous use of a site can be discovered by an inspection of early maps, aerial photographs and
other historical records (see Appendices A and B).
5.2 Tunnels
The presence of nearby tunnels may have a profound effect on the intended use of the
site, and should be fully considered. In addition to tunnels in active use for water supply,
sewage conveyance, roads and railways, underground shelters and disused tunnels (of average
dimensions 2 m high and 3 m wide) exist in places throughout the Territory as a result of
previous wartime activities.
5.3 Mines and Quarries
A relatively minor amount of either opencast or underground mining has been

undertaken in Hong Kong, but quarrying for rock products has been extensive at some locations,
as have borrow area operations. Where this has occurred, detailed consideration must be given
to its influence on affected sites.
5.4 Waste Tips
Waste tips, used for the disposal of domestic refuse, industrial waste and other refuse,
may be found in places throughout the Territory. The location of past or present 'controlled
tips' operated by Government are documented, but other tips may also exist. Harmful
industrial wastes may also be encountered. The use of waste tip sites for other purposes must
consider fully the effects of combustible gas, toxic leachate and ground settlement.
Furthermore, sites in the proximity of waste tips may also be subject to the effects of laterally
migrating combustible gas and leachate.
5.5 Other Earlier Uses
Much of the low-lying land of Hong Kong has been extended by successive stages of
reclamation in the past 80 to 90 years. Former seawalls and other obstructions may therefore
be encountered beneath these areas. The fill materials used have been variable, often
containing large boulders and building debris. The fill is often underlain by soft compressible
29
marine sediments.
Natural slopes and boulders, and older cut and fill slopes and retaining walls, are often
prone to landslides and other forms of instability. It is of paramount importance that all slope
features on or adjacent to the site should be examined for areas of past, current or potential
instability at an early stage in the site investigation.
5.6 Ancient Monuments
A list of gazetted historical sites is maintained by the Antiquities and Monuments Office
of the Government Secretariat, and a permit is required before commencement of any work
within a gazetted historical site. It is advisable to consult the Antiquities and Monuments
Office before entering any historical site, even ungazetted sites. During site investigation, any
discovery of antiquities or supposed antiquities should be reported to the Antiquities and
Monuments Office (see Appendices A and B).
30
6. Aerial Photographs
6.1 General
Aerial photographs can be used in the preparation and revision of maps and plans, and
they can assist in the identification and general assessment of natural and man-made features,
including geology, geomorphology, hydrology and vegetation, on or in relation to a site. They
are particularly useful in the assessment of site history (i.e. changes in form, materials and land
use) and can provide valuable information for the assessment of slope stability (Geological
Society, 1982).
Black and white aerial photograph coverage of Hong Kong is extensive. Although
partial coverage of the Territory is available from 1924, the first complete coverage was
obtained in 1963, as summarised in Table 2. For almost any site in the Territory, repeated
aerial photograph coverage records the land use and development changes that have occurred,
as well as any history of recent instability. The small scale black and white photographs
obtained at flying heights of over 6 000 m are more suitable for obtaining an overall view of
the Territory. A small number of true colour, (false) colour infrared and black and white
infrared photographs are also available. Advice on how to obtain the aerial photographs is
given in Appendix B.3.3. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
6.2 Topographic Maps and Aerial Photographic Imagery

6.2.1 Map and Plan Scales
Accurate topographic maps and plans can be produced from aerial photographs. A
partial catalogue of maps and plans available from the Lands Department is given in Table 1
(see also Appendix B.3.l). Large scale plans (scales 1:500 to 1:1 000) are usually most
appropriate for site investigations of small areas, whereas plans with scales of 1:5 000 to
l:20 000 are more appropriate for district or regional studies. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
6.2.2 Aerial Photographic Imagery
The scale of an image on an aerial photograph is proportional to the distance between

the camera and the subject. For an aerial photograph taken vertically, tall objects (tops of hills
and buildings), and objects near the centre of the photograph, create images at slightly larger
scales than low terrain or similar objects near the edge of the photograph. Radial distortion
about the optical axis of the camera displaces the true vertical away from centre of the
photograph, an effect which becomes more pronounced near the edges of a photograph. This
may create dramatic effects on large-scale photographs with considerable changes in elevation
from one portion to another.
Despite these sources of distortion, for sites which can be identified within the central
third of a vertical aerial photograph and which contain terrain of broadly similar elevation,
reasonably accurate scaled images can be obtained by proportioning the distances between
objects identifiable on a map (or plan) and a contact print of an aerial photograph, and by using
this proportion ratio as an enlargement factor. Most aerial photography has been obtained
31
using cameras with large format negatives. Prior to 1963, the sizes of the contact prints vary,
but are usually 162 mm by 175 mm. With few exceptions, the negatives obtained from 1963
to the present are 228 mm by 228 mm. The image produced on contact prints is extremely
sharp, and clear images can be obtained either by viewing the contact prints with a magnifying
lens or stereoscope, or by enlarging all or part of the negative. Enlarged prints can be used
even for studies of small areas of the size of an individual building site.
6.2.3 Orthophoto Maps and Plans
Orthophoto maps and plans, which consist of rectified (true to scale) photographs
overprinted with contours or grids can be made (overseas only) for both vertical and oblique
aerial photography. Rectification of the image can be performed optically or digitally; the
accuracy is determined by the number of control points supplied, the degree of rectification
desired and the scale of the original photography.
6.3 Aerial Photograph Interpretation

6.3.1 Identification and Interpretation of Ground Features
Aerial photographs can be interpreted at a range of scales and levels of detail to provide
information valuable to both the design of site investigations and to the interpretation of the
results. The design of site investigations for large projects such as route corridors (e.g. roads,
railways, pipelines or transmission lines) can benefit enormously from a preliminary aerial
photograph interpretation (API) survey. This can highlight the natural and man-induced
characteristics of the terrain, noting in particular hazards and resources that may have a
significant effect on the feasibility or design of the project. Even when performed for smaller
sites, an API study can often provide useful information on the distribution and thickness of
natural and fill materials, and may reveal potential problems originating from adjacent land.
Sequences of aerial photographs taken at different dates can be compared to determine the
location, extent and approximate time of filling and reclamation, and the sequence of
development of an area.
Aerial photographs, particularly when examined stereoscopically, can often be used to

identify and delineate specific ground features such as the distribution of soil types (e.g.
colluvial and alluvial deposits), soil thickness, bedrock type, depth to bedrock, fracture patterns
and spacings, as well as local relief. API is of particular value in the mapping of
"photolineaments". This term refers to straight or gently-curving features on aerial
photographs which are usually the surface expression of variations in the structure or materials
of the underlying bedrock. Photolineaments are usually marked by topographic highs or lows
in the terrain but sometimes they may be more subtle features, which can only be identified by
different vegetation growth, reflecting underlying changes in soil type, soil thickness or
moisture content. Well-defined linear depressions usually indicate the location of less
resistant bedrock or of discontinuities in the bedrock structure such as faults, fracture zones or
major joints. Local linear topographic highs or lines of boulders or rock outcrops may indicate
the presence of a rock unit that is more resistant to weathering.
All the features mentioned above may be important for the interpretation of site
32
conditions. Early identification by API of major changes in soil and rock types and features
that are likely to have a significant influence on the local groundwater regime can be of great
assistance in the design of the ground investigation and in establishing a geological model for
the site.
Reviews of API and related mapping techniques are contained in Geological Society
(1982). Some good examples of the use of API techniques are provided by Ho et al. (2006),
Lueder (1959), Van Zuidam & Van Zuidam-Cancelado (1979), Verstappen & Van Zuidam (1968)
and Way (1978). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
6.3.2 Examples of API in Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, API techniques have been successfully applied to both specific problems
and regional appraisals. Examples of the former are given in Brimicombe (1982), Bryant
(1982) and Koirala et al (1986). Systematic regional API studies have been undertaken within
the Geotechnical Area Studies Programme (GASP) to provide information for planning,
resource appraisal and engineering feasibility studies (see Section 4.2). The first of the
regional GASP reports was available in 1987 (GCO, 1987) and a further eleven reports in the
series were published between 1987 and 1989. All GASP maps are available for inspection
in the Geotechnical Information Unit (see Appendix B).
Figure 6 shows an example of a vertical black and white aerial photograph of part of
Hong Kong Island and includes the corresponding portion of the 1:20 000 scale geological map
(GCO, 1986). Some features of the bedrock structure can be interpreted from the aerial
photograph. For example, the location of the fault line shown on the geological map can be
clearly seen as a straight, deep valley in the centre-east part of the photograph. Near the north
eastern corner of the photograph, the photolineaments indicated on the map can be seen to
correspond to less clearly-defined valleys.
33
Part III
Planning the Ground Investigation

34
7. Introduction to Ground Investigation

7.1 Objectives
For new works, the objectives of ground investigation are to obtain reliable information
to produce an economic and safe design and to meet tender and construction requirements.
The investigation should be designed to verify and expand information previously collected.
In Hong Kong, because of intense urban development, it is often necessary to investigate the
effects of new works on the safety of existing features and works; in particular, the effects on
the stability of existing slopes and retaining structures (see Sections 4.1.2 and 8.3).
The objective of ground investigation related to defects or failures of existing features

or works (see Section 8.2), or to safety of existing features and works (see Section 8.3), will be
directly related to the particular problems involved. The requirements for investigation of
materials for construction purposes are discussed in Section 8.4.
An understanding of the geology of the site is a fundamental requirement in the planning

and interpretation of the ground investigation. In some cases where the geology is relatively
straightforward and the engineering problems are not complex, sufficient geological
information may have been provided by the desk study, subject to confirmation by trial pits or
boreholes or both. In other cases, it may be necessary to undertake geological mapping,
which is discussed in Chapter 9.
Of primary importance will be the establishment of the soil profile or soil and rock
profile, and the groundwater conditions. The profile should be obtained by close visual
inspection and systematic description of the ground using the methods and terminology given
in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988), or a suitable alternative system. In many cases, this,
supplemented by limited insitu or laboratory testing, will suffice. In others, it will be
necessary to determine in detail the engineering properties of the soils and rocks. The extent
of the ground investigation is discussed in Chapter 10. Where appropriate, the geometry and
nature of discontinuities should be established (see Section 12.11).
In many cases, especially in slope design, it will be very important to determine the
variations in the groundwater regime in response to rainfall.
The investigation should embrace all ground in which temporary or permanent changes
may occur as a result of the works. These changes include : changes in stress and associated
strain, changes in moisture content and associated volume changes, changes in groundwater
level and flow pattern, and changes in soil properties such as strength and compressibility.
Materials placed in the ground may deteriorate. It is therefore necessary to provide
information from which an estimate of the corrosivity of the ground can be made (see
Chapter 13).
Special measures may be required to locate disused tunnels or underground cavities,

which may collapse, resulting in damage to structures (see Sections 8.3.2, 10.3.3 and 10.7.2).
Other hazards may arise from earlier uses of the site (see Chapter 5).
35
7.2 Planning and Control
Before commencing ground investigation, all relevant information collected from the
sources discussed in Part II should be considered together to obtain a preliminary conception
of the ground conditions and the engineering problems that may be involved. This will assist
in planning the amount and types of ground investigation required.
Planning of the ground investigation should be flexible so that the work can be varied
as necessary in the light of fresh information. On occasions, especially on large or extended
sites, a preliminary investigation may be necessary in order that the main investigation may be
planned to best advantage (see Sections 4.1.1 and 10.4).
The ground investigation should be largely completed before the works are finally
designed. It is therefore important that sufficient time for ground investigation (including
dealing with all legal, environmental, contractual and administrative matters, reporting and
interpretation) is allowed in the overall programme for any scheme. For example, in slope
design, piezometers should be installed well in advance to obtain sufficient groundwater data
for the design. Should changes in the project occur after completion of the main investigation,
additional ground investigation may be required. If so, the programme should be adjusted to
allow for the additional time required.
Sometimes, conditions necessitate additional investigation after the works commence.

In tunnelling, for example, probing ahead of the face may be required to give warning of hazards
or changes in ground conditions. The properties of the ground and also the groundwater
levels may vary with the seasons. In planning the investigation, consideration should be given
to predicting the ground conditions at other times of the year.
The imposition of limitations on the amount of ground investigation to be undertaken,

on the grounds of cost and time, may result in insufficient information being obtained to enable
the works to be designed, tendered for and constructed adequately, economically and on time.
Additional investigations carried out at a later stage may prove more costly and result in delays.
As ground investigations in Hong Kong must often be undertaken in urban areas

(Plate lA), it is often necessary to obtain road excavation permits, temporary licences or way
leaves before commencing the ground investigation. For some sites it will be necessary to
coordinate the works with the requirements of the traffic police and other authorities (Plate 1B).
Proper identification and maintenance of utilities encountered by the works is essential; high
voltage power cables, gas distribution lines and other utilities often present significant safety
hazards.
Since backfilled pits and boreholes might interfere with subsequent construction, they
should be sited and backfilled with care. It is essential that the precise location of every
excavation, borehole or probing is properly referenced to the 1980 Hong Kong Metric Grid and
recorded during the execution of the fieldwork. It is also essential to establish and record the
ground levels of these locations. The records should be such that the locations and levels can
be readily incorporated into the report on the investigations (see Sections 10.5 and 40.2.8).
Investigations for new works and all other building works within the Mid-levels
36
Scheduled Area (Figure 2) must comply with the provisions of the Buildings Ordinance
(Government of Hong Kong, 1985), including the submission of the ground investigation plan
to the Buildings Ordinance Office for approval and consent to commence the work.
Where the proposed investigation is in the vicinity of the Mass Transit Railway, or within
the limits of the railway 'protection boundary', details and locations of the proposed works,
including the depths of any proposed boreholes, should be forwarded to the Mass Transit
Railway Corporation for agreement prior to commencement of the work.
Should it appear during the course of the investigation that items of archaeological or
historical significance have been encountered, the Antiquities and Monuments Office should be
notified (see Section 5.6).
To obtain the greatest benefit from a ground investigation, it is essential that there is
adequate direction and supervision of the work by competent personnel who have appropriate
knowledge and experience and the authority to decide on variations to the ground investigation
when required (see Chapter 15).
In planning ground investigations, particular attention should be paid to the safety of

personnel. Certain methods present special safety problems, and recommendations are given
in the relevant sections. Other methods involve normal safety precautions appropriate to site
or laboratory work. A list of statutory regulations which may apply to ground investigations
is given in Appendix E; this list is not necessarily complete, and if there is doubt over safety
precautions, further advice should be obtained.
In the project planning stage for tunnel works, alternative tunnel routes and potential
shaft locations are typically considered. It is sufficient to have only a general picture of the
subsurface geology and hydrogeology, to define the preferred route corridor and to estimate the
order of project cost. The site investigation should largely comprise desk studies and site
reconnaissance, and include only limited ground investigation, if any is needed. Reference
should be made to information available from nearby tunnel projects (see, for example, the
references given in GEO (2016)). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Appendix A summarises the types of information that may be required in planning a

ground investigation.
37
8. Types of Ground Investigation

8.1 Sites for New Works
Investigations for new works differ from the other types of investigation mentioned in
Chapter 7, in that they are usually wider in scope because they are required to yield information
to assist in selecting the most suitable location for the works, and the design and construction
of the works. For example, when slope excavation has to be carried out, a knowledge of the
subsurface materials and groundwater conditions should indicate :
(a) whether removal of the material will be difficult,
(b) whether the sides of the excavation will be stable if

unsupported or will require support,
(c) whether groundwater conditions will necessitate special

measures such as groundwater drainage or other geotechnical
processes,
(d) whether the nature of the ground will change as a result of

excavation, e.g. opening of relict joints in the soil mass,
(e) what form of surface protection is required.
On the design side, it is necessary to assess such considerations as bearing capacity and
settlement of foundations, stability of slopes in embankments and cuttings, earth pressures on
supporting structures, and the effect of any chemically aggressive ground conditions. For the
design of new works, it is important that the range of conditions, including least favourable
conditions, should be known. This entails not only a study of the degree of variability in the
soil and rock profiles over the area of the site, but also an appreciation of the possible injurious
effects of groundwater variations and weather conditions on the properties of the various
subsurface materials. Where works require excavations into or within rock, including
weathered rock, the orientation and nature of discontinuities in the rock may be the most
important factors.
Often, a preliminary design of the proposed works is of great assistance in the

identification of parameters that are required to be obtained from the ground investigation.
Investigations should assess whether the proposed works may induce ground
movements which could affect adjacent land, services and structures, and whether the
hydrogeological regime may be adversely affected (see Sections 4.1.2 and 8.3).
8.2 Defects or Failures of Existing Features or Works
The investigation of a site where a failure has occurred is often necessary to establish
the cause of the failure and to obtain the information required for the design of remedial
measures.
38
Observations and measurements of the feature or structure to determine the mode or

mechanism of failure are first needed, and these will often suggest the origin of the trouble, or
at least indicate whether the ground conditions were partly or wholly responsible. If this is
the case, an investigation will be required to ascertain the ground and groundwater conditions
relevant to three phases of the site history, i.e. before the works were constructed, at the time of
failure and as they exist at present (see also Chapter 32). Each problem will need to be
considered on its merits. Indications of the probable cause of a failure will often result in
detailed attention being directed to a particular aspect or to a particular geological feature.
In the case of slope failure, or where such failure is considered imminent, it is common
practice to monitor movements both of the surface and underground. The former is conducted
by conventional survey methods and the latter by means of slip indicators or inclinometer
measurements. These techniques are fully described in the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes
(GCO, 1984). It is also usually necessary to monitor groundwater pressures within the
various underlying zones (see Chapter 20). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Therefore, an investigation to determine the causes of a failure may be much more

detailed in a particular respect than would normally be the case in an investigation of new
works.
8.3 Safety of Existing Features and Works

8.3.1 Effect of New Works upon Existing Features and Works
Because of the dense urban development in parts of Hong Kong, it is often necessary to
investigate existing features and works in the immediate vicinity or even remote from the site
of the proposed new works, to decide whether the existing works are likely to be affected by
changes in the ground and groundwater conditions brought about by the new works.
8.3.2 Types of Effects
Existing slopes and structures may be affected by changed conditions such as the
following :
(a) Impeded drainage, which may result in a rise in the

groundwater level. This can cause softening of cohesive
materials and reduction of shear strength of permeable
materials, and give rise to increased pore pressures affecting
the stability of slopes and retaining walls; swelling may result
in ground heave.
(b) Excavations or demolitions in the immediate vicinity, which

may cause a reduction in support to the slope or structure,
either by general ground deformation or by slope instability.
(c) Stresses that the new structure may impose on existing slopes
or structures, or on the foundation materials below adjacent
39
structures, which can cause slope instability or distress to

existing structures.
(d) Vibrations and ground movement resulting from traffic,

vibratory compaction, piling or blasting in the immediate
vicinity, or from other construction activities.
(e) Lowering the groundwater level by pumping from wells or

dewatering of excavations or tunnels will cause an increase
in the effective stress in the subsoil affected, which can lead
to excessive settlement of adjacent structures. Also, if
pumps do not have an adequate filter, the leaching of fines
from the subsoil can easily result in excessive settlement of
structures at considerable distance from the pump.
In areas where natural underground cavities can occur, e.g.

karst features in the Yuen Long basin, increase in effective
stress or downward ravelling of soil due to heavy pumping
may lead to subsidence or the formation of sinkholes (Siu &
Wong, 1984).
(f) Tunnelling operations in the neighbourhood, which may

cause deformations and subsidence; the effect of tension and
compression on drainage should not be overlooked.
(g) Alteration in stream flow of a waterway, which may cause

undercutting of banks or scouring of foundations of walls,
bridges and piers, and may be due to works carried out some
distance away.
(h) Siltation of the approaches of harbour works or the changing

of navigation channel alignments.
8.3.3 Procedure
In the investigation of the safety of existing features or works, the first requirement is an
appreciation of the changes to the ground that are likely to occur. The ground investigation
will need to provide knowledge of the subsurface materials, together with the examination and
testing of samples to assess the effect that the changed conditions are likely to have on these
materials. In some cases, it may be necessary to carry out a detailed analysis to estimate the
effect of the changed conditions on the safety of the existing features and works.
8.4 Materials for Construction Purposes
Investigations of sites are sometimes required :

40
(a) to assess the suitability, and quantities, for construction work

of materials that become available from excavations or
dredging, e.g. whether spoil from cuts in road and railway
works will be suitable for fills in other places,
(b) to find suitable materials for specific purposes, e.g. to locate

borrow pits or areas for earthworks (a common problem in
Hong Kong where intense urban development demands a
constant search for suitable fill materials); to assess the
suitability of materials in waste tips that may need to be
removed for environmental reasons,
(c) to locate suitable disposal sites for waste and dredged

materials.
41
9. Geological Mapping for Ground Investigation
The object of geological mapping is to assess the character, distribution and structure of
the soils and rocks underlying the area. Interpretation of the geological conditions at the site
may not be possible without mapping a larger area. An understanding of geological features
is a pre-requisite to interpreting the geological conditions at the site, and a suitably trained
specialist should normally undertake this task.
As a base map or reference, the new 1:20 000 scale geological maps are most useful.
These maps will become available between 1986 and 1991 (Figure 3). Two existing 1:50 000
geological maps (which cover the entire Territory) are also available (Allen & Stephens, 1971).
Methods used for geological mapping at the regional scale are equally suitable for site specific
mapping for ground investigations (Geological Society, 1982; Strange, 1986) and may be
supplemented by interpretation of aerial photographs (see Chapter 6) and geophysical
investigations (see Chapter 33).
Natural exposures and artificial exposures, such as cut slopes and quarries, beyond the
site may provide data on the material and mass characteristics of soils and rocks, including,
for example, the orientation, frequency and character of bedding and jointing discontinuities,
weathering profiles, and the nature of the junction between superficial and solid formations.
Such information should be used as a guide only to conditions likely to be present at the site.
Caution is needed in extrapolating data; geological deposits may vary laterally, and very
important geological structures, such as faults and other major discontinuities, may have only
a restricted extent.
It may be expedient to investigate local conditions at an early stage of the mapping,

using mechanically excavated shallow pits and trenches. The walls of excavations and, where
appropriate, the floor should be mapped at a suitably large scale and sampled before backfilling
takes place.
Slope surface stripping is also commonly used in Hong Kong for the purpose of
geological mapping (see Section 18.1).
Recording of geological information should be undertaken at all stages of the works.
General principles and key considerations relating to the development of engineering

geological models are given in Section 3 of the Engineering Geological Practice in Hong Kong
(GEO, 2007). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Further information and examples of engineering geological mapping are given

elsewhere (Burnett & Styles, 1982; Geological Society, 1972; IAEG, 1981; ICE, 1976;
UNESCO, 1976).
42
10. Extent of the Ground Investigation

10.1 General
The extent of the ground investigation is determined by the character and variability of
the ground and groundwater, the type of project, and the amount of existing information. It is
important that the general character and variability of the ground should be established before
deciding on the basic principles of the design of the works.
In Hong Kong, soils derived from insitu rock weathering generally exhibit great
variability even within relatively short distances. Granitic and volcanic rocks, which together
form the major portion of the solid geology of the Territory, may be weathered to soils typically
to depths of 30 m and 10 m respectively. Under certain geological conditions, granitic rocks
may be weathered to over 100 m deep. Examples can be found in the Mid-levels area, Ma On
Shan and Yuen Long. It is important to recognize that ground conditions may not always
improve with depth; on occasions, hard rock at the ground surface may be underlain by thick
zones of weaker material. Similarly, fill materials within reclamations may vary considerably.
Hong Kong soils and rocks are further discussed in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
Investigations include a range of "methods", e.g. excavations, boreholes, probing, see

Chapters 17 to 23. The factors determining the selection of a particular method are discussed
in Chapters 11, 12 and 17 to 23. In general, the recommendations in Sections 10.2 to 10.7
apply irrespective of the method adopted, and the term "exploration point" is used to describe
a position where the ground is to be explored by any particular method.
Each combination of project and site is likely to be unique, and the following general
points should therefore be considered as guidance in planning the ground investigation and not
as a set of rules to be applied rigidly in every case.
10.2 Character and Variability of the Ground
The greater the natural variability of the ground, the greater will be the extent of the
ground investigation required to obtain an indication of the character of the ground. The
depth of exploration is generally determined by the nature of the works projected, but it may be
necessary to explore to greater depths at a limited number of points to establish the overall
geological conditions. The technical development of the project should be kept under
continuous review, since decisions on the design will influence the extent of the investigation.
It is important to realize that the detailed geology of a site can be no more than inferred
from aerial photography, surface outcrops and subsurface information at the positions of the
exploration points. The possibility remains that significant undetected variations or
discontinuities can exist, including lateral or vertical variations within a given layer. The
uncertainties can be reduced but, except by complete excavation, can never be wholly
eliminated by a more intensive investigation. The use of angled boreholes can in certain cases
greatly assist interpreting variations between vertical boreholes (see also Section 10.7.8). In
some circumstances, additional information between investigation points can be obtained by
geophysical methods (see Chapter 33).
43
10.3 Nature of the Project

10.3.1 General
The investigation should yield sufficient data on which to base an adequate and
economical design of the project. It should in addition be sufficient to cover possible methods
of construction and, where appropriate, to indicate sources of construction materials. The
lateral and vertical extent of the investigation should cover all ground that may be significantly
affected by the new works or their construction. Two typical examples are the zone of stressed
ground beneath the bottom of a group of piles; and an adjacent slope, the stability of which
may be reduced by the works.
10.3.2 Slope and Retaining Wall Construction
Due to the extensive construction of slopes and retaining walls in Hong Kong, detailed
guidance on the nature and content of site investigation for these features is given in Tables 3
and 4. Further discussion of the design and construction of slopes and retaining walls is given
in the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes (GCO, 1984) and in Geoguide 1 : Guide to Retaining
Wall Design (GEO, 1993).
10.3.3 Foundations for Structures
Most structures in Hong Kong are founded on piles. Hand-dug caissons, driven piles,
machine-bored piles and barrettes are commonly used. A general approach to planning a
ground investigation suitable for pile design purposes is given in ICE (1978). The
investigation should make a full appraisal of the site and the ground conditions should be
investigated at depths well below the proposed pile toe level to allow for variations in the pile
design. Knowledge of the groundwater conditions is also required. Further advice on
ground investigation for foundations is given in Section 10.7.2, BSI (1986) and Weltman &
Head (1983).
In areas where major structural defects in rock may occur (e.g. karst features in the Yuen
Long basin, or major shear or fault zones), more intensive investigation and greater exploration
depths than normally recommended may be required. Consideration may need to be given to
locating underground cavities within the zone of influence of the loaded area, and to identifying
other possible significant features such as steeply-dipping rockhead, fractures and alternating
soil and rock layers.
Recommendations on the depth of exploration for foundations for structures, including

shallow foundations, are given in Section 10.7.2.
10.4 Preliminary Investigation
Before deciding on a full investigation programme, it may be advisable to excavate trial

pits or to strip the surface cover from slopes for a preliminary assessment of ground conditions.
44
These should be carefully examined, logged and sampled (see Section 18.1).
For large projects requiring staged ground investigations, it will often be useful during
the first stage to carry out a geophysical survey in addition to some widely-spaced boreholes to
identify those areas which require more detailed investigation.
10.5 Location
The points of exploration, (e.g. boreholes, soundings, pits) should be located so that a
general geological view of the whole site can be obtained, together with adequate details of the
engineering properties of the soils and rocks and of groundwater conditions. More detailed
information should be obtained at positions of important structures and earthworks, at points
of special engineering difficulty or importance, and where ground conditions are complicated,
e.g. suspected buried valleys, old slipped areas and underground cavities. Rigid,
preconceived patterns of pits, boreholes or soundings should be avoided. In some cases, it
will not be possible to locate subsurface features until much of the ground investigation data
has been obtained. In such cases, the programme of investigations should be modified
accordingly.
The locations of boreholes and other exploration points should only be planned after the
desk study, site reconnaissance and geological mapping are completed. It is often useful to
locate boreholes at the intended positions of large deep foundations. For slopes, boreholes
should generally be located along anticipated critical slope sections, as well as uphill and
downhill for area and regional stability studies.
For tunnels and inclined shafts, boreholes should be offset so as not to interfere with
subsequent construction. For other structures, the need to offset boreholes and trial
excavations from critical points should be considered. In most cases, boreholes should be
carefully backfilled, concreted or grouted up. Trial excavations should be located outside
proposed foundation areas.
It is essential that accurate locations and ground levels for all exploration points should
be established, if necessary by survey (see Section 7.2).
10.6 Spacing
Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, a relatively close spacing between
points of exploration, e.g. 10 to 30 m, will often be appropriate for structures. For structures
small in plan area, exploration should be made at a minimum of three points if possible.
Where a structure consists of a number of adjacent units, one exploration point per unit may
suffice. Certain engineering works, such as dams, tunnels and major excavations, are
particularly sensitive to geological conditions, and the spacing and location of exploration
points should be more closely related to the detailed geology of the area than is usual for other
works.
In the case of a proposed cut slope extending from soil into rock, the level of bedrock
45
along the face of the cutting is important. Consideration should be given to obtaining the
subsurface profile by additional drilling and geophysical means. In the case of reclamation,
very closely spaced boreholes may be required to locate and delineate buried obstructions such
as remnants of an old seawall.
10.7 Depth of Exploration

10.7.1 General
The depth of exploration is governed by the depth to which the new project will affect
the ground and groundwater or be affected by them. Normally, exploration should be taken
below all deposits that may be unsuitable for foundation purposes, e.g. fill and weak
compressible soils, including any weak materials overlain by a stranger layer. The exploration
should be taken through compressible soils likely to contribute significantly to the settlement
of the proposed works, generally to a depth where stress increases cease to be significant, or
deeper.
In Hong Kong, it is common practice to drill into rock for a depth of at least 5 m to
establish whether corestone, boulder or bedrock has been encountered. However, the final
depth of drilling will depend on the need to prove bedrock. In some cases, it will be necessary
to drill deeper than 5 m to establish conclusively the presence of bedrock, for example, in
investigations for end bearing piles (see Section 10.7.2). In other instances, it may not be
necessary to terminate drilling in rock (see Section 10.7.4).
More specifically, the recommendations given in Sections 10.7.2 to 10.7.8 may be

considered for certain types of work. It is not always necessary that every exploration should
be taken to depths recommended in Sections 10.7.2 to 10.7.8. In many instances, it will be
adequate if one or more boreholes are taken to those depths in the early stages of the field work
to establish the general subsurface profile, and then the remainder sunk to some lesser depths
to explore more thoroughly the zone near the surface which the initial exploration had shown
to be most relevant to the problem in hand.
10.7.2 Foundations for Structures
In the case of foundations for structures, the depth of exploration should be at least one
and a half times the width of the loaded area. Commonsense will indicate exceptions to this
guideline; for example, it would not usually be necessary to continue drilling for long distances
in strong rock. For foundations near the surface, the loaded area is considered as either :
(a) the area of an individual footing, or
(b) the plan area of the structure, where the spacing of

foundation footings is less than about three times the breadth,
or where the floor loading is significant, or
(c) the area of a foundation raft.

46
In each case, the depth should be measured below the base of the footing or raft.
Where piled foundations are considered to be a possibility, the length of pile usually
cannot be decided until an advanced stage of the project. No explicit rules can be given for
the depth of exploration, but the following offer some guidance :
(a) Fill and weak compressible soils seldom contribute to the

shaft resistance of a pile and may add down drag to the load
on it. The whole pile load, possibly with the addition of
down drag, will have to be borne by the stronger materials
lying below the weak materials, either in end bearing or
through shaft resistance.
(b) The length of driven piles is often determined initially by the

driving resistance, and subsequently checked by load tests.
Hence, in such cases, the length of the pile is not accurately
known until the piling contract begins, but it may be possible
to gain an early indication from standard penetration test
(SPT) blow counts.
(c) In the case of end bearing piles in strong rock, boreholes

should be of sufficient depth to establish conclusively the
presence of bedrock. The rock should then be further
explored, usually by means of rotary drilling, to such a depth
that the engineer directing the investigation (see Section 15.2)
is satisfied that there is no possibility of weaker materials
occurring lower down that could affect the performance of
the piles. This will usually require penetrating at least 5 m,
or two and a half times the diameter of the pile, whichever is
larger, below the proposed founding level of the pile. For
boreholes carried out during construction to prove
satisfactory pile founding levels, the depth of penetration may
have to be increased where large corestones or boulders are
suspected or have been identified nearby.
(d) In weathered rocks, it may not always be feasible to locate

underlying fresh rock. Foundations in this case must often
be founded in the weathered rock, and proving the strength
and continuity of the material below the intended founding
level and the location, nature and orientation of
discontinuities may then suffice.
(e) Pile-supported rafts on clay may be used solely to reduce

settlement. In these cases, the depth of exploration is
governed by the need to examine all subsurface materials that
could contribute significantly to the settlement. Similarly,
for pile groups on clay, it will be necessary to ensure that the
depth of exploration is sufficient to prove the adequacy of the
47
founding material below the toe of the piles.
Based on the information of the probable subsurface profile obtained from the desk study,
the general guidance given in (a) to (e) above, and an assessment of the types of pile likely to
be considered, the engineer directing the investigation should determine the depth of
exploration and be ready during the course of the field work to modify this depth as appears to
be necessary. In any event, exploration should at same points be taken below the depth to
which it is considered likely that the longest piles will penetrate.
It should be noted that if any structure is likely to be affected by subsidence due to

collapse of underground cavities (e.g. karst features in the Yuen Long basin) or any other causes,
greater exploration depths than those recommended in this Section may be required.
10.7.3 Embankments
For embankments on alluvial and marine soils, the depth of the exploration should be
sufficient to check possible shear failure through the foundation materials and to assess the
likely amount of any settlement due to compressible materials. In the case of water-retaining
embankments, investigation should explore all materials through which piping could be
initiated or significant seepage occur.
10.7.4 Cut Slopes
The depth of exploration for cut slopes should be sufficient to permit full assessment of
the stability of the slope. This may necessitate proving the full depth of any relatively weak
or impermeable materials such as decomposed dykes (Au, 1986). In general, exploration for
slopes should extend a minimum of 5 m below the toe of the slope or 5 m into bedrock,
whichever is shallower. However, one or more exploration points should in all cases extend
below the toe of the slope or excavation, irrespective of bedrock level. Groundwater
conditions, including the possibility of perched or multiple water tables, should also be
determined.
10.7.5 Pavements
For pavements, the depth of exploration should be sufficient to determine the strength
and drainage conditions of possible sub-grades. Exploration to a depth of 2 to 3 m below the
proposed formation level will probably be sufficient in most cases.
10.7.6 Pipelines
For shallow small pipelines, it will frequently be sufficient to take the depth of
exploration to 1 m below the invert level. For deeper pipelines the depth of exploration should
be sufficient to enable any likely difficulties in excavating trenches and supporting the pipelines
to be discovered; a depth at least 1 to 2 m below the invert level may be advisable. Large
48
pipelines, especially those in ground of low bearing capacity, require special consideration.
10.7.7 Marine Works
For marine works, the effects described in Sections 10.7.2 and 10.7.3 may apply and, in
addition, consideration should be given to the effects of tidal variations.
In many cases of reclamation, it may be sufficient to terminate drilling shortly below the
base of any soft deposits that are present.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
10.8 Specific Guidance for Silt- and Clay-rich Layers of Rock Cut Slopes
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
In assessing the stability of a cut slope in volcanic or granitic rock, attention should be
given to establishing whether any of the following geological features are present, and if so,
whether they may adversely affect slope stability: [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(i) laterally persistent (e.g. > 4 m) weak silt- and clay-rich layers
(which predominantly comprise white to buff kaolin, but may
contain other materials, most notably dark brown
manganiferous and iron oxides), within the rock mass,
regardless of thickness,
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(ii) completely and highly decomposed rock (Grades V and IV)

forming planar layers that sit on slightly and moderately
decomposed rock (Grades II and III), and which dip directly,
or obliquely outwards from slope faces (At the Fei Tsui Road
landslide site, the rock type was a eutaxitic fine-ash crystal
tuff. The investigation of the Fei Tsui Road landslide (GEO,
1996a) highlighted various geological features in this rock
type that influence the stability of cut slopes. The
recognition of these geological features during site
investigation at other cut slopes in similar rock types should
raise awareness of the potential for a slope failure in similar
circumstances to those pertaining at the Fei Tsui Road site.),
and
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(iii) persistent (e.g. > 4 m), planar, steep joint sets and other
geological contacts (e.g. dykes, faults etc.) that could form
release surfaces. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The following additional ground conditions are often indicative of the presence of
49
geological features listed in previous paragraph and should also be checked: [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(i) stratification dipping out of the slope (e.g. as indicated by

eutaxitic foliation in some fine ash tuffs), [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(ii) zones of continuous seepage, and [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(iii) clusters of previous slope failures. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In site investigation, the following items are recommended to facilitate the identification
of geological features that may be adverse to slope stability: [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(i) The desk study should establish the history of any past
failures (including the mechanism and type of failure) and
continuous seepage, and, where site formation photographs
are available, the presence of significant geological features.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(ii) The engineering geological mapping should establish

whether the orientation of bedding, bedding-parallel fabrics
(e.g. eutaxitic foliation, which could provide an indication of
the orientation of potential bedding plane structures in
volcanic rocks.) or laterally continuous discontinuities (e.g.
sheeting joints) are adversely oriented, and identify any weak
silt- and clay-rich layers, especially within adversely-
oriented persistent discontinuities or along the weathering
front (i.e. the boundary below which rock predominates in a
partially weathered rock mass profile). Such adversely
oriented weak layers may also occur in local depressions in
the weathering front, caused for example by zones of faulting,
discontinuities with close spacing, and subvertical eutaxitic
foliation. Evidence of previous movement, especially that
associated with any weak layers, should be noted, and could
include: [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(a) slickensiding, particularly within silt and clay-rich layers,

[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(b) brecciation and shear deformation of silt and clay-rich

layers, and
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(c) tension cracks and infilled tension cracks, possibly

controlled by subvertical joints and particularly where
associated with adversely oriented weak layers.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Zones of continuous seepage, especially where associated with

50
silt- and clay-rich layers, should also be mapped.

[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(iii) During the initial phase of ground investigation, emphasis

should be directed to developing a representative geological
and hydrogeological model rather than testing. The ground
investigation should focus on examining and logging the
saprolite profile in detail, with emphasis placed on
identifying the presence of adversely-oriented, weak silt- and
clay-rich layers, especially in the vicinity of the weathering
front, regardless or not whether these layers daylight in the
slope under investigation. The ground investigation should
also identify any such features within the rock mass where
they may influence slope stability.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Suitable techniques for detailed examination of the saprolite

profile should include:
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(a) full-face mapping and logging of cut slopes, after stripping

of surface cover, and adjacent exposures, [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(b) excavation and logging of trial pits, and [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(c) logging of drillholes. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Suitable techniques for detailed examination of the saprolite

profile may also include: [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(d) excavation of trenches or adits, [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(e) continuous sampling in drillholes using triple tube core

barrels with air-foam as the flushing medium, and
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(f) downhole geophysical logging and other downhole

techniques, including borehole televiewer and impression
packer. (Technical guidelines on the use of downhole
geophysical investigation techniques in the identification of
weak layers are given in Section 33).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
10.9 Specific Guidance for Tunnel Works [Amd GG2/01/2017]
10.9.1 Preliminary Design Stage [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In the preliminary design stage, recommendations are made on a preferred tunnel

51
alignment and the scope of works, including risk mitigation measures based on assumed
methods of excavation. Ground investigation with a geophysical survey could be undertaken
to refine the geological model, to gain additional information on significant geological features,
identify sensitive receivers and to establish baseline conditions.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Boreholes should extend well below the anticipated depth of the tunnel and shafts to
allow for any subsequent changes in the vertical alignment of the tunnel in the detailed design
stage, and because the zone of influence of the tunnel may be extended by the nature of the
ground at a greater depth. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Long horizontal boreholes parallel to the proposed tunnel alignment are extremely useful,
particularly where the location of the proposed tunnel is overlain by thick layers of deeply
weathered rock (McFeat-Smith, 1987). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Soil permeability tests and Lugeon tests at close spacings should be undertaken in the
boreholes to assess the soil mass and rock mass permeability, respectively. It is important not
to overlook areas of apparently strong bedrock, as the mass permeability of these areas may be
high and may affect significantly construction of the tunnel works. The test results should be
used for development of the hydrogeological model, defining the hydraulic boundary
conditions for the design and for assessing the need to control groundwater inflow/drawdown
during construction. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
10.9.2 Detailed Design Stage [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In the detailed design stage, when the tunnel alignment has been fixed, the main aim of
the ground investigation should be to obtain information for the reference design or detailed
design of the tunnel works and the associated temporary works. The ground investigation
should also identify conditions at likely problematic areas along the chosen alignment. The
ground investigation data should be adequate for preparing the design of the ground support,
ground treatment, groundwater control works and the risk mitigation measures. It should also
be adequate for planning the inspection, testing and monitoring works during construction.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Where existing boreholes are found close to or intercepting the tunnel, the risk of these
boreholes not properly grouted should be assessed and mitigation measures, where necessary,
should be carried out to ensure that these boreholes would not form preferential flow paths that
could jeopardize the tunnel construction. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
New boreholes along the chosen tunnel alignment and shaft locations should generally
extend to a sufficient depth below the invert of the tunnel/shafts to obtain information for the
assessment of possible failure mechanisms/limit states, and/or construction of the tunnel/shafts.
For tunnels in rock, this should be a least 2.5 times the tunnel diameter (or the crown to invert
dimension) below the invert. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Directional coring along the tunnel alignment should be considered. If this is to be

carried out, it should preferably be done immediately on commencement of the detailed design
52
stage, in order to yield early data to maximise its benefit for the design. Despite the cost, the
directional coring together with pumped down packer tests could provide useful information on
the geology and hydrogeology along the tunnel alignment which could not be obtained from
vertical or inclined boreholes. The information along the tunnel alignment would help to
enhance the management of ground risks in tunnel excavation. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
For ground investigation to support the design of shafts, particular attention should be
given to identifying poor ground conditions, which could lead to collapse, excessive ground
deformation/vibration or excessive groundwater inflow/drawdown. For deep shafts with a
significant length in rock, the ground investigation should assess the hydrogeology and inflow
into the unlined sections of the rock mass, and the need for ground treatment and groundwater
control works to prevent excessive drawdown of piezometric pressures in the rock and the soil
overburden. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
For significant temporary works to be designed by the contractor, e.g. major ground
treatment, groundwater control and ground support works, the pre-tender site investigation
should provide sufficient geological and hydrogeological data for the pre-tender reference
designs of such works, which should be carried out to adequately define the scope of the works
required to meet the safety standards and the performance criteria specified.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
53
11. Selection of Ground Investigation Methods

11.1 General
Although the character of the ground and the technical requirements are the most
important aspects in the selection of methods of ground investigation, selection may also be
influenced by the character of the site, the availability of equipment and personnel, and the cost
of the methods.
The specialist nature of ground investigation work should at all times be considered.
In most cases it will be necessary to employ a contractor who is experienced in the type of
investigation work which is being proposed, and who has proper equipment and experienced
personnel to carry out the works.
11.2 Site Considerations
The topography, nature of the ground surface, surface water, the existence of buildings
or other structures and land 'ownership' may cause problems of access to the locations for
boreholes, or interfere with geophysical methods. For example, on very steeply sloping open
sites, it may be necessary to construct an access road or lower the equipment down the slope
or haul it up. Where the working position is on steeply sloping ground, it will be necessary to
form a horizontal working area by excavation or the use of staging (Plate 2A). On sites that
are obstructed by buildings and other structures, it may be necessary to demolish walls to gain
access. Alternatively, it may be possible to lift the equipment over obstructions using a crane
or to use special equipment that can be dismantled and man-handled through the building and
used in a confined space. Gaining access to sites covered by water presents special problems
(see Chapter 14). If the ground surface is soft, it can be traversed only by very light equipment.
Where this would not be effective, access roads for heavier equipment will be required.
Alternatively, the use of helicopters or hovercraft may be appropriate.
For ground investigation within or requiring access through privately-owned land,

including properties of the utilities companies and armed forces, permission should first be
obtained from the owners. For Government land, approval should be sought from the relevant
District Lands Office. For sites under the control of Government, approval must be obtained
from the relevant Department concerned. Such sites include reservoirs, service reservoirs,
roads, highways, country parks, Urban Council parks, etc. Permission to enter a site for
purposes of ground investigation may place further restrictions on the methods used. For
example, it may be necessary to control or eliminate the return of flushing media from boreholes
that affect adjacent slopes, fish ponds, cultivated fields, or highways (see Section 18.7.1).
Also, the presence of foundations and services often restrict the use of inclined drilling through
existing retaining walls into adjacent properties.
Access for drilling rigs should be assessed in the field with the assistance of plans, maps
and aerial photographs. Timber scaffolding is often used in Hong Kong to provide access over
rugged terrain and to construct drilling platforms in very steep terrain (Plate 2B). As such
scaffolding can account for a large portion of the total cost of the investigation, care should be
taken to locate boreholes for ease of access where possible.
54
Most methods of boring and field testing require a supply of water. On a site where
water is not available, it will be necessary to arrange for a temporary supply to be provided.
In the urban area, water can often be obtained from fire hydrants upon application to the Water
Supplies Department for the hire of a metered adaptor. In rural areas water may be obtainable
from wells, rivers or streams. On sites where the provision of water presents a major problem,
it may be necessary to transport the water in bowsers, or to use alternative methods of
investigation; for example, with rotary drilling an air foam flush could be used instead of water
flush (see Section 18.7). Where water is used as the flushing medium, adequate measures
should be provided to prevent silt and other debris in the flushing return from entering the
permanent drainage system, thereby causing siltation and other problems. Such measures may
include settling basins and sand/silt traps.
Other site considerations which may restrict the methods used are as follows :
(a) Trees on Government land are protected, and should be

preserved as far as possible in gaining site access or in
choosing investigation points. Permission to lop or cut
down any trees will not be granted unless good cause is
shown.
(b) 'Fung Shui' aspects of some sites are of great social and
religious significance, and local advice should be sought in
planning the investigation.
(c) Buried utilities and services are very common and must be
accounted for, as must subways and other tunnels (e.g. Mass
Transit Railway tunnels) that may pass beneath the site.
(d) Seismic surveys employing explosives may be restricted or

prohibited in built-up areas.
(e) Noise restrictions may prohibit the use of certain methods of

investigation.
(f) The difficulty in storage of spoil may restrict the use of trial
pits on some sites.
Further advice on planning a ground investigation and relevant sources of information

can be found in Appendices A and B (see also Sections 4.l.2 and 7.2).
55
12. Effect of Ground Conditions on Investigation Methods

12.1 General
This chapter considers the factors involved in the choice of the most suitable procedures
for boring, drilling, sampling, probing and field tests, as determined by the character of the
ground. Specific reference is made to the ground conditions commonly encountered in Hong
Kong; these are further described elsewhere (Brand & Phillipson, 1984; Endicott, 1984; GCO,
1988; Phillipson & Brand, 1985). The following sections should be read in conjunction with
Table 8, which summarises typical sampling procedures for different types of materials (see
Section 19.1). Frequent reference is made to classes of sample quality, which are defined in
Table 9 (see Section 19.2).
The determination of the groundwater conditions is a most important part of a ground

investigation. It involves the installation of piezometers and borehole or field testing (see
Chapters 20, 21 and 25), and is not, in general, a major consideration in the choice of a
procedure for drilling and sampling. Geophysical methods are often a useful means of
interpolating between boreholes in a variety of ground conditions (see Chapter 33).
12.2 Granular Soils Containing Boulders, Cobbles or Gravel
Some types of colluvium and alluvium may fall into this category, as may some fill and
soils derived from insitu rock weathering, although the latter two types are considered more
fully in Sections 12.8 and 12.10.
Within the limits of cost, the best method for investigating this type of ground is by
means of a dry excavation (see Sections 18.1 and 18.2). The excavation permits the structure
of the ground to be inspected, samples to be obtained, and field tests to be used to measure
insitu density, strength and deformation characteristics (see Chapters 27, 29 and 30).
If it is necessary to investigate the ground below the groundwater table, dewatering may
be required to obtain a dry excavation. The possible effects on adjacent ground of any
dewatering should first be assessed, however, and it may be necessary in some cases to adopt
alternative methods of investigation below the groundwater table.
Rotary water flush drilling may be employed (see Section 18.7), using a triple-tube core-
barrel with retractor shoe for matrix material and a diamond drill bit for boulders. It may also
be possible to use a U100 sampler (see Section 19.4.4) in matrix material to obtain class 3 or 4
samples. The use of air foam as a flushing medium may enhance core recovery and sample
quality.
During boring, there may be difficulty in advancing the boreholes and, consequently, in
obtaining samples of adequate quality. Boring may be undertaken with the light cable
percussion method using the shell (see Section 18.5), and employing the chisel when rock
fragments too large to enter the shell are encountered. The sides of the borehole must be
supported with casing. Disturbed samples taken from the shell are usually only class 5
(grading incomplete) because the fine fraction may have been washed out and the coarse
56
fragments may have been broken up by use of the chisel.
Borehole tests can be used to obtain an indication of the properties of the ground. The
standard penetration test (see Section 21.2) will give some indication of relative density.
Occasional high values that are unrepresentative of the true relative density will be obtained
when the penetrometer encounters coarse gravel. In ground containing cobbles or boulders,
the standard penetration test gives an increasing proportion of unrealistically high results.
The borehole permeability test (see Section 21.4), may give a reasonable indication of
permeability, and the results can also be used to give a guide to the proportion of fine particles
in the soil. A more reliable assessment of permeability will be obtained from a pumping test
(see Chapter 25). The cone penetration test (see Section 23.3), has limitations where there is
a significant content of boulders or cobbles. It is also limited because of the inability of the
cone to penetrate dense gravel. The ''static-dynamic'' test (see Section 23.4), is useful for this
purpose, although its results will also be affected where cobbles or boulders are encountered.
The pressuremeter is useful in coarse granular soils when held within a slotted casing (see
Section 21.7).
12.3 Granular Soils
These soils include sands, silty sands and sandy silts, and are fairly common in alluvial
or marine deposits. Boreholes in these materials may be sunk by the light cable percussion
method using the shell, or by rotary drilling. Disturbed samples taken with the shell are likely
to be deficient in fines, and therefore of class 5 only. Samples suitable for a particle size
distribution test, class 4, may be obtained using the split barrel standard penetration test sampler.
Larger class 4 samples can sometimes be obtained using U100 sampling equipment with a core-
catcher.
The action of forcing a sampler into granular soils tends to cause a change in volume,
even if the area ratio is small (see Section 19.4.1(2)), and hence the density of the sample may
not be representative of the layer. In some cases, a piston sampler will be effective (see
Section 19.5); this should produce class 2 samples or, where the soil is loose or very dense,
class 3 samples. However, in both cases the moisture content of the samples may be
unrepresentative of the insitu ground. With clean sand, normal sampling equipment may fail
to recover a sample, and it will then be necessary to use the compressed air sand sampler (see
Section 19.7); sample classes will be similar to those obtained with a piston sampler.
In shallow investigations above the water table, excavations or hand augering (see
Section 18.4), may be used.
A guide to the relative density of granular soils is obtained by the standard penetration
test. However, the results can easily be invalidated by loosening of the soil below the water
table. Where it is important that the relative density should not be underestimated, for
example when a driven pile project is being investigated, the relative density should be assessed
by the cone penetration test.
Approximate values of the strength and compressibility parameters can be estimated on

an empirical basis from the results of the standard penetration test or, preferably, from the
57
results of the cone penetration test. Pressuremeter tests are also useful. A more direct
determination requires the use of plate tests carried out in a dry excavation (see Section 21.6
and Chapter 29).
Permeability may be assessed from borehole permeability tests (see Section 21.3), or by
pumping tests (see Chapter 25).
12.4 Intermediate Soils
These include clayey sands, clayey silts and silts, and may be encountered in alluvial
and marine deposits. The selection of methods of ground investigation will depend on
whether the material behaves as a granular soil or a cohesive soil.
12.5 Very Soft to Soft Cohesive Soils
These include sandy clays, silty clays or clays. They are commonly encountered in
marine and alluvial deposits. The normally consolidated and lightly overconsolidated marine
clays may be sensitive, while the alluvial silty clays are generally insensitive.
Rotary drilling or the light cable percussion method may be used to advance holes in
soft cohesive soil. Considerable care is required with rotary drilling to avoid change of water
content and disturbance by the drilling fluid. Class 1 samples can be obtained by using a
piston sampler. Class 2 or 3 samples can sometimes be obtained with an open-tube sampler.
Continuous samples, usually class 3, can be obtained with a Delft sampler (see Section 19.6).
Disturbed samples from the clay cutter of the light cable percussion method are generally
class 4. Where the borehole contains water, it may be necessary to use the shell, in which case
class 4 samples can be obtained provided that lumps of intact soil can be recovered.
The insitu vane test is by far the most satisfactory means of measuring the undrained
shear strength of soft clays, but the penetration vane test apparatus is much to be preferred to
equipment which is used in boreholes (see Section 21.3). Vane tests are particularly effective
if combined with static cone penetration tests (see Section 23.3). For laboratory test purposes
(particularly oedometer tests) large diameter samples (greater than 150 mm) should be obtained
wherever possible. The compressibility values obtained from Rowe cell tests on large
diameter samples (see Chapter 37 and Table 12) may be used in conjunction with insitu constant
head permeability measurements to give a reasonable estimate of rate of consolidation
settlement.
12.6 Firm to Stiff Cohesive Soils
These materials may be encountered as layers within marine or alluvial deposits.
Rotary drilling can be used, but considerable care is required to avoid change of water
content and disturbance by the drilling fluid. The retractable triple-tube core-barrel can be
used in rotary drilling to obtain class 2 and sometimes class 1 samples. The 100 mm open-
58
tube sampler can be used to obtain class 2 to 3 samples. Alternatively, the light cable
percussion method with clay cutter can be used, which will result in class 5 samples.
12.7 Cohesive Soils Containing Boulders, Cobbles or Gravel
Most colluvium and some types of alluvium fall into this category, as may some fill and
soils derived from insitu rock weathering, although the latter two types are considered more
fully in Sections 12.8 and 12.10.
Within the limits of cost, the best method of investigating cohesive soils containing
boulders, cobbles or gravel is by a dry excavation. The excavation will enable the structure
of the ground to be inspected, samples to be obtained, and field tests for the determination of
the insitu density, strength and undrained deformation characteristics to be carried out.
When using borehole methods of investigation, this type of ground presents difficulties
in both advancing the hole and recovering samples of adequate quality. Rotary drilling is often
employed, using triple-tube core-barrels equipped with a retractor shoe for the matrix materials
and diamond-impregnated drill bits for rock fragments and boulders. Class 1 samples can be
obtained by employing air foam flush with the large diameter triple-tube core-barrel. Class 1
to 2 samples may be obtained with retractable triple-tube core-barrels and water flush. The
use of U100 samplers can yield class 2 or 3 samples of the matrix material, while the split barrel
standard penetration test sampler can be used to obtain class 3 to 4 samples. The standard
penetration test is sometimes used to obtain a rough indication of strength, but it may give
misleading results if boulders and cobbles are present.
12.8 Fill
Fill can consist of replaced natural ground, or waste materials of various origins. The
uniformity of fill will depend on the degree of control which has been imposed, on the quality
of the incoming material and on the method of placing and compaction. In older fill, there
may have been little or no control of the filling operation, and the major problem in planning
the ground investigation will be to assess the variation in character and quality across the site.
Often, the variation will be random.
Conventional methods of boring, sampling and insitu testing, as appropriate to the

character of the ground, can give information on the thickness and properties of the fill at the
particular locations of the boreholes or insitu tests. It is essential to ensure that the borehole
is always fully cased through fill to avoid contamination of the natural ground from falling
material. Pits and trenches are particularly useful for investigating the nature and variability
of fill (see Chapter 18).
In combustible fills, temperature measurements may be necessary. It should be noted

that on waste tips, burning materials below ground may give rise to toxic or flammable fumes
from the borehole. Tip fires may also create voids, which may collapse under the weight of an
investigation rig. Lagoons within waste tips may be areas of very soft ground.
59
12.9 Rock
Rotary diamond bit core drilling with water flush is normally used in rock. Soils
derived from insitu rock weathering are further considered in Section 12.10. Double-tube or
triple-tube core-barrels may be employed, with triple-tube core-barrels giving better core
recovery and causing less disturbance, especially in highly fractured or jointed rock. The use
of larger-sized equipment producing cores of about 100 mm diameter or more will also help to
improve core recovery.
Soft infilling of rock discontinuities can sometimes be lost due to erosion by the flush
water, and air or air foam flush drilling may be desirable. In general rotary core drilling with
a diamond drill bit will produce samples which may allow an assessment of the character and
engineering properties of the intact rock material. Such samples may also give some
indication of the frequency and dip angle of the discontinuities but not their dip direction, unless
special techniques are used. The use of borehole periscopes, impression packers, cameras,
and television cameras may be useful in this connection (see Section 21.8). In many cases,
rotary core samples give no indication of the character of any infilling of the discontinuities.
In a ground investigation using light cable percussion boring or rotary core drilling, an
indication of the properties of the rock mass can be obtained from tests in boreholes. For
certain of such tests, however, it will be necessary to take into account the probable effects of
disturbance of the ground by the drilling process. The standard penetration test (see
Section 21.2), can give a rough indication of the variation of strength and compressibility in
weak rock. The permeability test (see Section 21.4), or the packer or Lugeon test (see
Section 21.5), may give a measure of the mass permeability, which in turn can give an indication
of the presence of open joints and other water-bearing discontinuities. Where applicable, the
plate test (see Section 21.5), and dilatometers such as the pressuremeter (see Section 21.7), can
be used to investigate deformation properties and possibly also the strength.
The best method for determining the properties of a rock mass, including the orientation
of discontinuities, is visual inspection, and field tests carried out in excavations, caissons or
headings (see Chapter 18).
12.10 Soils Derived from Insitu Rock Weathering
Weathered rock that can be regarded and treated essentially as soil from an engineering
viewpoint occurs extensively throughout Hong Kong. These materials are derived primarily
from the chemical decomposition of the parent bedrock, and their character depends on the
parent rock type. Soils derived from granite are typically silty or clayey sands, while those
derived from tuff and other volcanic rocks are often sandy or clayey silts. These soils very
often contain corestones of less decomposed rock within a more decomposed matrix, and it is
not uncommon to encounter granite corestones as large as 3 m or more. The depth over which
decomposed material changes to fresh rock is extremely variable and is related to the rock type,
joint pattern, the spacing of the joints, faulting, alteration, and the position of the water table
(GCO, 1988).
Where these soils occur at shallow depth, pits are probably the most effective means of
60
investigation; class 1 block samples of the matrix material can usually be obtained for
laboratory testing and the exposure can be fully described and logged.
Rotary drilling can be used to advance boreholes in these materials provided

considerable care is taken to limit disturbance by the drilling fluid. Retractable triple-tube
core-barrels can generally be used to obtain class 2 and sometimes class l samples. Class l
samples can be obtained using a large diameter triple-tube core-barrel with air foam flush.
Open-tube samplers generally provide class 2 to class 4 samples. The split barrel standard
penetration test sampler can be used to obtain small class 3 or 4 samples.
Borehole tests can be used to obtain an indication of the properties of the ground. The
standard penetration test will give some indication of density and degree of weathering,
although the presence of corestones may give unrealistically high results. The standard
penetration test can generally provide useful information for the initial assessment of likely pile
founding depths. The borehole permeability test may give a reasonable indication of
permeability. The pressuremeter may be useful for measuring ground stiffness.
12.11 Discontinuities
In most rocks, the mass properties depend largely on the geometry and nature of the
discontinuities. This can require the engineering properties to be measured in the plane of the
discontinuities along specific orientations determined by the anticipated directions of the
stresses to be applied. The control by discontinuities over the strength and deformation
characteristics of a ground mass is less obvious in soils derived from insitu weathering than in
moderately weathered to fresh rock, but may be equally important.
There are no satisfactory drilling or boring techniques available for ensuring that the
core recovered can be orientated over the full depth penetrated, but borehole discontinuity
surveys can be conducted (see Section 21.8). In soils, the discontinuities are often destroyed
by the drilling and therefore overlooked. Where discontinuities are important to the
engineering problems involved, insitu exposures of discontinuities are necessary to obtain data
on their orientation and nature. After initial investigations using interpretation of aerial
photographs, surface outcrop logging and the drilling of vertical and inclined orientated holes,
it may be necessary to form full surface exposures, large diameter boreholes, trenches, pits or
adits to allow visual inspection around and within the undisturbed ground mass, and
measurement of the relevant discontinuity data (see Chapter 26). In some projects, suitable
exposures may be provided in excavations necessitated by the permanent works. The
extraction or insitu preparation of orientated test samples can be carried out in these
excavations, together with orientated large scale tests. The orientation of the excavations
controls their intersection with the discontinuities and, consequently, the discontinuity data that
can be obtained. Generally, three orthogonal exposures are required to define fully the spatial
distribution of the discontinuities. The extent of the excavations is governed by the spacing
between discontinuities and the size of the works.
61
12.12 Cavities
Ground containing natural or man-made cavities can be found in Hong Kong (e.g.
caverns in karst, disused tunnels and old mineshafts) and the cavities may be vacant or infilled
(Culshaw & Waltham, 1987). Difficulties may be experienced in advancing a borehole
through such ground. A variety of drilling techniques may need to be tried, and precautions
should be taken to prevent dropping of the drill string, and to maintain verticality of the hole.
Care may also be required to avoid ground subsidence during investigation (see Section 8.3.2).
Close supervision is essential for such investigations.
62
13. Aggressive Ground and Groundwater

13.1 General
In some areas, soil, rock and groundwater may contain certain constituents in amounts
sufficient to cause damage to Portland cement concrete or steel. While insitu weathered rocks
and their associated soils in Hong Kong are generally not aggressive, this should be confirmed
by ground investigation and laboratory testing whenever the use of ground anchors, reinforced
fill structures or other susceptible structures are contemplated. Investigations for aggressive
ground and groundwater should be considered for all sites where transported soils are
encountered, and for all marine sites.
The principal constituents causing damage to concrete are sulphates, which are most
common in clay soils and acidic waters. Total sulphate contents of more than 0.2% by weight
in soil and 300 parts per million in groundwater are potentially aggressive (BRE, 1981).
Corrosion of metal is caused by electrolytic or other chemical or biological actions. In

industrial areas, corrosive action may arise from individual waste products that have been
dumped on the site. In river and marine works, the possible corrosive action of water, sea
water and other saline waters, and trade effluents may also require investigation. In a marine
environment, the most severe corrosion is found in the 'splash zone' (i.e. the zone that is only
wetted occasionally). The saline concentration in groundwater near the sea may approach that
of seawater, particularly in the case of reclaimed land. In estuarine situations, there may be
an adverse condition because of alternation of water of different salinities.
13.2 Investigation of Potential Deterioration of Concrete
Laboratory tests to assess the aggressiveness of the ground and groundwater against
Portland cement concrete include determination of pH value and sulphate content (GEO, 2017a).
Reference should be made to BRE (1981) regarding the determination of water-soluble sulphate
concentrations. The pH value may be altered if there is a delay between sampling and testing,
so field determinations should be made if possible.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Water sampled from boreholes may be altered by the flushing water used in drilling, or
by other flushing media employed. Therefore sulphate and acidity tests carried out on samples
from boreholes may not be representative unless special precautions are taken (see Section 20.3).
13.3 Investigation of Potential Corrosion of Steel
The likelihood of corrosion of steel can be assessed from tests of resistivity, redox
potential, pH, chloride ion content, total sulphate content, sulphate ion content, and total
sulphide content. Details of these tests, and relevant limits for a relatively non-aggressive
environment for steel, are given in Geoguide 6 (GEO, 2017b). Chemical tests should be done
on undisturbed specimens which have been placed in clean airsealed containers immediately
after sampling. If bacteriological attack is expected, undisturbed specimens should be placed
63
in sterilized containers and tested in accordance with BSI (1990) (see also Section 13.2 and
Table 12). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
13.4 Investigation of Fill Containing Industrial Wastes
Industrial waste products can contain a wide range of chemicals, depending on the
industrial processes from which the waste products are derived. Some chemicals are highly
aggressive to concrete or steel in underground structures, and some can be highly obnoxious
or even poisonous. The last two characteristics can present major construction problems, e.g.
the disturbance or disposal of contaminated ground, or the disposal of contaminated
groundwater. Local enquiries may give some indication of the origins of the waste materials,
and the pH value and sulphate content for the fill and the groundwater will generally give some
indication of the magnitude of the contamination. It may then be necessary to carry out a
detailed chemical study of the ground conditions.
Further guidance is given by Naylor et al (1978).

64
14. Ground Investigations over Water

14.1 General
Sinking boreholes below water presents special difficulties in comparison with working
on dry land. A reasonably stable working platform may be provided, such as a staging, barge
or ship, and the borehole sunk through a conductor pipe spanning between the working
platform and the water bottom. Increasing use is being made of a variety of penetration
testing techniques (Blacker & Seaman, 1985). In some cases, it may be feasible to lower
specially designed boring, drilling or penetration testing equipment to the water bottom to be
operated by remote control or a diver. With remote control, operation is restricted to a single
continuous process. Penetration depths vary from less than 5 m for some devices, to 20 m or
more for others. Geophysical techniques are also used to augment the information obtained
from boreholes, or as a preliminary investigation before putting down boreholes (see
Chapter 33).
As in land investigations the choice of suitable equipment for marine investigations

depends primarily on the expected ground conditions and the purpose of the investigation.
Additional factors that must be considered in marine investigations include the water depth,
heave of the craft caused by wave action, tidal fluctuations, and water currents (Blacker &
Seaman, 1985). Also, the required working area for a drilling vessel must include a safe
margin for anchor lines beyond the dimensions of the craft itself. A typical spread of anchors
would be up to 50 m on either side of the craft.
The scope of the work, including the methods of drilling, sampling and insitu testing,
requires careful consideration depending on the particular difficulties of the site. When
working over water it is essential that due consideration is given to safety requirements,
navigational warnings, and the regulations of Government Departments and other authorities.
To avoid interference with marine traffic, the Marine Department must be notified of
investigations so that a Notice to Mariners can be issued. Special consideration must be given
to sites where the investigation or associated craft could present a hazard. For example, craft
working close to the runway of Kai Tak Airport must not pose a hazard to aircraft; permission
for any such work must first be obtained from the Civil Aviation Department. Similarly,
permission must be obtained from the Mass Transit Railway Corporation, the Cross Harbour
Tunnel Co. Ltd, the Water Supplies Department, or the various public utility companies if work
is to be carried out near submerged tunnels, pipelines or major utilities (see Appendices A and
B).
Ground investigations conducted from above water are often more expensive and time
consuming than comparable investigations conducted on dry land, and there may be a
temptation to economize by reducing the scope of the investigation. The extent of the
requirement for ground investigations should be realistically assessed, since economies in this
direction can turn out to be false.
Tropical cyclones may lead to disruption of investigations, especially in the summer

months. It is a usual insurance requirement that vessels proceed to a typhoon shelter when the
strong wind warning signal number 3 or above has been issued (or is forecasted) by the Royal
65
Observatory.
14.2 Stages and Platforms
Where stable working platforms are available or can be provided, such as oil drilling
platforms and jetties or purpose-built scaffold stages and drilling towers, it is generally
possible to use conventional dry-land ground investigation drilling equipment and conventional
methods of sampling and insitu testing. When working from existing structures, it may be
necessary to construct a cantilevered platform over the water on which to mount the drilling
rig. When drilling close to the shore in relatively shallow water, it may be more convenient to
construct a scaffold staging from land to the borehole location. Alternatively, it may be more
economical to construct a scaffold or other tower at the borehole location, in which case some
means of transporting the drilling equipment to the tower will need to be provided. Some
towers are constructed such that they can be moved from one borehole location to another
without having to be dismantled.
Jack-up platforms, and special craft fitted with spud legs, can be floated into position
and then jacked out of the water to stand on their legs. They can combine manoeuvrability
with fulfilment of the requirement for a fixed working platform.
Jack-up and other fixed platforms effectively overcome the problem of heave and allow
a high standard of drilling, testing and sampling to be achieved. Jack-up platforms currently
available in Hong Kong are capable of operation in water depths not exceeding about 12 m
(Plate 3A).
The design of all staging, towers and platforms should take into account the nature of
the seabed, fluctuating water levels due to tides, waves and swell conditions. It is essential
that such constructions should be sufficiently strong for the boring operations to resist waves,
tidal flow and other currents and floating debris.
14.3 Floating Craft
The type of floating craft suitable as a drilling vessel depends on a number of factors
such as whether the water is sheltered or open, the anchor holding properties of the seabed,
whether accommodation for the personnel is required on board, the likely weather conditions,
the depth of water and the strength of currents. In inland water, a small anchored barge may
suffice, but in less sheltered waters a barge should be of substantial size, and anchors will
require to be correspondingly heavy. In offshore conditions, a ship is often employed, and it
may then be possible to accommodate the personnel on board, with a saving in auxiliary supply
vessels.
An auxiliary vessel will be required to handle the moorings if a barge is used for the
work, but in certain cases a ship may be able to lay and pick up its own moorings. Generally,
four or six point moorings wil1 be required, and anchors should have the best holding capacity
feasible. In water deeper than 80 m, conventional moorings become difficult, and the use of
vessels maintained in position by computer-controlled thrusting devices should be considered.
66
Special techniques are required to deal with fluctuating water levels due to tides,
waves and swell conditions (Plate 3B), particularly with rotary drilling where a constant
pressure between the drill bit and the bottom of the borehole is required (Smyth & McSweeney,
1985). When the heave is anticipated to exceed about 300 mm, it is necessary to employ a
heave compensator system if high quality samples are to be obtained. Heave compensator
systems allow the drill string and sampling equipment to be isolated from the vertical
movements of the craft (Blacker & Seaman, 1985).
Pontoons and barges should be anchored at the corners using anchor lines at least five
times the depth of water. In exposed waters, motorized mooring winches are necessary.
14.4 Working between Tide Levels
Sinking boreholes between high and low tide levels may be achieved using scaffold
stagings, platforms (see Section 14.2) or flat-bottomed pontoons, or by moving drilling rigs to
the location during periods permitted by the tides.
When it is intended to conduct drilling operations from flat-bottomed craft resting on

the seabed at low tide, the profile and condition of the seabed should be assessed in advance.
14.5 Locating Borehole Positions
Close to shore, borehole positions and other investigation points can be set-out by
radiation from known shore stations with distances measured by Electronic Distance Measuring
(EDM) equipment. Further offshore, or when visibility is bad, electronic position fixing
techniques can be used.
Setting-out by radiation usually involves the initial placement of a marker buoy within
5 m of the specified position. The marker buoy should be fitted with a line of sufficient length
to allow for tidal variations and wave heaving. An auxiliary float on a 5 m line can also be
tied to the marker buoy to indicate the direction of the current. This will help in manoeuvering
the drilling craft into position. Once the drilling craft has been anchored over the sinker of the
marker buoy, further measurements from the known shore stations can be taken. The position
of the drilling craft can be adjusted by means of anchor winches until the borehole is positioned
within 1 m of the required position. All borehole positions should be related to the 1980 Hong
Kong Metric Grid, or if a site grid is used, the site grid should be related to the 1980 Hong Kong
Metric Grid such that standard co-ordinates can be obtained.
14.6 Determination of Reduced Levels
Reduced levels are generally transferred to a drilling vessel from shore by setting up a
tide gauge close to the shore. The gauge is read at frequent intervals throughout the tidal
cycles at the same time as readings of water depth are taken on the drilling vessel. Corrections
may be necessary to allow for tidal variations when the distance between the tide gauge and
the vessel is significant.
67
Reading of the tide gauge can be facilitated by noting both the crest and trough levels
of at least six consecutive waves. An average of the mean crest level and mean trough level
can be adopted as the tide level at that instant. The tide gauge should be referenced to Hong
Kong's Chart Datum (which is 0.146 m below Principal Datum), so that the reading can be used
to obtain the reduced levels of the seabed and subsurface geological boundaries.
14.7 Drilling, Sampling and Testing
Marine investigations commonly encounter interbedded marine and alluvial deposits

underlain by weathered bedrock. Each stratigraphic horizon may contain distinctly different
materials and may require different investigatory techniques (Beggs, 1983; see also Chapter 12).
For marine investigations, the rotary open hole method of advancing a hole is preferred
to the rotary wash boring method (see Section 18.7.l). Drilling mud should be used as a
flushing medium and to stabilize the hole when casing is not required. Cable tool boring
techniques may be used to advantage in some situations, for example the identification of
suitable marine borrow areas. Rotary drilling with a retractable triple-tube core-barrel (see
Section 19.8) is often employed in soils derived from insitu rock weathering, as for land-based
investigations.
If a fixed platform is not used during sampling, particular care must be taken to prevent
sample disturbance due to heave. Continuous sampling of soft soils can be undertaken with a
Delft or Swedish foil sampler, but these are particularly sensitive to heave and should only be
attempted from a fixed platform. With the Delft samplers, care should be taken to prevent
necking of the nylon jacket due to unbalanced fluid pressures, and ripping of the jacket due to
shells in marine deposits.
A range of field tests in boreholes is useful in marine investigations, including standard

penetration tests, vane shear tests and permeability tests. Static cone penetration testing and
geophysical testing are also of value. In the case of vane shear tests, it is preferable to provide
a stable support for the equipment on top of a soft marine mud seabed (Fung et al, 1984).
A special category of marine investigations involving only shallow-depth seabed

materials is often required for pipeline foundations, pollution monitoring and similar projects.
Disturbed, shallow-depth seabed samples may be obtained for these purposes with a grab
sampler, gravity corer or vibrocorer. The grab sampler is the simplest of these devices, but it
can only obtain samples from the uppermost 0.5 m of the seabed. The gravity corer normally
consists of an open barrel 3 m in length that is allowed to fall and penetrate the seabed under
its own weight. The vibrocorer is driven by a motorized vibrator and can penetrate 3 to 6 m
depending on the nature of the seabed materials. The samples recovered using these methods
are generally of poor quality but nevertheless should be suitable for classification testing. The
principal advantage of these methods is the speed with which samples may be recovered over
a considerable area (Blacker & Seaman, 1985).
68
15. Personnel for Ground Investigation

15.1 General
In view of the importance of ground investigation as a fundamental component of the

proper design and efficient and economical construction of all civil engineering and building
works, it is recommended that personnel involved in the investigation should be familiar with
the purpose of the work, and should have appropriate specialized knowledge and experience.
15.2 Planning and Direction
The person planning and directing the ground investigation should be a suitably
qualified and experienced engineer or engineering geologist. This person should have a
university degree in civil engineering or geology, or an equivalent professional qualification,
and at least four years post-qualification engineering experience, some of which should be local
experience on projects of a similar nature to the one being contemplated. If the ground
conditions at the site are anticipated to be complex and the safety and economy of the project
are significantly influenced by the ground conditions, the person planning and directing the
ground investigation should possess, in addition, specialized qualifications or experience in
geotechnical engineering, and specialized knowledge in site investigation practice in Hong
Kong.
The person planning and directing the ground investigation should be thoroughly
familiar with the project requirements and capable of liaising effectively with the project
designer or client throughout all phases of the investigation (Figure l). This person should
determine the content and extent of the investigation, direct the investigation in the field and
laboratory, and assess the results in relation to the project requirements. Part of these duties
may be delegated to geotechnical specialists or suitably trained and experienced subordinates.
15.3 Supervision in the Field
Ground investigation works should generally be carried out under the supervision of a
suitably qualified and experienced engineer or geologist, assisted by trained and experienced
technical personnel. The supervising engineer or geologist should have a university degree in
civil engineering or geology, or an equivalent professional qualification, and at least four years
post-qualification engineering experience, some of which should have been in ground
investigations. Technical personnel should possess a certificate in civil engineering from a
polytechnic and at least one year of specialized training and experience in ground investigations,
including training in the proper logging and description of ground conditions.
The supervising engineer or geologist should be full time or part time on site, depending
on such factors as the :
(a) size of the investigation,
(b) nature of the project,

69
(c) complexity of the anticipated ground conditions,
(d) complexity of the sampling and field testing schedule,
(e) reliability of the contractor's personnel undertaking the

ground investigation works.
Increasing size and complexity of the project, as well as increasing complexity of ground
conditions and investigation techniques, or decreasing reliability of the contractor's personnel,
should all lead to heavier time commitments for the supervising engineer or geologist. The
supervisor will normally be required full-time on site whenever it is planned to carry out works
which are critically dependent on a high standard of workmanship for their success or safety.
Only when minor ground investigation works are undertaken for confirmatory purposes, and
where the works involve simple investigation techniques, should full delegation of the
supervision of the works to technical personnel be contemplated.
Technical personnel will normally be required full-time on site. Several technical staff
may be required on site if a number of drilling rigs are operating simultaneously, if several field
tests or instrument installations are being undertaken simultaneously, or if the works are widely
scattered.
The supervising engineer or geologist should be aware of the type of information

required from the investigation, and should always maintain close liaison with the engineer or
engineering geologist directing the ground investigation (see Section 15.2), or with the project
designer, to ensure that the project requirements are satisfied. In most cases, it is worthwhile
for the project designer to spend some time on site during the ground investigation works in
order to appreciate fully the actual ground conditions. Wherever possible, the supervising
engineer or geologist should be independent of the contractor undertaking the ground
investigation works. If this is not the case, the engineer or engineering geologist planning and
directing the ground investigation should take steps to ensure that there is an adequate level of
site supervision and that reliable information is obtained from the works.
15.4 Logging and Description of Ground Conditions
The supervising technical personnel (see Section 15.3) should be responsible for
recording the information obtained from boreholes or other investigations as it arises. This
information should include a measured record of the subsurface profile with rock and soil
descriptions, and a record of the drilling and sampling techniques used. In complex ground
conditions, or when the information is particularly important, the supervising engineer or
geologist should record this information as it arises. In some cases, it may be necessary to
obtain specialist advice on the logging and description of ground conditions (see Section 15.6).
Detailed descriptions of the ground conditions encountered and of all rock and soil
samples obtained should be made in accordance with Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988), or a suitable
alternative system. All personnel undertaking logging and description of ground conditions
should be thoroughly familiar with the system to be used and suitably experienced in its
application.
70
15.5 Laboratory Testing
The testing of soil and rock samples should be carried out in a laboratory approved by
the directing engineer or engineering geologist referred to in Section 15.2. The laboratory
testing should be done under the control of a suitably qualified and experienced supervisor, and
all laboratory technicians should be skilled and experienced in the type of test they are
conducting. The laboratory testing schedule should be finalised only after selected samples
have been examined by the person directing the investigation or by the supervising engineer or
geologist. The latter should supervise the more complex tests.
15.6 Specialist Advice
Depending on the complexity of the ground conditions and the nature of the project,
specialist advice on particular aspects of the ground investigation may be needed. For
example, the advice of an experienced engineering geologist may be required on such aspects
as :
(a) full detailed geological descriptions of soils and rocks,
(b) differentiating fill from insitu materials, or

boulders/corestones from bedrock,
(c) identifying and classifying colluvial deposits,
(d) rock mass classifications,
(e) geological and groundwater models of ground conditions at

the site.
Similarly, the advice of an experienced instrumentation specialist will be invaluable for

the planning, calibration, installation, commissioning and data interpretation of the more
complex geotechnical instruments.
15.7 Interpretation
The interpretation of the ground investigation should be directed by the engineer or

engineering geologist referred to in Section 15.2, incorporating any specialist advice obtained
(see Section 15.6).
15.8 Operatives
The driller in charge of an individual drilling rig should be skilled and experienced in
the practice of ground investigation by means of boreholes and simple sampling and testing
techniques. Operators of other equipment used in ground investigations should have
appropriate skills and experience. Any timbering, shoring or other support required in
71
excavations or caissons should be installed only by suitably skilled workmen. All operatives
should be familiar with and observant of safety precautions (see Appendix E).
72
16. Review during Construction

16.1 General
There is an inherent difficulty in forecasting ground conditions from ground

investigations carried out before the works are started since, however intensive the
investigation and whatever methods are used, only a small proportion of the ground is examined.
16.2 Purpose
The primary purpose of the review during construction is to determine to what extent, if
any, in the light of the conditions newly revealed, conclusions drawn from the ground
investigation are required to be revised.
In some cases, additional information is found which may necessitate amendment of the
design or the construction procedures. In certain cases, it may therefore be appropriate to
initiate a site procedure in the early stages of the contract, so that correct and agreed records
are kept during the duration of the contract by both the engineer and the contractor. The
purposes of these records are :
(a) to assist in checking the adequacy of the design,
(b) to assist in checking the safety of the works during

construction and to assess the adequacy of temporary works,
(c) to check the findings of the ground investigation and to

provide a feed-back so that these findings may be reassessed,
(d) to check initial assumptions about ground conditions,

including groundwater, related to construction methods,
(e) to provide agreed information about ground conditions in the

event of dispute,
(f) to assist in checking the suitability of proposed instrument

installations,
(g) to assist in deciding the best use to be made of excavated

materials,
(h) to assist in the reassessment of the initial choice of

construction plant and equipment.
73
16.3 Information Required

16.3.1 Soil and Rock
Accurate descriptions of all material encountered below ground level should be made in
accordance with Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988), or a suitable alternative system. The subsurface
profile revealed on site should be recorded and compared with that anticipated from the ground
investigation. The descriptions should be made by an engineer or geologist (see Section 15.4).
It may be advantageous to arrange for the site to be inspected by the organization that carried
out the site investigations, particularly if ground conditions appear to differ significantly from
those described in the ground investigation.
16.3.2 Water
It is most important to record accurately all information about the groundwater obtained
during construction, for comparison with information recorded during the investigation. The
information should cover the flow and static conditions in all excavations, seepage from slopes,
seasonal variations, tidal variations in excavations or tunnels near the sea or estuaries, suspect
or known artesian conditions, the effect of weather conditions on groundwater, and any
unforeseen seepage under or from water-retaining structures. The effect of groundwater
lowering should also be recorded in observation holes to determine the extent of the cone of
depression.
Groundwater rises due to the damming effects of new construction or temporary works
should likewise be recorded.
16.4 Instrumentation
On many types of structures, such as earth dams, embankments on soft ground, some
large buildings with underground construction, excavations and tunnels, it is prudent to
consider regular observations by means of instrumentation in order to check that construction
works can proceed safely (Bureau of Reclamation, 1987; DiBiagio & Myrvoll, 1982). Such
observations may include measurement of pore pressure, seepage, earth pressure, settlement
and lateral movements (see also Sections 8.2, 28.3 and 31.2). The instrumentation may be
usefully continued after construction in order to observe the performance of the project. This
is particularly necessary in the case of earth dams for maintaining a safe structure under
varying conditions, and in other cases for gaining valuable data for future design.
For projects involving slopes, it is common practice in Hong Kong to monitor

groundwater levels and pore pressures, and their response to rainfall. Methods of measuring
pore water pressures are given in Chapter 20. In many situations, it will also be essential to
monitor movements and the condition of nearby buildings and structures.
16.5 Tunnel Works [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In the construction stage, further site investigation should be undertaken to obtain

74
information to support the design review of the tunnels, caverns and shafts, in order to ensure
that there is adequate safety margin and performance. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
For the exposed faces in tunnel works, the site investigation should include geological
and engineering geological mapping, and an assessment of the tunnel sections/shafts using a
soil/rock mass classification scheme on which the design may be based. A proforma for
recording the rock mass mapping and classification data in rock tunnels is available from the
Hong Kong Slope Safety Website under the downloading area at http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Depending on the tunnel excavation method and the risk assessment, probing ahead of
the tunnel excavation may be carried out. The penetration rate, the quantity of water inflows,
and the colour and nature of cuttings and flushing water returns should be recorded. This
information should be used to assess the ground conditions ahead, in particular the soil/rock
interfaces and sections with potentially high water inflow, and the need for implementation of
robust mitigation measures before further tunnel excavation. In addition to probing, use of
non-invasive techniques and coring during construction may be considered where cost
effectiveness can be demonstrated. For TBM works, further ground investigation may be
necessary prior to or during the TBM drive to confirm the locations of permeable soils and
soil/rock interfaces and the variations in groundwater pressures for design. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Sufficient time should be allowed in the construction programme for the results of
additional ground investigation and site inspection and monitoring to be fed back into the design
and risk management processes, in order that modifications to the design can be implemented
or other contingency measures undertaken in a timely manner. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
75
Part IV
Ground Investigation Methods

76
17. Introduction to Ground Investigation Methods
There is a considerable variety of methods of ground investigation, and normally a

combination of methods is employed to cover the technical requirements and the range of
ground conditions that are encountered. The factors involved in the selection of methods are
discussed in Chapters 7 to 16. Particular attention should be paid to the safety of existing
features, structures and services in the course of ground investigation. Advice on planning
and control is given in Section 7.2 (see also Appendix A). The selection of methods may be
influenced by the character of the site (see Section 11.2), and particular ground conditions often
dictate which specific investigation technique should be used (see Chapter 12). Attention
should also be given to the safety of personnel (see Appendix E).
Insitu tests that are carried out in boreholes as part of a borehole investigation are
described in Chapter 21. Other insitu tests, for which a borehole either is unnecessary or is
only an incidental part of the test procedure, are described in Chapters 24 to 33. Laboratory
tests on soil and rock are discussed in Chapters 34 to 38. The collection and recording of data
is discussed in Chapters 39 and 40.
77
18. Excavations and Boreholes

18.1 Shallow Trial Pits and Slope Surface Stripping
Shallow trial pits are usually dug by hand using a pick and shovel, and commonly extend
to a depth of about 3 m. It is essential that the pit sides are guarded against sudden collapse
in order to protect personnel working in the pit. For this purpose, timber shoring is usually
provided when excavation is deeper than 1.2 m. The spacing of the shoring should be
sufficiently wide to allow inspection of the pit sides. Shallow trial pits may also be dug by
machine; a hydraulic back-hoe excavator is the most commonly used.
Shallow trial pits permit the insitu condition of the ground to be examined in detail both
laterally and vertically, and allow mass properties to be assessed. They also provide access
for taking good quality (block) samples and for carrying out insitu tests. Trial pits are
particularly useful for investigating and sampling soils derived from insitu rock weathering and
colluvium, both of which often exhibit a high degree of variability. Pits may also be used to
investigate the dimensions and construction details of old retaining walls, and to ascertain the
exact position of buried utilities and services.
The field record of a shallow trial pit should include a plan giving the location and
orientation of the pit, and a dimensioned section showing the sides and floor. Ground
conditions should be fully described in accordance with Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988) or a suitable
alternative system, and samples taken should be fully documented. Two examples of trial pit
logs are given in Figures 7 and 8. Logs should always be supplemented with colour
photographs of each face and of the base of the pit. The positions and results of any field
testing should also be recorded, such as insitu density tests or Schmidt hammer, hand
penetrometer and hand shear vane index tests.
Material excavated from trial pits should be stockpiled in such a manner that it does not
fall back into the pit or cause instability of the pit excavation, e.g. by surcharging the adjacent
ground. Wooden hoardings anchored by steel bars driven into the ground are often used on
steep slopes to retain spoil from falling back into the pit. The spoil should be placed and
covered so as not to be washed downhill during rainstorms or allowed to enter surface drainage
systems.
It is advisable to backfill pits as soon as possible after logging, sampling and testing
have been completed, since open pits can be a hazard. Recommendations on backfilling are
given in Section 18.9. Pits that must be left open temporarily should be covered and sealed so
that rain water cannot enter; they should also be securely fenced off if readily accessible by the
public.
Trial pits can be extended readily into trenches or slope surface stripping. The latter is
used extensively in Hong Kong to investigate both natural and man-made slopes, and generally
consists of a 0.5 m wide strip, extending from the crest to the toe of the slope, in which the
ground has been laid bare of vegetation, chunam plaster or other coverings. Bamboo
scaffolding or access ladders are provided for inspection, logging and reinstatement.
An example of a log sheet for slope surface stripping is given in Figure 9. Colour
78
photographs of salient geological features revealed by the stripping should always be obtained.
Fill is sometimes used to smooth the surface of a cut slope before application of the chunam
plaster; if this is encountered in slope stripping the depth of excavation should be increased if
possible to reveal the true nature of ground beneath.
18.2 Deep Trial Pits and Caissons
Deep trial pits, shafts and caissons are normally constructed by hand excavation using
various methods for supporting the sides. Temporary or permanent liners are necessary for
the protection of personnel working in these excavations, but it is also necessary to consider the
need to expose the ground for inspection and logging; considerable judgement and experience
is often required to establish suitable procedures for such excavations.
Hand-dug caissons 1 m in diameter and larger are commonly used in Hong Kong for
foundation construction to depths of 30 m or more. Typically, cast-insitu concrete liners are
used in soil, while the caisson is left unlined in rock. These caissons may be particularly useful
for the investigation of rock at or near the founding level of large foundations (Irfan & Powell,
1985). An example of a caisson log is given in Figure 10. It is recommended that the
guidance notes on the technical and safety aspects of hand-dug caissons issued by the Hong
Kong Institution of Engineers (HKIE, 1981) should be followed.
Working in deep shafts wil1 be dangerous unless the appropriate safety precautions are
strictly followed. Attention should be given to the possible occurrence of injurious or
combustible gases or of oxygen deficiencies. Correct methods of inspection should be
followed and appropriate precautions should be taken (see Section 7.2 and Appendix E).
Oxygen-consuming engines that emit toxic exhaust fumes, such as petrol-driven pump motors,
should not be employed in shafts.
18.3 Headings or Adits
Headings are driven from the bottom of shafts or laterally into sloping ground, and can
be used for the insitu examination of the ground or existing foundation structures, and for
carrying out special sampling or insitu testing. Further considerations are given in BSI (2010).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
18.4 Hand Auger Boring
The hand auger boring method uses light hand-operated equipment. The auger and
drill rods are usually lifted out of the borehole without the aid of a tripod, and no borehole
casing is used. Boreholes up to 200 mm diameter may be made in suitable ground conditions
to a depth of about 5 m. The method can be used in self-supporting ground without hard
obstructions or gravel-sized to boulder-sized particles. Hand auger boreholes can be used for
groundwater observations and to obtain disturbed samples and small open-tube samples.
79
18.5 Light Cable Percussion Boring
Light cable percussion boring is an adaptation of common well-boring methods,

employing a clay cutter for dry cohesive soils, a shell (or bailer) for granular soils, and a chisel
for breaking up rock and other hard layers. The drill tools are worked on a wire rope using
the clutch of the winch for percussive action. The shell can only be used when there is
sufficient water in the borehole to cover the lower part of the shell.
Light cable percussion boring cannot be used for boring into or proving rock, and it is
severely restricted in bouldery ground where the frequent use of a heavy chisel is required.
The widespread occurrence in Hong Kong of bouldery colluvium and corestone-bearing soils
derived from insitu rock weathering has therefore curtailed the use of light cable percussion
boring, as has the widespread need to core into and prove rock. However, the method can be
used to investigate the finer-grained marine sediments and alluvium found in the flat coastal
areas.
18.6 Mechanical Augers
Mechanical augers, comprising a continuous-flight auger and a hollow stem, are suitable
for augering soft cohesive soils and may be suitable for firm cohesive soils. They are of
limited use in soils with boulders or corestones and are therefore seldom used in Hong Kong.
Further considerations are given in BSI (2010). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
18.7 Rotary Open Hole Drilling and Rotary Core Drilling

18.7.1 General
Rotary drilling, in which the drill bit or casing shoe is rotated on the bottom of the
borehole, is the most common method of subsurface exploration used in Hong Kong (Chan &
Lau, 1986). The drilling fluid, which is pumped down to the bit through hollow drill rods,
lubricates the bit and flushes the drill debris up the borehole. The drilling fluid is commonly
water, but drilling mud or air foam are often used with advantage (see Section 18.7.2).
There are two basic types of rotary drilling: open hole (or full hole) drilling, in which
the drill bit cuts all the material within the diameter of the borehole; and core drilling, in which
an annular bit fixed to the outer rotating tube of a core-barrel cuts a core that is returned within
the inner stationary tube of the core-barrel and brought to the surface for examination and
testing. Drill casing is normally used to support unstable ground or to seal off open fissures
which cause a loss of drilling fluid. Alternatively, drilling mud or cement grout can be used
to seal open fissures.
In ground investigations, rotary core drilling has the important advantage over rotary
open hole drilling of providing a core sample while the hole is being advanced, and it is
recommended for most situations. In rotary open hole drilling, drill cuttings brought to the
surface in the flushing medium can only provide an indication of the ground conditions being
encountered. However, rotary open hole drilling is useful for rapid advancement of a borehole
required for field testing or instrument installation, and samples may be obtained between drill
80
runs even when the open hole technique is used.
Water used as a flushing medium in rotary drilling may have a deleterious effect on both
the stability of the surrounding ground and on the samples obtained, and its use must be
carefully considered (see Section 18.7.2). A crude adaptation of the rotary open hole method,
often termed rotary wash boring, may be particularly detrimental in this regard. This method
involves advancing the hole by casing alone, with the inside of the casing cleaned out by surging
and flushing. Water pressures sufficient to flush the casing are often high and may lead to
increased pore pressures (or reduced pore suctions) in the surrounding ground. When drilling
on a slope or behind an old masonry retaining wall, for example, this may be detrimental to
stability and may actually trigger rapid collapse. Also, in soils containing gravel-sized
fragments, it is impossible to flush out all the coarse fragments, irrespective of the water
pressure employed, and they will accumulate in the base of the hole. These fragments will
affect the representativeness of further sampling and testing done in the borehole. In soft or
loose ground, the flushing water may not only carry the cuttings up through the casing, but also
up around the outside of the casing, thus creating a large zone of disturbed material which can
extend for some distance below the bottom of the hole. As a result, samples obtained from
rotary wash boring may be disturbed, at least over a portion of their length. In marine
investigations, the standard rotary open hole method should therefore be used in preference to
rotary wash boring (see Section 14.7).
Rotary drilling rigs are available in a wide range of weights and power ratings in Hong
Kong. Rigs are normally skid mounted, with a typical configuration as shown in Figure 11.
They are commonly available with a power rating in the range of 10 to 50 horsepower and
capable of stable drill string rotation up to 1 500 or 2 000 rpm. Drilling rigs should be mounted
on a stable platform such that a force of 12 to 15 kN can be applied to the drill bit without
movement of the rig. In choosing a rig, consideration must be given to the expected depth and
diameter of the hole to be drilled, the possible casing requirements, and site access. Rigs
should generally have a minimum ram stroke length of 600 mm, and be able to operate with a
minimum of vibration. The sizes of commonly-used core-barrels, casings and drill rods are
shown in Table 5.
Smaller scale rotary drilling rigs are also available and can sometimes be used to great
advantage in special situations. Hand-portable rotary core drills may often be useful for coring
through existing concrete or masonry retaining walls; horizontal boreholes often enable the wall
thickness and backfill materials to be determined.
Drilling is in part an art, and its success is dependent upon good practice and the skill
of the operator, particularly when coring weathered, weak, partially cemented and fractured
rocks, where considerable expertise is necessary to obtain full recovery of core of satisfactory
quality. This is greatly influenced by the choice of core-barrel and cutting bit type (see
Section 19.8) and by the method of extruding, handling and preservation of the core (see
Section 19.10.5).
18.7.2 Flushing Medium
Careful selection of a flushing medium which is compatible with the equipment

81
employed and suitable for the ground to be drilled is very important. Water is the simplest
flushing medium. Other fluids used as flushing media are drilling muds (which consist of
water with clay or bentonite), water with an additive such as sodium chloride, air foams and
polymer mixtures. The main advantage of these other flushing media is that drill cuttings may
be removed at a lower flushing velocity and with less disturbance to the ground. The use of
drilling mud can also minimise the need for casing of the hole, as it helps to stabilise the sides
and bottom of the hole in caving soils. Another advantage of drilling mud is that it can reduce
soil disturbance and hence improve sample quality. However, drilling mud is not
recommended if permeability tests are to be carried out in the borehole, or if piezometers are to
be installed. Further guidance on the use of drilling mud is given by Clayton et al (1982).
The use of air foam as a flushing medium has enabled increased core recovery and
quality to be achieved in colluvium and soils derived from insitu rock weathering (Phillipson
& Chipp, 1981; 1982). This technique involves the injection of foaming concentrate and
water into the air stream produced by a low volume, high pressure air compressor, as shown
diagrammatically in Figure 12. A polymer stabiliser is added when drilling below the water
table. The foam is forced down the drill rods in the conventional manner, and a slow-moving
column of foam with the consistency of aerosol shaving cream carries the suspended cuttings
to the surface. Compared with water, the air foam has a greater ability to maintain the cuttings
in suspension, and the low uphole velocity and low volume of water utilized serve to reduce
disturbance of the core and surrounding ground. The air foam also resists percolation into
open fissures, and it stabilises the borehole walls. The polymer stabiliser, however, has the
disadvantage of coating the walls of the hole such that insitu permeability testing may not be
representative.
When investigating potentially unstable slopes, or when drilling into failed slopes to
obtain samples from the slip zone, the use of water as the flushing medium may not be advisable
(see Section 18.7.1). Air foam flushing, or in some instances, air flushing should be
considered to reduce the risk of slope movement in such cases.
18.7.3 Inclined Drilling
Inclined boreholes can often be used to great advantage in ground investigations

(McFeat-Smith, 1987; McFeat-Smith et al, 1986). While they are generally more costly than
similar vertical holes, they often allow additional geological data to be obtained.
Inclined holes may be found to deviate in both dip and direction from the intended
orientation (Craig & Gray, 1985). This is particularly common in the vertical plane due to the
weight of the drill rods. Some of the factors which contribute to deviation are :
(a) worn and undersized drill rods, rods much smaller than the
borehole, and overly flexible rods,
(b) drilling rig rotation and vibration, which tends to produce

spiraling in the hole, and
(c) difficult ground conditions, such as bouldery soils or soils

82
containing corestones.
In situations where deviation is detrimental, it can be minimised by the use of securely-

anchored drilling rigs and platforms, a very stiff drill string and core-barrels at least 3 m long
coupled to drill rods of the same diameter as the core-barrel or to rods fitted with centralizers.
Directional control may also be achieved by careful adjustments to rotational speeds, thrust
pressures, and the location of centralizers placed on the drill rods. In some difficult ground
conditions, such as colluvium containing very hard boulders within a loose soil matrix, it may
be very difficult to control the deviation of inclined holes.
Several instruments are available for measuring borehole orientation or deviation, such
as the Eastman-Whipstock single-shot or multi-shot photographic survey tools, the Pajari
mechanical single-shot surveying instrument and the ABEM Fotobor multi-shot photographic
probe. The function of the Eastman and Pajari tools is to record the orientation of a gimballed
magnetic sphere, by photographic and mechanical means respectively. This precludes the use
of these instruments within steel casings or attached to steel rods, or in areas where other
magnetic disturbances may be anticipated. The ABEM Fotobor records cumulative deflection
measurements photographically within the borehole and it can be used within steel casings.
Multi-shot tools such as the ABEM Fotobor, or the multi-shot version of the Eastman-
Whipstock tool, are useful for undertaking complete borehole surveys, but may be cumbersome
for taking repeated deviation checks during drilling, in which case single-shot tools may be
preferable.
18.8 Wash Boring and Other Methods

18.8.1 Wash Boring
Wash boring utilizes the percussive action of a chisel bit to break up material that is
flushed to the surface by water pumped down the hollow drill rods. In ground which is liable
to collapse, casing may be driven down to support the sides of the borehole, or drilling mud
may be used. The fragments of soil brought to the surface by the wash water are not
representative of the character and consistency of the materials being penetrated, and the
flushing water may disturb the surrounding ground in the same manner as the rotary wash
boring method discussed in Section 18.7. For these reasons, wash boring is seldom used in
Hong Kong.
18.8.2 Other Methods of Boring
There are many other methods of boring, which have been developed generally to obtain
maximum penetration speed, e.g. rotary percussive drilling for blast holes and grouting.
When such boreholes are sunk for purposes other than ground investigation, limited
information about ground conditions may be obtained, provided that the boreholes are drilled
under controlled conditions, with measurement of rate of penetration, observation of drilling
characteristics, and sampling of the drilling flushings (Horner & Sherrell, 1977).
One such rotary percussive method is the Overburden Drilling Eccentric method, or
ODEX (Plate 4A), which is based on the principle of under-reaming. During drilling in soil,
83
an eccentric reamer bit swings out and drills a hole larger than the outer diameter of the casing,
which is inserted at the same time as the hole is being advanced. The percussive action may
be provided by either a top hammer or a down-the-hole hammer. When the desired depth has
been reached, the drill rods are rotated in a reverse direction to allow the reamer to be folded in
and the bit to be retracted through the casing, which remains in the hole. Drilling may then
be further extended into rock by replacing the ODEX bit with a normal rock drill bit. This
method is not commonly used in ground investigations as no intact samples are obtained, but it
has been used in Hong Kong to install long horizontal drains in colluvium (Craig & Gray, 1985)
and for drilling through bouldery fill to prove the bedrock profile. It may also be a useful
technique for the location of cavities in karst terrain (Horner & Sherrell, 1977).
18.9 Backfilling Excavations and Boreholes
Poorly-compacted backfill wil1 cause settlement at the ground surface and can act as a
path for groundwater. The latter effect can cause very serious inconvenience if the backfilled
excavations or boreholes are on the site of future deep excavations, tunnels or water-retaining
structures. It could also lead to the future pollution of an aquifer. For boreholes in dry
ground, it is possible to use compacted soil as a backfill, although the procedure is often
unsuccessful in preventing the flow of water. The best procedure is to refill the borehole with
a cement-based grout introduced at the lowest point by means of a tremie pipe. Cement alone
will not necessarily seal a borehole, on account of shrinkage, and it is often preferable to use a
cement-bentonite grout, e.g. mix proportions about four to one, with no more water added than
is necessary to permit the grout to flow or to be pumped. The addition of an expanding agent
may be necessary. It is possible to compact the backfill of excavations by means of the
excavator bucket or other mechanical means. In some cases, weak concrete may be used, e.g.
to fill a small hole on a steeply sloping face.
84
19. Sampling the Ground

19.1 General
The main purposes of sampling are to establish the subsurface geological profile in detail,
and to supply both disturbed and undisturbed materials for laboratory testing. The selection
of a sampling technique depends on the quality of the sample that is required and the character
of the ground, particularly with regard to the extent to which disturbance occurs before, during
or after sampling. The principal causes of soil disturbance are listed in Table 6 (Clayton et al,
1982) and are further discussed by Clayton (1984).
It should be borne in mind that the overall behaviour of the ground is often dictated by
planes or zones of weakness which may be present (e.g. discontinuities). Therefore, it is
possible to obtain a good sample of material that may not be representative of the mass.
Because of this, and the frequent need to modify the sampling technique to suit the ground
conditions, very close supervision of sampling is warranted (see Chapter 15). In choosing a
sampling method, it should be made clear whether mass properties or intact material properties
are to be determined (see Section 12.11). The distinction between mass and material
properties is discussed further in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
There are four main techniques for obtaining samples (Hvorslev, 1948) :
(a) taking disturbed samples from the drill tools or from

excavating equipment in the course of boring or excavation
(see Section 19.3),
(b) drive sampling, in which a tube or split tube sampler having

a sharp cutting edge at its lower end is forced into the ground
either by a static thrust or by dynamic impact (see
Sections 19.4 to 19.7),
(c) rotary sampling, in which a tube with a cutter at its lower end
is rotated into the ground, thereby producing a core sample
(see Section 19.8),
(d) taking block samples specially cut by hand from a trial pit,
shaft or heading (see Section 19.9).
Samples obtained by techniques (b), (c) and (d) will often be sufficiently intact to enable
the ground structure within the sample to be examined. The quality of such samples can vary
considerably, depending on the technique and the ground conditions, and most will exhibit some
degree of disturbance. A method for classifying the quality of the sample is given in
Section 19.2. Sections 19.3 to 19.9 describe the various sampling techniques and give an
indication of the sample qualities that can be expected. Intact samples obtained by
techniques (b), (c) and (d) are usually taken in a vertical direction, but specially orientated
samples may be required to investigate particular features.
The mass of sample required for various purposes is determined by the character of the
85
ground and the tests that are to be undertaken. Guidance on the mass of soil sample required
for different laboratory tests is given in Table 7.
A summary of the typical sampling procedures for materials commonly encountered in

Hong Kong is given in Table 8, which should be read in conjunction with Sections 19.3 to 19.9.
19.2 Sample Quality
The sampling procedure should be selected on the basis of the quality of the sample that
is required, and is assessed largely by the suitability of the sample for appropriate laboratory
tests. A classification for soil samples developed in Germany (Idel et al, 1969) provides a
useful basis for classifying samples in terms of quality (Table 9).
In some cases, whatever sampling methods are used, it will only be possible to obtain
samples with some degree of disturbance, i.e. class 2 at best. The results of any strength or
compressibility tests carried out on such samples should be treated with caution. Samples of
classes 3, 4 and 5 are commonly regarded as 'disturbed samples'.
A further consideration in the selection of procedures for taking class 1 samples is the
size of the sample. This is determined largely by the geological structure of the ground, which,
for soil, is often referred to as 'the fabric' (Rowe, 1972). Where the ground contains
discontinuities of random orientation, the sample diameter, or width, should be as large as
possible in relation to the spacing of discontinuities. Alternatively, where the ground contains
strongly orientated discontinuities, e.g. in jointed rock, it may be necessary to take samples
which have been specially orientated. For fine soils that are homogeneous and isotropic,
samples as small as 35 mm in diameter may be used. However, for general use, samples
100 mm in diameter are preferred since the results of laboratory tests may then be more
representative of the mass properties of the ground. In special cases, samples 150 mm and
250 mm in diameter are used (Rowe, 1972).
GEO (2017a) and BSI (1990) give precise details of the mass of soil sample required for
each type of test. Where the approximate number of tests is known, it is a simple matter to
estimate the total amount of soil that has to be obtained. If the programme of laboratory tests
is uncertain, Table 7 gives some guidance on the amount of soil that should be obtained for
each series of tests. Where materials for mineral aggregates, sands and filters are being
considered, details of the size of sample required are given in CS3:2013 (2016).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
19.3 Disturbed Samples from Boring Tools or Excavating Equipment
The quality of the sample depends on the technique used for sinking the borehole or
excavation and on whether the ground is dry or wet. When disturbed samples are taken from
below water in a borehole or excavation, there is a danger that the samples obtained may not
be truly representative of the ground. This is particularly the case with granular soils
containing fines, which tend to be washed out of the tool. This can be partly overcome by
placing the whole contents of the tool into a tank and allowing the fines to settle before
86
decanting the water.
The following classes of sample can generally be expected from the various methods of
boring and sampling :
(a) Class 3. Disturbed samples from dry excavations and from

dry boreholes sunk either by a clay cutter using cable
percussion equipment or by an auger.
(b) Class 4. Disturbed samples obtained in cohesive soil from

excavations, or from boreholes sunk either by a clay cutter
using cable percussion equipment, or by an auger, in
conditions where water is present.
(c) Class 5. Disturbed samples in granular soil from wet

excavations or from any borehole sunk by a shell using cable
percussion equipment or from any borehole sunk by a method
in which the drill debris is flushed out of the borehole, e.g.
rotary open hole drilling, wash boring.
Care should be taken to ensure that the sample is representative of the zone or layer
from which it is removed, and has not been contaminated by other materials.
19.4 Open-tube Samplers

19.4.1 Principles of Design
(1) General. Open-tube samplers consist essentially of a tube that is open at one end
and fitted at the other end with means for attachment to the drill rods. A non-return valve
permits the escape of air or water as the sample enters the tube, and assists in retaining the
sample when the tool is withdrawn from the ground. Figure 13 shows the basic details of a
sampler suitable for general use having a single sample tube and simple cutting shoe. The
use of sockets and core-catcher is discussed in Section 19.4.4. An alternative sampler
incorporates a detachable inner liner.
The fundamental requirement of a sampling tool is that it should cause as little

remoulding and disturbance as possible on being forced into the ground. The degree of
disturbance is controlled by three features of the design : the cutting shoe, the inside wall
friction and the non-return valve.
(2) The cutting shoe. The cutting shoe should normally be of a design similar to that
shown in Figure 13 and it should embody the following features :
(a) Inside clearance. The internal diameter of the cutting shoe,

Dc, should be slightly less than that of the sample tube, Ds, to
give inside clearance, typically about 1% of the diameter.
This allows for slight elastic expansion of the sample as it
enters the tube, reduces frictional drag from the inside wall
87
of the tube and helps to retain the sample. A large inside

clearance should be avoided since it would permit the sample
to expand, thereby increasing the disturbance.
(b) Outside clearance. The outside diameter of the cutting shoe,

Dw, should be slightly greater than the outside diameter of the
tube, DT, to give outside clearance and facilitate the
withdrawal of the sampler from the ground. The outside
clearance should not be much greater than the inside
clearance.
(c) Area ratio. The area ratio represents the volume of soil
displaced by the sampler in proportion to the volume of the
sample (Figure 13). It should be kept as small as possible
consistent with the strength requirements of the sample tube.
The area ratio is about 30% for the general purpose 100 mm
diameter sampler, and about 10% for a thin-walled sampler.
Some special samplers have a large outside diameter DT,
relative to the internal diameter Dc, e.g. in order to
accommodate a loose inner liner. The sampling disturbance
is reduced by using a cutting shoe that has a long outside
taper, and is considerably less than that which would be
expected from the calculated area ratio.
(3) Wall friction. This can be reduced by a suitable inside clearance, and by a clean,
smooth finish to the inside of the tube.
(4) Non-return valve. The non-return valve should have a large orifice to allow air and
water to escape quickly and easily when driving the sampler, and to assist in retention of the
sample when removing the sampler from the borehole.
Typical designs of open-tube samplers which are used for various purposes are
described in Sections 19.4.3 to 19.4.5.
19.4.2 Sampling Procedure
Before a sample is taken, the bottom of the borehole or surface of the excavation or
heading should be cleared of loose or disturbed material as far as possible. Some or all of
any such loose or disturbed material that is left will normally pass into the 'overdrive' space.
Below the water table, certain types of laminated soils occurring below the bottom of
the borehole or excavation may be disturbed if the natural water pressure in the laminations
exceeds the pressure imposed by the water within the borehole or excavation. To prevent this
effect, it is necessary to keep the level of the borehole water above the groundwater level
appropriate to the location of the sample.
The sampler can be driven into the ground by dynamic means, using a drop weight or
88
sliding hammer, or by a continuous static thrust, using a hydraulic jack or pulley block and
tackle. There is little published evidence to indicate whether dynamic or static driving
produces less sample disturbance, and for most ground conditions it is probable that there is
no significant difference. The driving effort for each sample may be recorded as an indication
of the consistency of the ground.
The distance that the tool is driven should be checked and recorded as, if driven too far,
the soil will be compressed in the sampler. A sampling head with an 'overdrive' space
(Figure 13 will allow the sample tube to be completely filled without risk of damaging the
sample. After driving, the sampler is steadily withdrawn. The length of sample that is
recovered should be recorded, compared with the distance that the tool was driven, and any
discrepancy investigated. For example, if the length of the sample is less than the distance
driven, the sample may have experienced some compression or, alternatively, the sample tool
may have permitted the sample to slip out as the tool was being withdrawn.
19.4.3 Thin-walled Samplers
Thin-walled samplers are used for soils that are particularly sensitive to sampling
disturbance, and consist of a thin-walled steel tube whose lower end is shaped to form a cutting
edge with a small inside clearance. The area ratio is about 10%. These samplers are
suitable only for fine soils up to a firm consistency, and free from large particles. They
generally give class 1 samples in all fine cohesive soils, including sensitive clays, provided that
the soil has not been disturbed by sinking the borehole. Samples between 75 mm and 100 mm
in diameter are normally obtained; samples up to 250 mm in diameter are often obtained for
special purposes. It should be noted that disturbance at the base of a borehole in weak soil
will occur below a certain depth because of stress relief. Piston samples penetrating well
below the base of the borehole are therefore preferable (see Section 19.5). A typical thin-
walled sampler is illustrated in Figure 14.
19.4.4 General Purpose 100 mm Diameter Open-tube Sampler
The 100 mm diameter open-tube sampler, often termed the U100 sampler (Plate 4B), is
a fairly robust sampler that can be used for many Hong Kong soils, but the driving action during
sampling is likely to introduce some disturbance. The highest sample quality that can be
obtained is class 2 at best (Whyte, 1984).
The details of the sampler is illustrated in Figure 13 and consists of a sample barrel,
about 450 mm in length, with a screw-on cutting shoe and drive head. The area ratio is about
30%. Sample barrels can be coupled together with screw sockets to form a longer sampler.
Two standard barrels, forming a sampler about 1.0 m in length, are often used for sampling soft
clays (Serota & Jennings, 1958), although the increased length of the sample tube may lead to
some disturbance. In soils of low cohesion, such as silt and silty fine sand, the sample may
fall out when the tool is withdrawn from the ground. Sample recovery can be improved by
inserting a core-catcher between the cutting edge and the sample barrel. When using a core-
catcher, the sample quality is unlikely to be better than class 3.
89
Smaller samplers of about 50 mm or 75 mm diameter can be used if use of the 100 mm

sampler is precluded by the borehole size. The smaller samplers are of similar design, except
that the cutting edge may not be detachable.
19.4.5 Split Barrel Standard Penetration Test Sampler
The split barrel sampler is used in the standard penetration test and is described in BSI
(2011b). It takes samples 35 mm in diameter and has an area ratio of about 100%. It is used
to recover small samples, particularly under conditions which prevent the use of the general
purpose 100 mm sampler, and gives class 3 or class 4 samples (see Section 21.2 and Figure 25).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
19.5 Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler
The thin-walled stationary piston sampler (Plate 4C) consists of a thin-walled sample
tube containing a close-fitting sliding piston, which is slightly coned at its lower face. The
sample tube is fitted to the drive head, which is connected to hollow drill rods. The piston is
fixed to separate rods which pass through a sliding joint in the drive head and up inside the
hollow rods. Clamping devices, operated at ground surface, enable the piston and sample
tube to be locked together or the piston to be held stationary while the sample tube is driven
down. Figure 15 shows the basic details of a stationary piston sampler. The sample
diameter is normally 75 mm or 100 mm, but samplers up to 250 mm diameter are used for
special soil conditions.
Initially, the piston is locked to the lower end of the sample tube to prevent water or
slurry from entering the sampler. In soft clay, with the piston in this position, the sampler can
be pushed below the bottom of the borehole. When the sample depth is reached, the piston is
held stationary and the sample tube is driven down by a static thrust until the drive head
encounters the upper face of the piston. An automatic clamp in the drive head prevents the
piston from dropping down and extruding the sample while the sampler is withdrawn.
The sampler is normally used in low strength fine soils and gives class 1 samples in silt
and clay, including sensitive clay. Its ability to take samples below the disturbed zone and to
hold them during recovery gives an advantage over the thin-walled sampler described in
Section 19.4.3. Although normally used in soft clays, special piston samplers have been
designed for use in stiff clays (Rowe, 1972).
19.6 Continuous Soil Sampling

19.6.1 General
Continuous soil sampling can produce samples up to 30 m in length in soils such as

recent fine alluvial deposits. This is of particular value for identifying the soil 'fabric' (Rowe,
1972) and gives results superior to those which can be obtained by consecutive drive sampling.
The Swedish system (Kjellman et al, 1950) takes samples 68 mm in diameter using steel foils to
eliminate inside friction between the sample and the tube wall. The Delft system, which uses
90
lighter equipment and offers two sizes of sample, is described more fully in Section 19.6.2.
19.6.2 The Delft Continuous Sampler
The Delft continuous sampler, developed by the Laboratorium voor Grondmechanica of

Delft, Holland, is available in two sizes to take continuous samples 29 mm and 66 mm in
diameter (Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory, 1977). The 66 mm sampler is pushed into the
ground with a conventional Dutch deep sounding machine having a thrust of 200 kN. The
sampler is advanced by pushing on the steel outer tubes, and the sample is fed automatically
into a nylon stockinette sleeve which has been treated to make it impervious. The sample
within the sleeve is fed into a thin-walled plastic inner tube filled to the appropriate level with
a bentonite-barytes supporting fluid of similar density to the surrounding ground. The upper
end of the nylon sleeve is fixed to the top cap of the sample, which is connected through a
tension cable to a fixed point at the ground surface. Extension tubes 1 m in length are added
as the sampler is pushed into the ground. The sampler normally has a maximum penetration
of 18 m, but in suitable ground, with a modified magazine and increased thrust, samples up to
30 m in length can be obtained. The 29 mm sampler is of similar design and requires less
thrust to effect penetration. Class 2 to class 3 samples can be obtained with these samplers.
The samples are cut into 1 m lengths and placed in purpose-made cases, samples taken
with a 66 mm sampler being retained in the plastic tubes. The 66 mm samples are suitable for
a range of laboratory tests. The 29 mm samples are used for visual examination and the
determination of bulk density and index properties. After specimens have been removed for
testing, the samples are split and are then described and photographed in a semi-dried state
when the soil fabric can be more readily identified. For 29 mm samples, only one half of the
split material is used for testing, thus preserving a continuous record of the ground.
19.7 Sand Samplers
The recovery of tube samples of sand from below the water table presents special
problems because the sample tends to fall out of the sample tube. A compressed air sampler
(Bishop, 1948) enables the sample to be removed from the ground into an air chamber and then
lifted to the surface without contact with the water in the borehole. The sampler is generally
constructed to take samples 60 mm in diameter. If the sampler is driven by dynamic means,
the change in volume of the sand caused by the driving gives a sample quality not better than
class 3. However, if static thrust is used, generally class 2 and sometimes class 1 samples can
be recovered. An alternative design (Serota & Jennings, 1958) introduces a bubble of air at
the base of the sampler before it is withdrawn from the ground.
19.8 Rotary Core Samples
Samples are obtained by the rotary core drilling procedures described in Section 18.7.
The quality of sample may vary considerably depending on the character of the ground and the
type of coring equipment used. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
91
Core-barrel sizes commonly used in Hong Kong are given in Table 5, together with the
core sizes produced. Single-tube core-barrels are seldom used, as the core-barrel rotates
directly against the core and core recovery is usually unsatisfactory. Double-tube and triple-
tube barrels are used, with applicability and limitations as follows :
(a) Double-tube core-barrels, with an inner tube mounted on

bearings which does not rotate against the core, can normally
be used in fresh to moderately decomposed rocks. However,
these barrels do not protect the core from the drilling fluid
unless the equipment is modified. In addition, the core is
often removed by hanging the barrel in a near vertical
position and tapping on the sides of the barrel. In highly
fractured rocks this can result in a jumble of rock fragments
in the core box and may make logging and measurement of
fracture state indices difficult. The use of a core extruder is
recommended in such situations. An example of a double-
tube core-barrel is shown in Figure 16 (see also Plate 4D).
(b) Triple-tube core-barrels, containing detachable liners within

the inner barrel that protect the core from drilling fluid and
damage during extrusion, are suitable for use in fresh to
moderately decomposed rock and some of the stronger highly
decomposed materials. They are particularly useful in
coring highly fractured and jointed rock as the split liners
facilitate the retention of core with the joint system relatively
undisturbed. An example of a non-retractable triple-tube
core-barrel (with split liners) is shown in Figure 17 (see also
Plate 4E).
When coring soils derived from insitu rock weathering,

triple-tube core-barrels fitted with a retractable shoe are
normally used (Table 5). The cutting shoe and connected
inner barrel projects ahead of the bit when drilling in soft
material and retracts when the drilling pressure increases in
harder materials. This greatly reduces the possibility of
drilling fluid coming into contact with the core at or just
above the point of cutting. These cutting shoes can be added
to the same triple-tube core-barrel used for coring fresh to
moderately decomposed rock. Alternatively, and far more
commonly in Hong Kong, a Mazier core-barrel (Figure 18
and Plate 4F) is used. However, it should be noted that the
Mazier has a tungsten carbide tipped cutting shoe and is
therefore not suitable for coring fresh to moderately
decomposed rock. When rock or corestones are
encountered, a core-barrel with a diamond-impregnated drill
bit has to be used to advance the hole (e.g. the double-tube
Craelius T2-101 barrel as shown in Figure 16). The Mazier
core-barrel has an inner plastic liner which protects the
92
sample during transportation to the laboratory. The 74 mm

diameter core obtained with the Mazier is compatible with
the commonly-used laboratory triaxial testing apparatus.
High quality (class 1) core samples of soils derived from insitu rock weathering and
colluvium can be obtained using the large diameter triple-tube core-barrels in conjunction with
air foam as the flushing medium (see Section 18.7.2). Samples of class 1 to class 2 can also
be obtained using the Mazier sampler in conjunction with air foam or water as the flushing
medium.
Another type of triple-tube barrel is the wireline core-barrel. This non-retractable

barrel incorporates a line mechanism for withdrawing the inner barrel up through the drill rods
without withdrawing the outer barrel or rods from the hole. This core-barrel may be used in
fresh to moderately decomposed rock, and in very deep vertical or inclined holes to achieve
more rapid drilling progress.
Further discussions of core-barrels, drilling techniques and their suitability to materials

found in Hong Kong can be found in Brand & Phillipson (1984), Brenner & Phillipson (1979)
and Forth & Platt-Higgins (1981).
19.9 Block Samples
Block samples are cut by hand from material exposed in trial pits and excavations.
They are normally taken in fill, soils derived from insitu rock weathering and colluvium in order
to obtain samples with the least possible disturbance. The procedure is also used to obtain
specially orientated samples, e.g. to measure the shear strength on specific discontinuities.
The location and orientation of a block sample should always be recorded before the sample is
separated from the ground. Block samples should be taken and handled as described in
Section 19.10.6. More detailed recommendations for block sampling are given in USBR (1974).
19.10 Handling and Labelling of Samples

19.10.1 General
Samples may have cost a considerable sum of money to obtain and should be treated
with great care. The usefulness of the results of the laboratory tests depends on the quality of
the samples at the time they are tested. It is therefore important to establish a satisfactory
procedure for handling and labelling the samples, and also for their storage and transport so
that they do not deteriorate, and can readily be identified and drawn from the sample store
when required.
The samples should be protected from excessive heat and temperature variation, which
may lead to deterioration in the sealing of the sample containers and subsequent damage to the
samples. The temperature of the sample store will be influenced by the climate, but it is
recommended that the samples should be stored at the lowest temperature practicable within
the range 2°C to 45°C. The daily temperature variation within the store should not exceed
20°C.
93
19.10.2 Labelling
All samples should be labelled immediately after being taken from a borehole or
excavation. If they are to be preserved at their natural moisture content, they will at the same
time have to be sealed in an airtight container or coated in wax. The label should show all
necessary information about the sample, and an additional copy should be kept separately from
the sample; this latter is normally recorded on the daily field report. The label should be
marked with indelible ink and be sufficiently robust to withstand the effect of its environment
and of the transport of the sample. The sample itself should carry more than one label or
other means of identification so that the sample can still be identified if one label is damaged.
The sample label should give the following information, where relevant :
(a) name of contract,
(b) name or reference numbers of the site,
(c) reference number, location and angle of hole,
(d) reference number of sample,
(e) date of sampling,
(f) brief description of the sample,
(g) depth of top and bottom of the sample below ground level,
and
(h) location and orientation of the sample where appropriate (e.g.

a sample from a trial pit).
19.10.3 Disturbed Samples of Soil and Hand Specimens of Rock
Where samples are required for testing, or where it is desirable to keep them in good
condition over long periods, they should be treated as described below.
Immediately after being taken from a borehole or excavation, the sample should be
placed in a non-corrodible and durable container of at least 0.5 kg capacity, which the sample
should fill with the minimum of air space. The container should have an airtight cover or seal
so that the natural moisture content of the sample can be maintained until tested in the
laboratory. For rock samples, an alternative procedure is to coat the sample in a layer of
paraffin wax. A microcrystalline wax is preferred because it is less likely to shrink or crack.
Large disturbed samples that are required for certain laboratory tests may be packed in robust
containers or plastic sacks.
The sample containers should be numbered, and the tear-off slip or a label, as described
in Section 19.10.2, should be placed in the container immediately under the cover. An
94
identical label should also be securely fixed to the outside of the container under a waterproof
seal (wax or plastics). The containers should be carefully crated to prevent damage during
transit. During the intervals while the samples are on site or in transit to the sample store,
they should be protected from excessive heat.
For hand samples of rock, the reference number should be recorded by painting directly
on the surface of the sample or by attaching a label. Samples should then be wrapped in
several thickness of paper and packed in a wooden box. It is advisable to include in the
wrapping a label of the type described in Section 19.10.2.
19.10.4 Samples Taken with a Tube Sampler
The following recommendations are applicable to all samples taken with tube samplers,
except those taken with thick-walled samplers (see Section 19.4.5). The precautions for
handling and protection of samples are to be regarded as a minimum requirement for samples
taken by the usual methods. In special cases, it may be necessary to take more elaborate
precautions. For samples that are retained in a tube or liner, procedure (a) should be followed;
for other samples, procedure (b) should be followed.
(a) Immediately after the sample has been taken from the
borehole or excavation, the ends of the sample should be
removed to a depth of about 25 mm and any obviously
disturbed soil in the top of the sampler should also be
removed. Several layers of molten wax, preferably
microcrystalline wax, should then be applied to each end to
give a plug about 25 mm in thickness. The molten wax
should be as cool as possible. It is essential that the sides
of the tube be clean and free from adhering soil. If the
sample is very porous, a layer of waxed paper or aluminum
foil should be placed over the end of the sample before
applying the wax.
Any remaining space between the end of the tube or liner and
the wax should be tightly packed with a material that is less
compressible than the sample and not capable of extracting
water from it, and a close-fitting lid or screw-cap should then
be placed on each end of the tube or liner. The lids should,
if necessary, be held in position with adhesive tape.
(b) Samples that are not retained in a tube should be wholly

covered with several layers of molten paraffin wax,
preferably microcrystalline wax, immediately after being
removed from the sampling tool, and then should be tightly
packed with suitable material into a metal or plastic
container. The lid of the container should be held in
position with adhesive tape. If the sample is very porous, it
may be necessary to cover it with waxed paper or aluminium
95
foil before applying the molten wax.
A label bearing the number of the sample should be placed inside the container just
under the lid. The label should be placed at the top of the sample. In addition, the number
of the sample should be painted on the outside of the container, and the top or bottom of the
sample should be indicated. The liners or containers should be packed in a way that will
minimize damage by vibration and shock during transit.
For soft marine soil samples, the tube or liner should be held vertically, keeping the
sample in the same direction as it left the ground, and extreme care should be taken during all
stages of handling and transportation.
19.10.5 Rotary Core Extrusion and Preservation
After recovery of the core-barrel to the surface, every effort should be made in
subsequent handling to ensure that, as far as possible, the quality of the core is maintained in
its natural state until it is finally stored.
Except in relatively strong and massive rocks, core is almost inevitably disturbed if it is
removed from the barrel held in a vertical position and then placed into the core box. The
barrel should be held in a horizontal position, and the core extruded into a tray in such a
manner that it is continuously supported. Rain-water guttering or other conveniently
available rigid split tube can be used for this purpose. When it is required to preserve the core
such that it does not dry out, a convenient method is to extrude it from the core-barrel into
sleeving formed of thin-gauge polyethylene, again supporting the core with rigid split tube.
Where selected lengths of core are to be preserved at their natural moisture content for
laboratory testing, any drilling mud contamination and softened material should first be
removed; the sample should then be wrapped in foil, coated with successive layers of waxed
cheese cloth and labelled as described in Section 19.10.2.
In the extrusion process, the core should preferably be extruded in the same direction as
it entered the barrel. Extruders should be of the piston type, preferably mechanically activated,
since water-pressure type extruders can lead to water contact with the core, and to damage by
impulsive stressing of the core. It should be noted that in weak, weathered or fractured rocks,
extrusion can lead to core disturbance, however carefully it is done. The use of a low-friction
transparent plastic liner in the inner tube of a modified conventional double-tube swivel core-
barrel overcomes the majority of the problems encountered in core extrusion, and facilitates
preservation of the core in the condition in which it is recovered. The general practice is to
tape the outside of the sleeved core every 200 mm, and lengthwise along the overlap in the
plastic sheet, and then, with the aid of plastic guttering for extra support, the core can be boxed
without too much disturbance to the fabric. However, the presence of abrasive and fractured
rocks may preclude the use of such liners.
The difficulties of extrusion and preservation can be overcome by the use of triple-tube
core-barrels with low-friction liners (see Section 19.8). Split liner tubes are an ideal method
of examining the recovered core without further damage after the drilling process. On the
other hand, seamless metal liners and plastic liners are particularly useful where core is to be
96
removed from site for logging or where confined, undisturbed samples are required for sample
preservation and subsequent laboratory testing.
It is usual to preserve all core obtained from the borehole for the period of the main
works contract to which the core drilling relates. This is conveniently achieved with wooden
or plastic core boxes, usually between 1 m and 1.5 m in length and divided longitudinally to
hold a number of rows of core. The box should be of such depth and the compartments of such
width that there is minimal movement of the cores when the box is closed (Geological Society,
1970). The box should be fitted with a hinged lid and strong fastener, and should be designed
so as not to be too heavy for two persons to lift when the box is full of core.
In removing the core from the barrel and placing it in the box, great care should be taken
to ensure that the core is not turned end for end, but lies in its correct natural sequence.
Depths below ground surface should be indicated by an indelible marker on small spacers of
core diameter size that are inserted in the core box between cores from successive runs. Where
there is failure to recover core, or where specimens of recovered core are removed from the box
for other purposes, this should be indicated by spacing-blocks of appropriate length. Both the
lid and the box should be marked to show the site location, borehole number and range of depth
of the core within the box, in addition to the number of the box in relation to the total sequence
of boxes for that borehole. Core box marking should be done so as to facilitate subsequent
photography which, if required, should be carried out as soon as is practicable after recovery
of the core, and before description, sampling and testing.
19.10.6 Block Samples
Sample cutting should be carried out as quickly as possible to prevent excessive moisture
loss, and the sample should be protected from rain and direct sunlight. The sample should be
trimmed to size in plan while still connected at its base (Plate 5A). The sides should be
protected with aluminium foil or grease-proof paper, and then coated with a succession of layers
of microcrystalline wax, reinforced with layers of porous fabric (e.g. muslin), if required. A
close-fitting box with the top and bottom lids removed should then be slid down over the sample
(Plate 5B). The top of the sample should be trimmed flat, marked with location and orientation,
coated as described above, and the top lid attached to the box, ensuring a close fit. The sample
may then be cut along its base, and turned over slowly and carefully for trimming and coating
of the bottom prior to attachment of the bottom lid. A strong, rigid, close-fitting box is
required to minimize sample disturbance during transport and to prevent discontinuities from
opening.
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20. Groundwater
20.1 General
The determination of groundwater pressures is of the utmost importance since they have
a profound influence on the behaviour of the ground during and after the construction of
engineering works. There is always the possibility that various zones, particularly those
separated by relatively impermeable layers, will have different groundwater pressures, some of
which may be artesian. The location of highly permeable zones in the ground and the
measurement of water pressure in each is particularly important where deep excavation or
tunnelling is required, since special measures may be necessary to deal with the groundwater.
For accurate measurement of groundwater pressures, it is generally necessary to install
piezometers. The groundwater pressure may vary with time owing to rainfall, tidal, or other
causes, and it may be necessary to take measurements over an extended period of time in order
that such variations may be investigated. When designing drainage works, it is normally
desirable to determine the contours of the water table or piezometric surface to ascertain the
direction of the natural drainage, the seasonal variation and the influence of other hydrological
factors.
The monitoring of groundwater levels and pore pressures, and their response to rainfall,
is carried out routinely in Hong Kong, as this information is vital to the design and construction
of slopes, excavations in hillsides, and site formation works. The choice of piezometer type
depends on the predicted water pressures, access for reading, service life and response time
required. Open-hydraulic (Casagrande) piezometers are often used in soils derived from insitu
rock weathering and colluvium, which are generally relatively permeable. Other piezometer
types may be used for specific projects; the available types are described in Sections 20.2.3 to
20.2.6, and their advantages and disadvantages are summarized in Table 10.
Slope failures in Hong Kong are normally triggered by rainstorms. The response of
the groundwater regime to rainfall varies widely from site to site, ranging from virtually no
response to a large immediate response. The measurement of transient response is therefore
very important (see Section 20.2.8). In order to provide design data, groundwater monitoring
should extend over at least one wet season; this wet season should ideally contain a storm that
has a return period of greater than ten years. For site formation works which involve
substantial modifications to the hydrogeological characteristics of the site, the period of
monitoring may need to be extended to beyond the end of the site formation works. Ground
conditions in Hong Kong may produce perched or multiple water tables which must also be
considered when installing and monitoring piezometers (Anderson et al, 1983).
It may also be necessary to measure negative pore water pressures, or soil suction (see
Section 20.2.9). In many cases, existing groundwater data in the vicinity of the site will be
available in the Geotechnical Information Unit (see Section 4.2), and may be useful in planning
an appropriate groundwater monitoring scheme.
An additional consideration in urban areas is the contribution of leakage from water-

bearing services to the overall groundwater regime. This contribution can be significant at
some sites. Hydrochemical analysis of groundwater may aid the identification of the leak, e.g.
the presence of fluoride attributable to leakage from fresh water mains. Advice on chemical
98
analysis of groundwater and related interpretation techniques such as trilinear plotting of cation
and anion contents are given in ICE (1976).
Borehole permeability tests are described in Section 21.4, packer, or Lugeon, tests are
described in Section 21.5 and large-scale pumping tests are described in Chapter 25.
20.2 Methods of Determining Groundwater Pressures

20.2.1 Response Time
All the methods described in Section 20.2 require some flow of water into or out of the
measuring device before the recorded pressure can reach equilibrium with the actual
groundwater pressure. For an excavation or a borehole, a large volume of water may flow
before the water level reaches equilibrium with the groundwater pressure. On the other hand,
some types of piezometer require only a very small change in volume of water in order that the
groundwater pressure may be read. The rate at which water flows through the soil depends
on the permeability. The time required for a measuring device to indicate the true
groundwater pressure is known as the response time and depends on the quantity of water
required to operate the device ('volume factor'), the 'shape factor' of the piezometer (Brand &
Premchitt, 1980), the permeability of the porous element, and the permeability of the ground.
The selection of a suitable method for measuring the groundwater pressure will largely be
determined by the response time (Penman, 1986).
20.2.2 Observations in Boreholes and Excavations
The crudest method of determining the groundwater level is by observation in an open

borehole or excavation. This method may involve a long response time unless the ground is
very permeable, and observations should be made at regular time intervals until it is established
that the water level has reached equilibrium. The readings will be misleading if rain or surface
water is allowed to enter the open hole. Readings taken in a borehole shortly after completion
of drilling should be treated with caution, as it is unlikely that equilibrium will have been re-
established.
The reliability of water level observations in boreholes or excavations can be somewhat

improved by the installation of a standpipe, as shown in Figure 19. A standpipe (not to be
confused with the standpipe piezometer described in Section 20.2.3) consists of an open-ended
tube of hard plastic of approximately 19 mm internal diameter which has been perforated either
over its entire length or just the lowest l to 2 m. The perforated section, with openings over at
least 5% of its surface area, should be wrapped in a suitable filter fabric. The space between
the tube and the wall of the borehole or excavation is normally backfilled with medium to coarse
sand and fine gravel to act as a filter. The top 0.5 m around the standpipe should be sealed to
prevent the ingress of surface water. While readings taken in a standpipe are more controlled
than in an open borehole, standpipe response time is still slow, and if zones of different
permeabilities have been penetrated, flow between zones may occur. Standpipe readings may
therefore not be representative of actual groundwater levels. These drawbacks can largely be
overcome by the installation of open-hydraulic or other piezometers.
99
20.2.3 Standpipe Piezometers
The standpipe piezometer, perhaps better termed the open-hydraulic piezometer,

consists of a tube with a porous filter element on the end that can be sealed into the ground at
the appropriate level (Figure 19). Two types of filter elements, viz the high air entry filter and
the low air entry filter, are generally used. Depending on the size and uniformity of the pores,
the filter can sustain a pressure difference between air and water on its surface due to the effect
of surface tension. The maximum pressure difference that can be sustained is known as the
air entry value of the filter. The smaller the size of the pores, the higher will be the filter's air
entry value, but the lower will be the filter's permeability, and this can give rise to a long
response time. A high air entry filter can be used to measure matric soil suction, as air can be
kept out of the measuring fluid system, which is then allowed to come into equilibrium with the
surrounding negative pore water pressure (see Section 20.2.9). The filter cannot, however,
prevent the entry of air by diffusion, hence the need to flush air bubbles out of the measuring
system from time to time. A low air entry filter has large pores and therefore does not impede
the passage of air. Low air entry filters are therefore not suitable for measuring pore water
pressures in unsaturated ground.
The Casagrande-type device is the most frequently installed standpipe piezometer

(Plate 6A). It has a cylindrical (low air entry) porous element protected by a perforated rigid
sheath about 35 mm in diameter and 300 mm long. This element is connected to a 19 mm or
25 mm internal diameter pipe. The response time of this type of piezometer is comparatively
slow, but it generally does not become a significant factor until the soil permeability is less than
about 10-7 m/sec (Hvorslev, 1951). At this permeability, the response time should not be more
than a few hours when the piezometer is installed within a 150 mm diameter by 400 mm long
sand pocket.
Open-hydraulic piezometers are normally installed in boreholes. Access to the top of

the piezometer is generally required in order to measure the water level with a diameter (see
Section 20.2.8) or similar device, although the water level can be read remotely using an air-
bubbling system (see Section 20.2.8). The piezometer top should be well protected, but it
must remain vented to the atmosphere.
If the pore pressure temporarily drops below atmospheric, the open-hydraulic

piezometer will cease functioning, but being self de-airing, it will resume satisfactory operation
without maintenance. The piezometer tube should generally not be smaller than 12 mm
internal diameter or the self de-airing function may be impaired (Vaughan, 1974).
The main advantages of an open-hydraulic piezometer are its simplicity and reliability.
Also, water can be pumped down the pipe to flush out blockages. Moreover, it can be used to
determine the permeability of the ground in which the tip is embedded (see Section 21.4). Its
main disadvantage is slow response time in soils of low permeability.
20.2.4 Hydraulic Piezometers
In hydraulic piezometers, also termed closed-hydraulic piezometers, the groundwater

pressure is detected in a small piezometer tip with porous walls and conducted through small
100
diameter plastic tubes to a remote point, where the pressure is measured, usually with a mercury
manometer, Bourdon gauge or pressure transducer. Air in the tubes will cause erroneous
readings, and because of this the tubes must be kept full of water and routinely de-aired.
Various types of hydraulic piezometers are available, the most common being the twin-
tube types shown in Figure 20. In these piezometers, the tip is connected to the measuring
point by two tubes, so that water can be circulated to flush out any air bubbles. This should
be done in such a way that the pressure in the tip is left approximately at working pressure.
In order to avoid cavitation, the measuring point and connecting tubes should not be
more than 7 m above the piezometric level being measured (Penman, 1978). Hydraulic
piezometers are not self de-airing and regular maintenance is required for satisfactory
performance. The hydraulic leads facilitate remote reading, and the measuring point can be
separated laterally from the piezometer tip by fairly long distances.
A closed-hydraulic piezometer has a small response time and can be used for measuring
rapid changes in pore water pressure due to rainfall infiltration, pressure changes due to tidal
variation or to changes of stress induced by superimposed loads or excavations. It can also
be used for insitu measurements of permeability. In zones of high permeability, care should
be taken to see that the limiting permeability of the porous tip is considered.
20.2.5 Electrical Piezometers
Electrical piezometers have a pressure transducer located close to the porous element.
Very rapid response times can be achieved provided the tip is de-aired. Where long term
stability is required, or the signal is to be transmitted over a long distance, the transducer is
usually of the vibrating wire type. The main disadvantage of the electrical piezometer is that
it requires calibration, which cannot be checked easily after installation. It should be noted
that some transducers have temperature-sensitive elements, so that check calibrations should
be carried out at groundwater temperature. Moreover, it is not always easy to check that the
instrument is behaving reliably. De-airing is not possible after installation, and misleading
results can be obtained, particularly in unsaturated soils or soils containing gas, e.g. methane
in organic soils. The electrical piezometer cannot be used for insitu permeability
measurements (Penman, 1960).
Electrical piezometers have not been widely used in Hong Kong.
20.2.6 Pneumatic Piezometers
Pneumatic systems comprise two air-filled tubes connecting the measuring point to a
valve located close to the porous element. When the air pressure in the input line equals the
water pressure in the porous element, the valve operates, thereby holding constant the pressure
either in the return line or in the supply line. The operation of the valve requires a small
volume change in the porous element, and in impermeable clays this can lead to difficulties.
Also, dirt entering the lines can prevent valve operation. The pneumatic piezometer is cheap
and easy to install and has a rapid response. It cannot be used for insitu permeability
101
measurements (Marsland, 1973). Pneumatic piezometers have the same limitations as

electrical piezometers in that they cannot be checked and the porous tips cannot be de-aired
after installation.
The use of pneumatic piezometers in Hong Kong is described by Handfelt et al (1987).
20.2.7 Installation of Piezometers
The success of pore water pressure measurement depends upon the care taken during
installation and sealing of the piezometer or standpipe. The porous element should be fully
saturated and filled with de-aired water before installation.
In soft ground, the porous element can often be pushed or driven into position. It is,
however, necessary to avoid clogging the porous element if it is pushed through soft clays.
This can be achieved by using a drive-piezometer which has a removable sleeve that covers the
element during driving (Parry, 1971). In clay, a pushed or driven piezometer shears and
remoulds the clay, destroys the fabric in the clay adjacent to the porous element, and can lead
to erroneous measurements of insitu permeability. It should also be noted that the action of
pushing or driving may set up high excess pore-pressures, which in soils of low permeability
may take a long time to dissipate. In harder ground, the instrument is installed in a borehole
with the porous element surrounded by well-graded sand. Above the sand, the borehole
should be sealed off, preferably with grout.
The typical method of installation of a piezometer in a borehole is illustrated in Figure 21.

The tip should be placed within a sand pocket in the specific zone for which pore pressures are
to be measured, referred to as the response zone. The length of the response zone should be
at least four hole diameters, preferably not less than 400 mm. Washed sand with particle sizes
in the range 0.2 mm to 1.2 mm is recommended for the response zone in most soils derived
from insitu rock weathering. For coarse transported soils (e.g. alluvial and marine sands and
gravels), filters should be specifically designed to match the surrounding material (GCO, 1984).
Bentonite should be used to provide a seal above the sand pocket, and if the piezometer
has not been installed near the base of the borehole, a bentonite seal should also be placed
beneath the sand pocket. The length of bentonite seals is typically 0.5 m, although longer
seals may be preferable, especially on the upper side of the piezometer. Bentonite balls
approximately 25 mm in diameter, formed from powdered bentonite and water, may be used to
form the seals. An alternative is to use compressed bentonite pellets, in which case sufficient
time should be allowed for the swelling action of the pellets to occur before grout is placed on
top of the seal.
The remaining sections of the borehole, both above the upper seal and beneath the lower
seal (if applicable), should be filled with a cement-bentonite grout of the same or lower
permeability than the surrounding soil. A tremie pipe should be used to place the grout. The
volume of grout used should be compared with the volume of the hole to be grouted.
The composition of the grout mix will depend on a variety of factors, such as the
availability of materials, the required permeability, the type and make of bentonite, the
102
condition of the borehole and the groundwater levels. The grout should be easily pumped, of
the required permeability, and flexible. The constituents should not segregate while the grout
is still liquid. A typical mix might be four parts of bentonite mixed thoroughly with eight to
twelve parts of water, to which is added one part of ordinary Portland cement. Special mixes
and chemical additives may be necessary if the grout is to be used in sea water or very acid
water.
Poor sealing of the piezometer will permit the migration of water from one level to
another, and may render the readings meaningless. The installation of more than one
piezometer in a single borehole is not generally recommended. If two piezometers are placed
in a single hole, great care must be taken to achieve proper seals.
A well-drained, lockable surface box should be provided for every piezometer

installation (Figure 21).
After installation, a response test should be conducted on each piezometer where

possible, to check the adequacy of the installation. The response test may be of the falling
head type, with the results presented on falling head permeability test result sheets.
Unexpected results in a response test may indicate that the piezometer is defective. Similar
response tests carried out at intervals during the life of the piezometer are also recommended
to ensure that readings remain valid. In soft cohesive soils, care should be exercised to ensure
that the head used in response tests does not cause hydraulic fracture in the soil.
20.2.8 Varying Groundwater Pressures
In addition to varying response to rainfall, water pressures may show seasonal variation,
response to tidal changes or may be affected by abstraction from neighbouring wells or by other
causes. Where it is important to take account of these effects, adequate periods of observation
should be adopted.
Groundwater levels in open-hydraulic piezometers or standpipes are commonly

measured with battery-operated electrical diameters (McNicholl & Cho, 1985). This
technique relies on the conductivity of the groundwater to complete a circuit. In some
instances the diameter may fail to function until the conductivity of the water has been increased,
for example by the addition of a few crystals of common salt (sodium chloride).
Groundwater levels or pressures should be recorded and plotted systematically. A

typical record sheet is shown in Figure 22, where the readings have been plotted on a time base
for ease of interpretation, together with corresponding rainfall data.
The observation of peak groundwater response in open-hydraulic piezometers or

standpipes can be measured using a string of piezometer 'buckets' (Figure 23 and Plate 6B).
The buckets are filled progressively as water rises in the piezometer and will retain their water
even if the piezometric pressure subsequently falls. By using a series of closely-spaced
piezometer buckets, the peak transient response during or after a rainstorm can be recorded at
a convenient time later on. The buckets are tied to a weighted nylon string at selected depth
intervals above the normal base water level and can be pulled to the surface for readings. They
103
might typically be placed at 0.5 m intervals within the range of 2 m both above and below the
critical groundwater level assumed in the design. A typical data sheet is shown in Figure 24.
Care should be taken when handling the string to ensure that it does not drop into the borehole
(thus rendering the piezometer useless), or that it does not tangle and reduce the spacing
between the buckets.
Another method for recording transient water levels in open-hydraulic piezometers or

standpipes is the automatic bubbling recorder, or 'bubbler' system. In this system, a small
diameter air line is installed down to the piezometer tip with a small air flow sufficient to
produce several bubbles per minute. The air pressure required to release bubbles can be
equated to the water pressure produced by the height of water in the standpipe.
An electronic pressure transducer and "Scanivalve" have been used for automatic
recording of a number of piezometers (Pope et al, 1982). Functioning of the system may be
controlled by a microprocessor, allowing variation in the number of piezometers read, the dwell
time on each piezometer, and the interval time between readings.
20.2.9 Soil Suction
Measurement of matric soil suction, or negative pore water pressure, in the range 0 to
-80 kPa can be undertaken in the field with tensiometers. A high air entry pressure ceramic
tip allows equilibrium to be achieved between soil moisture and a confined reservoir of water
within the tensiometer. A vacuum gauge is located at the top of the tensiometer. At suctions
greater than -80 kPa, water inside the tensiometer cavitates and is lost through the ceramic tip.
An example of a tensiometer is shown in Plate 6C.
The pressure exerted by the column of water within the tensiometer must also be
considered; for example, if the tip were located 1.5 m vertically beneath the gauge, the
maximum soil suction that could be measured would be reduced to -65 kPa. When suction
measurements are required at greater depths, a caisson may be excavated and tensiometers
installed through the sides of the caisson (Sweeney, 1982). The reliability of a tensiometer
depends on a good contact between the soil and the ceramic tip, and a good seal between the
tensiometer tube and the soil.
For measurement of soil suctions beyond the range of tensiometers, psychrometers may
be used (Richards, 1971), although their accuracy is doubtful. The measurement of soil
suction in Hong Kong slopes has been reviewed by Anderson (1984).
20.3 Groundwater Samples
Care should be taken to ensure that samples are representative of the water-bearing zone
from which they have been taken and that they have not been contaminated or diluted by surface
water or water used for boring. Water samples should be taken as soon as possible after the
water-bearing zone has been met in the borehole. If other water-bearing zones occur at higher
levels, these should be sealed off by the borehole casing. As far as is possible, all the water
in the borehole should be removed by pumping or baling, and the sample taken from water
104
which collects by seepage. About one litre should be collected in a clean glass or inert plastic
bottle, rinsing the bottle three times with the water being sampled before filling. More
stringent requirements may apply in certain cases, e.g. use of sterilized containers (see
Chapter 13). Even when precautions are taken, water samples from boreholes may be
unrepresentative. Better results can be obtained if samples can be taken from a standpipe
piezometer sealed within the relevant zone. Water samples may deteriorate rapidly and should
therefore be tested as soon as possible after sampling.
105
21. Tests in Boreholes

21.1 General
This chapter describes various tests that may be conducted as supplementary to a ground
investigation carried out by boreholes. The tests described are generally undertaken as an
integral part of the drilling operation. Additional field tests are described in Chapters 24 to
33, and include some tests which can also be conducted in boreholes. The division of the
subject matter has been somewhat arbitrary; therefore, where coverage of a particular test is not
given in this chapter, it should be sought in later chapters.
21.2 Standard Penetration Tests

21.2.1 General Principles
The standard penetration test is a frequently used dynamic penetration test and is
described in BSI (2011b). A small disturbed soil sample (quality class 3) is normally obtained
when the split barrel sampler is used (Figure 25 and Plate 7A). The test results have been
related empirically to soil parameters and foundation conditions, especially in sands and gravels.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Minor variations from the specified equipment and procedures can seriously affect the
results of the test (De Mello, 1971; Ireland et al, 1970; Nixon, 1982; Skempton, 1986). It is
important that the test is carried out precisely as described in BSI (2011b), except that the
following modifications should be incorporated : [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(a) The diameter of the borehole should be between 60 mm and

200 mm. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(b) Drill rods with a stiffness equal to or greater than type BW

rods should be used to reduce energy dissipation.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(c) The results of standard penetration tests should be included

in borehole records without the application of corrections.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
21.2.2 Preparation for Testing
It is necessary to clean out the bottom of the borehole. When the test is carried out
below the groundwater level, certain types of soil may be loosened below the base of the
borehole by the action of the boring tools and by pressure differences between the groundwater
and water in the borehole. This effect can be particularly severe in sands. The effect can be
reduced by keeping the borehole topped up with water and by very careful operation of the
boring tools but often these expedients will not be completely successful.
106
The drill casing should not be advanced ahead of the borehole where a standard
penetration test is to be performed.
21.2.3 Advantages and Limitations
The great merit of the test, and the main reason for its widespread use, is that it is simple
and inexpensive. The soil strength parameters which can be inferred are very approximate,
but give a useful guide in ground conditions where it may not be possible to obtain borehole
samples of adequate quality, e.g. gravels, sands, silts, clay containing sand or gravel and weak
rock. In conditions where the quality of the 'undisturbed' sample is suspect, e.g. very silty or
very sandy clays, or hard clays, it is often advantageous to alternate the sampling with standard
penetration tests, thereby obtaining a check on the strength. If the samples are found to be
unacceptably disturbed, if may be necessary to use a different method for measuring strength,
e.g. the plate test described in Sections 21.6 and 29.1.
When the test is carried out in granular soils below groundwater level, the soil may
become loosened, even when the test is carried out in strict accordance with BSI (2011b) and
the borehole has been properly prepared. In certain circumstances, it can be useful to
continue driving the sampler beyond the distance specified, adding further drill rods as
necessary. Although this is not a standard penetration test, and should not be regarded as
such, it may, at least, give an indication as to whether the deposit is really as loose as the
standard test may indicate. When there is good reason to believe that unrealistically low
values are being recorded, consideration should be given to the use of some other test which
can be performed independently of a borehole, e.g. the cone penetration test described in
Section 23.3. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
When the test is carried out in soils derived from insitu rock weathering in Hong Kong,
it is commonly extended to high blow counts, sometimes in excess of 200. However, it is
recommended that the test should be discontinued when the blow count reaches 100 or if the
hammer bounces and insignificant penetration is achieved, as is frequently the case when
corestones are encountered. If the test is curtailed due to hard driving, the number of blows
used to achieve the actual penetration should be measured and recorded (e.g. Blow/Penetration
= 100/80 mm), and this may be used to estimate the blow counts for 300 mm penetration.
In the construction of bored piles, the test is sometimes carried out in boreholes
considerably larger in diameter than those used for ground investigation work. The result of
the standard penetration test is dependent upon the diameter of the borehole, and these tests
should not be regarded as standard penetration tests. They may, however, provide useful
information to a piling contractor, particularly if he has considerable experience in their use.
21.2.4 Results and Interpretation
The resulting N value is defined as the number of blows required to drive the standard
split spoon sampler a distance of 300 mm. The sampler is initially driven 150 mm to penetrate
through any disturbed material at the bottom of the borehole before the test is carried out. The
number of blows required for each 75 mm advance in the initial seating drive should be recorded;
107
the test may then proceed, with recording of the number of blows required for each 75 mm
incremental advance of the test drive.
When the test is used in soils derived from insitu rock weathering, it should be noted
that the empirical relationships developed for transported soils between N value and foundation
design parameters, relative density and shear strength may not be valid. Corestones, for
example, can be responsible for misleadingly high values that are unrepresentative of the mass.
In view of this, the test should only be used to give a rough indication of relative strength in
these soils, or to develop site-specific correlations.
21.3 Vane Tests

A cruciform vane on the end of a solid rod is forced into the soil and then rotated
(Figure 26). The torque required to rotate the vane can be related to the shear strength of the
soil. The method of carrying out the test is described in BSI (1990). Vanes can take the form
of borehole vanes or penetration vanes, the latter being much more reliable. The test can be
extended to measure the remoulded strength of the soil. This is done by turning the vane
through ten complete rotations. A pause of not more than one minute is permitted to elapse
and the vane test is then repeated in the normal way. The degree of disturbance caused by
rotating the vane differs from that obtained by remoulding a sample of clay in the laboratory,
and the numerical value of the sensitivity of the clay determined by these procedures is not
strictly comparable with the results obtained from laboratory triaxial tests.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
The test is normally restricted to fairly uniform, cohesive, fully-saturated soils, and is
used mainly for clay having an undrained shear strength of up to about 75 kPa. The results
are questionable in stronger clays, or if the soil tends to dilate on shearing or is fissured.
In Hong Kong, the vane test is invaluable in the marine sediments (Fung et al, 1984;
Handfelt et al, 1987). However, some strata are sandy or contain shells, in which case vane
shear results should be interpreted with caution. Marine muds are generally very soft, and it
is often necessary to provide a separate support frame on top of the seabed to carry out the vane
test (see Section 14.7).
It should be noted that the undrained shear strength determined by an insitu vane test is,
in general, not equal to the average value calculated at failure in the field, e.g. in the failure of
an embankment on soft clay. The discrepancy between field and vane shear strengths
generally increases as the clay becomes more plastic (Bjerrum, 1973).
The main advantage is that the test itself causes little disturbance of the ground. This
is particularly apparent in sensitive clays, where the vane test tends to give higher shear
strengths than those derived from laboratory tests on samples obtained with the general
purpose sampler described in Section 19.4.4. In these conditions, the vane test results are
108
generally considered to be much more reliable. If the test is carried out in soil that is not
uniform and contains even thin layers of laminations of sand or dense silt, the torque may be
misleadingly high. The presence of rootlets in organic soils, and also of coarse particles, may
lead to erroneous results.
With the penetration vane test apparatus (vane borer) described in BSI (1990), the vane
and a protective casing (Plate 8) are forced into the ground by jacking. At the required depth,
the vane is advanced a short distance ahead of the protective casing, the test is conducted, and
the casing and vane are then subsequently advanced to the next required depth. However, with
this type of test it is not always possible to penetrate to the desired layer without the assistance
of pre-boring. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Small hand-operated vane test instruments are available for use in the sides or bottom of
an excavation. These devices can also be used on samples, with tests done either in the field
or in the laboratory. The results thus obtained are generally adequate for the purpose of
classifying the consistency of cohesive soils (GCO, 1988). Comparative hand vane tests
carried out in both the field and laboratory may provide an indication of possible disturbance
during handling and transportation of the sample.
21.4 Permeability Tests

The determination of insitu permeability by tests in boreholes involves the application

of an hydraulic pressure in the borehole different from that in the ground, and the measurement
of the flow due to this difference. The pressure in the borehole may be increased by
introducing water into it, which is commonly called a falling-head or inflow test, or it may be
decreased by pumping water out of it in a rising-head or outflow test. The pressure may be
held constant during a test (a constant-head test) or it may be allowed to equalize to its original
value (a variable-head test). The technique is strictly applicable only to the measurement of
permeability of soils below groundwater level, although an approximate assessment may be
made above this level (Schmid, 1966). However, this approximate value will reflect the
infiltration capacity of the subsurface material rather than its permeability (see also
Section 24.3). A great variety of tests are included under this heading, varying from the very
crude, where simple problems can be solved by simple means, to the sophisticated when the
nature of the problem demands more refined data.
21.4.2 Preparations for the Test
In the simplest form of test, preparation consists of cleaning out the bottom of the
borehole. The test is then conducted by measuring the rate of flow of water out of the borehole
into the soil, or vice versa, through the open end of the casing. The borehole may be extended
beyond the bottom of the casing, thus increasing the surface through which water can flow. If
necessary, the uncased part of the borehole is supported by a suitable filter material. Water
leaking through the casing joints has at times been found to cause misleading results and the
problem has been overcome by the use of fibre rings.
109
Misleading results can also arise if any return flow occurs up the outside of the casing.
For more accurate measurements, a perforated tube or a suitable piezometer tip is

installed, which is then surrounded by a granular filter to prevent erosion of the ground, and
the casing withdrawn. It is essential that the filter material used has a permeability much
greater than that of the soil being tested. Recommendations for sealing the borehole above
the granular filter are given in Section 20.2.7. In order to avoid errors in flow measurement
due to compression and solution of trapped air in the leads, ceramic piezometer tips should be
saturated with de-aired water before installation.
Permeability tests can be carried out at various depths in the borehole as drilling
progresses. Figure 27 shows a suitable test arrangement.
Before a permeability test is conducted, it is essential to determine the level of the

natural groundwater table by one of the methods described in Chapter 20.
Measurements of water level taken soon after cessation of drilling usually do not
represent equilibrium values, and a series of measurements may be necessary. If a piezometer
is finally installed in the borehole, the piezometric data obtained from monitoring may provide
a check on the measurements taken at the time of the test.
The period required for constant-head tests is decreased and the interpretation
simplified if short lengths of borehole are used for the test. Pore pressures should be in
equilibrium before the test is performed, and with clays of low permeability it can take several
months for the pore pressures set up by the drilling of the borehole to equalize. For soils
derived from insitu rock weathering and colluvium, equalization typically occurs very much
faster.
21.4.3 Variable-head Test
The first operation is either to fill the piezometer tube with water (falling-head test) or
to force the water level down by a foot-pump or bicycle pump (rising-head test). The head in
the borehole is then allowed to equalize with that in the ground, the actual head being measured
at intervals of time from the commencement of the test. The depth of the borehole should be
checked to determine whether any sediment has come out of suspension or whether the bottom
of the borehole has heaved during the test period.
21.4.4 Constant-head Test
A constant-head test is normally conducted as an inflow test in which arrangements are

made for water to flow into the ground under a sensibly constant head. It is essential to use
clean water. It will not be possible to achieve a constant head if the groundwater level is not
constant or the head lost by friction in the pipes is significant. Where a high flow rate is
anticipated and where the installation comprises a piezometer tip surrounded by a filter
material, two standpipes should be installed, one to supply the water and the other to measure
the head in the filter material surrounding the piezometer tip. The rate of flow of water is
110
adjusted until a constant head is achieved and, in the simplest form of test, flow is allowed to
continue until a steady rate of flow is achieved. In some ground, this may take a long period
of time, and, in such cases the method suggested by Gibson (1963) may be used, in which the
actual rate of flow is measured and recorded at intervals from the commencement of the test.
21.4.5 Analysis of Results
There are numerous published formulae for calculating permeability from these tests,
many of them partly empirical. Those given by Hvorslev (1951), which are reproduced in
outline in Section 21.4.6, are much used and cover a large number of conditions. They are
based on the assumption that the effect of soil compressibility is negligible. The method given
in Gibson (1963) for the constant-head test is also indicated. This gives a more accurate result
with compressible soils.
It must be emphasized that the formulae given in Section 21.4.6 are steady-state
equations suitable for calculation of permeability when the test is carried out below the water
table. In Hong Kong, it is often necessary to measure permeability above the water table. In
this case, the steady-state equations can only be used if the time over which the test is conducted
becomes very long. Under these circumstances, permeability should be assessed using the
constant-head test interpreted according to Method 2 in Section 21.4.6(2), with Hc measured
from the centre of the response zone in the test.
21.4.6 Formulae for Borehole Permeability Tests
(1) Method 1 (after Hvorslev, 1951).
For Constant-head test,
q
k (Time lag analysis ) .............................................. (1)
FH c
and for variable-head test,
A
k ............................................................ (2)
FT
or
log e 1 General approach  ............................... (3)

A H
k
F (t2  t1 ) H2
where k is the permeability of soil,

q is the rate of flow,
F is the intake factor (Figures 28 and 29),
Hc is the constant head,
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H1 is the variable head measured at time t1 after commencement of test,

H2 is the variable head measured at time t2 after commencement of test,
A is the cross-sectional area of borehole casing or standpipe as appropriate,
T is the basic time factor (Figure 30).
It should be noted the above formulae assume that the natural groundwater level
remains constant throughout the test. For the case where the natural groundwater varies, see
Hvorslev (1951).
(2) Method 2 (Constant-head Test, after Gibson, 1963).
q ........................................................... (4)
k
FH c
2
q r 2
C ......................................................... (5)
n 2
where k is the permeability of soil,

C is the coefficient of consolidation or swelling,
q is the steady state of flow (read off the q, 1/ t graph at 1/ t = 0),
F is the intake factor (Figures 28 and 29),
Hc is the constant head,
r is the radius of a sphere equal in surface area to that of the cylindrical tip,
n is the slope of the q, 1/ t graph.
The following points regarding this method should be noted :
(a) Heads are referred to natural groundwater level before the

test.
(b) The method makes allowance for the compressibility of the

soil and also permits the coefficient of consolidation or
swelling to be calculated.
(c) The flow, q, has, in theory, a linear relationship with 1/ t .

In practice, it may take some hours for the plot to come on a
straight line. The line can then be extrapolated to give q
and n, where the test would otherwise take too long.
For most types of ground, field permeability tests yield more reliable data than those
carried out in the laboratory, because a larger volume of material is tested, and because the
ground is tested insitu, thereby avoiding the disturbance associated with sampling. The
appropriate choice of drilling method and careful drilling technique are necessary to avoid
disturbing the ground to be tested. In granular soils, the ground may be loosened below the
112
bottom of the borehole; in layered deposits of varying permeability, a skin of remoulded mixed
material may be formed on the walls of the borehole, thus blocking the more permeable layers;
in jointed rock, the joints may be blocked by the drilling debris.
In very soft marine clays, it is very difficult to carry out a successful permeability test
because of the low permeability of the soil, its compressibility, and the possibility of hydraulic
fracture arising from the relatively large head required for a falling-head or constant-head test.
Constant-head tests are likely to give more accurate results than variable-head tests, but,
on the other hand, variable-head tests are simpler to perform. The water pressure used in the
test should be less than that which with disrupt the ground by hydraulic fracturing. It has
been shown that serious errors may be introduced if excessive water pressures are used
(Bjerrum et al, 1972). In general, it is recommended that the total increase in water pressure
should not exceed one half the effective overburden pressure. With soils of high permeability,
greater than about 10-3 m/s, flow rates are likely to be large and head losses at entry or exit and
in the borehole may be high. In this case, field pumping tests, where the pressure distribution
can be measured by piezometers on radial lines away from the borehole, will probably yield
more accurate results; these are described in Chapter 25. When the test is carried out within
a borehole using the drill casing, the lower limit of permeability that can be measured reliably
is determined by the watertightness of the casing joints and by the success achieved in sealing
the casing into the ground. In soil, the reliable lower limit is about 10-8 m/s. In lower
permeability soils and unweathered rock, it is advisable to carry out the test using a standpipe
or piezometer which is sealed within the test length using grout. In ground of low permeability,
the flow rate may be very small, and measurements may be subject to error owing to changes
in temperature of the measuring apparatus.
The permeability of a compressible soil is influenced by the effective stress at which it

is measured, and there may be significant differences between the results of inflow tests, in
which effective stress is reduced, and the results of outflow tests, in which it is increased. The
test to be used should model the field conditions as closely as possible, e.g. where the conditions
indicate increasing effective stress, such as in embankment construction, a rising-head test
should be used; for the case of decreasing effective stress, such as when assessing the quantity
of inflow into an excavation, a falling-head test would be appropriate. The permeability of
soil around the borehole may also be influenced by changes in its stress history owing to
installation of the borehole and any previous permeability tests performed on it.
The compressibility is influenced in a similar way, and this may affect the results
achieved. The accuracy with which the coefficient of permeability may be deduced from
variable-head tests decreases with the coefficient of consolidation of the soil being tested. In
principle, the coefficient of consolidation or swelling may be deduced from the results of both
constant-head and variable-head tests. In practice, results of only limited accuracy can be
obtained, owing to difficulties in interpretation and the extent to which the stress history of the
soil adjacent to the borehole is modified by the installation of the borehole.
Execution of the borehole permeability test requires much expertise, and small faults in
technique lead to errors of up to one hundred times the actual value. Even with considerable
care, an individual test result is often accurate to one significant figure only. Accuracy will
usually be improved by analysing the results of a series of tests. However, in many types of
113
ground, particularly stratified soil or jointed rock, there may be a very wide variation in
permeability, and the permeability of the mass of ground may be determined by a relatively thin
layer of high permeability or a major joint. Very considerable care is needed in interpreting
the test data. In cases where a reliable result is required, the programme of borehole
permeability tests is generally followed by a full-scale pumping test (see Chapter 25).
21.5 Packer (Water Absorption) Tests

The packer or Lugeon test gives a measure of the acceptance by insitu rock of water
under pressure. The test was originally introduced by Lugeon (1933) to provide an acceptable
standard for testing the permeability of dam foundations. In essence, it comprises the
measurement of the volume of water that can escape from an uncased section of borehole in a
given time under a given pressure. Flow is confined between known depths by means of
packers, hence the more general name of the test. The flow is confined between two packers
in the double packer test, or between the packer and the bottom of the borehole in the single
packer test. The test is used to assess the amount of grout that the rock will accept, to check
the effectiveness of grouting, to obtain a measure of the amount of fracturing of the rock (Snow,
1968), or to give an approximate value of the permeability of the rock mass adjacent to the
borehole.
The results of the test are usually expressed in terms of Lugeon units. A rock is said to
have a permeability of 1 Lugeon if, under a head above groundwater level of 100 m, a 1 m
length of borehole accepts 1 litre of water per minute. Lugeon did not specify the diameter of
the borehole, which is usually assumed to be 76 mm (N size), but the test is not very sensitive
to change in borehole diameter unless the length of borehole under test is small.
When the packer test is carried out at shallow depths, as is frequently the case in Hong
Kong, the applied water pressure must be limited to a value that will not cause hydraulic
fracturing of the ground (see Section 21.5.3). This often leads to the test being conducted at
pressures of 50 to 500 kPa, and extrapolation is then necessary to obtain the Lugeon value
equivalent to a 100 m water head (approximately 1 MPa pressure).
If the rock discontinuity spacing is sufficiently close for the test section to be
representative of the rock mass, a mass permeability can be calculated as described in
Section 21.5.6. A simple rule that is sometimes used to convert Lugeon values into mass
permeability is to take one Lugeon as equal to a permeability of 10-7 m/s.
As the packer test is used to assess the potential for water to penetrate rock
discontinuities, clean water should be used as the drilling fluid when forming the borehole,
rather than drilling mud. If drilling mud has been used, the hole should be thoroughly flushed
out prior to packer testing; appropriate explanatory notes should also be given with the test data.
In situations where only salt water is available to conduct the test, this should also be clearly
indicated on the test results.
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21.5.2 Packers
Several types of packer are in use, such as the mechanical tail pipe, the manual
mechanical-expanding packer and the hydraulic self-expanding packer, but by far the most
commonly used is the pneumatic packer.
This comprises a rubber canvas duct tube which can be inflated against the sides of the
borehole by means of pressurized gas (Figure 31). Bottled nitrogen or oxygen is fed down the
borehole through a small diameter nylon tube. The inflation pressure has to be sufficient to
expand the packer against the head of water in the borehole, but not sufficient to cause heaving
of the ground surface or fracturing of the rock. A useful rule of thumb is that the pressure, in
kPa, should lie between 12 times and 17 times the depth, in metres, of the borehole. The
difference between the diameter of the uninflated packer and the diameter of the borehole
should be such that the packer can be easily inserted. At the same time, the inflated diameter
of the packer should be sufficient to provide an efficient seal. A double packer is two packers
connected by a length of pipe of the same length as the test section. The test water is
introduced between the packers.
21.5.3 Application and Measurement of Pressure
Water pressure is applied by a flush pump as used for diamond bit core drilling. The
maximum water pressure which should be applied should not be sufficient to cause uplift of the
ground or to break the seal of the packers in deep holes in weak rock. The standard head of
100 m above groundwater level may not be attainable in these conditions.
The applied pressure should not exceed overburden pressure at the test depth, and it may
be necessary to keep the pressure well below the overburden pressure, as under some
circumstances vertical cracks can develop in weak rocks at pressures much lower than this value.
Excessive pressure may be detectable by careful analysis of the test data, e.g. an abrupt change
of slope in a graph plot of applied water pressure versus flow rate may indicate possible
hydraulic fracture during the test.
The pressure to be determined for use in the calculation of permeability is that causing
flow into the rock itself. This is sometimes measured directly, but it is more usual to measure
it at ground level by means of a Bourdon gauge, with the readings adjusted in accordance with
the following expression :
h = P + (H - Hg) - Hf .................................................. (6)
where h is the pressure head causing flow into the rock (m),
P is the Bourdon gauge reading converted to head (m),
H is the height of Bourdon gauge above the mid-point of test section (m),
Hg is the height of natural groundwater level above the mid-point of test section
(m),
Hf is the friction head loss in the pipes (m).
115
The pressure gauge should be positioned so that it will give a true reading without
interference from local pressure variations induced by flow through the pipe work. The
natural groundwater level should be measured before the test begins. This is not always easy,
especially when the rocks are of low permeability, and water has been used for flushing
purposes during drilling. If necessary, separate observation wells should be installed, and the
groundwater levels should be measured over a period to establish the general groundwater
level. Friction head loss in the pipes is best established by means of a calibration test, with
the pipe work laid out on the ground.
Calibration must be carried out for each test arrangement (pump, packer, valves and by-
pass, pressure gauge and flowmeter) with various lengths of drill rods and varying flow rates.
All pressure gauges and flow meters used in the test should be calibrated regularly.
21.5.4 Measurement of Flow
The rate of flow of water may be measured either by a flowmeter or by direct

measurement of flow out of a tank of known dimensions by means of a dipstick or depth gauge.
Where a flowmeter is used, it should be installed upstream of the pressure gauge, well away
from bends or fittings in the pipework, and in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
The accuracy of the meter should be checked before the test begins, and periodically afterwards,
by measuring the time taken to fill a container of known volume at different rates of flow.
Where the flow out of a tank is to be measured, the use of one large tank can lead to inaccuracies
where the plan area is large and the fall in level correspondingly small. A better arrangement
is to use a number of small containers.
Flowmeters are prone to inaccuracies, especially at low flow rates, and calibrations
should therefore be carefully checked on site. Industrial water meters commonly available in
Hong Kong are not sufficiently accurate for use in the packer test. For very low flows, a
rotameter board with a series of graduated tubes can provide an accurate measurement of flow
rate, as can an orifice plate meter.
21.5.5 Execution of Test
The test may be carried out either as a single or as a double packer test. The single
packer test is generally to be preferred because any leakage past the packer can be detected,
whereas leakage past the lower packer in the double packer test cannot. However, the single
packer test normally has to be done periodically during the drilling of the hole, which makes it
more costly. An important point is to ensure that the packer is properly seated in the borehole.
Where a complete core has been recovered from the borehole, or where appropriate logging or
television inspection has been carried out, a careful examination may reveal suitable places to
seat the packer. Where the seating proves unsatisfactory, the length of the test section should
be altered or test sections overlapped, so as to seat the packer at a different depth in the
borehole.
While the number of packer tests carried out in a borehole depends on the requirements
of the project, it is usual to test the whole length of the borehole that is in rock. However, the
116
upper limit of testing may be constrained by the highest level at which a packer can be sealed
satisfactorily. Typically, overlapping tests are used, each having a test section length of 3 to
6 m. In any case, the test section length should not be less than ten borehole diameters so as
to minimise end effects.
It is customary to run a staged test at each location, using different pressures. A five-
stage test is desirable, with the maximum pressure applied in three equal increments and then
reduced with decrements of the same amount (Figure 32). The data obtained from these
measurements are particularly useful in assisting in the interpretation of the behaviour of the
rock under test.
The water level in the borehole above the packer should be observed during each test,
as a rising level may indicate that leakage is occurring around the upper packer.
The varying values of pressure and flow recorded during the test may be plotted as
shown in Figure 33. The interpreted Lugeon value, L, is given by the formula :
L = (100/l) (q/h) ..................................................... (7)
where 100 is the standard head of water (m),

l is the length of test section (m),
q is the flow rate (litres/minute),
h is the pressure head causing flow into the rock (m) (see Section 21.5.3.),
q/h is the slope of graph as shown in Figure 33.
Where a test has been conducted at pressure heads considerably less than the standard
100 m head, the Lugeon value may be somewhat over-estimated by the above formula, due to
possible differences in energy loss between laminar flow (at low head) and turbulent flow (at
high head). Further considerations on test interpretation are given by Houlsby (1976).
21.6 Plate Tests

21.6.1 General
The plate test is one particular application of the vertical loading test, and the general
procedures for the test are described in Section 29.1. Only the specific problems which arise
from carrying out the test in the bottom of a borehole are discussed in this Section. Wherever
practicable, the test should be conducted in a borehole which is of sufficient diameter for a
technician to enter, clean out the bottom, and bed the plate evenly on undisturbed ground.
Careful attention should be directed towards safety for operators working below ground (see
Section 18.2 and Appendix E). Where, for reasons of economy, the test is conducted in a small
diameter borehole, the cleaning of the bottom and the bedding of the plate has to be done from
the surface, so that it is very difficult to be certain that the plate is not resting on disturbed
material. This would, of course, limit the value of the results.
117
The techniques used for tests in large and small diameter boreholes differ in some
respects and, where differences occur, the methods are described separately in Chapter 29.
The diameter of the plate used should, so far as practicable, be equal to that of the borehole,
provided that care is taken to eliminate cohesion or friction on the side of the plate. Except in
strong materials, the plate should have a skirt as shown in Figure 43 (see Section 29.1.4).
Where the diameter of the plate is significantly less than that of the borehole, the results of the
test become difficult to interpret. At a hole-diameter to plate-diameter ratio greater than
about 3:2, the parameters being measured are those pertaining to a load at a free surface and
not at depth under confined conditions, which are usually the conditions of interest.
21.6.2 Limitations
The general limitations of the vertical load test are discussed in Section 29.1.2 and they
apply similarly to the borehole test. Additionally, in the bottom of a borehole it is more
difficult to achieve a satisfactory bedding of the loading plate on the test surface, and hence
values obtained for the deformation parameters may be of limited significance.
21.6.3 Preparation
Where, necessary, casing should be used to support the sides of the borehole and to seal
off water seepages from materials that are above the test elevation. When the test is to be
carried out below the prevailing water table, dewatering by pumping or baling from within the
borehole may cause seepages which disturb the ground and have an adverse effect on its
deformation characteristics. It would then be necessary to resort to external dewatering (see
Section 29.1.2). If the test is undertaken only for measuring the strength parameters,
disturbance due to groundwater seepage may be a less significant factor and the borehole may
be emptied, if this is possible, while the plate is being installed. The water should be allowed
to return to its normal rest level before the test is commenced. Alternatively, the plate can be
installed under water, although it may not then be possible to set the plate sufficiently accurately
for the deformation characteristics to be measured.
21.6.4 Bedding of the Plate
(1) Large Diameter Boreholes. Subject to safety requirements (see Appendix E), a
technician should be lowered to the bottom of the borehole to remove all loose soil manually,
after which the plate is bedded as described in Section 29.1.3.
(2) Small Diameter Boreholes. The cleaning is carried out by means of a suitable
auger or hinged bucket operated at the end of a drill rod assembly. A layer of neat cement
mortar is then placed at the bottom of the borehole by means of a tremie or bottom opening
bucket, and the plate lowered down the hole and lightly pressed on to the surface of the mortar.
Plaster and resins can also be used for bedding.
118
21.6.5 Application and Measurement of Load
The plate is usually loaded through a column formed by a steel tube, with the load
applied to the column by means of an hydraulic jack operating against the resistance of
kentledge, tension piles or ground anchors, as described in Section 29.1.4.
21.6.6 Measurement of Deflection
The movement of the plate under load is generally transmitted to dial gauges at the
surface by means of a settlement measurement rod that is located within the steel tube by which
the load is applied. The rod is restrained from lateral movement by rod guides fixed within
the tube. Methods of supporting the dial gauges are given in Section 29.1.4.
21.6.7 Execution of Test
The method of carrying out the test is given in Section 29.1.6.
21.6.8 Uses of the Test
(1) Large Diameter Boreholes. The main use of the test is to determine the strength
and deformation characteristics of the ground. It is sometimes used to establish the working
load of piles (Sweeney & Ho, 1982).
(2) Small Diameter Boreholes. The deformation characteristics obtained are of very
dubious value owing to doubts about the elimination of ground disturbance and errors resulting
from unsatisfactory bedding of the plate. The main use of the test is for measuring the strength
characteristics of those cohesive soils in which undisturbed samples cannot be obtained, e.g.
some gravelly clays and very weak rocks. The plate diameter should be large in relation to
the structure of the ground.
21.6.9 Supplementary Test
Although not strictly a plate test, a test is sometimes made by insitu methods to determine
the coefficient of friction between the ground and concrete as an aid to the assessment of shaft
friction for pile design. At the bottom of a borehole is placed either a layer of compressible
material or a suitably-designed collapsible container. The shaft above this level is then filled
with concrete while the casing is withdrawn. When the concrete has sufficiently matured, the
load is applied, and the deflection measured in a manner similar to that described in
Section 21.6.6. Where the shaft friction of only part of the ground profile is required, as in a
rock socket, the concrete is first brought up to the level of the top of the ground layer concerned,
and the shaft is continued in smaller diameter.
119
21.6.10 Horizontal Plate Tests
The plate test may also be conducted horizontally within a large diameter borehole or
caisson (Whiteside, 1986). In this case, either two tests can be conducted simultaneously on
opposite sides of the caisson, or the caisson wall opposite the test can simply be used to provide
the necessary reaction force. Casing or lining of the caisson must of course be kept well away
from the test location. Guidance on interpretation of test results is given in Section 29.2.
21.7 Pressuremeter Tests

21.7.1 Test Description
In a pressuremeter test, a probe is inserted into a pocket below the bottom of a borehole
or directly into the appropriate size of borehole and expanded laterally by compressed air or
gas. The applied pressures and resulting deformations are measured and enable the strength
and deformation characteristics of the ground to be investigated.
The earliest instrument, and that in most general use, is the Ménard pressuremeter
(Ménard, 1965). With this instrument, the lateral load is applied by a probe consisting of a
water-filled central measuring cell flanked by two guard cells, either gas-filled or water-filled,
depending on the type of instrument.
Readings are taken at the ground surface on pressure and volume gauges which are
connected to the central cell by means of a back-pressured annular plastic tube. The pressure
tube and probe must be calibrated on site. The function of the guard cells is to ensure a
condition of plane strain in the ground in contact with the central cell. The probes are
manufactured in four sizes up to 75 mm diameter, and can be operated at considerable depths.
The Ménard pressuremeter can be used in soil or weak rock, but is not suitable for stronger
rock, since the instrument is limited by its sensitivity to the tube calibration. It can be used in
granular soils where special means are used to insert it.
Another pressuremeter that has been developed has an l50 mm diameter gas-expanded
probe in which the deformation is measured directly by potentiometers located in the centre of
the probe (McKinlay & Anderson, 1975). It can be used to determine the deformation
characteristics of the more deformable weathered rocks.
A wireline-operated push-in pressuremeter exists and has been in use in an offshore

environment (Fyffe et al, 1986). Self-boring pressuremeters, which can be inserted into some
soil types with minimal disturbance, have also been developed (Baguelin et al, 1978; Windle &
Wroth, 1977). Pressuremeter testing in rock is described in Section 21.7.5.
21.7.2 Equipment Calibration
The probe and tubing of the pressuremeter require calibration on site, as follows :
(a) Pressure calibration. This is to account for pressure losses

which occur because of stiffness of the rubber membrane and
120
slotted steel sheath of the probe.
(b) Volume calibration. This is to account for volume losses

which occur because of expansion of the connecting tubes.
Pressure and volume calibrations should be carried out at the beginning and end of a
testing programme, or whenever lengths of connecting tubes are changed, new sheaths or
membranes are installed, any water line subjected to vacuum or pressure has been suddenly
released, or any other factor affecting the calibration has changed. In addition, the hydrostatic
pressure due to fluid in the test equipment below the pressure gauge should be determined prior
to each test.
21.7.3 Forming the Test Pocket
The formation of a suitable test pocket is a crucial step in pressuremeter testing, as the
test data are obtained by radial expansion of the probe of only a few millimetres and even a thin
disturbed zone around the pocket will affect the results. The test pocket must therefore be
formed with minimal disturbance of the sidewalls, and with the proper diameter for the
instrument to be used. The water flush rotary open hole drilling technique with open-ended
casing (rotary wash boring, see Section 18.7.1) should not be used to form the test pocket.
Briaud & Gambin (1984) have outlined procedures for preparation of an acceptable test pocket
of the required diameter, as well as methods of placing the probe and conducting the test.
The test is normally conducted by increasing the pressure in equal increments and taking
volumetric readings at time intervals after application of each pressure increment. Values of
the soil deformation modulus are then interpreted from these data. Winter (1982) has
discussed the presentation and interpretation of results for both granular and cohesive soils. A
discussion of the application of the pressuremeter to foundation design in Hong Kong is given
by Chiang & Ho (1980).
21.7.5 Tests in Rock
In strong rocks, it is necessary to use instruments of high sensitivity in which the

deformation of the rocks is measured over small strain ranges by electronic transducers located
within the probe. There are two types of instrument available : a flexible type, 73 mm in
diameter, operated hydraulically by oil to a pressure of about 14 MPa (Rocha et al, 1966); and
a rigid type, consisting of a steel cylinder split vertically into two halves and called the
Goodman jack (Goodman et al, 1968). The rigid type is also operated hydraulically by oil,
but with a considerably higher pressure than the flexible type, and is therefore particularly
suitable for rocks in the higher modulus range.
The Goodman jack is capable of exerting pressures in excess of 60 MPa within a normal
NX size borehole. A method of estimating the insitu modulus of deformation from tests with
121
this device is presented by Heuze (1984).
21.8 Borehole Discontinuity Surveys

21.8.1 Impression Packer Survey
An impression packer survey provides an assessment of the orientation and aperture of

discontinuities in a borehole in rock by means of an inflatable rubber membrane which presses
an impressionable thermoplastic film against the borehole wall (Figure 34 and Plate 9). The
impression packer can be used to provide data for the design of rock slopes, excavations or
tunnels (Brand et al, 1983; Gamon, 1984a; Starr & Finn, 1979), and it can be used in conjunction
with the packer (water absorption) test to define the location, orientation and opening of
discontinuities where high water losses have occurred.
The impression packer device is commonly available in sizes to fit N and H size
boreholes. A borehole length of about 1.5 m can be surveyed with each test, after which the
device must be withdrawn from the hole and the thermoplastic film changed. Tests can be
conducted as drilling progresses, but more commonly a series of overlapping tests are run after
drilling has been completed in order to obtain a full survey of the borehole. Use of the device
is usually restricted to vertical or slightly inclined boreholes.
Care must be taken when lowering the device into the borehole so that the thermoplastic
film is not scuffed or damaged. The packer may be inflated by either air pressure or water
pressure applied through a central perforated tube. Two metal leaves, curved to match the
borehole wall, thereby force the impressionable thermoplastic film against the borehole wall,
causing a permanent impression to be registered on the film. The device must be fully deflated
before removal, or the film may be damaged.
The device may be orientated in the borehole in two ways, depending on the accuracy
required :
(a) By positioning the two metal leaves in a known direction at

the surface, and subsequently marking this direction on each
drill rod as the device is lowered into the borehole. This
method, suitable only in shallow holes and when drill rods
are utilized, is usually only accurate to about ±5° in
orientation at best.
(b) By the use of an orientation instrument attached to the bottom

end of the device. The orientation of a floating compass is
set within a fixative solution at the time the packer is inflated,
providing a record of orientation that can later be transferred
onto the thermoplastic film. Somewhat better accuracy may
be achievable with this technique.
It is recommended that test sections should be overlapped to the extent that at least one
discontinuity common to adjacent sections is recorded. This will provide data for checking
the north direction between successive impressions. Data from such surveys should also be
122
checked against relevant data from surface exposures whenever possible.
An example of an impression packer survey is given in Figure 35.
21.8.2 Core Orientators
Several devices are available for determining the orientation of drill core, of which the
Craelius core orientator has been widely used (Hoek & Bray, 1981). This mechanical device
is usually installed in a fixed orientation in a core-barrel, and it initially protrudes ahead of the
barrel in order to sense and record the contour of the rock surface. The core orientator then
proceeds up the core-barrel and core drilling commences. Upon retrieval of the core sample,
the uppermost core segment can again be matched against the core orientator and its relative
orientation can be determined. The remainder of the core run may then be oriented with
respect to the uppermost core segment.
The Craelius core orientator can operate in steeply inclined or horizontal boreholes as
well as vertical holes, but it does not provide information on the aperture or infilling of
discontinuities, nor does it provide a permanent record of discontinuities. In addition, the
orientation of the core must be determined relative to the uppermost core segment, and this may
prove difficult where core recovery is poor or where the core contains sub-horizontal joints
(Gamon, 1984a).
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22. Frequency of Sampling and Testing in Boreholes

22.1 General Principles
The frequency of sampling and testing in a borehole depends on the information that is
already available about the ground conditions and the technical objectives of the investigation.
In general, the field work will cover three aspects, each of which may require a different
sampling and testing programme and may also require phasing of operations. These aspects
are as follows :
(a) the determination of the character and geological structure of

the ground,
(b) the determination of the properties of the various zones or

materials whose locations have been determined in (a), using
routine techniques for sampling and testing,
(c) the use of special techniques of sampling and testing in

ground for which routine techniques may give unsatisfactory
results.
22.2 Determination of the Ground Profile
In areas where suitable information about the ground profile is available from previous
investigations, it may be possible to reduce the need for this aspect. Otherwise, it is necessary
to determine as far as possible the location, character and structure of each zone in the soil or
rock mass. Some zones may be quite thin, and continuous sampling of the entire borehole
may be required in order to obtain the necessary information.
In soils derived from insitu rock weathering, colluvium and some fill materials, the
ground profile can be defined by taking samples using a triple-tube core-barrel. Samples
should be taken continuously or at close intervals supplemented by standard penetration tests.
Continuous rotary coring should be undertaken in fresh to moderately decomposed rock.
Where a run with the rotary core-barrel results in poor core recovery, it may be useful to try to
recover a small drive sample using the split barrel SPT sampler. However, this does not
obviate the need to adjust the rotary coring equipment and techniques in order to obtain the best
core recovery possible.
In fine cohesive soil, and some silty sand, consecutive drive samples can be obtained
using the 100 mm diameter sampler, or similar. In soft clay or sand, the barrels of the sampler
can be coupled together to form a sampler 1 m in length and, if necessary, the core-catcher can
be used to help retain the samples. In soft clays, it is generally good practice to obtain at least
one complete profile for the site using the continuous piston sampling technique. Special
sampling equipment is available for taking long continuous samples in soft clay, loose silt and
loose silty sand (see Section 19.6).
In coarse granular soil, such as gravel, it is advisable to take disturbed samples from
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the drill tools (see Section 19.3), together with split barrel standard penetration test samples
(see Section 19.4.5) at about 1 m intervals.
Some of the soil samples obtained by drive sampling or rotary coring, if not required for
'undisturbed' tests, should be split along their longitudinal axis and carefully examined and
described in their fresh condition. This exercise should be repeated later when soil is in a
semi-dried state and the fabric may be more readily identified. Where highly variable ground
conditions are expected, it may be advantageous to sink one or more boreholes first, either by
rotary core sampling or by cable tool boring with continuous tube sampling. The cores or
tube samples can then be examined to give guidance for sampling at selected depths in other
boreholes which are sunk subsequently close to the initial boreholes (see Section 22.4).
22.3 Routine Determination of Soil and Rock Properties
Once the zones or materials whose properties are likely to be relevant to the technical
objectives of the investigation have been identified, these properties may be assessed using
routine or special techniques (the latter are discussed in Section 22.5). The programme of
sampling and testing should be varied to suit the particular requirements of the investigation
and the equipment that is in use.
The following programme is an example of a reasonable sampling and testing frequency

where a borehole is being sunk through colluvium or weathered rock into fresh rock by means
of rotary coring :
(a) Colluvium and soils derived from insitu rock weathering.

At the top of each zone or layer in the ground, and thereafter
at 1.5 to 3 m intervals, an 'undisturbed' sample, i.e. class 1 or
class 2 sample (see Section 19.2), followed by a standard
penetration test should be taken. A disturbed sample should
be recovered from the SPT sampler whenever possible.
(b) Moderately decomposed to fresh rock. Continuous rotary

core sampling should be undertaken.
22.4 Double-hole Sampling
In this method, a borehole is first sunk to ascertain the ground profile. A second
borehole is then sunk adjacent to the first, but at a sufficient distance away from it to avoid the
disturbed zone, and samples are taken at predetermined levels. This method may be used
where high variability in ground conditions is expected, e.g. in variable sedimentary deposits,
or for the location and sampling of the shear zone material in a failed slope.
22.5 Special Techniques
Special techniques of sampling and testing include the following :

125
(a) Sampling techniques. These include the use of sand

samplers, piston samplers and continuous soil samplers.
(b) Testing techniques. These include vane tests, cone

penetration tests, plate tests, pressuremeter tests, packer tests
and discontinuity surveys.
Some of the equipment used in these techniques is fragile, and easily damaged if used in
unsuitable ground. It should preferably be used only where it is known that ground conditions
are suitable.
Using a special sampling technique, the frequency of sampling in sand and in soft
sensitive clay will in general be determined by similar considerations to those given in
Section 22.3. However, if the material requiring the use of a special sampling technique is of
limited thickness, it may be advisable to take samples at smaller than usual depth intervals so
as to obtain a sufficient quantity of that material.
In the borehole vane test, only the small volume of clay that is rotated by the vane is
tested, and individual results often show a considerable scatter. For this reason, vane tests
should be carried out as frequently as possible. The vertical interval will be determined by
the depth at which the test is carried out below the bottom of the borehole; this interval is
usually 500 mm. Closer spacing can be obtained using the penetration vane apparatus.
The cone penetration, pressuremeter and packer tests, as well as discontinuity surveys,
are generally taken continuously, or such that complete coverage of the borehole is provided.
Where a series of plate tests is required at increasing depths, the minimum spacing is
determined by the depth to which the soil has been stressed by the test. A vertical interval of
about four times the borehole diameter is usually adequate.
126
23. Probing and Penetration Testing

23.1 General
Probing from the surface probably represents the oldest method of investigating the
depth to a hard layer where the overlying material is weak and not unduly thick. The simplest
probe is a sharpened steel rod which is pushed or driven into the soil until it meets resistance.
The method is still of use where other means of site investigation have disclosed relatively thin
layers of very soft soils overlying much harder soils. In such cases, the thickness of the soft
layer may be determined over a wide area very quickly and economically. The method has
many limitations, and a variety of more sophisticated apparatus has been developed, both in
an attempt to overcome these drawbacks and to extend the use beyond that of detecting a hard
layer, e.g. to give some measure of the allowable bearing capacity of the soils present. Two
distinct types of probe have been developed : one where the probe is driven into the soil by
means of some form of hammer blow; the other where the probe is forced into the soil by a
static load.
23.2 Dynamic Probing
The apparatus for dynamic probing comprises a sectional rod fitted at the end with a
cone whose base is of greater diameter than the rod. It is driven into the ground by a constant
mass falling through a fixed distance. A device commonly used in Hong Kong is the GCO
Probe (Figure 36 and Plate 10A), which is essentially a larger and heavier version of the
Mackintosh Boring and Prospecting Tool. Probe results are very useful for assessing the depth
and degree of compaction of buried fill, making comparative qualitative assessments of ground
characteristics, and in supplementing the information obtained from trial pits and boreholes.
Probing has also been carried out in the base of hand-dug caissons (Evans et al, 1982). Probe
results are normally reported as the number of blows per 100 mm penetration, as shown in
Figure 37.
As additional rods are added for probing at depth, the driving energy provided to the tip
is attenuated by the additional mass of the rods. Correction of the probe values is sometimes
made to allow for this effect. The correction is negligible at the shallow depths at which many
probings terminate, and it is unnecessary to apply a correction if only qualitative comparisons
between probe results at similar depth are being undertaken.
The fact that the rod and couplers are somewhat smaller in diameter than the base of the
cone prevents, to some extent, shaft friction from influencing the results; however, at depth in
certain soils, this factor should also be considered.
The primary use of dynamic probing is to interpolate data between trial pits or boreholes
rapidly and cheaply. Therefore, probing should first be carried out adjacent to a trial pit or
borehole where ground conditions are known, and then extended to other areas of the site. As
with other types of penetrometers, probing may sometimes be unsuccessful in soils containing
corestones, cobbles or boulders. In fill or completely decomposed rock, the maximum depth
to which a GCO probe can be driven is about 15 m. In order to minimise damage to the
equipment, probing should terminate when the blow count reaches 100, or when the hammer
127
bounces and insignificant penetration is achieved.
23.3 Static Probing or Cone Penetration Testing

23.3.1 General Description
Several types of static probing equipment have been developed and are in use throughout
the world (De Ruiter, 1982; Sanglerat, 1972). The basic principles of all systems are similar,
in that a rod is pushed into the ground and the resistance on the tip (cone resistance) is measured
by a mechanical, electrical or hydraulic system. The resistance on a segment of the rod shaft
(friction sleeve resistance) may also be measured. Static probing, or cone penetration testing,
is also known by a number of other descriptive terms, depending on the manufacturer or
operator of the particular device being used.
There is no British Standard for cone penetration testing, but suitable recommendations
are given by the ISSMFE (1977) and the ASTM (1985k). Both of these test standards
recognize a number of traditional types of penetrometers, and it is imperative that the actual
type of instrument used is fully documented, as the interpretation of the results depends on the
equipment used. Two common types of penetrometers, mechanical and electrical, are
described further in Sections 23.3.2 and 23.3.3 respectively.
The reaction required to achieve penetration of the cone may be obtained by screw
anchors, the weight of the thrusting machine, kentledge, or a combination of these. When
cone penetration testing is done in shallow water, the thrusting machine may be secured to a
jack-up platform (see Section 14.7).
23.3.2 Mechanical Cone Penetrometers
Two common mechanical cones, the Dutch mantle cone and the Dutch friction sleeve
cone, are shown in Figure 38 (see also Plate 10B). These cones were developed mostly at the
Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory in the l930's. With either type, the cone is pushed into the
ground by a series of hollow push rods. With the mantle cone, the force on the cone is then
measured as the cone is pushed downward by means of inner rods inside the push rods. This
force is generally measured at the ground surface by a hydraulic load cell. With the friction
sleeve cone, the same initial measurement is made, and then a second measurement is taken
while the cone and friction sleeve are together pushed downward a further increment. The
friction is calculated by deducting the former reading from the latter. This procedure is
normally repeated at regular depth intervals of 0.2 or 0.25 m.
An alternative quick continuous method of penetration is sometimes used with the

mantle cone. In this method, the cone and push rods are pushed into the ground with the cone
permanently extended and connected to the load cell. Accuracy is reduced in this operation,
however, and the free movement of the cone should be checked at frequent intervals.
For accurate work, the weight of the inner rods should be taken into account in
calculations. In very soft soils when soundings are carried to a significant depth, the weight
of the inner rods may exceed the force on the cone or cone plus jacket; in these circumstances,
128
it is impossible to obtain readings. This effect can be reduced by the use of aluminium inner
rods. The inner rods should be free to slide inside the push rods, and the cone, and friction
jacket where used, should be checked for free sliding both at the start and at the end of each
penetration test. All push rods and inner rods should be straight, clean and well-oiled
internally. The accuracy of the load and pressure gauges should be checked periodically by
calibration.
23.3.3 Electrical Cone Penetrometers
A number of types of electrically-operated cone are in use, and these generally

incorporate vibrating wire or impedance strain gauges for measuring the force on the cone and
friction jacket. In use, the cone is advanced at a uniform rate of penetration by pressure on
the top of the push rods, and signals from the load-measuring devices are carried to the surface
by cable threaded through the push rods. Forces on the cone, and friction jacket, can either
be displayed on a readout at the surface or recorded automatically on a chart recorder, punched
tape or magnetic tape. Exclusive recording on punched tape or magnetic tape which does not
allow direct access to the data during or immediately after sounding is not recommended.
Provision should be made for calibration of the force-measuring system at regular intervals,
preferably on site. An inclinometer built into the cone is available with some equipment.
The cones are generally parallel-sided, and the friction jacket, where fitted, is
immediately behind the point, as shown in Figure 39a (see also Plate 10B). However, parallel-
sided electrical cones do not give exactly the same results as those obtained with the mechanical
cone penetrometer, although the difference is usually of little importance. Electrical cones
with a profile modified to give better agreement with the mechanical cone are also available
(Figure 39b and c).
One particular type of electrical cone penetrometer is the "Brecone", which has a
combined 5 kN and 50 kN force measurement range (Rigden et al, 1982). It has the advantage
of being able to measure cone resistances in clays containing dense sand layers without
suffering damage to the more sensitive load cell.
The recently developed "piezocone", which incorporates a pore pressure transducer

within an electrical cone, has also found application in some Hong Kong marine investigations
(Blacker & Seaman, 1985; Fung et al, 1984; Koutsoftas et al, 1987).
23.3.4 General Recommendations
The following general recommendations apply to cone penetration testing, whether

undertaken with mechanical or electrical cone penetrometers :
(a) The cone cross-sectional area should be 1 000 mm2, and the
cone apex angle should be 60°.
(b) The friction sleeve, if present, should have a surface area of

15 000 mm2.
129
(c) The rate of penetration should be 20 ± 5 mm/s.
(d) Force measurements should be accurate to within ±5% of the

maximum force reached in the test.
23.3.5 Uses and Limitations of the Test
The cone penetrometer test is relatively quick to carry out, and inexpensive in
comparison with boring, sampling and laboratory testing. It has traditionally been used to
predict driving resistance, skin friction, and the end bearing capacity of driven piles in granular
soils. In recent years, the cone penetrometer test has also been used to give an indication of
the continuous soil profile by interpretation of the ratio of friction sleeve and cone resistances.
In addition, there is substantial published information relating cone resistance value with other
soil parameters.
The cone penetrometer test is also the preferred substitute for the standard penetration
test in soil conditions where results of the latter test are suspect, and where hard driving is not
anticipated. The test is also commonly used as a rapid and economical means of interpolating
between boreholes. Although it may be possible to estimate the type of soil through which the
cone is passing as described above, it is preferable to carry out the test in conjunction with
some other means of determining the nature of the soil present.
Cone penetration is limited by both the safe load that can be carried by the cone, and the
thrust available for pushing it into the ground. It is also limited by the compressive strength
of the inner rods; some machines are capable of crushing the inner rods before the rated capacity
of the machine is reached. Because of limited cone capacity, penetration normally has to be
terminated where dense sand or gravel, highly to moderately decomposed rock, or cobbles are
encountered. For this reason, cone penetration testing in Hong Kong has been limited to the
Recent alluvial and marine sediments.
23.3.6 Presentation of Results
Results are normally presented graphically with cone resistance (and local skin friction
where a friction jacket cone is used) plotted against depth. The friction ratio, defined as
(friction resistance/cone resistance) x l00, may also be plotted against depth. This ratio is
used to assist in interpreting the soil type penetrated. Suitable scales for plotting the results
are given in ISSMFE (1977).
23.4 Static-dynamic Probing
The standard penetration test is rather insensitive in loose materials and is not truly
relevant to cohesive soils. On the other hand, the cone penetrometer is of limited use when
dense or stiff layers are encountered. The static-dynamic test combines the two methods
(Sherwood & Child, 1974). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
130
Part V
Field and Laboratory Tests

131
24. Field Tests

24.1 General
Field tests are generally desirable where it is considered that the mass characteristics
of the ground would differ appreciably from the material characteristics determined by
laboratory testing. These differences generally arise from several factors, the most important
of which are the extent to which the laboratory samples are representative of the mass, and the
quality of the sample that can be obtained for laboratory testing. Factors affecting sample
quality are dealt with in Chapter 12 and attention is drawn to factors affecting the
representative nature of a laboratory sample. These factors are partly related to the insitu
conditions of stress, pore pressure and degree of saturation, and can be altered from an
unknown insitu state by the sampling processes. Consequently, their influence cannot be
accounted for in laboratory testing.
The material tested insitu by a field test is analogous to a laboratory sample, and can
be considered as a 'field sample'. The insitu conditions of a field sample may be affected by
the process of gaining access to the test position (e.g. digging a trial pit) but, generally, the
effect is very much less than for a laboratory sample.
More obvious, however, are the controlled effects of the nature, orientation, persistence
and spacing of discontinuities (Geological Society, 1972), the nature of any infilling, and the
size of sample required for it to be representative. To ensure that they are representative, the
selection and preparation of samples in the field is subjected to the same requirements as for
laboratory samples. Considerable attention should be given in the field to these aspects,
because, generally, fewer field tests can be carried out than laboratory tests.
The size of sample tested in a field test will depend on the nature of the ground and type
of test, and may vary from a fraction of a metre, such as in the insitu triaxial state of stress
measurements, to several metres for field trials, to one or two kilometres in the pumping test.
Field tests may therefore be necessary where the preparation of representative

laboratory samples is complicated by one or more of the following conditions :
(a) The spacing of the discontinuities in the mass being

considered is such that a sample representing the mass,
including the discontinuities, would be too large for
laboratory test equipment. The discontinuities are assumed
to govern the geomechanical response of the mass relative to
the scale of the engineering structure concerned.
(b) There is difficulty in obtaining samples of adequate quality

owing to the lack of cohesion or irreversible changes in
mechanical properties, resulting from changes in pore
pressure, degree of saturation and stress environments during
sampling and from physical disturbance resulting from the
sampling procedure.
132
(c) There is difficulty in determining the insitu conditions such as

those of pore pressure, degree of saturation, and stress
environments for reproduction in the laboratory testing.
(d) Sample disturbance due to delays and transportation from

remote sites is excessive.
The locations and levels of all field tests should be fully recorded during the execution
of the work. The records should be such that the locations and levels can be readily
incorporated into the report on the investigation (see Sections 10.5 and 40.2.8).
Some field tests are relatively inexpensive and are undertaken on a routine basis (e.g.
field density tests described in Chapter 27, the various borehole and penetration tests previously
described in Chapters 21 and 23, and the index tests described in Section 24.2). Other field
tests are expensive and must be designed specifically to account for both the nature of the works
and the character of the ground mass. These latter tests should not be undertaken before a
comprehensive understanding of the geology and nature of the ground has been obtained.
24.2 Rock Strength Index Tests

24.2.1 Point Load Strength
The point load strength index test measures the strength of rock material by means of a
concentrated load applied to specimens of rock core or irregular lumps of rock (Figure 40).
The test gives an indirect measure of the tensile strength of the rock, which has been correlated
with the uniaxial compressive strength (Bieniawski, 1975; Broch & Franklin, 1972; Norbury,
1984). The test results are a useful aid to rock description and classification (GCO, 1988).
The point load strengths of some Hong Kong rocks are discussed by Gamon (1984b), Irfan &
Powell (1985) and Lumb (1983).
A standard test procedure has been recommended by the ISRM (1985). Specimens of
rock core can be tested in either an axial or diametral mode, as can irregular lumps of rock,
provided specified shape criteria are met. The test results are dependent on the size of the
specimen tested, and a 50 mm standard reference diameter has been selected for the reporting
of results.
The test is intended to measure primarily the intact strength of the rock material, and
specimens for testing should therefore be selected to meet the necessary shape criteria without
incorporating discontinuities. Similarly, the failure surface from each test should be examined,
and if the failure passes along a discontinuity, the test result should be discarded.
The main advantages of the point load test are that a large number of tests can be
completed rapidly, with minimal sample preparation. The test equipment is easily portable,
and by testing samples of the same material in various orientations, indications of strength
anisotropy and tensile (splitting) strength of discontinuities can be obtained.
Point load tests can be carried out in the field or in the laboratory. In either case, the
visual examination and logging of samples described in Section 36.3 should be undertaken prior
133
to testing, as the test is destructive.
24.2.2 Schmidt Hammer Rebound Value
The Schmidt impact hammer can be used to measure the hardness of rock. This device,
originally developed to measure the hardness of concrete, measures the rebound of a spring-
loaded piston from a metal anvil resting on the surface to be tested. The height of the piston
rebound is taken as an empirical measure of rock hardness, and this value has been correlated
with rock and weathered rock properties (Hencher & Martin, 1982; Hucka, 1965; Irfan &
Powell, 1985).
The Schmidt hammer is a portable, hand-operated device and is available in two models,
i.e. the L type (impact energy of 0.735 N-m) and the N type (impact energy of 2.207 N-m).
The N Schmidt hammer is more robust, and generally to be preferred for field testing of rock
exposures. Brown (1981) recommends a standard test method for the type L hammer, but the
recommendations are equally applicable to type N hammers.
Although the Schmidt hammer is quick and easy to use, great care should be taken when
testing weak rocks, or any rock surface which is rough, cracked or fissured. In such cases, it
is recommended that a number of seating blows are taken initially, to ensure a good contact
between the rock surface and the hammer head. Poole & Farmer (1980) concluded that
reliable values could be obtained by ignoring artificially low readings and selecting peak
rebound values from a minimum of five consecutive impacts at a point. The Schmidt hammer
is relatively insensitive on very weak rocks which yield rebound values below 10, and it cannot
be used on rock core unless the core is held in a heavy vice or a steel cradle.
The Schmidt hammer test provides a rapid quantitative assessment of rock hardness and
is suitable for use in trial pits or caisson excavations, or on surface exposures. Use of the test
results is discussed further in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
24.3 Infiltration Tests
The limiting infiltration rate for water entering the soil can be determined with a double
ring infiltration test (Figure 41). The test is commonly carried out at the bottom of a trial pit
or caisson. Water is fed from graduated bottles to the exposed soil surface in the inner ring,
and to the annular space between the rings. The amount of water flowing out of the bottle is
measured with time. The flow under steady-state conditions is used to determine the limiting
infiltration rate (Figure 42). Because of the percolating water from the outer ring (the 'buffer
zone'), water within the inner ring is constrained to infiltrate vertically into the ground, resulting
in a flow with approximately unit hydraulic gradient. Therefore, the limiting infiltration rate
is roughly equal to the 'saturated' field permeability of the soil. In practice, complete
saturation of the ground may not occur due to entrapped air in the soil voids, in which case the
test result will only give a lower bound value for the saturated permeability (Schmid, 1966).
The test can be performed at successive depths to give a complete permeability profile.
It is also possible to perform simpler single ring infiltration tests and crude soakaway
134
tests (i.e. timing a known water head loss in a steel tube, hole or trial pit of standard dimensions).
However, it must be appreciated that no buffer zone is provided in such tests to encourage
vertical infiltration. The results may be useful in a comparative sense but should not be
regarded as an indication of the true permeability of the soil.
135
25. Pumping Tests

In principle, a pumping test involves pumping at a steady known flow from a well and
observing the drawdown effect on groundwater levels at some distance away from the pumped
well. In response to pumping, phreatic and piezometric levels around the pumping well will
fall, creating a 'cone of depression'. The permeability of the ground is obtained by a study of
the shape of the cone of depression, which is indicated by the water levels in the surrounding
observation wells. The shape of the cone of depression depends on the pumping rate, the
duration of pumping, the nature of the ground, the existence, or otherwise, of intermediate or
other boundaries, the shape of the groundwater table, and the nature of recharge.
From the data obtained from the test, the coefficients of permeability, transmissivity and
storage can be determined for a greater mass of ground than by the use of the borehole tests
described in Chapter 21. The results can be used in the evaluation of dewatering requirements
and groundwater resources, as well as in the design of positive groundwater cut-offs. It should
be noted that a given coefficient of transmissivity can result from many different distributions
of permeability with depth. If the test is intended for the evaluation of permeability in the
design of dams and other similar projects where seepage is an important consideration, the use
of down-the-hole velocity profiling at constant outflow can provide a permeability profile of the
ground.
Pumping tests can be expensive, requiring adequately screened and developed pumping
and observation wells, suitable pumping and support equipment, and personnel. Care should
be taken therefore to design a suitable test programme. Before attempting to carry out a
pumping test, reliable data should be obtained on the ground profile, if necessary by means of
boreholes sunk especially for the purpose. The geological units encountered may then be
grouped into hydrological units on the basis of permeability (Leach & Herbert, 1982).
The natural groundwater conditions should be determined by careful monitoring over a

sufficient period before the pumping test. Ideally, the conditions should be stable during the
test; if they are not, the fluctuations have to be recorded.
Fluctuations can be caused by rainwater infiltration, tides, groundwater extraction from

wells, and nearby construction activities. This is particularly important in highly permeable
ground subject to rapid recharge.
The interpretation of the data from a pumping test can be complicated and is much
affected by the inferred ground conditions and by the influence of any boundaries. Where
necessary, expert advice should be sought.
In Hong Kong, pumping tests have been used occasionally to determine hydrogeological
parameters (as described above) but are more often carried out for the purpose of estimating the
yield of water wells. They are also conducted occasionally to provide data for the design of
major dewatering schemes associated with the construction of deep basements. The possible
effects on adjacent ground and structures, e.g. settlements and inducement of negative skin-
friction on piles, should be carefully considered before conducting a pumping test (see
136
Section 8.3.2(e)). Pumping test proposals for private developments must be submitted to the
Buildings Ordinance Office for approval and consent prior to the commencement of works (see
Appendix A.8).
25.2 Groundwater Conditions
There are two main types of groundwater conditions, confined and unconfined, and these
should be recognized for analytical and design purposes.
(a) Confined. If the ground under investigation is fully

saturated and the water is confined under pressure between
two impermeable layers, then confined conditions are said to
exist.
(b) Unconfined. If the original phreatic level is everywhere

below the upper surface of the aquifer, then unconfined
conditions are said to exist.
Intermediate between the above two groundwater conditions is a third called the semi-
confined condition. In this case, fully saturated ground is overlain by material of significant
but lower permeability, and significant leakage takes place across the boundary in response to
pumping. Analysis of data from semi-confined conditions is possible, but the condition is less
commonly encountered than the other two types.
The three types of groundwater conditions may be recognized by the test response (BSI,
2010). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
25.3 Test Site
Although the choice of test site may be dictated by practical considerations, such as
access and availability of existing boreholes, the site should be representative of the area of
interest. The hydrological conditions should not change appreciably over the site. It is
essential that discharged water is not able to return to the ground under test.
25.4 Pumped Wells
Pumped wells should be of sufficient diameter to permit the insertion of a rising main
and pump of a suitable type and capacity, together with a standpipe and velocity meter, if
required. They should be provided with an adequate well screen, and filter pack where
necessary, to prevent the withdrawal of fine particles from the surrounding soil. The minimum
borehole diameter which will achieve this purpose is often 300 mm. It is desirable that they
penetrate the full depth, of the water-bearing zone being tested. Where the ground is
composed of two or more independent horizons, each should be tested separately. Where fully
penetrating conditions do not exist, the data have to be corrected before analysis. In all cases,
the screen intake area should be such as to ensure that the maximum velocity of water entering
137
the well is not greater than about 30 mm/s to ensure that hydraulic well looses are of an
acceptable level.
If, during the test, changes in the shape of the cone of depression that are due to
extraneous causes are a significant fraction of those due to pumping, then the resulting estimate
of permeability may become unacceptable. Such influences can be corrected by monitoring
(Walton, 1962), both before and during testing. Where possible, and within the limitations set
by the permeability, the pumping rate should be chosen so that resulting changes in water levels
are much greater than those due to extraneous causes, thus minimizing the effects of the latter
on the results.
Suction pumps can be used where the groundwater does not have to be depressed by
more than about 5 m below the intake chamber of the pump, and drawdown can be increased
by setting the pump in a pit. For greater depths, submersible pumps are preferable. The
more permeable the ground, the greater the pump capacity required to produce measurable
drawdowns in the observation wells.
It is essential that the discharge is kept constant for the duration of the test and that all
the water level observations are related to a time-scale referred to the onset of pumping.
It is particularly important to maintain a constant pumping rate when vertical flow

velocities in the pumping well are being measured for the purpose of determining the relative
permeabilities of specific horizons in the ground under test. The pumping rate may be
controlled by a gate valve in the discharge line or by varying the speed of the pump, or both.
The rate of flow from the pump may be measured by a flow or orifice meter, or by a notch tank
with automatic recording.
It is important that pumping wells should be adequately developed. Development of a

well is the process by which particles surrounding the screen are rearranged, with coarsening
grade and better uniformity towards the screen; it can be achieved in a number of ways
(Johnson, 1982). Maximum development is indicated when the ratio of pumping rate to fall
in water level in the pumping well reaches a maximum. Fine particles from the ground are
removed during development, resulting in a stable, porous and permeable medium surrounding
the well.
Successful well development results in reduced hydraulic head losses as the water enters
the pumping well but, in any case, these losses (well losses) should be accounted for in the
analyses of test results.
In Hong Kong, pumping tests are sometimes carried out in large diameter hand-dug
caissons. This has several disadvantages, as the caisson may only partly penetrate the aquifer
being tested, and the well storage is large. Also, high well losses are often incurred, and for
this reason observation wells should always be used in conjunction with pumping tests in
caissons.
138
25.5 Observation Wells
Observation wells should have an internal diameter large enough to permit insertion of
a diameter or other water-level measuring device, but if the diameter is too large this may cause
a time lag in drawdown. Standpipes with an internal diameter of 19 mm are often used.
Observation wells should penetrate the same ground as the pumping well and should permit
entry of water from the full depth of ground being tested. If there is any risk that fine soil
particles may clog the observation wells, they should be surrounded by a suitably graded filter
material.
Although the permeability of the ground may be estimated from the pumping well
drawdown data alone, more reliable values are obtained using data from one or more
observation wells. The recommended minimum number of observation wells required to yield
reasonably representative results is four, arranged in two rows at right angles to each other.
Their distances from the pumping well should approximate to a geometrical series. It may be
necessary to add more wells if the initial ones yield anomalous data. If linear boundary
conditions are associated with the site (e.g. river, canal or an impermeable subsurface bedrock
scarp, fault or dyke), the two rows of observation wells are best arranged parallel and normal
to the boundary.
The minimum distance between observation wells and the pumping well should be ten
times the pumping well radius, and at least one of the observation wells in each row should be
at a radial distance greater than twice the thickness of the ground being tested. However,
unless the pumping rate is very high, and the duration of pumping long, particularly in low
permeability ground under unconfined conditions, falls in water levels may be small at such
distances. Preliminary calculations using assumed permeabilities estimated from borehole
data will help to indicate the likely response in observation wells to pumping. Hence the
appropriate distance of the observation wells from the pumping well and the timing of
observations can be assessed.
In addition to the observation wells described above, it is desirable to have an additional

standpipe inside the pumping well in order to obtain a reliable record of the drawdown of the
well itself.
Depths to water levels should be measured to within ±5 mm. This usually means that
measurement devices have to be checked at regular intervals against, for example, a graduated
steel tape.
The water levels can be monitored with either an electrical dipmeter or an automatic
well level recording system.
25.6 Test Procedures
Once the character of fluctuations and other extraneous influences has been established,
the test programme designed and the wells developed, pumping of the ground at a constant rate
should commence. Water levels in all wells are then measured with respect to time since
commencement of the pumping. Typically the frequency of measurement might be at 1 min
139
intervals for the first 15 min and at regular logarithmic intervals thereafter. Sometimes,
shorter intervals may be required initially. Therefore each well may have to be monitored by
independent observers for the first 100 min, and then by one or more observers thereafter. In
distant observation wells where head changes are small, automatic recorders can be used,
although these generally require observation wells of 100 mm diameter or greater.
The measurements should be plotted during the course of pumping to evaluate the
quality of the data, the nature of the response, and the required duration of pumping. Johnson
(1982) and Kruseman & DeRidder (1980) have discussed the time requirements for both steady
and non-steady state pumping tests carried out on confined, semi-confined and unconfined
aquifers.
In all cases, water levels should continue to be monitored with respect to time from
cessation of pumping until recovery of levels to the original values is complete. As in the
drawdown phase, recovery data should be taken at 1 min intervals for 15 min following
cessation of pumping and thereafter at regular intervals on a logarithmic scale.
25.7 Analysis of Results
There are two forms of analysis of pumping test data :
(a) Steady state. If pumping continues long enough, water

levels cease to fall, and the hydraulic condition of the ground
is said to be in a steady state with respect to time.
(b) Non-steady state. Before equilibrium is reached, water

levels fall at a changing rate with respect to time and the
hydraulic condition of the ground is said to be in a non-steady
state.
The simpler form of analysis is the steady state type, but the necessary duration of
pumping can be significantly longer than that necessary for non-steady state analysis. The
analysis technique is also dependent on aquifer response, i.e. whether confined or unconfined
conditions are present. A summary of some of the available analysis techniques is given in
BSI (2012c), and these are further discussed by Johnson (1982) and Kruseman & DeRidder
(1980). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
A number of simplifying assumptions regarding ground conditions are required in

whatever method of analysis is used, and it is therefore common that the actual drawdown data
collected in the field may lead to ambiguities in the analysis. This may be caused by
inhomogeneity and anisotropy in the aquifer, or the presence of unknown barriers to
groundwater flow. In some cases, high flow velocities around the well may invalidate the use
of Darcy's law, upon which most methods of analysis are based.
140
26. Discontinuity Surveys

26.1 General
Discontinuities such as joints usually control the mechanical behaviour of a rock mass.
Where surface exposures or outcrops of the rocks exist, a joint survey may be carried out to
assess the risk of joint-controlled instability, e.g. in cut slopes and excavations.
The methods and equipment used to carry out a joint survey are described in ISRM
(1978), and techniques for analysing the results are given by Hoek & Bray (1981). Further
guidance on joint surveys and description can be found in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
During analysis, care must be taken that rare but critical joints are not overlooked by the
usual statistical methods of data sorting (Beattie & Lam, 1977; Brand et al, 1983). An
experienced supervising engineer or geologist (see Section 15.3) should visit the site to examine
in detail the nature of those discontinuities that have been identified as critical. The slope or
exposure should be examined again during construction for the presence of unfavourable joint
sets not identified in the survey. The need to carry out a joint survey for cut slopes formed in
soils derived from insitu rock weathering should also be considered; unfavourably orientated
relict joints may cause slope failures.
26.2 Discontinuity Surveys for Rock Cut Slopes [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In the mapping of discontinuities, special emphasis should be given to identifying

adverse geological features and dilated rock joints or open joints with infill or sediment, which
could indicate progressive slope deterioration and/or adverse groundwater conditions. The
key characteristics of these adverse geological features should be adequately mapped. In
addition, care must be taken to ensure that apparently minor, but kinematically significant joint
sets or individual joints are not overlooked (Evans & Irfan, 1991). However, sample of joint
measurements should be representative of the overall picture, in order to avoid collection of
large quantities of measurements that may have little relevance to stability assessment.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Large-scale rock slope failures have occurred involving laterally persistent

discontinuities such as sheeting joints. The waviness of a sheeting joint could involve local
steepening of the joint dip angle behind the slope face, which can be difficult to detect in
practice (HCL, 2001). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Site-specific laboratory tests may be carried out to characterise the operational joint
shear strength where considered necessary, with consideration given to the roughness and
persistence of the joint, influence of any weak infill, etc. (Hencher, 1981). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
26.3 Discontinuity Roughness Surveys [Amd GG2/01/2017]
It is often not possible to account fully for discontinuity roughness in an insitu or

laboratory shear test, due to limitations on the length of the joint plane which can be tested in
141
standard equipment, and on the selection of representative sampling points. Therefore,

discontinuity roughness surveys are often undertaken to supplement such tests.
Procedures for undertaking and interpreting field roughness surveys are described in
detail by the ISRM (1978). The most commonly-used method is to employ a set of thin
circular plates of various diameters. These are taken into the field and a series of discontinuity
dip directions and dip angles are measured in turn for each plate when placed on the
discontinuity surface. The accuracy of these measurements is improved by taking a large
number (e.g. 50 or more) readings for each plate and by ensuring that the discontinuity surface
is relatively large and reasonably representative of a particular joint set. The results are often
presented as contoured polar diagrams on an equal-area stereographic projection. The
smallest base plate will give the largest scatter of readings and the largest roughness angles (and
vice versa). A graphical plot of maximum roughness angles versus plate diameter is often
used to assess the sensitivity of the relationship between roughness angle and length of potential
shear displacement along the discontinuity plane.
The main engineering use of a field roughness survey is for the assess-ment of design
values of discontinuity shear strength (Hoek & Bray, 1981). This is achieved by combining
the survey results with data from direct shear tests or assumed basic friction angles. Methods
for interpreting the contribution of roughness to discontinuity shear strength in Hong Kong
granite are discussed by Hencher & Richards (1982); the application of a roughness survey at
an engineering site in North Point, Hong Kong is described by Richards & Cowland (1982).
142
27. Field Density Tests

Field testing of soil bulk density is a common and useful procedure. When coupled
with moisture content determinations, the test results can be used to obtain the dry density of
the soil. A major use of such testing is for the control of compaction of embankments, where
it forms the 'field' portion of a relative compaction test (the other portion of the test being carried
out in the laboratory). Field density testing may also be used in evaluation of insitu materials
and old fills, where it provides a direct determination of density that is independent of the
sampling disturbance normally present in laboratory tests.
In essence, most of the available methods of field density testing depend on the removal
of a representative sample of soil, followed by determinations of the mass of the sample and
the volume it occupied prior to removal. However, the nuclear methods discussed in
Section 27.7 are an exception to this general rule. Mass determinations are relatively
straightforward but accurate measurements of sample volume are more difficult and may lead
to significant variations in test results, depending on the technique used, which is in turn
dependent on the nature of the soil being tested.
All the test methods described below require physical access to the soil insitu.
Therefore, they are normally restricted to soil within 2 to 3 m of the surface, although they can
also be used equally well within caissons or shafts. Use of the nuclear probe technique is an
exception to this depth limitation.
The methods described generally measure bulk density, and representative moisture
contents are required if the dry density is to be calculated. Ideally, the weight of the moisture
content sample should be determined on site, then the sample should be transported to the
laboratory for oven drying in accordance with GEO (2017a). Otherwise, the entire sample has
to be preserved in an airtight container until it can be weighed. Alternatively, a rapid
determination of moisture content can be made using a microwave oven, the 'Speedy' moisture
tester, or one of the rapid methods described in BSI (1990). However, all such rapid
determinations should be thoroughly correlated with the standard oven-drying technique for the
particular soil type being tested. In any case, moisture content samples should be as
representative and as large as practical, or several determinations should be made in order to
obtain a reliable mean value. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
With the exception of the water replacement method for rock fill (see Section 27.8), the
methods outlined below are described further in Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) and BSI (1990) or
the ASTM standards quoted. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
27.2 Sand Replacement Method
GEO (2001) describes two variations on the sand replacement method. The first,
employing a small pouring cylinder, is used for fine and medium grained soils. The second,
using a large pouring cylinder, is suitable for fine, medium and coarse grained soils.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
143
These methods are unsuited to soils containing a high proportion of very coarse gravel
or larger particles because the apparatus is not large enough to cope with a hole of sufficient
size to obtain a representative sample; also the sand will tend to run into the interstices of the
material, thus leading to inaccurate results. The method cannot be used in soils where the
volume of the hole cannot be maintained constant. It also loses accuracy in soils where it is
difficult to excavate a smooth hole because the sand cannot easily occupy the full volume.
The test should not be carried out when compaction plant is operating nearby, or when
ground vibrations are present.
The calibration of the sand is sensitive to humidity and should be checked daily. The
sand should be oven-dried and stored for about a week for the moisture content to reach
equilibrium with atmospheric humidity. After each test, the sand should be dried and sieved
to remove any extraneous material before further use.
27.3 Core Cutter Method
The core cutter method is described in BSI (1990). The method depends upon being
able to drive a cylindrical cutter into the soil without significant change of density and to retain
the sample inside it so that the known internal volume of the cylinder is completely filled. It
is therefore restricted to fine soils that are sufficiently cohesive for the sample not to fall out,
and to completely decomposed rock free of large fragments. The method is generally less
accurate than the sand replacement method because driving the sampler tends to alter the
density of the soil. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
27.4 Immersion in Water Method [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The immersion in water method is described in BSI (1990). It is applicable to any soil
where representative samples occur in discrete lumps that will not disintegrate during handling
and submersion in water. In practice the method is restricted mainly to cohesive soils.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
27.5 Water Displacement Method
The water displacement method is described in BSI (1990). It is an alternative to the

immersion in water method and has the same limitations. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
27.6 Rubber Balloon Method
A description of the rubber balloon, or densometer, method can be found in ASTM

(1985b). In essence it is a water replacement test with a rubber membrane retaining the water.
It is an alternative to the sand replacement method with the limitation that it is not suitable for
very soft soil which will deform under slight pressure, or in which the volume of the hole cannot
be maintained constant. The ASTM standard does not describe the apparatus in precise terms
144
and hence the method could be used for coarser soils than the sand replacement method if a
sufficiently large apparatus were constructed.
The densometer allows a simpler and more rapid determination of density than the sand
replacement method, but the apparatus is somewhat cumbersome and may be prone to leakage
(GCO, 1984).
27.7 Nuclear Methods
Nuclear methods of density measurement at shallow depth are described in ASTM

(1985e). They do not measure density directly, and calibration curves have to be confirmed
for each soil type, which involves measuring the densities of representative samples of the soils
concerned by one of the direct methods discussed in Sections 27.2 to 27.6. However, once
this has been done, and provided there are no significant changes in soil, the method is very
much faster than the others. It is therefore most suited to situations where there is a continuous
need for many density determinations over a period of time, and where the soils do not vary to
any significant extent. It should be noted that the density determined by nuclear methods is
not necessarily the average density within the volume involved in the measurement.
The measurement of moisture content at shallow depth by the nuclear technique is

described in ASTM (1985h). In many modern nuclear instruments, measurements of both
density and moisture content are made simultaneously. As the moisture content determination
is indirect, it is essential that nuclear determinations (which often overestimate moisture content
of local soils obtained by the oven-drying method) are correlated with conventional
oven-drying moisture determinations for the particular soil being investigated.
Nuclear measurements of density and moisture content can be made at depth by

employing a nuclear probe within a borehole (Brown, 1981; Meigh & Skipp, 1960). This
technique may be particularly useful when undisturbed samples cannot be obtained readily,
such as in some fine granular soils. As only indirect measurements are obtained, the
limitations mentioned above for shallow nuclear techniques apply equally well to the nuclear
probe.
All nuclear techniques utilize radioactive materials, and appropriate safety precautions
must be followed. The use and handling of nuclear instruments should be fully in accordance
with the manufacturer's recommendations and applicable regulations (see Appendix E).
27.8 Water Replacement Method for Rock Fill
The methods quoted in Sections 27.2 to 27.7 can rarely be used in materials containing
a substantial fraction larger than coarse gravel, and the water replacement method, which is
described below, has been devised for such soils. Although it is not covered by any standard
specification, some experience in its use has been gained. In principle, it consists of
excavating a hole large enough to obtain a representative sample, lining the hole with flexible
polyethylene or similar sheeting and then determining the volume of water required to fill the
hole. A 'density ring' is used as a template for the size of hole and also as a datum from which
145
to measure water levels. This is made up from structural steel plate, and for rock fill may be
2 m in diameter, 200 m in height and provided with a mark on the inside.
The procedure is to place the ring on a levelled surface, packing sand under it where it
is not in contact with the soil, and weighing it down with sandbags. Polyethylene sheeting is
placed over the ring, pressed into it and smoothed out as far as possible so as to line completely
the cylindrical cavity so formed. A measured supply of water is then run into it and the volume
required to fill it up to the mark on the density ring is noted.
The polyethylene sheeting is then removed, the hole excavated, and the spoil loaded into
skips for subsequent weighing and grading, if required. Care is needed in the excavation to
ensure that the density ring is not disturbed and, to this end, the edge of the excavation should
be kept at least 150 mm away from the inner edge of the ring. The sides of the hole should be
trimmed to minimize projecting stones.
Polyethylene sheeting is then placed over the ring and hole and partially secured with
sandbags. Water is then run in from a measured source and, at the same time, the polyethylene
lining is fed into the hole, helping it into crevices and minimizing folds. This continues until
the water level is again up to the mark on the inside of the density ring. The difference in the
two volumes is then a measure of the volume of the hole. It is customary to allow the water to
remain in the hole for a period of time to see whether there is any fall of water level, which
would indicate leaks in the polyethylene lining.
The accuracy of the results of this test can be enhanced by attention to the following
details :
(a) The hole should be made as large as possible.
(b) The sides of the hole should be made as smooth as possible.
(c) As thin a gauge of polyethylene as possible should be used,

consistent with it not fracturing too easily. Two sheets of
0.1 mm polyethylene laid together have been found to be
satisfactory. It is not quite so flexible as one sheet of the
same thickness, but is less prone to punctures.
Accounts of the practical use of this method can be found elsewhere (Frost, 1973;
Stephenson, 1973).
146
28. Insitu Stress Measurements

28.1 General
The stresses existing in a ground mass before changes caused by the application of loads
or the formation of a cavity within the mass are referred to as the initial insitu state of stress.
These stresses are the resultant of gravitational stress and residual stresses related to the
geological history of the mass.
Data on the initial insitu state of stress in rock and soil masses before the execution of
works are increasingly important in design, more particularly when using finite element
analysis. The most favourable orientation, shape, execution sequence and support of large
and complex underground cavities and the prediction of the final state of stress existing around
the completed works are dependent on knowing the initial insitu state of stress. Measurements
of insitu stress have shown that in many areas the horizontal stresses exceed the vertical stress,
which in turn often exceeds that calculated assuming that only gravity is acting on the ground
mass.
Measurement of insitu stress in soils may be made, although the equipment used
generally provides an estimate of horizontal stress only. In order that both total and effective
stresses can be estimated, it is usual to measure the pore water pressure in addition to the total
stress.
The interpretation of insitu stress measurements requires specialist experience.
28.2 Stress Measurements in Rock
The methods available are generally based on induced stress changes, achieved in some
cases by over-coring or slotting an instrumented test area.
Over-coring is used for measurement within the rock mass, whereas slotting is used for
surface stress measurements. Measurements taken have to be adjusted to take account of the
redistribution of stresses as a result of formation of the borehole or slot, and, in the case of
underground works, when the measurement is made in the zone of influence of the main access,
such as an adit. The accuracy of most methods of measurement of insitu stress in rock limits
their use to locations where the rock cover is at least 75 m. Stress measurements may also be
determined from the measurement of displacements of the walls of a tunnel, or of an exploratory
adit, close to the working face.
With the exception of the static equilibrium method (Morgan & Panek, 1963), the
available techniques generally require that the material in which the measurements are made
behaves in a near elastic, homogeneous and isotropic manner, and that it is not excessively
fractured or prone to swelling as a result of the effects of drilling water. For the over-coring
methods, the elastic behaviour is assumed to be reversible, the elastic constants being obtained
from laboratory tests.
Stress measurements may be made using electrical strain gauges, photo-elastic discs,
147
solid inclusions and systems for measuring the diametral change of a borehole. Some
equipment is designed to measure stress change with time, or stress change due to an advancing
excavation, whereas other equipment is designed to obtain an instantaneous measurement of
stress. The technique selected has to be chosen in relation to the rock material and mass
quality. Strain gauges cannot be glued reliably to highly porous or wet rock.
Special methods for measuring and interpreting the uniaxial, biaxial or triaxial state of
stress in a rock mass are described in BSI (2010). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The report on the results of insitu stress measurement should include information on the
following :
(a) Location of test and direction and depth of the boreholes,

method of drilling and diameters of cores.
(b) Depth below ground level of the point of measurement.
(c) Geological description of the rock material and rock mass.
(d) Type and sizes of strain gauges, and strain readings to the
nearest 10 micro-strain.
(e) Temperature and humidity at the test location, and

temperature of the flush water if applicable.
(f) The modulus of elasticity, E, and Poisson's ratio, ʋ, of the

rock sampled from each stress measurement area, as
determined from static laboratory testing of core (preserved
at insitu moisture content) over the appropriate stress path.
(g) The six components of stress (σx, σy, σz, τxy, τyz, τzx) at
each point to the nearest 100 kPa.
(h) The three principal stresses and their directions (to the
nearest degree), related to both a borehole or adit axis system
and a global axis system.
(i) Colour photographs of the cores or test location.
(j) Date of measurement and date at which the excavation passes

the point of measurement.
28.3 Stress Measurements in Soils
The analysis of the response of soil masses to applied loads requires reliable data on
their strength and deformation characteristics, and, as these are stress dependent, a knowledge
of the insitu state of stress assists in their evaluation by laboratory testing.
148
Direct insitu measurements of the initial state of stress in soils is difficult because the
disturbance created by gaining access to the ground mass is generally non-reversible, and
several times that produced by a stress-relieving technique. The accuracy of most instruments
that have been developed suffers because of the disturbance created in the ground on insertion.
It is usual to measure only horizontal stress, and to make assumptions concerning the
level of vertical stress based on the overburden depth. Only total stress may be measured;
therefore, to determine the effective stress conditions, the pore water pressure at the test level
has to be measured or assumed. Methods of determining pore water pressure in the field are
discussed in Section 20.2.
In soft clays, hydraulic pressure cells have been carefully jacked into the ground, or
installed in a pre-bored hole (Kenney, 1967). The "Camkometer", a self boring pressuremeter,
reduces disturbance to a minimum by fully supporting the ground it penetrates (Windle & Wroth,
1977). The total horizontal insitu stress may then be obtained by measuring the contact
pressure. Facilities to measure pore pressure are available in the same instrument. Hydraulic
fracturing has also been used to estimate minimum horizontal stresses in soft clay (Bjerrum &
Anderson, 1972).
In large excavations, pressure cells are sometimes used to measure the contact pressure
between the soil and a retaining structure. The type and position of a cell should be chosen
with great care, because the introduction of the cell into the soil causes a redistribution of the
stresses around it, and the errors depend on the geometry of the instrument. Details of the
types of cells available and the problems that may be encountered when using them are given
by Brown (1981) and Hanna (1985). Some of the factors that affect the accuracy of contact
pressure cells are discussed by Pang (1986).
149
29. Bearing Tests

29.1 Vertical Loading Tests
Insitu vertical loading tests involve measuring the applied load and penetration of a
plate being pushed into a soil or rock mass. The test can be carried out in shallow pits or
trenches, or at depth in the bottom of a borehole, pit or adit (see Section 21.6). In soils, the
test is carried out to determine the shear strength and deformation characteristics of the
material beneath the loaded plate. The ultimate load is often not attainable in rocks, where
the test is more frequently used to determine the deformation characteristics.
The test is usually carried out either under a series of maintained loads or at a constant
rate of penetration. In the former, the ground is allowed to consolidate under such a load
before a further increment is applied; this will yield the drained deformation characteristics
and also strength characteristics if the test is continued to failure. In the latter, the rate of
penetration is generally such that little or no drainage occurs, and the test gives the
corresponding undrained deformation and strength characteristics.
It should be emphasized that the results of a single loading test apply only to the ground
which is significantly stressed by the plate; this is typically a depth of about one and a half
times the diameter or width of the plate. The depth of ground stressed by a structural
foundation will, in general, be much greater than that stressed by the loading test. For this
reason, the results of loading tests carried out at a single elevation do not normally give a direct
indication of the allowable bearing capacity and settlement characteristics of the full-scale
structural foundation. In order to determine the variation of ground properties with depth, it
will generally be necessary to carry out a series of plate tests at different depths. These should
be carried out such that each test subjects the ground to the same effective stress level it would
receive at working load.
Where tests are carried out in rock, blasting for rock excavation may seriously affect the
rock to be tested. This effect can be minimized by using small charges, and by finishing the
excavation by hand methods.
29.1.2 Limitations of the Test
The main limitation of the test lies in the possibility of ground disturbance during the
excavation needed to gain access to the test position.
Excavation causes an unavoidable change in the ground stresses and may result in
irreversible changes to the properties which the test is intended to study. In spite of this effect,
the moduli determined from plate tests are more reliable and often many times higher than those
obtained from standard laboratory tests. In a project which involves a large excavation, e.g.
a building with a deep and extensive basement, the excavation may cause disturbance to the
ground beneath, with a consequent effect on the deformation characteristics. In such a case,
it will be necessary to allow for this unavoidable disturbance when interpreting the results of
loading tests.
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When carrying out the test below the prevailing groundwater table, the seepage forces
associated with dewatering may affect the properties to be measured. This effect is most
severe for tests carried out at significant depths below the water table in soils and weak rocks.
It may therefore be necessary to lower the water table by a system of wells set outside and below
the test position.
29.1.3 Site Preparation
It is necessary to ensure that any material loosened or softened by the excavation is

removed and that the plate will lie in direct planar contact with the sample surface. It is
essential that this surface is undisturbed, planar and free from any crumbs or fine loose debris.
Where access is possible the surface is best prepared by hand; elsewhere, special tools are
required to trim and prepare the surface from a remote point. As the sample preparation
involves stress relief and exposure to different temperature and humidity conditions, the delay
between setting up and testing should be minimized and the time lag should be reported with
the results.
The even transference of load onto the test surface can best be achieved by setting the
plate on a suitable bedding material, which usually consists of cement mortar or plaster of
paris. Where the test is being performed to measure the deformation characteristics of a
relatively stiff material, considerable care is required in setting the plate, and a series of
bedding layers may be needed (Ward et al, 1968). Changes in water content of the ground
being tested should be kept to a minimum.
29.1.4 Test Arrangement
The test is subject to scale effects. Several plate sizes and shapes are used, the most
common being circular plates ranging from 300 mm to 1 000 mm in diameter. The choice
depends on the problem being studied. In rocks, plates larger than 1 000 mm diameter may
be used, depending on the jointing frequency. The test arrangement used by the U.K. Building
Research Establishment is shown in Figure 43 and is fully described elsewhere (Marsland, 1971;
1972; Ward et al, 1968).
The need sometimes arises to measure displacements in the ground below the plate
(Marsland & Eason, 1973; Moore, 1974). The plate has to be rigid and the direction of the
resultant applied load has to be vertical and without eccentricity. The loading may be applied
directly by kentledge or jacking against a reaction system provided by means of kentledge,
tension piles or ground anchors. Where kentledge is used, it should be supported on a
properly designed frame or gantry such that there is no possibility of the load tilting or
collapsing. The foundations of this frame or gantry should be sufficiently far away from the
sample not to affect its behaviour to any significant extent. Where tension piles or ground
anchors are used, they should be sited sufficiently far away from the sample so as to have no
significant influence on its behaviour. The normal practice is to maintain a minimum
distance of three times the plate diameter from the centre of the plate to the centre of the pile.
The amount of kentledge or jacking resistance that needs to be provided is governed by the
purpose for which the tests are carried out and also, to some extent, by economic considerations.
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In general, the nearer the soil or rock under the plate approaches the point of shear failure, the
more worthwhile are the data derived from the tests. The test is sometimes conducted in a
similar fashion to the constant rate of penetration (CRP) test for piles (ICE, 1978).
The penetration or deflection of the plate should generally be measured at the centre
and the edge of the plate. In order to minimize the effect of poor bedding and sample
disturbance, the displacement of the material at some depth beneath the prepared test surface
can be determined by inserting reference datum rods anchored at various depths (Wallace et al,
1969). Such measurements are intended to provide more realistic data on the mass behaviour
of the ground; they are usually taken through a central hole in the loaded plate.
The displacement of the plate is related to a fixed datum. This often consists of a
reference beam supported by two foundations positioned outside the zones of influence of either
the loaded area or the reaction area. The deflection-measuring equipment has to be set up in
such a way that any tilting of the plate will not cause errors in the measurements. Dial
gauges are often used, and the rods transmitting the displacements of the plate should
incorporate a ball joint or other similar device to eliminate the effects of bending. The
reference beam and measuring devices should be protected from the direct rays of the sun and
from wind by means of tarpaulins or other forms of shelter; errors of measurement can easily
arise from these causes.
A comparable arrangement for performing the test in an adit is given in BSI (2010).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
29.1.5 Measurements
(1) Applied Forces. The load on the plate is best measured by means of a load cell,
which should be capable of reading to an accuracy of 1% of the maximum load. It is advisable
to have the cell calibrated over the anticipated range of loading before and after the test
programme.
(2) Displacements. Displacements in the direction of load application may be

measured by dial gauges or electrical transducers and the readings can be taken continuously
if required. Displacements should be measured to an accuracy of 0.1 mm.
(3) Time. Records of time for the various stages of setting-up and testing are required,
particularly where cyclic loading and creep tests are being carried out.
(4) Temperature. The measurement of temperature will be required in the event that
corrections to the settlement or load readings are considered necessary.
29.1.6 Test Methods
(1) General. The test is most frequently used to measure the ultimate bearing capacity.
In cases where settlements and elastic deformation characteristics of the ground need to be
determined, as in rock foundations, care should be exercised to work at stresses that are relevant.
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The observation of deformation, particularly at low stress levels, requires the utmost care in
sample preparation and setting-up if meaningful results are to be achieved. The errors that
can be introduced by sample disturbance and inaccuracies of measurement can often be similar
in size or greater than the data sought.
The effect of sample disturbance can be reduced, to some extent, by carrying out
preliminary cycles of loading and unloading. The maximum load in these cycles should not
exceed the intended load. The rate of loading should be sufficiently rapid to prevent any
significant consolidation or creep. After two or three cycles, the stress/settlement graph will
generally tend to become repeatable, and the test can then be extended to the main testing
programme. The data from the preliminary load-cycles give an indication of the effect of the
sampling disturbance. The undrained deformation moduli, as measured after preliminary
load-cycling, generally give a more reliable indication of the true properties of the undisturbed
ground.
(2) Maintained Load. The load is usually applied in equal increments, with each
increment being maintained until all movement of the plate has ceased, or an acceptably low
rate of increase has been reached. The increments are continued up to some multiple of the
proposed working load, to failure or to the full available load. When the test is carried out to
investigate the deformation characteristics of the ground, it is preferable to carry out
preliminary load cycling. Cycles of unloading and reloading may also be carried out at
various stages in the main test to gain some indication of the relative amounts of reversible (i.e.
'elastic') and irreversible deformation that have occurred. If the rate of unloading and
reloading is sufficiently rapid, the slope of the load/deformation curve may be used to determine
the undrained deformation modulus, or an approximation to it. However, in relatively
permeable ground this may not apply.
(3) Constant Rate of Penetration. Constant rate of penetration tests are more suitable
for soils. Such tests are described by Marsland (1971) for plates ranging from 38 mm to
868 mm diameter, using a penetration rate of 2.5 mm/min. Where the maximum bearing
capacity is not clearly defined, the value of the bearing pressure at a settlement of 15 per cent
of the plate diameter is used. If the undrained deformation modulus is required, the plate
diameter should be greater than 750 mm, but it is preferable to carry out a separate test with
the load applied incrementally at a rapid rate.
(4) Creep. The measurement of creep under sustained loads is sometimes carried out
in connection with the design of foundations which are highly stressed or where the structures
concerned are particularly sensitive to settlement (Meigh et al, 1973). If the structure is to be
subjected to fluctuating loads, the test programme will probably include cyclic loading.
29.1.7 Analysis of Results
The assumptions made for the analysis are that the material is homogeneous, elastic,
isotropic and that the classic equation for the penetration of a rigid circular plate on a semi-
infinite plane surface applies :
153
S
q
B
1    2
.................................................... (8)
4 E
where E is the elastic modulus,

q is the pressure applied to the plate,
S is the average settlement of the plate,
B is the diameter of the plate,
 is Poisson’s ratio.
This equation can be used when the test is carried out either at the ground surface or in
a pit whose plan dimensions are at least five times those of the plate (Ireland et al, 1970). If
the test is carried out at the end of a borehole, the expression becomes :
S
q
B
1   I
2
................................................. (9)
d
4 E
where Id is a depth correction factor (Burland, 1969). When the test is carried out in an adit,
other modifications to this equation will be required depending on the extent and planarity of
the tested surface (Carter & Booker, 1984). Finite element analysis can sometimes be applied
to problems where rigorous solutions are not available, although the problem of choosing
representative soil parameters to put into the analysis still remains. An equation for
calculating the modulus at any depth beneath the centre line of the loaded plate is given
elsewhere (Benson et al, 1970; Wallace et al, 1970). For jointed rock, Poisson's ratio can be
assumed to be between 0.10 and 0.25 for practical purposes.
For cohesive soils, an estimate of the undrained shear strength, Cu, can be obtained from
the plate test carried out in a borehole by using the following equation :
qu  H ..................................................... (10)
Cu 
Nc
where qu is the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil under the plate. When this is
not clearly defined the bearing pressure at a penetration of 15% of the
diameter is used,
γ is the bulk density of the soil,
H is the height of soil above test level,
Nc is the bearing capacity factor. For a rigid circular plate at the base of a
deep shaft of the same diameter as the plate, Nc is assumed to have a value
of 9.25. However, if the plate has a significantly smaller diameter than the
shaft, or if the depth is less than four times the plate diameter, the value of
Nc may be smaller and approaches 6.15 for a circular surface load. Some
allowance should be made for side shear on the plate where this is
appropriate.
29.1.8 Interpretation of Results
The correct interpretation of the behaviour of the mass of ground under investigation
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requires a careful examination of the results, not only of the loading tests, but also of other data
concerning the ground (Sweeney & Ho, 1982). Depending on the objectives of the
investigation, such data might include the geological structure, the nature and distribution of
discontinuities, and the variability of the ground.
Several deformation moduli can be obtained from these tests, depending on the method
used and the application (Brown, 1981). The results obtained will reflect the effects of the
width and frequency of the discontinuities and will give an indication of the mass behaviour
under loading. The stress level at which these parameters should be examined will depend on
the working stress levels. In the case of tests on rock in adits, it may be necessary to consider
the insitu stresses in the test sample.
The moduli to be used for design purposes should be those which relate to the ground at
the time of construction and after it has been affected by the construction procedures; for
example, a deep excavation might affect the deformation moduli of a soil, and blasting may
affect the properties of a rock. Sometimes, the effect of a construction procedure may be
sufficiently severe to justify the examination of alternative methods of construction.
On completion of the test, full identification of the material beneath the loaded area
should be carried out by sampling and testing in the laboratory. Results obtained from these
tests will in many cases assist in extrapolating the test results to other areas on the site.
29.2 Horizontal and Inclined Loading Tests
Basically, horizontal and inclined loading tests are the same as vertical loading tests,
and are carried out and analysed in a comparable way (see Section 21.6.10). Loading tests
at a preferred orientation are carried out to investigate particular characteristics of the ground.
They are frequently carried out in rock for investigations concerning tunnels and underground
excavations (Brown, 1981; Carter & Booker, 1984). A simple lateral loading test, carried out
between the opposite sides of a trial pit or caisson using an hydraulic jack, forms a very
convenient means of measuring the insitu modulus and shear strength of soils. Interpretation
of the elastic modulus of soil from lateral loading tests should follow the advice given by Carter
& Booker (1984). Care should be taken to support the weight of the jack and other loading
equipment so as to prevent the application of shearing forces to the test area.
29.3 Pressurized Chamber Tests
The test is carried out in an underground excavation or length of tunnel and consists of
charging the chamber with water under various pressures and measuring the deformation
moduli of the surrounding ground. The test is generally carried out for projects involving
tunnels carrying water under pressure.
The test site should preferably form part of the actual excavation, or be of the same size
and parallel to the axis in representative ground. The length of a test section should be at
least five times the excavated diameter, unless allowance can be made for the end effects. The
method of excavation used should be capable of producing a formed surface of similar quality
155
to the actual excavation. In order to ascertain whether the modulus determined is drained,
partially drained or undrained, it is necessary to know the drainage conditions which applied
during the test.
29.4 Insitu California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Tests

29.4.1 General
The CBR method of flexible pavement design is essentially an empirical method in which
design curves are used to estimate a pavement thickness appropriate to the CBR of the soil.
There is no unique CBR of a soil, and in any CBR test the value obtained depends very much
on the manner in which the test is conducted. The design curves are usually based on one
carefully specified method of measuring the CBR, and this is usually a laboratory method.
The parameter required for the design of flexible pavements is the CBR attained by the soil at
formation level after all necessary compaction has been carried out, the pavement has been
laid and sufficient time has elapsed for equilibrium moisture content to become established.
Before embarking on insitu CBR tests, it is therefore necessary to consider carefully how
relevant they will be to the proposed design method, and whether the condition of equilibrium
moisture content is likely to pertain.
29.4.2 Test Method
The test is carried out by the method described in BSI (1990). The load is generally
applied through a screw jack using the weight of a vehicle as jacking resistance, and deflections
are measured by dial gauges carried on a bridge with independent foundations resting on the
ground well clear of the test area. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
29.4.3 Limitations and Use of Test
The test is unsuitable for any soil containing particles of longest dimension greater than
20 mm because the seating of the plunger on a large stone may lead to an unrepresentative
result. The test is of dubious value with sands because it tends to give results much lower than
the laboratory tests on which the design charts are based. This is because of the confining
effect of the mould in the laboratory tests. The test is most suited to clay soils, subject always
to the soil under test being at equilibrium moisture content. The moisture content at a depth
of 1 to 2 m below ground surface, where the soil is normally unaffected by seasonal moisture
content changes, often gives a good indication of the equilibrium moisture content, provided
that there is no significant change of soil type. An alternative is to carry out the test directly
beneath an existing pavement having identical subsoil conditions to those of the proposed
construction; this method has been used with some success for the design of airfield pavements.
Insitu CBR tests have sometimes been carried out in conjunction with insitu density and
moisture content tests and then linked with laboratory compaction tests. A careful study of all
the resulting data may allow a reasonable design parameter to be chosen for suitable soils.
Attempts have sometimes been made to use the test as a means of controlling the compaction of
fill or natural formations, but they have not usually been successful and the procedure cannot
156
be recommended.
157
30. Insitu Direct Shear Tests

In this test, a sample of soil or rock is prepared and subjected to direct shearing insitu.
The applied stresses and boundary conditions are similar to those in the laboratory direct shear
test. The test is generally designed to measure the peak shear strength of the intact material,
or of a discontinuity (including a relict joint in soil), as a function of the normal stress acting
on the shear plane. More than one test is generally required to obtain representative design
parameters.
The measurement of residual shear strength can present major practical problems in
arranging for a sufficiently large length of travel of the shear box, but a useful indication of
residual strength may be obtained by continuing the test to the limits of travel of the apparatus.
In certain applications, the test may be designed to establish the strength of the interface
between concrete and rock or soil.
Insitu shear tests on soil may be carried out either within boreholes (Bauer &
Demartinecourt, 1982; Handy & Fox, 1967) or near the ground surface (Brand et al, 1983b).
Equipment for testing close to the ground surface in trial pits may be adopted to enable testing
to be carried out within deep excavations, large diameter shafts or caissons. Insitu shear tests
on specific discontinuities in rock may also be conducted using similar equipment; the results
may be used to confirm the strength of discontinuities derived from laboratory tests and field
roughness surveys (see Section 26.2).
30.2 Sample Preparation
Samples are generally prepared at the bottom of pits or trenches in soil. Adits are more
common for rock testing. The excavations permit access to the material at the zone of interest,
and in many cases provide a suitable means of setting-up the reaction for the applied forces.
The orientation of the sample and the forces applied to it are generally governed by the
direction of the forces which will become effective during and on completion of the works, but
modified to take account of the orientation of significant discontinuities. In many cases,
however, to facilitate the setting-up of the test, the sample is prepared with the shear plane
horizontal. The normal and shearing stresses are generally imposed as forces applied
normally and along the shear plane. However, an inclined shear force passing through the
centre of the shear plane may be preferred as this tends to produce a more uniform distribution
of stress on the shear surface (Brown, 1981).
As a rough guide, the sample dimension should be at least ten times that of the largest
particle; in rock, the sample size should reflect the roughness of the rock discontinuity being
tested. For stronger rocks, the sample can be rendered with suitably strong cement and
reinforced concrete to ensure adequate load distribution. The equipment should be of robust
construction. Samples between 300 mm and 1 500 mm square have been used for testing soil
and weak rocks. Larger samples may be required in ground containing boulders or in coarse
fill material.
158
Great care has to be exercised in preserving the environmental conditions when

forming the excavation. Excavation techniques which would affect the discontinuities in the
sample test area should be avoided, e.g. those which give rise to crumbling, fracturing or
excessive dynamic shock loading. Hand sawing, cutting and diamond drilling should be used
to prepare and trim the sample. Adequate protection from the elements should be provided.
Final exposure and trimming of the sample to fit the loading frame and the testing itself should
all be completed with minimum delay to avoid possible significant changes in the moisture and
stress conditions of the sample. If tests are carried out below the water table, precautions
should be taken to avoid the effects of water pressure and seepage (see Section 29.1.2).
Where it is intended to test one discontinuity only, care has to be taken to avoid
disturbance to the surface of the discontinuity, and to prepare the sample so that the forces are
applied correctly in the plane of the discontinuity. The spatial orientation of the discontinuity
should be defined by dip direction and dip measurements.
Where drained conditions are required, suitable drainage layers can be inserted around
the sample and on the loaded upper surface.
With the borehole shear device, there is no sample preparation as such, but care is
required during the formation of the borehole so as to limit disturbance of the surrounding soil
(Bauer & Demartinecourt, 1985).
30.3 Test Arrangement
The equipment for applying the normal load can consist of weights, kentledge, hydraulic
rams, flat jacks acting against the excavation roof, or an anchor system. The reaction system
should ensure the uniform transfer of the normal loads to the test sample and minimum
resistance to the shear displacement, e.g. by the use of low-friction devices such as ball seatings
or rollers (Brown, 1981). A porous piston or other suitable medium can be used to distribute
the load where drained conditions are required. The alignment of the force needs to be
maintained during the test.
The shearing force application system should ensure that the load is applied uniformly
over the plane of shearing, and that the load and geometrical centroids are matched to eliminate
movement. Where an inclined shear force is required, the resultant of the shear force should
pass through the centre of the base of the shearing plane (Brown, 1981). If a constant normal
load is required for this type of test, suitable reduction has to be made to the applied normal
load during testing to compensate for the increase in vertical component with increasing shear
force. The shear force application can be developed by similar means to the normal loading.
In both cases, care has to be taken to ensure that the ground reaction does not extend to the
sample. The reaction system can frequently be provided by the excavation sidewalls. In
certain cases, it may be necessary to provide the shear force by traction on a system anchored
by piles or cables. Sufficient travel in the shear force application system should be provided
so that the complete test can be run without interruption.
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30.4 Measurements
Provision should be made for the following :
(a) The applied forces should be capable of being measured with

an accuracy of ±2% of the maximum forces reached in the
test.
(b) Shear, normal and lateral displacements should be measured.

Sufficient travel should be provided to run the complete test
without the need to reset the gauges. The anchorage datum
of each gauge needs to be rigid and set up at a point
sufficiently remote that it is not affected by the forces applied
during testing.
(c) Steps should be taken to guard against the effects of changes

in temperature. Alternatively, temperatures should be
measured and any sensitive equipment should be calibrated.
30.5 Test Methods
The stresses applied in the testing programme should be within the range of the relevant
working stresses at the site, including those applied by the final structure, if appropriate.
Where drained test conditions are required, a consolidation stage is necessary to allow the pore
water pressures to dissipate under each increment of normal load. The rate of consolidation
should be monitored, as this is useful for determining the rate of shearing (Brown, 1981). For
drained tests, the rate of shearing has to be sufficiently slow to ensure that induced pore pressure
changes are a very small proportion of the shear stress. At best, the appropriate shear rate can
only be estimated prior to the test, and experience gained in similar soil or rock conditions and
with similar test configurations is beneficial.
On completion of the test, full identification of the material sheared should be carried
out by visual examination, sampling and laboratory testing. Photographs of the shear surface
form a useful record of the test conditions and may assist in the interpretation of results.
30.6 Analysis of Results
Graphs of consolidation behaviour (if applicable) and shear force (or stress) plotted
against both normal and shear displacements are prepared in the analysis. The peak shear
stress and corresponding shear and normal displacements may then be obtained and related to
the applied normal stress. When failure occurs in a plane dipping at an angle to the applied
shearing force, this should be accounted for in the analysis (Bishop & Little, 1967).
For tests on discontinuities in rock, the results from individual tests should not be
extrapolated to the rock mass without confirmation that the surface tested is representative of
the overall roughness of the discontinuity (see Section 26.2).
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31. Large-scale Field Trials

31.1 General
Large-scale field trials are carried out in such a manner that the ground is tested on a
scale and under conditions comparable with those prevailing in the project under investigation.
However, such trials are likely to be costly in terms of instrumentation, the requirements for
purpose-made equipment and technical support. The methods and types of instrumentation
available for monitoring field tests are given in brief outline in the following sections, together
with some of the more common large-scale field trials used to obtain geotechnical data for
design and construction.
Large-scale field trials involve the principles of site investigation embodied in this
document, and would usually include the use of ground investigation techniques already
described. Large-scale field trials are not standard tests, and should be designed to suit the
individual requirements of the proposed works and the particular ground on which or within
which they are to be performed. On large projects, field trials can provide the necessary
design parameters, as well as valuable construction data on excavation, handling and placing,
resulting in considerable savings and enhanced safety. Such methods and trials can be
usefully extended into the construction stage, and also to the monitoring of the interrelated
response of the ground and structure after completion under the working conditions.
31.2 Methods of Instrumentation
Several techniques can be used in ground investigation to monitor displacements and

strains associated with known or suspected ground movements resulting from slope failures,
foundation displacement, subsidence and ground response in large-scale field trials (BGS, 1973;
Brown, 1981; BSI, 2009; GCO, 1984; Hanna, 1985). A review of instruments commonly used
in Hong Kong is given by Coleman (1984). Handfelt et al (1987) have described the
performance of the instrumentation used in an offshore test fill (see also Foott et al, 1987).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Ground movements are generally associated with stress redistribution and pore pressure
changes which are characteristic of the particular ground. Total stress can be monitored
using total pressure cells (see Chapter 28), while normal and shear stresses can be measured
by special transducers (Arthur & Roscoe, 1961). The techniques for the measurement of pore
pressure response are covered in Sections 20.2.3 to 20.2.6.
Ground movements are generally measured in terms of the displacement of points which
can be positioned on the surface of the ground or within the ground mass. The absolute
movement of a point has to be referred to a stable datum, and sufficient measurements should
be taken to define movement in three dimensions if this is required. Some of the commonly-
used techniques permit the movement or relative displacement of points to be referenced to
arbitrary horizontal and vertical planes. This relative movement can be used to obtain strain.
Surface observations of ground movements can be made by an accurate survey (Cole &
Burland, 1972). An accuracy of ±0.5 mm can be achieved in levelling (Froome & Bradsell,
161
1966) and ±(5 mm + 5 ppm) for distance measurement using electro-optical instruments (Mayes,
1985). Care has to be taken to position datum points away from the effects of movements due
to load and water changes.
Vertical movements can be observed by means of settlement gauges with an accuracy of

±0.1 mm (Bjerrum et al, 1965); more details are given by Dunnicliff (1971). Multipoint
displacement measurements can also be employed (Burland et al, 1972). The use of vertical
tubes gives an accuracy of about ±3 mm (Penman, 1969). A full profile-measuring technique
which uses a torpedo traversing a flexible tube is described by Penman & Michell (1970).
Telescopic tubes, inclinometers and tensioned wires anchored in boreholes at stable points can
also be used for measuring strains or displacements.
Lateral movements can be measured by offsets and triangulation. Rods, telescopic

tubes and tensioned wires can also be employed. Where a torpedo is used, access from both
ends of the tubing is preferable.
Photogrammetric techniques can be used to survey inaccessible sites such as steep slopes
and ravines (Borehers, 1968). The accuracy of measurements taken by a photogrammetric
method is about ±1/10000 of the camera to object distance under normal working conditions
(Cheffins & Chisholm, 1980).
31.3 Trial Embankments and Excavations
The construction of trial embankments may serve three purposes. First, the quality and
compaction characteristics of available borrow materials can be determined at the field scale
and compared with laboratory test results; second, the characteristics and performance of
placing and compacting equipment can be investigated; third, the strength, and settlement
characteristics of the ground on which the embankment is placed can be examined. Failure
of a trial embankment will usually not be of major consequence, and therefore a trial bank may
be constructed so as to induce failure deliberately, either in the embankment alone or in the
embankment and the foundations. However, any installed instrumentation may be destroyed.
Such failures sometimes occur in an unexpected manner, and the engineer should take
precautions to ensure that no injury to persons or unexpected damage is caused. The value of
such a failure is that back analysis (see Chapter 32), can be used to check strength parameters.
Bishop & Green (1973) have described the development and use of trial embankments.
Compaction trials can include experiments with variable borrow materials, layer
thicknesses, amounts of watering and amounts of work performed in compaction.
Measurements should be made of insitu density and water content; the results should be
compared with those from laboratory compaction tests, to obtain a specification standard, and
with insitu borrow pit densities, so that the degree of bulking or volume reduction can be
estimated for given quantities (BSI, 2009). Trials of equipment can also be undertaken.
Care should be taken not to vary too many factors at the same time, otherwise the effects of
variation of an individual factor cannot be estimated. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Trial excavations yield information on the material excavated and the performance of
excavating equipment; they also permit more detailed examination of the ground than is
162
possible from borehole samples. Excavations can be constructed such that failures are caused
deliberately; hence they can sometimes be used to test the short-term stability of excavated
slopes. However, failures in deep excavations are correspondingly more dangerous than
failures of fills, and increased vigilance is needed.
If the maximum information is to be gained, adequate instrumentation of trial

embankments or excavations is essential, together with continuous observation (see
Section 31.2). The scale of trial embankments or excavations needs careful consideration.
Clearly, the more closely the size of the trial approaches that of the prototype, the more directly
applicable will be the results obtained from the trial.
31.4 Construction Trials
In many projects, considerable value can be derived from trials carried out before the
commencement of the permanent works. Such trials permit the evaluation of the procedures
to be adopted and the effectiveness of the various expedients. As with all large scale testing,
a prior knowledge of the characteristics of the ground is essential. The results of the trial will
often permit an assessment of the properties of the ground and hence enable a correlation to be
made with other results obtained from routine ground investigation methods.
A wide range of construction methods is commonly tested in trials, e.g. pile tests, ground
anchor tests, compaction tests for earthworks, experimental shafts and adits for tunnels,
grouting, trial blasts for explosives and dewatering.
163
32. Back Analysis

32.1 General
Natural or man-made conditions on a site sometimes create phenomena which may be

used to assess parameters that are otherwise difficult to assess or which may be used as a check
on laboratory measurements. Examples of such phenomena are slope failures and settlement
of structures. It may then be possible, starting from the observed phenomena, to perform a
back analysis, for example, in the case of a slope failure, to arrive at shear strength parameters
which fit the observed facts. Back analysis of settlements is also possible, but care is required
in assessing actual loadings and the times for which they have acted.
All applications of back analysis should be accompanied by rigorous geological and

geotechnical investigations, which should include a thorough review of the history of the
problem and examination of relevant climatic and groundwater records. Back analysis should
only be used if it is applicable to the problem in hand and the ground conditions encountered.
All parameters that can have a significant effect on the analysis should be carefully considered.
Since it is very rare for a unique analytical solution to be obtained, sensitivity studies are
normally carried out to assess the effect of parameters that cannot be obtained by direct means.
The pitfalls of back analysis are discussed further by Leróueil & Tavenas (1981).
32.2 Failures and Design of Slope Preventive or Remedial Works [Amd GG2/01/2017]
In Hong Kong, numerous landslides are caused by intense rainfall every year, and back
analysis is sometimes carried out to derive shear strength parameters as part of the design
procedure for slope remedial or preventive works. However, a note of caution is necessary
regarding the interpretation and use of the results. Although the failure itself can be studied
in great detail after the event, it is extremely rare to have accurate information on the specific
ground conditions at the time of failure, particularly with regard to pore water pressures
(Hencher et al, 1984). For this reason, back analysis may be just as useful in permitting a
rational, qualitative assessment of the failure mechanism as in deriving information specifically
on shear strength parameters for use in design (Hencher & Martin, 1984).
Whilst the back analysis approach serves as a useful yardstick for assessing the mass
shear strength, this approach should not be used in isolation. The application of the back
analysis approach for the design of slope preventive or remedial works should be accompanied
by rigorous geotechnical investigation, including ground investigation, laboratory testing and
engineering geological mapping in order to provide a more reasonable basis for making
judgement on suitable mass shear strength parameters. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Extreme care must be taken to avoid the adoption of unduly high shear strength
parameters derived from back analysis which may have incorporated the effect of suction.
Where the ground mass is relatively homogeneous with no corestones or boulders, binding
effect of tree roots, three-dimensional effects of the slope geometry, etc., back-analysed shear
strength parameters which are higher than those determined from laboratory tests on saturated
specimens should not be used. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
164
The notion that the continued stability of an existing slope may be proven by past
rainstorms should be treated with caution. Factors such as deterioration of the slope condition,
progressive slope deformation and possible changes in environmental conditions (e.g. enhanced
infiltration through a dilapidated hard surface cover, leakage from water-carrying services, etc.)
should be carefully considered before one can confidently count on past performance in the use
of the back analysis approach. In particular, the use of the back analysis approach to derive
mass shear strength parameters for designing upgrading works should be done with extreme
caution where the proposed works involve the replacement of a hard surface cover with a
vegetated cover. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
When back analysis is used, it should be for deriving the possible range of strength
parameters. If more than one predominant soil type (e.g. fill and CDG) is involved, the back
analysis approach, if used, should be applied to assess the strength parameters for the particular
soil type with greater uncertainty (e.g. high spatial variability, difficulty in retrieving
representative samples for laboratory testing, etc.), whilst the strength parameters for the other
soil type(s) should be determined by other means such as conventional laboratory tests.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
The back-analysed shear strength parameters for a certain slope section should not be
applied to other sections of the slope in the case of a sizeable slope with highly varied
characteristics (e.g. in terms of slope geometry, geology, catchment characteristics, etc.) along
its length. Different sets of strength parameters may need to be obtained by back-analysing
suitably selected sections. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Back analysis of a landslide or a slope with signs of distress can be useful where there
is sufficient and reliable information on the ground conditions and the geometry of the rupture
surface. This can assist in the diagnosis of failure mechanisms and examination of the likely
combinations of soil shear strength and groundwater conditions at the time of failure. For the
design of remedial works, however, the back-analysed groundwater conditions prevailing at the
time of the landslide should not necessarily be taken as the design groundwater conditions.
This is because the groundwater response for rainstorms with differing characteristics in terms
of intensity, duration and return period may be different, and because the hydrogeological
setting of the failed slope may be altered by the landslide and/or the proposed remedial works.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
The above guidance on the use of the back analysis approach is also generally applicable
to the design of preventive or remedial works for retaining walls. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
32.3 Other Cases
Although back analysis is carried out typically when slope failures or significant ground
movements have occurred, it can be useful in other cases where conventional predictive
methods may not lead to realistic design solutions. An example of this application in Hong
Kong is in the design of preventive works for existing steep slopes formed in soils derived from
insitu rock weathering. In such cases, conventional slope stability analysis will often yield
factors of safety less than unity even when a slope has stood safely without signs of distress for
many years. Shear strength parameters obtained from back analysis of hypothetical failure
165
surfaces through the existing slope often allow a more realistic form of stability improvement
to be made than would be possible from conventional analysis. However, it is very important
to check that the assumptions made in the back analysis are valid; for example, the failure
surfaces selected should be realistic and the proposed works should not result in any substantial
change to the form of or loadings on the slope. Similarly, in the prediction of settlements in
variable ground, or in ground from which it is impossible to retrieve representative samples,
back analysis of settlement data from an adjacent site in similar materials may be the only
satisfactory means of producing sensible predictions.
166
33. Geophysical Surveying

33.1 General
Geophysics is a specialized method of ground investigation. Where a geophysical

investigation is required, the engineer directing the ground investigation (see Section 15.2)
would normally entrust it to an organization specializing in this work. This organization will
usually advise on the details of the method to be used and will interpret the results once they
have been obtained into a form that can be used directly by the directing engineer. There is
advantage in maintaining a close liaison between the directing engineer and the geophysicist
since difficult ground conditions may give rise to problems of interpretation and hence a need
for further investigation. Engineering applications of geophysics have sometimes been
disappointing, and it is important that the type of information supplied by the investigation is
suitable for the project (Griffiths & King, 1983; Ridley Thomas, 1982). The intention of the
following sections is to list the various geophysical methods which are currently available, to
give some indication of the problems they may help to solve and to indicate the limitation of
each method. The applicability of the various geophysical methods is summarized in Table 11.
Adequate borehole control is essential for the interpretation of geophysical observations,

which are best included in a ground investigation employing more conventional methods.
The aim of most geophysical methods of ground investigation is to locate some form of
subsurface anomaly where the materials on either side have markedly different physical
properties. These anomalies may take, for example, the form of a boundary between two rock
types, a fault, underground services, or a cavity. In the initial stages it will almost always be
necessary to check the true nature of these anomalies by physical means, normally by boreholes.
Once a correlation between the geophysical test results and the underground phenomena has
been established, the geophysical investigation may then yield useful results rapidly and
economically. It follows that, where there is no distinct change in physical properties across
the anomaly, the geophysical investigation may not detect a boundary. Geophysical methods
can also be used to deduce soil and rock parameters; when this is done, the results obtained
should always be confirmed by directly measured parameters.
Geophysical survey techniques are based on determining variations in a physical

property, such as electrical conductivity (resistivity), variations in density (gravimetric),
magnetic susceptibility (magnetic) or velocity of sonic waves (seismic). Anomalies such as
near surface disturbance (often known as 'noise') are common in the urban environment and
may limit the usefulness of geophysics in these areas. Moreover, a geophysical anomaly does
not always match an engineering or geological boundary, and often there is a transition zone
at a boundary. This may lead to a margin of uncertainty, for example, in determining the depth
of sound rock that has a weathered boundary or overlying boulders.
Good results in geophysical techniques are obtained when the geological conditions are
relatively simple, with large clear-cut contrasts in the relevant physical properties between the
formations. However, less favourable ground conditions may still warrant consideration of
geophysics, particularly at an early stage in an investigation, because of the relatively low cost
and high speed of the methods, e.g. to assist in eliminating alternative explanations of the
geology. It may at times be necessary to use two or more methods on a trial and error basis
167
to ascertain which yields the most reliable results.
Geophysical surveying is generally used in a ground investigation to make a preliminary

and rapid assessment of the ground conditions. In favourable conditions, a geophysical
technique may indicate variations and anomalies which can be correlated with geological or
man-made features. The results of geophysical survey can then be used to interpolate the
ground conditions between boreholes, and to indicate locations where further boreholes are
needed so that the significance of a geophysical anomaly can be investigated.
33.2 Land Geophysics

33.2.1 Resistivity
This technique is used for investigating the simpler geological problems. A current is
usually passed into the ground through two metal electrodes, and the potential difference is
measured between two similar electrodes (BSI, 1990). With suitable deployment of the
electrodes, the system may be used to provide information on the variation of geo-electrical
properties with depth (depth probes), lateral changes in resistivity (constant separation
traversing) or local anomalous areas (equipotential survey), e.g. karst features, disused tunnels
or shafts. The unsuspected presence of electrical conductors, e.g. pipes or cables, under the
site will, of course, render the results unreliable. The interpretation of the results obtained by
this method does not always provide a definite solution, particularly as the number of
subsurface layers increases, because it involves a curve matching technique which requires the
assumption of idealised conditions. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
33.2.2 Gravimetric
In ground investigation, the gravity survey is normally limited to locating large cavities
or faults. Precision levelling and positioning of the instrument at each station is essential.
With the more accurate instruments now available, it is possible that the gravity survey method
will become a useful tool in locating hidden shafts and smaller cavities.
33.2.3 Magnetic
Local changes in the earth's magnetic field are associated with changes in rock types.
In suitable circumstances, the technique may locate boundaries (e.g. faults or dykes) between
rocks which display magnetic contrasts. However, its main use in the civil engineering field
is the location of buried metalliferous man-made objects, such as cables or pipelines. It can
sometimes be used for locating old mine shafts and areas of fill. In using this method to detect
the location of faults or dykes, it is, of course, essential to eliminate the possibility that the
anomaly detected is in truth buried metal.
168
33.2.4 Seismic
The seismic technique, either reflection or refraction, may be used to locate subsurface
boundaries which separate materials having different values of sonic wave velocities. In
carrying out geophysical surveys on land, the refraction method is the one most frequently used.
It involves producing seismic waves, either from a small explosive charge or from a mechanical
source (e.g. a hammer), and measuring accurately the time taken for them to travel from the
point of origin to vibration detectors (geophones) at varying distances away.
The greatest use of this technique is in the determination of bedrock level (McFeat-Smith
et al, 1986). Therefore, it is commonly used in the estimation of quantities of soft materials
available from a borrow area site. One limitation of seismic refraction, however, is that when
the velocity of transmission in the upper layer is greater than that below (e.g. if very compact
gravel overlies a clay), then the intervening boundary cannot be detected and false layers may
appear to be present. Another use of this technique is to provide wave velocity data for the
assessment of insitu dynamic modulus values of rock masses (Meigh, 1977). Only rarely wil1
the dynamic and static modulus values be the same. Environmental considerations sometimes
limit the application of this test. For example, explosives cannot be used in urban areas, and
where the site lies near to the source of vibrations, such as a busy road, the induced vibration
may not be detectable.
By traversing a seismic refraction survey configuration, the resulting variation of

velocity along the traverse can be used to indicate areas of different rock types or fracture zones.
This information is useful in deciding the type of equipment to be used for rock excavation.
Direct seismic measurements can also be taken between two boreholes, or from surface
to borehole or borehole to surface. These techniques may be useful for assessing the
properties of the intervening rock mass, and in detecting geological features such as cavities.
Cross hole surveys, i.e. between boreholes, may provide the best geophysical means for
detecting cavities at depth (McCann et al, 1987), but results can only be confirmed by
subsequent drilling.
33.2.5 The Gamma Density Method [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The principle of the Gamma Density method is to irradiate the target material with
medium-high energy collimated gamma rays and to measure their attenuation between the tool
source and the detectors. The attenuation is a function of the electron density of the target
material, which in turn is closely related to its mass density. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Based on the relative density contrast between target materials, the technique can be
used, within a drillhole, to identify weak layers in the ground at a practical logging speed of
1 m/min. Such weak layers include clay-rich layers, weathered seams and disturbed zones
that are of comparatively lower mass density. The resolution of the method increases with the
increase in relative density contrast between the target and the adjacent materials. The
resolution decreases if casing is used and as the dip angle of the weak layer becomes aligned
with the drillhole axis (i.e. sub-vertical in a vertical drillhole). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
169
Two examples are shown in Figures 45 and 46. Figure 45 shows strong signatures for
the weak clay-rich layers at locations A to D where the density contrast is high between the
weak layers and the adjacent materials. In this case the method was able to identify weak
layers as thin as in the centimeter range. The clay-rich layers at E to I as a whole give a strong
signature in the log, but the individual layers cannot be clearly distinguished. Figure 46 shows
poor correlation for those weak clay-rich layers at locations A to H where the density contrast
between the weak layers and the adjacent materials is low. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The method is most suitable for use in uncased or plastic-cased drillholes and where the
relative density contrast between the target (weak layers) and adjacent materials is high.
However, caution needs to be exercised in interpreting the data as the absence of a strong
signature does not necessarily confirm the absence of weak layers in the ground.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
33.2.6 The Spectral Gamma Ray Method [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The Spectral Gamma Ray method is based on the principle that decomposition of
potassium-bearing minerals leads to a progressive loss of potassium ions (K). Naturally
occurring potassium contains radiogenic K. Thus the amount of radiogenic K present in the
material is related to the degree of decomposition of potassium-bearing minerals in the parent
rock and hence the degree of weathering of the rock mass. The Spectral Gamma Ray method
produces a log of the potassium count rate along the drillhole. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The location along the drillhole where the count rate shows a significant reduction
compared to the adjacent materials can be interpreted as a more weathered, weak layer.
However, interpretation of the data is dependent on the origin of the target material, which may
significantly affect the potassium count rate. For instance, where a clay layer does not
originate directly from the decomposition of the adjacent materials, the potassium count rate of
the layer may not necessarily be lower than those of the adjacent materials. Also, if thin layers
are to be identified, a slow logging speed will be required, e.g. 0.05 m/min for a resolution of
50 mm. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
This method does not require the use of any radioactive source and it can be used in
drillholes lined with different types of casing. Also it is much cheaper than the Gamma
Density method (about half the price based on term contract rates in 1999/2000). The Spectral
Gamma Ray method, when applied to materials of the same origin and preferably backed up by
site-specific calibration, can give an indication of the degree of weathering. Although the
method is not as good as the Gamma Density method in identifying thin weak clay-rich layers,
there is potential for it to be used in verifying ground conditions, especially in the case of a
large number of drillholes without the need for sampling, e.g. drillholes for installing soil nails,
raking drains, observation wells and piezometers, etc. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The example in Figure 45 shows that the potassium count rate log gives signatures for
the weak clay-rich layers at locations A, B and C. The potassium count rate log in Figure 46
is unable to identify any of the weak layers (A to H). However, the trend of increasing
potassium count rate in less weathered material is evident. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
170
33.2.7 The Neutron Porosity Method [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The principle of the Neutron Porosity method is to irradiate the target materials with fast
neutrons. The neutrons collide with particles having similar mass as the neutrons in the target
material, reducing their speed and becoming thermal neutrons. Within the ground, those
particles that would normally have similar mass as the neutrons are mainly hydrogen nuclei.
If the ground is saturated, the hydrogen content equates with water content and that in turn is
related to porosity. So the neutron porosity log gives an indication of porosity if the target
material is saturated. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Based on the relative moisture content contrast between the target materials, the
technique can be used in open and steel-cased drillholes to identify weak layers in saturated
ground at a practical logging speed of 1 m/min. However, in unsaturated ground, the relative
moisture content between target materials does not truly reflect the porosity and misleading
results will be given by the method. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The method does not work where plastic casing is used because the hydrogen molecules
in the plastic absorb the neutrons and affect the results. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
33.3 Marine Geophysics

33.3.1 General
With suitable modifications of equipment, the land survey techniques, such as seismic
refraction, magnetic and gravimetric techniques, may be extended to the marine environment.
Of greater use, however, are the techniques that have been developed specifically for offshore
work; these are described in the following three sections. It is necessary to apply tidal
corrections to the data obtained, reducing them to an appropriate datum level for proper
interpretation. It is also important to establish precise survey control if the capacity for
detailed structural identification is to be exploited fully. Where appropriate, electronic
navigation systems should be employed.
In Hong Kong, the presence of sewage-rich seabed layers and certain naturally gassy
marine mud deposits results in 'masked zones', which can severely limit the effectiveness of a
geophysical survey.
33.3.2 Echo-sounding
A continuous water depth profile along the track of a survey vessel is obtained by using
an instrument that measures the time taken for a short pulse of a high frequency sound wave to
travel from a transducer attached to the survey vessel down to the seabed and back again.
Such profiles are combined to produce a bathymetric chart. However, additional control may
be required to ascertain whether the sounding is reproducing reflections from soft surface
sediments or higher density material underneath, and dual frequency sounders may be useful
for this.
171
33.3.3 Continuous Seismic Reflection Profiling
The use of continuous seismic reflection profiling should always be considered as a

complementary aid to exploratory boreholes in major offshore investigations. An extension
of the echo-sounding principle is used to provide information on sub-seabed acoustic reflectors
which usually correspond to changes in material types. The instrumentation required,
especially the types of acoustic source, depends on the local ground conditions and its choice
should therefore be left to a geophysicist who has suitable experience. As a guide, the higher
frequency sources such as 'pingers' and 'high resolution boomers' are generally suitable for
resolving near surface layering, whereas 'standard boomers' and 'sparkers' are more suited for
coarser and thicker layers. Typically, high resolution boomers have a resolution of about
0.5 m and a depth penetration of about 80 m.
The results may give a visual representation of geological features, but quantitative data
on depths to interfaces can only be determined if velocities of transmission are known.
There are two main limitations to the technique. Firstly, it cannot usually delineate the
boundary between two different materials that have similar geophysical characteristics;
secondly, in water depths of less than about 2 m, near-seabed reflectors may be obscured by
multiple reflections originating from the seabed. Other problems are described in Table 11.
33.3.4 Side Scan Sonar
This is an underwater acoustic technique analogous to oblique aerial photography,

enabling discontinuities and profiles offset from the line of traverse to be recorded for
subsequent bathymetric charting by echo-sounding or other techniques. It is based on the
reflection of high frequency pulses of sound by the seabed. The results provide a quantitative
guide to the position and shape of seabed features and a qualitative guide to the type of seabed
material. The system is particularly useful in searches for rock outcrops, pipelines, trenches
and seabed obstructions, such as wrecks.
33.4 Borehole Logging
With suitable instrumentation, certain geophysical techniques may be adapted to

provide logs of boreholes that are analogous to conventional geological logs. These borehole
logs may be used for geological correlation purposes across a site. Additionally, analysis of
the data can assist in the assessment of insitu values of parameters such as dynamic moduli and
density. The normal techniques consist of seismic (structural data), electrical (stratigraphical
data), gamma gamma (density data), natural gamma (stratigraphical data) and caliper
(borehole diameter data); all these techniques are discussed by Brown (1981). Experience in
the use of these methods is at present relatively limited and the data obtained should always be
correlated against the examination and testing of borehole samples and against the results of
other insitu tests.
172
33.5 Corrosion Testing
Electrical resistivity may be used to assess the corrosivity of soils towards ferrous
materials. Conventional traverses with fixed intervals between electrodes enable rapid
coverage of the ground and the location of areas of low resistivity. The spacing between
electrodes should be appropriate to the depth of burial of the ferrous material. The
conventional 'expansion' technique using "depth probes" (see Section 33.2.1) may also be used
to determine the variation in soil resistivity with depth. Generally, the likelihood of severe
corrosion decreases as the resistivity rises (see Chapter 13 and Table 12).
33.6 Identification of Weak Layers in the Ground [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The Gamma Density and Spectral Gamma Ray methods (see Sections 33.2.5 and 33.2.6
for further elaboration) are recommended for use as supplementary ground investigation
techniques to help to identify weak layers in the ground. These methods have been included
in CEDD’s ground investigation term contracts to facilitate their use in government projects.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Useful results may be obtained from the Neutron Porosity method (see Section 33.2.7)
in identifying weak layers in ground that is saturated with water. However, in unsaturated
ground, the method can give misleading results. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
The Self Potential method, Acoustic Borehole Televiewer method, 4-arm Dipmeter
method, 3-arm Caliper method and Electrical Cylinder method did not give consistent and
reliable results in the identification of weak layers. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
173
34. Principles of Laboratory Testing
The aims of laboratory testing of samples of soil and rock may be summarized as follows :
(a) to identify and classify the samples with a view to making use
of past experience with materials of similar geological age,
origin and condition, and
(b) to obtain soil and rock parameters relevant to the technical

objectives of the investigation.
A thorough discussion of laboratory testing is beyond the scope of this Geoguide.

However, some basic aspects are briefly reviewed in Chapters 35 to 38 as laboratory testing is
considered to be a part of the ground investigation, and the overall site investigation would
normally not be complete without it. Further guidance on laboratory testing of rocks and
soils is given in Brown (1981) and BSI (1990) and GEO (2017a) respectively. The
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes (GCO, 1984) discusses the testing of Hong Kong rocks and
soils in particular. Guidance on the description and classification of Hong Kong rocks and
soils is given in Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
A general understanding of the ground conditions at a site is essential before embarking

on a programme of soil and rock testing. It is also necessary to consider carefully how the
data obtained from the tests are to be used, and whether the information can assist in the solution
of the engineering problems concerned. As general guidance, the test method to be used
should have direct relevance to the engineering problem at hand and should simulate the field
conditions as closely as possible.
174
35. Sample Storage and Inspection Facilities

35.1 Handling and Labelling
The general procedures for handling and labelling of samples in the field are given in
Section 19.10. Samples should be treated with equal care on arrival at the core store or at the
laboratory.
35.2 Storage of Samples
An orderly procedure should be established so that each sample is registered on arrival

and is then stored away in such a manner that it can be located readily when required for
examination or testing. Disturbed samples should be stored on shelves, and, where jars are
used, they should be placed in purpose-made carriers. General purpose 100 mm diameter
samples should be stored on their sides in purpose-made racks, while thin-walled or piston
samples containing soft clays should be stored vertically with the same orientation as in the
field prior to sampling. The sample storage area should be of sufficient size to cater for the
number of samples being handled, without overcrowding (see also Section 19.10.1).
35.3 Inspection Facilities
An important feature is a sufficient area for the temporary stacking of the samples, and
an adequate amount of bench space for the actual inspection. The following equipment should
be provided :
(a) an extruder for removing general purpose 100 mm diameter

samples from the sampler tubes,
(b) an adequate number of trays to enable disturbed samples of

granular soils to be tipped out for inspection, and some
means of returning them quickly to their containers
afterwards,
(c) spatulas and knives for splitting general purpose 100 mm

diameter samples,
(d) dilute hydrochloric acid for the identification of soils and

rocks,
(e) a water supply and appropriate sieves for washing the lines
out of samples of soils to facilitate description of the coarser
particles, and for cleaning rock cores and block samples,
(f) a balance suitable for checking that the weight of bulk

samples is adequate for testing,
175
(g) a sufficient number of dustbins, or other means of disposal,

to contain samples not required after inspection,
(h) means of resealing samples required for further use,
(i) washing facilities for the person inspecting the samples, so

that notes can be kept as tidy as possible,
(j) hand lens, geological hammer, penknife, metre scale and

protractor for logging cores,
(k) simple stereo-microscope with magnification to x30, where

necessary,
(l) adequate photographic facilities (see Section 36.4).

176
36. Visual Examination

36.1 General
The examination and description of samples of soil and rock is one of the most important
aspects of ground investigation. The results of a ground investigation may need to be used
long after the disposal of the samples, in which case the descriptions are, in many cases, the
only remaining evidence of what was discovered.
Detailed guidance for the description of soils and rocks is given in Geoguide 3 (GCO,
1988).
36.2 Soil
All disturbed soil samples, both jar and bulk, should be examined individually and
described by means of a permanent record made either on site or shortly after the samples
arrive in the laboratory. It is customary during sample description to examine the ends of
undisturbed samples or to examine the jar sample obtained from the cutting shoe where it has
been used, or both. However, all undisturbed samples should be re-examined each time a
specimen is taken for testing as colour changes or drying of the sample may have taken place.
When it is known that no further soil testing is likely to be required, the remaining undisturbed
samples should be extruded and split down the middle for examination, description and
photographing.
36.3 Rock
A complete rock description should cover both the rock material and rock mass
characteristics. The latter cannot be determined from individual samples, but may be deduced
to some extent from many sample descriptions and other data. Where the material
characteristics are not obvious, thin sections are a valuable aid to first assessments made with
a hand lens.
In the examination and description of large rock samples and rock cores, particular
attention should be paid to the location and nature of discontinuities. The reduced level of
shear zones and other major discontinuities should be deduced and recorded. Other details
such as orientation, roughness and infilling should also be noted. If the discontinuities contain
infilling material, both this and the adjacent materials should be described. Where possible,
an undisturbed sample of both the infill and its surrounding material should be extracted for
testing purposes. For projects where the nature of discontinuities is particularly important, a
separate detailed discontinuity log should be prepared (Figure 35).
36.4 Photographic Records
Photographic records, particularly if they are in colour, are a most valuable

supplementary record, although they cannot replace visual description completely. Where the
177
purpose of the photographs is to provide a continuous record, the same scale should be used
throughout. The photographs should be free from distortion normal to the surface and should
contain a clear scale.
A standard colour chart should be included in all colour photographs. When

photographing rock core, the best effect can often be obtained by wetting the surface of the core
first. Soil samples should be photographed at natural moisture content wherever possible,
particularly if testing is to be undertaken on the samples. In some instances, allowing a soil
sample to dry out partially may make differences in composition or structure clearer (see
Section 22.2).
178
37. Tests on Soil

37.1 General
Laboratory tests on soil are undertaken on a routine basis to determine classification,

strength, deformation, permeability, compaction and pavement design parameters. Dispersion,
collapse potential, chemical and corrosivity tests may also be carried out. Table 12 lists the
range of laboratory tests on soil and groundwater, together with references and remarks on their
use. Some of these tests are reviewed in more detail in the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes
(GCO, 1984). It is important to ensure that tests are carried out on samples that are truly
representative of the materials at the site. For this purpose, a full and accurate description of
all samples tested should always be recorded. When laboratory tests are not likely to be
representative of the mass behaviour of the ground at the site, the laboratory tests should be
supplemented or replaced by appropriate field tests.
In many cases, a field test will give more realistic results than a laboratory test because
of reduced problems of sample disturbance. However, there is a large body of practical
experience behind some of the common laboratory tests, and when the data derived from them
are used with skill, reliable predictions can be obtained. The general considerations set out
in the following four sections should be borne in mind.
37.2 Sample Quality
Quality classes are defined in Section 19.2. It is essential that the sample used is of
sufficiently high quality for the test in question. Handling of samples in the field is described
in Section 19.10. When samples arrive in the laboratory, all necessary steps should be taken
to ensure that they are preserved and stored at their natural moisture content and suffer the
minimum amount of shock and disturbance. Very often tests are carried out on 'undisturbed'
samples which are far from undisturbed. In addition, the sampling process itself will have
released the initial state of stress in the sample.
In preparing the laboratory test specimen, there is further disturbance and unavoidable
change in the stress conditions, and hence the test is not generally carried out under the same
stress conditions as those which exist in the natural ground (see Section 37.4).
37.3 Sample Size
For disturbed samples, the amount of soil required for any particular test is given in
Table 7. As the behaviour of the ground is greatly affected by discontinuities, 'undisturbed'
samples should ideally be sufficiently large to include a representative pattern of these
discontinuities. This can often be achieved by the use of large 'undisturbed' samples.
37.4 Test Conditions
Where the test can be carried out under several different sets of conditions, e.g. in the
179
determination of soil strength, the particular test selected should be the one in which the
conditions correspond most closely to those that will exist in the field at the particular time
which is being considered in the design.
37.5 Relevance of Test Results
Some laboratory tests are suitable only for particular types of soil. In cases, where a
test has been carried out and it is found later that the test was not relevant to the actual sample
used, the result should be discarded.
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38. Tests on Rock
The behaviour of rock masses is often controlled by the nature of the discontinuities
present and their orientation to the stresses created by the works or during their construction.
In most cases, the scale of discontinuities is such that tests on laboratory specimens may yield
results which cannot be applied directly to the behaviour of the rock mass. In considering
laboratory tests on rock, a clear distinction needs to be made between tests which relate to the
behaviour of the rock mass as affected by the proposed construction and tests which are relevant
only to the rock material.
Laboratory tests on rock material are undertaken to determine classification, strength

and deformation parameters. Tests to determine the basic shear strength of specific
discontinuities may also be undertaken. Table 13 lists the range of common laboratory tests
on rock, together with references and remarks on their use. Some of these tests are reviewed
in the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes (GCO, 1984) and BSI (2010). The significance of the
size and quality of the sample, the test conditions and the relevance of the results, as discussed
in Chapter 37 for soils, also apply in general to tests on rock. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
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Part VI
Reports and Interpretation

182
39. Field Reports
The essential requirement of a field report is that it should contain all the data necessary
for the subsequent interpretation and use of the borehole or field test. Field report forms
should be easy to fill in and well laid out so as to encourage the operator or field supervisor to
record all necessary data. Such forms can in many cases be based upon the illustrative logs
contained in this Geoguide, but these need not be regarded as standard as other forms may also
be satisfactory. Examples of other field report forms can be found in BSI (1990a) and the
appropriate Parts of BSI (2011a, 2011b, 2012a, 2012b, 2012c, 2012d, 2012e, 2012f).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
The existing ground level, the location of any boreholes, and the location and level of
any points of sampling or testing, should always be recorded. Where possible, the locations
should take the form of reference coordinates based on the Hong Kong Metric Grid and levels
should be referenced to the Hong Kong Principal Datum.
Daily reports form the basis of good field reports on rotary drilling. It is not uncommon
for drillers to keep their records on odd scraps of paper while drilling is in progress and to make
up their daily report forms from these notes at the end of the day. This practice should be
strongly discouraged and the driller should be provided with a standard notebook which can, if
necessary, be checked against the daily report at a later date.
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40. Site Investigation Report

40.1 General
Interpretation is a continuous process which should begin in the preliminary stages of

data collection and should proceed as information from the ground investigation becomes
available. By using this information it is often possible to detect and resolve anomalies as
field and laboratory work progresses. Engineering problems should be considered as the data
becomes available so that the engineer in charge of the investigation can decide what additional
exploration and testing needs to be carried out or conversely, where appropriate, what
reductions in his original programme are possible.
When an engineering interpretation and recommendations are required, the report is

best prepared in two distinct and separate parts, one a descriptive report covering the
procedures employed and the data obtained, and the other the analysis, conclusions and
recommendations. A general account of the style and format of a report is given elsewhere
(Palmer, 1957).
40.2 Descriptive Report

40.2.1 Report as Record
In preparing a report, it should always be remembered that a few months after it is

written, when all the samples have been destroyed or rendered unrepresentative, the report will
be the only record of what was found. Generally, the results will be presented in an
appropriate format in a formal report, which should be bound and issued in a number of copies.
This formal report will contain a description of the site and the procedures used, together with
tables and diagrams giving the results. In addition, there will be the field and laboratory
report forms and data sheets, which provide a detailed record of the data that were obtained.
These forms are sometimes not included in the formal report, but should in any case be
preserved for a sufficiently long period so that they can be made available for reference when
necessary at a later date.
A copy of all descriptive reports should normally be lodged in the data bank of the
Geotechnical Information Unit (see Appendix B).
40.2.2 Introduction
The report should have an introduction stating for whom the work was done, the nature
of the investigation and its general location, the purpose for which the investigation was made
and the period of time over which the work was carried out.
40.2.3 Description of Site
The report should contain an unambiguous description of the geographical location of

the site, so that the area covered by the investigation can be located readily at a later date. This
184
should include street names together with Hong Kong Metric Grid references and a location
map at an appropriate scale. The description should also include general statements on site
conditions at the time of investigation.
40.2.4 Geology
An account should be given of the geology of the site, and the sources from which the
information was obtained should be stated (see Section 4.2). The amount of the data included
will depend upon the nature of the work being planned and also upon the amount of data
available. The soil and rock types identified and described in the report should be linked with
the known geology of the site, see Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
40.2.5 Field Work
An account should be given of the methods of investigation and testing used. It should
include a description of all equipment used, e.g. types of drilling rigs and tools. A note should
be made of any difficulties experienced, e.g. problems in recovering samples. The dates when
the exploratory work was done should also be recorded, together with a note about the weather
conditions where appropriate. The report should contain a drawing indicating the positions
of all pits, boreholes, field tests, etc. It should contain sufficient topographical information so
that these positions can be located at a later date.
40.2.6 Borehole Logs
(1) General. The final borehole logs should be based on the visual examination and
description of the samples, the laboratory test results where appropriate, the driller's daily
report forms and what is known of the geology of the site. Being an interpretation of ground
data which may at times be conflicting, the logs should be finalised only when the appropriate
field and laboratory work has been completed. It is important that all relevant data collected
by the driller, once checked and amended where necessary, should be recorded.
The method of presentation of the data is a subject on which there can be no hard and
fast rules. In principle, the borehole logs should give a picture in diagrams and words of the
ground profile at the particular point where the borehole was formed. The extent to which
minor variations in soil and rock types should be recorded, together with any discontinuities
and anomalies, will depend on the various purposes for which the information will be used.
Most organizations carrying out site investigation have standard forms for borehole logs.
It is seldom practicable in these to make allowance for all data which may possibly need to be
recorded. It is therefore important that an adequate space for remarks is available to allow a
record to be made of items that are not specifically covered. An expedient which makes a
standard form rather more flexible is to leave one or more columns without headings so that
they can be used according to the data to be recorded.
All borehole logs are a compromise between what it is desirable to record and what can
185
be accommodated. What is actually presented will need to be considered individually for each
investigation. Where the data are copious, it may be preferable to record part of them
elsewhere in the report, with a cross-reference on the logs. The subsections which follow
indicate the data which a well-prepared borehole log may contain.
(2) General Data Common to All Logs. The following should be recorded on all logs :
(a) title of investigation,
(b) job number or report number,
(c) location detailed by grid references,
(d) date of exploration,
(e) borehole number and sheet number, e.g. sheet 2 of 2,
(f) method of forming borehole, e.g. cable percussion or rotary,
(g) make and model of plant used,
(h) ground level related to the Hong Kong Principal Datum,
(i) diameter of borehole,
(j) diameter of casing and depth to which the casing was taken,
(k) a depth scale such that the depth of sampling, tests and
change in ground conditions can be readily determined,
(l) depth of termination of borehole,
(m) depths of observation wells or piezometers, where these have

been installed, together with details of the installation,
preferably in the form of a diagram,
(n) groundwater levels measured subsequent to the completion of

piezometers, unless recorded separately.
(3) Legend and Symbols. The ground profiles should be illustrated by means of a
legend using the symbols illustrated on figures in this document, and more fully presented in
Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988). The legend is most commonly placed near the centre of the sheet,
which enables reduced levels, depths, thicknesses and sampling data to be arranged
conveniently on either side. An alternative is to have it as the extreme right hand column,
which enables the logs of adjacent and nearby boreholes to be readily compared without folding
or cutting the sheets.
Apart from the symbols referred to above, no recommendations are given for the many
186
other symbols required for the preparation of borehole logs. Many different types are in use,
and provided an adequate key is given with every set of borehole logs, there should be no
difficulty in interpreting them. The symbols may be given on a separate sheet or on each sheet.
Both methods have advantages and corresponding disadvantages. The first saves space on
the actual logs, thus enabling a greater depth to be logged on each sheet or a larger 'remarks'
space to be provided. It does have the disadvantage that the reader may need constantly to
refer back to the key.
(4) Light Cable Percussion Boring. For light cable percussion boring, in addition to
the items referred to in Sections 40.2.6(2) and 40.2.6(3), the following information should be
recorded in the log :
(a) A description of each zone or material type together with its

thickness.
(b) The depth and level of each change of zone or material type.
(c) The depth of the top and bottom of each tube sample, or bulk
sample and its type (see Chapter 19); the depth of each small
disturbed sample.
(d) The depth at the top and bottom of each borehole test, and the
nature of the test.
(e) For standard penetration tests, it should always be noted if the

sampler has not been driven the full 450 mm required for the
test (see Section 21.2.3).
(f) The date when each section was bored.
(g) A record of water levels, including rate of rise of water level,

depth of water in the borehole at the start and finish of a shift,
and the depth of casing when each observation was made.
(h) A record of any water added to facilitate boring.
(5) Rotary Drilling. For rotary drilling, in addition to the items referred to in
Sections 40.2.6(2) and 40.2.6(3), the following information should be recorded in the log :
(a) A description of all ground conditions encountered.
(b) The depth and level of each change in ground conditions.
(c) The depth of the start and finish of each core run.
(d) The core recovery for each run, usually expressed as

percentage total core recovery (GCO, 1988).
187
(e) For rock, the fracture state, expressed in terms of one or more
of the following : rock quality designation (RQD), solid core
recovery or fracture index (GCO, 1988).
(f) The date when each section of the core was drilled.
(g) An indication of the drilling water recovery for each core run,
with a note on any change in colour.
(h) A record of the depth of water in the hole at the start and
finish of a shift and the depth of the casing, where used, at the
time the observations were made.
(i) A record of tests carried out, such as permeability and packer

tests.
(j) The orientation of the boreholes.
(6) Summary or Condensed Log. Where an investigation contains a large number of

deep boreholes, the full logs can add up to a substantial weight of paper, and to include all of
these in each copy of the report may be unnecessary. An alternative is to include only
summarized or condensed logs in the report itself, provided these are sufficiently
comprehensive and significant details are not omitted.
An example of a borehole log is given in Figure 44.
40.2.7 Incidence and Behaviour of Groundwater
In order to obtain a clear understanding of the incidence and behaviour of groundwater,

it is essential that all data collected on the groundwater should be included and that, where no
groundwater was encountered, this too should be recorded. Where the information derived
from boreholes is not too voluminous, it is best included in the logs. When this is not possible,
the data should be given elsewhere in the report and cross-referenced in the borehole logs.
Where the position of the borehole casing at the time of an observation is relevant, its position
should be stated. All other data, including those from separate observation wells or
piezometers, should be given separately. Where drilling with water or air flush has been used,
this should be recorded and its effect on groundwater levels should be assessed.
40.2.8 Location of Boreholes
The report should contain a plan showing the precise location and top level of each
borehole (see Chapter 39).
188
40.2.9 Laboratory Test Results and Sample Descriptions
Where test procedures are covered by recognized standards, the reporting of the results
should be in accordance with those standards; where they are not so covered, relevant data
should be given. For example, in a triaxial compression test the actual numerical result on
each specimen should be given and not only the interpreted parameters. Where an extensive
programme of testing has been undertaken, a summary should be provided in addition to the
detailed results. The precise test carried out should also be stated without ambiguity. Where
the test is reasonably standard, for instance "consolidated drained triaxial compression test on
100 mm diameter samples", the name alone will suffice, but where the test is not standard, a
full description should be given.
The visual descriptions of all samples tested should appear in the report. The precise
method of recording them will depend upon circumstances. It may be convenient to show them
on the same sheets as the results of the laboratory tests, or a separate table may be preferable.
In any event, the descriptions should all appear in one place. At times, the results of
the laboratory tests, and in particular the identification tests, will indicate a soil different from
that indicated by the visual description. The original description should not be discarded on
that account but should be preserved as a record of the observer's opinion. If soil descriptions
have been modified in the light of laboratory test data, this should be indicated clearly in the
report, see Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988). The laboratory report forms and data sheets should be
filed for possible future reference (see Section 40.2.1).
40.3 Engineering Interpretation

40.3.1 Matters to be Covered
Methods of analysing ground data and applying them to the solution of engineering
problems are not covered in this Geoguide. Guidance on analysis and application of ground
data may be found in various British Standards (e.g. BSI, 1974; 1986; 1991; 2004; 2007; 2009)
and local guidance documents (e.g. Geotechnical Manual for Slopes and Geoguide 1).
Sections 40.3.2 to 40.3.9 deal with the form of the report, and list the most common topics on
which advice and recommendations are required. These sections also contain some guidance
on what should be included. The topics are listed briefly under the general headings : design,
construction expedients, sources of materials, and failure. It is likely that in many cases the
client commissioning the investigation will indicate those aspects of the project on which he
requires advice and recommendations; the topics listed below are intended as a guide where
this may not have been done. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
40.3.2 Data on which Interpretation is Based
The data on which the analysis and recommendations are based should be clearly
indicated. The information generally comes under two separate headings :
(a) Information related to the project (which is usually supplied

189
by the designer). For example, for buildings and other

structures this should include full details on the loading
(including dead and live loads), column spacing (where
appropriate), depth and extent of basements and details of
neighbouring structures. For earthworks, the height of
embankments, the materials to be used and the depths of cut
slopes are relevant to the interpretation.
(b) Ground parameters (which are usually selected from the

descriptive report by the engineer who performs the analysis
and prepares the recommendations). There is no
universally accepted method of selecting these parameters,
but the following approach may help to arrive at reliable
values :
(i) compare both laboratory and insitu test results with

ground descriptions,
(ii) cross-check, where possible, laboratory and insitu results

in the same ground,
(iii) collect individually acceptable results for each ground

unit, and decide representative values appropriate to the
number of results,
(iv) where possible, compare the representative values with

published data for similar geological formations or
ground units.
40.3.3 Presentation of Borehole Data
For the purpose of analysis, it is frequently necessary to make simplifying assumptions

about the ground profile at the site. These are best conveyed in a report by a series of cross
sections illustrating the ground profile, simplified as required, and showing the groundwater
levels. The sections should preferably be plotted to a natural scale. If it is necessary to
exaggerate the vertical scale, the multiplying factor should be limited to avoid conveying a
misleading impression. Where the ground information is either very variable or too sparse to
enable cross sections to be prepared, individual borehole logs plotted diagrammatically are an
acceptable alternative. If it is particularly important to prepare cross sections, sparse and
variable information can sometimes be supplemented by means of information from soundings
and geophysical investigations on areas between boreholes. It can be helpful to indicate
relevant soil parameters on cross sections, for example, results of standard penetration tests,
triaxial tests and representative parameters from consolidation tests.
In certain engineering problems, it may be useful to construct contours of the bedrock

and groundwater surfaces from borehole data. In marine investigations, contours of the
seabed, and contours and isopachs of the various stratigraphic units below the seabed, may be
190
constructed.
40.3.4 Design
The following list, which is by no means exhaustive, indicates the topics on which advice
and recommendations are often required, and also what should be included in the report.
(a) Slope stability: geological model; shear strength parameters;

water pressures for the design condition; assessment of risk
to life and economic risk; recommended slope angle.
Comment should be made on surface drainage and protection
measures, and on any subsurface drainage required. For
rock slopes, an assessment of potential failures due to
unfavourably orientated discontinuities should be made.
Possible methods of stabilizing local areas of instability and
surface protection measures should be recommended.
Advice on monitoring of potentially unstable slopes should
also be given (GCO, 1984).
(b) Retaining walls: earth and water pressures; passive and

frictional resistance; foundation bearing capacity, see
Geoguide 1 (GEO, 1993).
(c) Embankments: stability of embankment foundations;

assessment of amount and rate of settlement and the
possibility of hastening it by such means as vertical drains;
recommendations for side slopes (see (a) above); choice of
construction materials and methods.
(d) Drainage: possible drainage methods during construction

for works above and below ground; general permanent land
drainage schemes for extensive areas.
(e) Basements: earth and water pressures on basement walls and

floor; comment on the possibility of flotation. An estimate
of the rise of the basement floor during construction should
be made, where appropriate.
(f) Piles: types of piles suited to the ground profile and

environment; estimated safe working loads, or data from
which they can be assessed; estimated settlements of
structures.
(g) Ground anchors: bearing ground layer and estimated safe

loads, or data from which they may be calculated, e.g.
suitability tests (Brian-Boys & Howells, 1984).
191
(h) Pavement design: design California Bearing Ratios; type

and thickness of pavement; possibility of using soil
stabilization for forming pavement bases or sub-bases;
recommendations, where appropriate, for sub-grade
drainage.
(i) Tunnels and underground works: methods and sequence of

excavation; whether excavation is likely to be stable without
support; suggested methods of lining in unstable excavations;
possible use of rock bolting; possibility of encountering
groundwater, and recommendations for dealing with it;
special features for pressure tunnels.
(j) Safety of neighbouring structures: likely amount of

movement caused by adjacent excavations and groundwater
lowering, compressed air working, grouting and ground
freezing or other geotechnical processes. The possibility of
movement due to increased loading on adjacent ground may
also need to be considered.
(k) Monitoring of movements: need for measuring the amount of

movement taking place in structures and slopes, together with
recommendations on the method to be used (see Section 16.4);
recommendations for taking photographs before the
commencement of works (see Section 4.1.2).
(l) Chemical attack: protection of buried steel or concrete

against attack from aggressive soils and groundwater.
40.3.5 Construction Expedients
Comments and recommendations are often required on the points listed below. Safety
aspects should be included where appropriate.
(a) Open excavations: method and sequence of excavation; what

support is needed; how to avoid 'boiling' and bottom heave;
estimated upward movement of floor of excavation; relative
merits of sheet piling and diaphragm or contiguous bored pile
walls where appropriate.
(b) Underground excavations: method and sequence of

excavation and the need for temporary roof and side support.
(c) Groundwater: likely flow, head and quantity and how to deal
with it.
(d) Driven piles, bored piles and ground anchors: methods of

192
driving or construction suited to the ground profile,

environment and neighbouring buildings.
(e) Grouting: types of grouts likely to be successful in the ground

and recommended method of injection.
(f) Mechanical improvement of soil below ground level:

suitability of techniques for the consolidation of loose soils.
40.3.6 Source of Materials
The following are suggested :
(a) Fill: possibility of using excavated material for filling with

an assessment of the proportions of usable material; methods
and standards of compaction; possible off-site sources of fill;
bulking factor.
(b) Filter materials, concrete aggregates, road base and surfacing

materials: possible sources and the suitability of the
materials from these sources.
40.3.7 Failures
Where site investigation has been undertaken in an attempt to identify the cause of
failures the undermentioned points may be relevant.
(a) Foundations: nature and dimensions of the foundations;

identification of the cause of failure and, where appropriate,
an estimate of the amount of settlement which has already
occurred, together with an assessment of how much more is
likely to occur and its probable effect on the structure; cause
of excessive vibrations of machine foundations;
recommendations for remedial measures.
(b) Landslides: classification of the type of movement and

location of the failure planes; recommendations for
immediate stabilizing expedients and long term measures.
(c) Embankments: identification of whether the seat of failure

lies within the embankment itself or the underlying
foundation, the probable cause and suggested method of
repair and strengthening.
(d) Retaining walls: cause of failure or excessive deflection;

forecast of future behaviour of wall and recommendations
193
where appropriate for strengthening it.
(e) Pavements: determination of whether the failure is within

the pavement itself or the sub-grade and recommendations
for repairs or strengthening or both.
40.3.8 Calculations
Where calculations have been made, they should be included as an appendix, or a clear
indication of the methods used should be given.
40.3.9 References
All published works referred to in the report should be listed.
40.4 Documentation for Site Investigation of Tunnel Works [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Factual engineering geological and hydrogeological data relating to the tunnel project
should be fully documented including any field data obtained from the excavation faces or
inferred from the equipment/processes adopted for the tunnel works. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Survey and monitoring reports should include factual data, details of the survey and
monitoring methods, and equipment/system calibration. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Interpretative engineering geological and inspection and monitoring reports should be

prepared using the data obtained during the various phases of the site investigation and from
construction records. These reports should update any previous relevant interpretative reports
and be presented in a form that will meet the needs of the professional users. They should
incorporate information on the cavern/tunnel/shaft excavation method and working sequence,
trends of key performance indicators and records of actual impacts observed during
construction. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
194
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Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1971). Report on the Geological Survey of Hong Kong, 1967-
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215
Tables
216
List of Tables
Table Page
No. No.
1 Selected Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs 217

Available from the Lands Department
2 Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands 218

Department (two sheets)
3 Guidance on Site Investigation for Slopes and 220

Retaining Walls in Hong Kong
4 Content of Site Investigation for Slopes 221

Retaining Walls in Hong Kong
5 Sizes of Commonly-used Core-barrels, Casing 222

and Drill Rods Used in Hong Kong
6 Principal Causes of Soil Disturbance 223
7 Mass of Soil Required for Various Laboratory 223

Tests
8 Expected Sample Quality from Different 224

Sampling Procedures for Hong Kong
Materials
9 Soil Sample Quality Classification 225
10 Evaluation of Piezometer Types 226
11 Field Geophysical Techniques Used in 227

Ground Investigations
12 Tests on Soils and Groundwater (four sheets) 228
13 Outline of Engineering Consideration and SI 232

Techniques for Rock (based on IMMM, 2003)
217
Table 1 - Selected Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs Available from the
Lands Department
Number of Price per Copy

Map / Plan Coverage Size (mm) Series No.
Sheets (1987 HK$)
Large - scale plans

1:1 000 Full 1967 750 x 850 HP1C 10.00
1:1 200 NT & Islands 580 762 x 1 016 - 10.00
Medium - scale plans
1:2 500 Urban 73 750 x 850 HP2.5C 10.00
1:5 000 Urban & NT 122 750 x 850 HP5C 10.00
1:7 500 Street maps Urban & NT 22 650 x 800 SM7D 10.00
Townships
1:10 000 Street maps Urban, Shatin, Tsuen 9 750 x 850 SM10D 10.00
Wan & Tsing Yi
1:15 000 Kowloon 1 755 x 1 115 SM15D 10.00

Hong Kong 1 765 x 1 090
Topographic maps
1:20 000 Full 16 780 x 850 HM20C 15.00
1:50 000 Full 2 1 020 x 755 HM50CL 12.50
HM50CP 10.00
1:100 000 Full 1 625 x 785 HM100CL 10.00
1:200 000 Full 1 235 x 343 HM200CL 2.50
Geological maps
1:50 000 (1971) Full 2 1 020 x 755 - 8.00
1:20 000 (1986)# Map Sheet 7 & 11 2 780 x 850 HGM20 20.00
Aerial photographs Full* - 250 x 250 - 20.00
Approved town plans - - - - 10.00 / 20.00
Legend:
# See Figure 3 for full programme of the new geological survey
* See Table 2 for further details
218
Table 2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department

(Sheet 1 of 2, low altitude photographs) [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Approximate
Year Scale(s) Coverage (%) Remarks
HKI K NT
Medium to low resolution, single frames

1924 Approx. 1:14 000 60 10 30
with incidental stereo overlap.
Medium to good resolution. Almost all
1945 1:12 000 95 60 95 areas except east-west strip from Tuen Mun
to Sai Kung.
1:4 800 Good resolution. Excellent coverage of

1949 100 95 30 north-west New Territories. Good
1:11 600 coverage of lowland areas.
1956 1:10 000
10 50 5 Good resolution; some stereo overlap.
1959 1:13 300
1961-1962 1:10 000 100 100 10 Good resolution; small relief exaggeration.
NT = 1:7 800 Excellent resolution, full stereo coverage.

1963 100 100 95 Coverage of all areas except Mai Po to Sha
HKI + K = 1:5 400 Tau Kok.
1964 1:3 600 5 5 10 Coverage of trunk roads.
1967 1:7 800 - 1:12 500 90 90 20 Coverage of main Urban Area only.
1968-1970 1:5 000 - 1:10 000 40 100 20 Coverage of Urban Areas.
1972 1:6 000 - 1:13 000 40 80 20 Coverage of trunk road.
1:3 000 70 100 5 Urban Areas only.
1973
1:10 000 - 1:12 000 70 100 90 Most of HKSAR.
Coverage of north-west and west New
1974 1:5 000 10 70 30
Territories.
1975 1:4 600 - 1:10 000 5 40 30
Territories.
1976 1:2 000 - 1:8000 100 100 40 Coverage of Urban Areas and New Towns.
Detailed coverage of north-west and north
1977 1:2 800 - 1:8 000 100 100 50
New Territories plus New Towns.
Annual coverage of Urban Areas including
1978-1987 1:4 000 - 1:8 000 100 100 60
New Towns and lowland areas.
Annual coverage of New Territories varies
1988 to present 1:2 000 - 1:12 000 100 100 45-90
from year to year.
Note: Colour aerial photographs have also been taken routinely since 1993.
219
Table 2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department

(Sheet 2 of 2, high altitude photographs) [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Approximate
HKI K NT
1954 1:60 000 2 80 90 Good resolution.

Excellent resolution. Mosaic of aerial
1964 1:25 000 100 100 100 photographs available. East to west flight
lines, 4 to 5 km apart.
Good resolution. East to west flight lines,
1973 1:25 000 100 100 90
3 to 5 km apart.
Good resolution. Annual coverage. East
1974-1976 1:25 000 100 100 100
to west flight lines, 1 to 4 km apart.
Obliques only of Urban Area. Coverage
1977 1:25 000 20 20 of Lantau, west New Territories and Sha
Tin.
1978 1:25 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
1980 1:20 000 100 80 20 Southern half of HKSAR only.
1:20 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
1981
1:50 000 80 80 10 Urban Area and Lantau only.
1982 1:20 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage

1983
1:40 000 100 100 95 Almost complete coverage.
Coverage of Urban Area, Clearwater Bay
1984 1:20 000 30 40 15
and Sai Kung Peninsula.
1:20000
1985 100 100 100 Complete coverage
1:30 000
1988 – 1997* 1:20 000 - 1:40 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
1998 to present 1:16 000 - 1:40000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
*Year 1996: only 1:20 000 available
220
Table 3 - Guidance on Site Investigation for Slopes and Retaining Walls

in Hong Kong
S.I. Class Boundaries for Different Features

Cut Slopes Other Features
Notes: (1) This Table is intended to provide general guidance only. It should be read in conjunction with
Table 4. Each situation must be assessed on its own merits to decide on the appropriate scope
of the S.I. More or less intensive S.I. than that recommended may be required, depending on
the particular site conditions.
(2) Irrespective of the above S.I. class boundaries, the least stringent S.I. class for different risk
categories should be Class 1 for 'High' risk, Class 2 for 'Low' risk and Class 3 for 'Negligible'
risk. The risk categories are those given in the Geotechnical Manual for Slopes (GCO, 1984)
and should be assessed with reference to both the present use and the development potential of
the site.
221
Table 4 - Content of Site Investigation for Slopes and Retaining Walls

in Hong Kong
Table 5 - Sizes of Commonly-used Core-barrels, Casings and Drill Rods Used in Hong Kong
Core - barrels Casings Drill Rods
Double - tube Triple - tube Flush - jointed Flush - coupled
Nominal
Nominal Diameter Rod Coupling
Diameter
Design Design Design OD ID Design
Core Hole Core Hole OD ID ID
TNW 61 76 NMLC 52 76 NW 89 76 BW 54 44 19
T2-76 62 76 HW 115 101 NW 67 57 35
T2-101 84 101 HMLC 64 99
222
PW 140 126 HW 89 80 60
T6-101 79 101
Mazier* 74 101
PW 140 126 NW 67 57 35
3C-MLC** 76 111
4C-MLC** 102 140 SW 168 153 HW 89 80 60
Legend:
* With retractor shoe OD Outer Diameter
** With or without retractor shoe ID Inner Diameter
Notes: (1) This list is not exhaustive and should not imply the exclusion of other recognised core barrels and casing / rods systems.
(2) For additional information, reference can be made to BS EN ISO 22475-1:2006 (BSI, 2006). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(3) All dimensions are in millimetres.
223
Table 6 - Principal Causes of Soil Disturbance
Before Sampling During Sampling After Sampling
Stress relief Stress relief Stress relief
Swelling Remoulding Migration of water within

the sample
Compaction Displacement Loss of moisture
Displacement Shattering Overheating
Base heave Stones at the cutting shoe Vibration
Piping Mixing or segregation Chemical changes
Caving Failure to recover Disturbance during

extrusion
Note: Table adapted from Clayton et al (1982).
Table 7 - Mass of Soil Required for Various Laboratory Tests
Mass of Sample
Purpose of Sample Soil Type
Required
Soil identification. including Clay, silt, sand 1 kg
Atterberg limits, sieve analysis,
Fine and medium gravel 5 kg
moisture content and sulphate content
tests Coarse gravel 30 kg
Compaction tests All 25 kg to 60 kg
Clay, silt, sand 100 kg
Comprehensive examination of
construction materials, including soil Fine and medium gravel 130 kg
stabilization
Coarse gravel 160 kg
Note: Table taken from BS 5930 (BSI, 2010). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
224
Table 8 - Expected Sample Quality from Different Sampling Procedures

for Hong Kong Materials
Expected
Material Type Typical Composition of Materials Sampling Procedure Quality
Class
Soils derived from Composition of soils varies depending Block sample from dry excavation 1
insitu rock on the nature of parent rock material. Large diameter triple-tube core-barrel 1
weathering Soils derived from granitic rock are (102 mm diameter cores) with retractor
usually silty and clayey sands; soils shoe, air-foam flush
derived from volcanic rock are usually
Triple-tube core-barrel (≥ 74 mm 1/2
sandy and clayey silts.
diameter cores) with retractor shoe
U100 sampler 2/4
SPT split barrel sampler with or without 3/4
liner
Bulk samples and jar samples from dry 3/4
open excavation
Light percussion shell and chisel for 5
boulders
Colluvium Fresh or variably decomposed rock The sampling procedures for soils derived
fragments (boulders, cobbles and from insitu rock weathering apply.
gravels) within a matrix of varying
proportions of sand, silt and clay
Alluvial and marine The following materials can be found :
deposits (a) Granular soils (sands, silty sands or Piston sampler or compressed air sand 2/3
sandy silts) sampler
U100 sampler (with core-catcher) 4
SPT split barrel sampler 4
Light percussion shell 5
(b) Very soft to soft cohesive soils Piston sampler 1
(sandy clays, silty clays or clays) Thin-walled sampler 1/2
U100 sampler 2/3
Delft continuous sampler 2/3
Light percussion clay cutter (dry 4/5
boreholes) or shell (wet boreholes)
(c) Firm to very stiff cohesive soils Triple-tube core-barrel with retractor shoe 1/2
U100 sampler 2/3
Light percussion clay cutter 5
(d) Cohesive and granular soils The sampling procedures for soils derived
containing boulders, cobbles or gravel from insitu rock weathering apply.
Fill Variable material, which can include See sampling procedures for relevant soil
compacted or uncompacted soil, rock type and composition under 'Alluvial and
fragments and building debris mixtures Marine Deposits' above.
Rock All rock types found in Hong Kong, Diamond core drilling with double or N/A
including boulders in colluvium triple-tube core-barrel. The latter
generally causes less disturbance and
gives better core recovery, especially in
highly fractured or jointed rocks.
Notes: (1) The typical composition of materials should only be taken as a general guide.
(2) The quality classes are defined in Table 9.
(3) The expected quality classes given should only be taken as a guide, as sample quality is highly
dependent on workmanship and on the compactness (or consistency) and grading of the soil.
225
Table 9 - Soil Sample Quality Classification
Soil Properties that

Sample Quality
Can Be Reliably Determined
Classification, moisture content, density,

Class 1 strength, deformation and consolidation
characteristics
Class 2 Classification, moisture content, density
Class 3 Classification, moisture content
Class 4 Classification
None (approximate sequence of materials

Class 5
only)
Notes: (1) Large diameter class 1 and class 2 samples are often sufficient to allow
the 'fabric' of the soil to be examined. Sometimes this may also be done
using class 3 and class 4 samples.
(2) Remoulded properties can be obtained using class 1 to class 4 samples.
(3) Table adapted from BS EN 1997-2:2007 (BSI, 2007). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Table 10 - Evaluation of Piezometer Types
Remote Other
Pressure
Piezometer Pressure Response De-airing

Gauge
Reading Long-term Reliability Recommendations

Type Range Time Capability Advantages Disadvantages
Capability
First choice for measurement
within positive pressure range
Not normally, Cheap, simple to read &
Open- Atmospheric to unless rapid response or
Self but possible maintain; insitu Vandal damage often
hydraulic top of Slow Very good remote reading required;
de-airing with bubbler permeability irreparable.
(Casagrande) standpipe level response peaks can be detected
system measurement possible.
by use of Halcrow buckets
system.
Depends on pressure
measuring system Gauge house usually
Fairly cheap; insitu
Closed- 1) Mercury manometer - very required; regular de-
permeability
hydraulic (Low Any positive Can be good airing necessary; Useful when remote reading,
Moderate Yes measurement possible;
air entry pressure de-aired 2) Bourdon gauge - poor in uncovered tubing liable and for artesian pressures.
can be made vandal
pressure) humid atmosphere to rodent attack or
proof if required.
3) Pressure transducer - damage if left exposed.
moderate but easily replaced
Fairly cheap; insitu
Positive
Closed-
-1 atmosphere permeability As above; very regular
hydraulic (High Can be Useful for measuring small
226
to any positive Moderate Yes As above measurements in low de-airing required when
air entry de-aired suctions.
pressure permeability soil are measuring suctions.
pressure)
possible.
Cannot be Only suitable when tip almost
Yes, some head No method of checking
Any positive de-aired; Moderate to poor, but very little Fairly cheap; no gauge always below groundwater
Pneumatic Rapid loss over long if pore water or pore air
pressure only partially long term experience available house required. level and no large suctions
distance pressure is measured.
self de-airing occur.
Signal quality degenerates with
As above; expensive;
Electric time; instrument life about ten
Any positive Yes, but special zero reading liable to
vibrating wire Rapid As above years, but reliability of - Not generally recommended.
pressure cable required drift and cannot be
type instrument that cannot be
checked.
checked is always suspect
Yes, but with
Electric Any positive care because of
Rapid As above poor - As above Not recommended.
resistance type pressure transmission
losses
-1 atmosphere Vandal damage often
Moderate Can be Cheap, simple to read First choice for measuring
Tensiometer to positive Yes Good irreparable; regular de-
to rapid de-aired and maintain. pore suction.
(Suction)
Negative
pressure airing required.

Instrument life one to two years;
Below -1 Short distances Not accurate between 0
Psychrometer Variable Not relevant little long term experience - Research stage at the moment.
atmosphere only and -1 atmosphere.
available
Table 11 - Field Geophysical Techniques Used in Ground Investigations
Technique Application Remarks

Seismic refraction Mapping of subsurface material interfaces (including A hammer impulse may be used for shallow investigations, but explosive
groundwater table). Determination of compression wave charges are needed for deep investigations (> 30 m). Excessive background
velocities. Location of geological features (e.g. faults and 'noise' may preclude surveys at some sites. May be unreliable unless
caverns). velocities increase with depth and bedrock surface is regular. Variable
weathering patterns often complicate interpretation. Data are indirect and
represent averages.
Land Investigations
Seismic direct Determination of material properties of the ground (sonic Uphole, downhole and crosshole surveys are carried out. Data are indirect
methods wave velocities, dynamic moduli and rock-mass quality). and represent averages, and may be affected by other mass characteristics.
Location of geological features.
Electrical Mapping of subsurface material interfaces (including Variable weathering patterns often complicate interpretation. Water table
resistivity saltwater boundaries). Estimation of soil resistivity (hence location often limits the depth for practical study as conductivity rises sharply
corrosivity). Location of geological features and in saturated materials & makes differentiation between horizons impossible.
underground cavities, e.g. disused tunnels.
227
Gravimetric Location of geological features. Normally used only to locate cavities, e.g. in karst terrain.
Magnetic Location of buried metalliferous man-made objects (e.g.
Large scale surveys are generally carried out from an aircraft.
cables and pipelines) and geological features.
Seismic reflection Mapping of the seabed and material interfaces below the Long continuous traces can be obtained. Background 'noise', solid waste on
seabed. the seabed, gas bubbles trapped within sediments, and variable weathering
patterns often complicate interpretation. Does not provide sound velocities.
Computation of depths to interfaces requires velocity data obtained by other
Marine Investigations
means, e.g. borehole correlation, laboratory tests (Table 13).

Side scan sonar Mapping of the seabed (surface only). Location of rock The technique does not give accurate distances or depths to an object, and is
outcrops, gravel deposits, pipelines, wrecks, etc. generally used as a search tool only.
Magnetic Location of metalliferous man-made objects on or below the Sunken objects on the seabed can render the location of specific objects
seabed (including sunken vessels). difficult.
Echo sounding Bathymetric mapping to determine water depths. Suspended sediments created by dredging the seabed can render the dredged
levels obtained by this method unreliable. The trace obtained by the echo
sounder should be checked against depths obtained by conventional methods,
e.g. by the use of a gravity corer.
Table 12 - Tests on Soils and Groundwater (Sheet 1 of 4)
Category
Name of Test Recommended References Remarks
of Test
Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a)
Clause 5; Frequently used in the determination of soil properties, e.g. dry density, degree of saturation.
Moisture content Geotechnical Manual for Slopes Soils containing halloysitic clays, gypsum or calcite can lose water of crystallisation when heated, and should
(GCO, 1984), Section 3.2.2 be dried at various temperatures to assess the effect on determination of moisture content.
[Amd GG2/01/2017]

Liquid and plastic limits Clause 6; Used to classify fine-grained soils and as an aid in classifying the fine fraction of mixed soils. Soils
(Atterberg limits) Geotechnical Manual for Slopes, containing halloysitic clays must be tested at natural moisture content.
Section 3.2.3[Amd GG2/01/2017]
BS 1377-2 (BSI, 1990a)
Linear shrinkage Used to detect the presence of expensive clay minerals. Limited application in Hong Kong.
Clause 6.5 [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Clause 7;
Soil Classification Tests
Geotechnical Manual for Slopes, Frequently used in the determination of other properties, e.g. void ratio, particle size distribution by
Specific gravity
228
Section 3.2.4; sedimentation.
Lambe (1951) Chapter 2
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Particle size distribution: Wide application in Hong Kong in the classification of soils.
(a) Sieving (a) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) (a) Sieving gives the grading of soil coarser than silt. Cave is required with soils derived from insitu rock
Clause 8; weathering, to avoid crushing of soil grains during disaggregation. Dispersant should be excluded when
Geotechnical Manual for determining particle size distribution for certain applications, e.g. for designing filters, and in selecting
Slopes, Section 4.6; fill for reinforced fill structures. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Brian-Boys et al (1986)
Clause 5.1
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(b) Sedimentation (b) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) (b) The proportion of the soil passing the finest sieve (63 µm) represents the combined silt and clay fraction.
Clause 8; The relative proportions of silt and clay can only be determined by sedimentation.
Geotechnical Manual for
Slopes, Section 3.2.5
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Laboratory vane shear Wilson (1963) A useful test for classifying silts and clays in term of consistency. See also Geoguide 3 (GCO, 1988).
Category
of Test
Detects the presence of organic matter, which can:

(i) interfere with the hydration of Portland cement in soil - cement pastes,
Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) (ii) influence shear strength, bearing capacity and compressibility,
Organic matter content
Clause 9.1 [Amd GG2/01/2017] (iii) influence the magnitude of the correction factor require when using nuclear methods to estimate the
insitu moisture content of soils (ASTM, 1985h),
(iv) promote microbiological corrosion of buried steel.
Sulphate content :
(a) Total sulphate content (a) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a)
of soil Clause 9.3
[Amd GG2/01/2017] These tests assess the aggressiveness of soil and groundwater to buried concrete and steel. Local experience
Chemical and Corrosivity Tests and Groundwater
indicates that sulphate content of Hong Kong soils is generally low. Therefore Geospec 3 (GEO, 2001)
(b) Sulphate ion content (b) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) Clause 9.3 is normally adequate. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
of groundwater and Clause 9.3
aqueous soil extracts [Amd GG2/01/2017]
229
Total sulphide content of
American Public Health
groundwater and Assesses the aggressiveness of soil and groundwater to buried steel.
Association (1985) Part 427
aqueous soil extracts

pH value Assesses the aggressiveness of soil and groundwater to buried concrete and steel.
Clause 9.5 [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Assesses:
Department of Transport (1976)
Chloride ion content (i) the aggressiveness of soil to buried concrete and steel;
Clause 2722
(ii) the suitability of fine aggregate for use in concrete.
Carbonate content Road Research Laboratory

The reference describes the method using the Collins calcimeter.
(1952)
Resistivity BS 1377-9 (BSI, 1990) Assesses the potential for electrochemical corrosion of buried steel. The quoted reference gives a test
Section 5.1 [Amd GG2/01/2017] method for compacted fill, as opposed to field measurement using the four electrode method (see
Section 33.2.1). Corrosion of steel in soils is discussed in BS 8004 (BSI, 1986) and King (1977).
Assesses the likelihood of sulphate reducing bacteria being present, which promote microbiological corrosion
BS 1377-9 (BSI, 1990)
Redox potential of buried steel. The quoted reference gives a test method for compacted fill, as opposed to field
Section 5.2 [Amd GG2/01/2017]
measurement, which is described in BS 1377-9 (BSI, 1990). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Category
of Test
Triaxial compression tests: The quick undrained test gives undrained shear strength in terms of total stresses, and has application to
(a) Quick undrained (a) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) short-term stability and bearing capacity analyses. Effective stress analysis is relevant to most soils and
Clause 15 engineering applications in Hong Kong; consequently the consolidated drained test or consolidated
(b) Consolidated drained undrained test with measurement of pore water pressure should generally be used. Tests should be carried
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(c) Consolidated undrained out in the stress range appropriate to the analysis.
(b) Bishop & Henkel (1976)
with measurement of pore For saturated clays with undrained shear strength less than about 75 kPa, the insitu penetration vane test
Soil Strength Tests
water pressure (c) Geotechnical Manual for (see Section 21.3), used in conjunction with the cone penetration test (see Section 23.3), will normally be
Slopes, Sections 3.7 and the best method for measuring undrained shear strength.
3.8; Head (1986) A number of other triaxial tests are possible, e.g. failure by increasing pore pressure, decreasing σ3 etc.
Triaxial tests can also be used to find K0.
Direct shear test Akroyd (1969); ASTM (1985i); A useful and practical alternative to the consolidated drained triaxial test for shear strength measurements
Geotechnical Manual for on fill, colluvium and soils derived from weathering of rock insitu. The test specimen can be oriented to
Slopes, Sections 3.7 and 3.9; measure shear strength on a pre-determined plane. The major limitation of the test is the specimen
thickness, which governs the maximum particle size that can be tested. Common specimen sizes are
230
Head (1986)
60 mm and 100 mm square by 20 mm thick. The less common 60 mm diameter by 20 mm thick and
300 mm square by 160 mm thick direct shear boxes have also been used in Hong Kong
Consolidation: These tests yield soil parameters from which the amount and time scale of settlements can be calculated.
(a) One-dimensional (a) Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) The simple oedometer test is the one in general use. Although reasonable assessment of settlement can be
consolidation Clause 14 made from the results of the test, estimates of the time scale have been found to be extremely inaccurate for
[Amd GG2/01/2017] some soils. This is particularly true for clay soils containing layers and partings of silt and sand, where the
(oedometer test)
Soil Deformation Tests
horizontal permeability is much greater than the vertical. In these cases, more reliable data may be
(b) Triaxial consolidation obtained from tests in the Rowe cell, which is available in sizes up to 250 mm diameter and where a larger
(b) Bishop & Henkel (1976)
(c) Rowe cell and potentially more representative sample of soil can be tested (see Section 12.5). Another alternative is
(c) Rowe & Barden (1966); to obtain values of permeability, k from insitu permeability tests, and combine them with coefficients of
Head (1986) volume decrease, mv obtained from the simple oedometer test.
Values of the modulus of deformation of soil can be obtained from the stress-strain curves from triaxial
compression tests, where the test specimens have been consolidated under effective stresses corresponding
Modulus of deformation Head (1986) to those in the field. However, values obtained in this way frequently do not correlate well with insitu
observations. It is now generally considered that the plate test (see Section 21.6), the pressuremeter (see
Section 21.7) and back analysis of existing structures yield more reliable results.
Category
of Test
Permeability: The constant head test is suited only to soils of permeability roughly within the range 10-4 m/s to
(a) Constant head permeability (a) Akroyd (1969) 10-2 m/s. For soils of lower permeability the falling head test is applicable. For various reasons,
Soil Permeability
test principally sample size and ground variability, laboratory permeability tests often yield results of
(b) Falling head permeability (b) Akroyd (1969) limited value, and insitu tests should generally yield more representative data (see Section 21.4).
Tests
test The Rowe cell allows the direct measurement of permeability by a constant head, with a back
(c) Triaxial permeability test (c) Bishop & Henkel (1976); pressure and confining pressures more closely consistent with the field state, and by both vertical
Head (1986) and radial flow.
(d) Rowe cell (d) Head (1986); Rowe &
Barden (1966)
Dry density / moisture content Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) Indicates the degree of compaction that can be achieved at different moisture contents and with
Compaction
relationship Clause 10 [Amd GG2/01/2017] different compactive effort. It is carried out in conjunction with determinations of insitu dry density
Tests
(ASTM, 1985b; ASTM, 1985e; ASTM, 1985h; Geospec 3 (GEO, 2017a) Clause 11; see also
Soil
Chapter 27). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
231
California bearing ratio (CBR) Akroyd (1969); GEO (2017a) This is on empirical test used in the design of flexible pavements. The test can also be carried out
Pavement
Design
Clause 12 insitu (see Section 29.4), but the results may be substantially different from the laboratory test due
Tests
[Amd GG2/01/2017] to the difference in the confining condition, especially for sands.
Double oedometer test Hilf (1975); Holtz (1948) Assesses the potential for soils to collapse on wetting.
Potential
Collapse
Tests
Soil
Double hydrometer test Decker & Dunnigan (1977) Used to identify dispersive soils, in order to assess the potential for dispersive piping and internal
(dispersion test) erosion to occur in slopes and earth structures. The different tests may not give consistent
Soil Dispersion
Exchangeable sodium Flanagan & Holmgren (1977) indications of dispersion, consequently it is advisable to use more than one test method.
Tests
percentage test
Emerson crumb test (turbidity Standards Association of
test) Australia (1980)
Pinhole test Sherard et al (1976)
Table 13 - Outline of Engineering Consideration and SI Techniques for Rock Tunnels (based on IMMM, 2003)
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Major Engineering Approach to Investigation Testing Survey / Monitoring
Key Points for SI
Considerations Investigation Methods Insitu Testing Instrument Types
Blasting design Nature of soil and/or rock at tunnel level Geological mapping of surface rock Impression packer test, televiewer Piezometers for monitoring pore
(invert and crown) and around the tunnels, exposures water pressures at various
Machineability (suitability for and around/within the shafts Packer permeability test and possibly hydrogeological response zones
TBM) Aerial photograph interpretation to pumping test
Rock mass weathering (including presence identify photolineaments Settlement gauges
Soil and rock mass excavation and of corestones and mixed ground) and Insitu stress measurement (e.g. by
support design (possibility of strength Geophysical surveys to identify hydrofracturing)
presence of mixed face conditions, anomalies and low seismic velocity
fractured ground, and weak, Distribution, orientation and characteristics zones Soil permeability test and response
compressible and/or permeable of discontinuities test in piezometer
zones) Boreholes – vertical holes needed for
Rock mass permeability sampling and downhole tests. Unless
Water pressures acting on lining surface materials need to be
/retaining structures for their design Insitu stress characterised for assessment of effects Laboratory Testing/Analysis Survey / Monitoring
of the tunnel works, boreholes can be Unconfined Compressive Strength Location survey of physical
Potential water inflow into the Presence of fault zones, dykes, contact zones wash-bored down to the zone of interest Young’s Modulus constraints and sensitive receivers
shafts and along the tunnels. between geological units, etc. Sub-horizontal/inclined holes from the Poisson’s Ratio
tunnel portal and/or shaft locations to Point Load Strength Complete annual cycle needs to be
Assessment of tunnels/shafts Hydrogeology, including permanent examine variations of ground conditions Rock joint characteristics monitored to indicate groundwater
232
drainage and pumping groundwater table, perched water tables, along the tunnel drive Abrasivity pressure response to rainfall and
requirements permeable zones feeding water to the Hardness seasonal fluctuation, and to
tunnels, etc. Inclined holes to intercept faults, dykes Geological thin sections recharge from the sea
Effects of the tunnel works on land and contact zones at tunnel level
stability, e.g. ground Potential recharge in response to rainfall and Probing ahead during tunnelling Classification and consolidation creep Baseline ground movement and
collapse/landslide due to the sea, and hydraulic boundary conditions operation tests for settlement-susceptible near- vibration survey and condition
inadequate support, hydraulic surface materials survey of sensitive receivers (e.g.
failure, blow-out failure, etc. Dewatering effects of the tunnels, and the Directional coring (for deep tunnels) cracks on existing structures) over
tunnel works damming subsurface Salinity testing to assess the effects of a sufficiently long period to
Ground settlement, heave and groundwater flow Sampling groundwater on tunnelling equipment establish trends
lateral movement and distortion of Rock coring through proposed tunnel and lining
sensitive receivers as a result of Nature of surface materials, in particular, levels (including all alternative
construction-induced ground loss, strength, permeability, compressibility and alignments) and covering sufficient
ground deformation/vibration and consolidation and creep characteristics ground above crown and below invert
groundwater inflow/drawdown
As-built records and site history, in Undisturbed soil samples for near-
Design of tunnel portal slopes particular, effects of past and on-going surface materials, potentially affected by
construction activities that could affect the the tunnel and shaft construction
Lining/retaining structure tunnels/shafts and the sensitive receivers
durability design
Ground and groundwater chemistry
Effects of blasting on
surface/subsurface facilities and
slopes
NB: Reference should also be made to the ground investigation guidelines for deep excavations and rock tunnels produced by AGS (HK) (2004a & b; 2005).
233
Figures
234
List of Figures
Figure Page
No. No.
1 Stages of a Site Investigation 237
2 Locations of the Mid-levels Scheduled Area and Mass 238

Transit Railway
3 Programme of the New Geological Survey 239
4 The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme 240
5 Examples of Maps Available in the Geotechnical Area 241

Studies Programme
6 Comparison of Geological Map and Aerial Photograph for 242

Identifying Major Structural and Lithological Features
7 Trial Pit Log ( Example 1) 243
8 Trial Pit Log ( Example 2) 244
9 Example of a Log Sheet for Slope Surface Stripping 245
10 Example of a Caisson Log 246
11 Typical Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig 247
12 Typical Arrangement of Air Foam Mixing and Flushing 248

System
13 General Purpose Open-tube Sampler 249
14 Thin-walled Sampler 250
15 Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler 251
16 Example of a Double-tube Core-barrel (Craelius T2-101) 252
17 Example of a Non-retractable Triple-tube Core-barrel 253

(Triefus HMLC)
18 Example of a Retractable Triple-tube Core-barrel (Mazier) 254
19 Typical Standpipe and Open-hydraulic Piezometers 255

235
Figure Page
No. No.
20 Typical Twin-tube Closed-hydraulic Piezometer Tips 256
21 Typical Installation Details of a Piezometer in a Borehole 257
22 Example of Piezometer Record 258
23 Piezometer Buckets (British Patent No. 1538487) 259
24 Example of Piezometer Bucket Data 260
25 Split Barrel Sampler for Standard Penetration Test 261
26 Vane Shear Devices 262
27 Typical Arrangement for Field Permeability Test 263
28 Intake Factors, F, in Borehole Permeability Tests 264
29 Relationship between Dimensionless Intake Factor and 265

Length to Diameter Ratio of Piezometer
30 Example of Results from Falling-head Permeability Test 266
31 Typical Arrangement for Packer (Water Absorption) Test 267
32 Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Data 268
33 Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Calculations 269
34 Impression Packer Device 270
35 Impression Packer Survey and Discontinuity Log 271
36 GCO Probe 272
37 GCO Probe Record 273
38 Mechanical Cone Penetrometers 274
39 Electrical Cone Penetrometers 275
40 Point Load Tester and Example Data 276

236
Figure Page
No. No.
41 Typical Arrangement for Double-ring Constant-head 277

Field Infiltration Test
42 Example of Results from Field Infiltration Test 278
43 Typical Arrangement for Plate Load Test 279
44 Example of a Borehole Log (two sheets) 280
45 Geophysical Logs – Siu Sai Wan – BH2A 282
46 Geophysical Logs – Shum Wan – BH1A 283

237
Figure 1 - Stages of a Site Investigation

238
Figure 2 - Locations of the Mid-levels Scheduled Area

and Mass Transit Railway
239
Figure 3 - Programme of the New Geological Survey

240
Figure 4 - The Geotechnical Area Studies Programme

241
Figure 5 - Examples of Maps Available in the Geotechnical

Areas Studies Programme
242
Figure 6 - Comparision of Geological Map and Aerial Photograph for
Identifying Major Structural and Lithological Features
243
Figure 7 - Trial Pit Log (Example 1)

244
Figure 8 - Trial Pit Log (Example 2)

245
Figure 9 - Example of a Log Sheet for Slope Surface Stripping

246
Figure 10 - Example of a Caisson Log

247
Note : Figure adopted from Acker Drill Co. Inc. data.
Figure 11 - Typical Configuration of a Rotary Drilling Rig

248
Figure 12 - Typical Arrangement of Air Foam Mixing and Flushing System

249
Notes : (1) The open-tube sampler may also be attached to drill rods and driven or
pushed into the ground by the drilling rig or SPT hammer.
(2) Two sample tubes may be coupled together to provide a longer sample or
additional overdrive space.
(3) The vents in the sampler head should have a minimum collective cross
sectional area of 600 mm2 to allow free exit ot air and water above the
sample.
(4) A core-catcher device (not shown) may also be included with the cutting
shoe.
(5) Samplers smaller in diameter than the U100 are available which are of
similar design.
Figure 13 - General Purpose Open-tube Sampler

250
Figure 14 - Thin-walled Sampler

251
Figure 15 - Thin-walled Stationary Piston Sampler

252
Figure 16 - Example of a Double-tube Core-barrel (Craelius T2-101)

253
Figure 17 - Example of a Non-retractable Triple-tube

Core-barrel (Triefus HMLC)
254
Figure 18 - Example of a Retractable Triple-tube Core-barrel (Mazier)

255
Not to scale
Figure 19 - Typical Standpipe and Open-hydraulic Piezometers

256
Note : Figures based on BS 5930 (BSI, 2010) and Penman (1986). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Figure 20 - Typical Twin-tube Closed-hydraulic Piezometer Tips

257
Notes : (1) Scale is diagrammatic.

Figure 21 - Typical Installation Details of a Piezometer in a Borehole

258
Figure 22 - Example of Piezometer Record

259

(2) Assembled bucket string must fit into a 19 mm internal diameter standpipe
without sticking.
Figure 23 - Piezometer Buckets (British Patent No. 1538487)

260
Figure 24 - Example of Piezometer Bucket Data

261
Notes : (1) Figure based on BS EN ISO 22476-3 (BSI, 2011b). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(2) A slightly enlarged inner diameter of the split barrel is permitted, provided
removable liners are always used which have an inside diameter of
35 mm.
(3) A ball valve in the base of the coupling as shown in ASTM (1985a) is also
permitted.
Figure 25 - Split Barrel Sampler for Standard Penetration Test

262
Note : Figure based on BS 1377-9 (BSI, 1990). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
Figure 26 - Vane Shear Devices

263

Figure 27 - Typical Arrangement for Field Permeability Test

264
Notes : (1) Expressions come from Hvorslev (1951); figure based on BS 5930 (BSI, 2010).
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
(2) Values are primarily for tests carried out through the open ends of boreholes.
Case (d) may be used for tests carried out using piezometer tips, but more
accurate results will be obtained by using Figure 29 especially for values of
L/D > 2.
(3) Cases (e) and (f) assume the permeability of the soil in the casing to be the same
as that below it. Where this is not so, see Hvorslev (1951).
(4) Cases (a) and (b) tend to measure the mean permeability of the soil; (c) and (d)
the vertical permeability; (e) and (f) the horizontal permeability. Where the
horizontal permeability is much greater than the vertical permeability, all tests
will tend to measure the former.
Figure 28 - Intake Factors (F), in Borehole Permeability Tests

265
Notes : (1) Graph comes from Brand & Premchitt (1980).

(2) Where a piezometer tip is surrounded by a granular filter material, it is the
dimensions of this filter which should be used to derive values of F.
(3) Where L is large compared with D, the test will tend to measure the horizontal
permeability of the soil.
(4) Where the horizontal permeability of the soil is much greater than the vertical,
the test will measure the former, whatever the relation between L and D.
(5) The intake factor may also be calculated from the expression (Brand &
Premchitt, 1980) :
2.4π L
F
log e 1.2L/D 

1  1.2L/D  
2
Figure 29 - Relationship between Dimensionless Intake Factor and

Length to Diameter Ratio of Piezometers
266
Figure 30 - Example of Results from Falling-head Permeability Test

267
Figure 31 - Typical Arrangement for Packer (Water Absorption) Test
268
Figure 32 - Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Data

269
Figure 33 - Example of Packer (Water Absorption) Test Calculations

270

(2) The rubber membrane may be inflated either by water pumped down
through hollow drill rods or by compressed air (air line connected to top
body). The latter arrangement must be used when the device is
suspended from a cable.
(3) Figure adopted from Triefus data sheet (Triefus Industries (Australia) Pty
Ltd).
Figure 34 - Impression Packer Device

271
Figure 35 - Impression Packer Survey and Discontinuity Log

272
Notes : (1) All dimensions are in millimetres.

(2) The hammer should be provided with a 22 mm diameter central hole.
The hammer should be drilled out as necessary so that its weight
(including handles) is 10.0 ± 0.1 kg.
(3) The point should be sufficiently sharp that x ≤ 1.5 mm.
(4) Only straight extension rods should be utilised; rods deviating 5 mm or
more from a straight line at any point should not be used.
Figure 36 - GCO Probe

273
Figure 37 - GCO Probe Record

274
Notes : (1) All dimensions are in millimetres.
(2) Details shown follow the ISSMFE (1977).
(3) The friction sleeve cone extends in two increments to reach the position shown in (d). The mantle is first extended
35 mm, then the mantle and friction sleeve together are extended another 35 mm.
Figure 38 - Mechanical Cone Penetrometers

275
Notes : (1) (a) after BS EN ISO 22476-1 (BSI, 2012f), (b) & (c) after Delft Soil
Mechanics Laboratory (1977). [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(2) Scale is diagrammatic.

(3) All cones shown are 35.6 mm diameter with 60° cone angle.
Figure 39 - Electrical Cone Penetrometers

276
Figure 40 - Point Load Tester and Example Data

277
Figure 41 - Typical Arrangement for Double-ring Constant-head

Field Infiltration Test
278
Figure 42 - Example of Results from Field Infiltration Test
279
Note : Figure adopted from Brown (1981) and BS 5930 (BSI, 2010).[Amd GG2/01/2017]
Figure 43 - Typical Arrangement for Plate Load Test

280
Figure 44 - Example of a Borehole Log (Sheet 1 of 2)

281
Figure 44 - Example of a Borehole Log (Sheet 2 of 2)

282
Figure 45 - Geophysical Logs – Siu Sai Wan – BH2A

[Amd GG2/01/2017]
283
Figure 46 - Geophysical Logs – Shum Wan – BH1A

[Amd GG2/01/2017]
284
Plates
285
List of Plates
Plate Page
No. No.
1 Drilling in Urban Areas of Hong Kong 286
2 Drilling in Steeply Sloping Ground 287
3 Ground Investigations over Water 288
4 Drilling and Sampling Equipment (three sheets) 289
5 Block Sampling 292
6 Groundwater Pressure Measuring Equipment 293
7 Standard Penetration Test Equipment 294
8 Penetration Vane Test Apparatus (Geonor A/S) 295
9 Impression Packer Survey Equipment 296
10 Probing and Penetration Test Equipment 297

286
Plate 1 - Drilling in Urban Areas of Hong Kong

287
Plate 2 - Drilling in Steeply Sloping Ground

288
Plate 3 - Ground Investigations over Water

289
Plate 4 - Drilling and Sampling Equipment (sheet 1 of 3)
290
291
292
Plate 5 - Block Sampling

293
Plate 6 - Groundwater Pressure Measuring Equipment
294
Plate 7 - Standard Penetration Test Equipment
295
Plate 8 - Penetration Vane Test Apparatus (Geonor A/S)

296
Plate 9 - Impression Packer Survey Equipment
297
Plate 10 - Probing and Penetration Test Equipment
298
Appendices
299
Appendix A
Information Required for Desk Study
300
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 299
Contents 300
A.1 General 301
A.2 Maps, Plans and Charts 301
A.3 Ground Conditions 301
A.4 Meteorological and Hydrological Information 302
A.5 Past Records 302
A.6 Services and Utilities 302
A.7 Lease and Engineering Conditions 303
A.8 Planning a Ground Investigation 304
A.9 References 306

301
A.1 General
A desk study involves the collection and review of information required for the planning
of the project and of the site investigation.
Sources of information are given in Appendix B.
A.2 Maps, Plans and Charts
Topographic maps and plans are useful for studying the general features of the site, and
for identifying ground features of engineering significance, e.g. slopes, retaining structures,
streams, tunnels, burial grounds and obstructions such as transmission lines and towers. They
are also useful for the assessment of the effect of the proposed works on adjacent properties and
structures, and for the identification of works areas, storage areas and access, including
temporary access for construction purposes.
For works to be carried out in a marine environment (e.g. seawalls and piers), Admiralty
charts and tide tables should also be referred to.
In some cases, old maps may be useful, e.g. to check the location and extent of an old
seawall or a buried stream course. Archaeological maps may also be required to establish the
boundaries of an archaeological site.
A.3 Ground Conditions
The following information should be referred to for a preliminary study of the ground
conditions :
(a) Aerial photographs. These are particularly useful for

studying the site history, past instability of the ground,
erosion, surface hydrology, vegetation, photolineaments and
other surface geological features, and for identifying the
presence of colluvium, alluvium, fill and boulders (see
Chapter 6).
(b) Geological maps and memoirs. These provide detailed

information on the geology of the district, and are useful as a
basis for evaluating the likely influence of the local geology
on the proposed works and in the selection of the ground
investigation methods.
(c) Past site investigation records. These should be studied and

useful information extracted. Availability of good site
investigation records in the vicinity of the site will greatly
assist the planning of the ground investigation, and may
reduce the scope and extent of the investigation required.
302
A.4 Meteorological and Hydrological Information
Local rainfall records should be collected where the proposed works require slope and
drainage design. Hydrological information, where available, is useful in drainage studies,
including the assessment of flooding risk and the influence of the proposed works on the local
and downstream drainage regimes.
In the design of temperature-sensitive structures, or where the performance of the

construction materials can be affected by temperature, data on ambient temperatures (including
air and ground temperatures) and solar radiation should be referred to.
A.5 Past Records
Past construction records, for both the site and for adjacent properties, should be
obtained where appropriate, to provide information on the following :
(a) Site formation works such as construction of slopes, retaining

structures and basements.
(b) Foundation works such as piling.
(c) Details of preventive or remedial works and of any

continuing monitoring of, for example, ground anchor
installations, horizontal drain installations, building
settlements, and slope and retaining wall movements.
(d) Tunnels and disused tunnels, including details of linings and

ground support.
Records of past failure, flooding and settlement of ground and structures should also be
noted and studied where necessary.
A.6 Services and Utilities
Details and locations of existing services and utilities, including stormwater drains,
sewers, fresh and salt water mains, fire fighting mains, electrical cables, gas mains and
telephone ducts, should be referred to for the following purposes :
(a) Assessment of the effect of the proposed works (including

ground investigation works) on the existing services and
utilities, e.g. the effect of dewatering settlement on an old
water main or gas main.
(b) Provision of services and utilities for the project, e.g.

provision of cooling water for the air-conditioning system.
303
(c) Provision of temporary electricity and water supplies for the

ground investigation.
A.7 Lease and Engineering Conditions
Except where an investigation is being planned for a site that has not been allocated to
the project (e.g. an investigation that is for the purpose of selecting sites or establishing the
suitability of a site), there should be available a set of lease conditions or engineering conditions,
depending on whether the proposed project is to be undertaken privately or by Government.
It is essential that these conditions are studied thoroughly during the desk study or as soon as
they become available.
Engineering conditions are issued by the appropriate District Lands Office of the Lands
Department, and lease conditions are normally issued by the Registrar General/Land Officer.
These conditions govern the use of the site. They also set down the requirements and
restrictions on development, and define the responsibilities of the related parties and authorities.
The following items are normally covered :
(a) Requirements. These normally include:
(i) formation and landscaping,

(ii) layout of the site,
(iii) access,
(iv) possession of the site.
(b) Restrictions. Examples of common items covered are :
(i) non-building areas,

(ii) height of structures,
(iii) removal of trees,
(iv) dumping on Government land and public roads,
(v) drainage reserves,
(vi) pile driving,
(vii) blasting,
(viii) use of water supply,
(ix) establishment of rock crushing plants.
(c) Responsibilities. The conditions normally cover

responsibilities for :
(i) maintaining both the stability of the land and its surface
condition, within, and where appropriate, adjacent to
the site,
(ii) interference with or damage to roads, services, drains,
channels, etc.,
(iii) water supply,
(iv) connections to sewers and stormwater drains,
304
(v) drainage.
The following local statutes may be mentioned in the lease conditions :
(a) The Buildings Ordinance and its subsidiary Regulations

(Government of Hong Kong, 1985), governing the safety and
the design and construction standards of buildings to be
erected, and the planning and administrative procedures to be
followed. This Ordinance also governs site investigation
work within the Mid-levels Scheduled Area.
(b) The Fire Services Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong,

1981a), governing the provision of fire services, installations
and equipment, and the provision of access for fire services,
appliances and personnel.
(c) The Waterworks Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong,

1974), governing the supply of fresh water and salt water, and
the standards of plumbing, installations and equipment.
(d) The Dangerous Goods Ordinance (Government of Hong

Kong, 1983), governing the storage, transportation and use of
dangerous goods.
In some cases, special clauses may also be present in the lease conditions. For example,
a geotechnical clause may be used to indicate that a site is considered to be geotechnically
difficult to develop, hence forewarning a developer that a high degree of skilled geotechnical
engineering input will be required.
A.8 Planning a Ground Investigation
In planning a ground investigation, the effect of the proposed works on the ground, on
adjacent properties and structures and on existing services and utilities, should be thoroughly
examined. For example, the effect of flushing water from drilling on existing slopes and
retaining walls should be considered.
Requirements and restrictions imposed by local statutes should be studied and observed
in the planning and execution of the investigation. For example, the Summary Offences
Ordinance (Government of Hong Kong, 1981b) restricts the use of powered mechanical
equipment between 7 p.m. and 7 a.m., and on any public holiday, including Sundays. This
Ordinance also controls the general level of noise at night, i.e. from 11 p.m. to 6 a.m., even if
powered mechanical equipment is not being used. Statutes governing safety, health and
welfare of workmen are given in Appendix E.
Land matters should be dealt with well in advance of the required date of commencement
of investigations. For this purpose, the appropriate District Lands Office of the Lands
Department, and, where appropriate, the relevant District Office, should be consulted, so as to
305
arrange for unhindered access for transporting equipment to site, and to enable work to be
carried out on site. The land matters should include :
(a) confirmation of land ownership and lot boundaries,
(b) permission to enter into and to transport equipment through

adjacent land,
(c) permission to carry out ground investigation work outside the

site boundaries,
(d) allocation of any necessary works areas and storage areas.
It is important that the exact locations of site boundaries of private and Government land,
and of allocated works areas and storage areas, should be ascertained from the appropriate
District Lands Office. The appropriate District Survey Office of the same Department may
also have to be consulted for information on delineation of the ground, especially in the New
Territories where land demarcation has not been carried out to a high standard in the past.
The District Lands Office should also be consulted on matters relating to 'fung shui' and
burial grounds.
Where trees need to be felled or removed, prior permission should be obtained from the
appropriate District Lands Office, who will consult the Agriculture & Fisheries Department,
Urban Services Department or Regional Services Department, as appropriate. Whenever
possible, permission should be sought twelve months in advance, so that the root system of any
tree suitable for transplanting may be prepared for the move.
The approval of the Buildings Ordinance Office, must be obtained for site investigation
work that falls within the Mid-levels Scheduled Area. Plans showing the boundary of the Mid-
levels Scheduled Area may be viewed in the Buildings Ordinance Office and the Geotechnical
Engineering Office. Pumping test proposals for private developments must also be submitted
to the Buildings Ordinance Office for approval.
Information on the as-built alignment of the Mass Transit Railway and its "protection
boundary" may be obtained from the Mass Transit Railway Corporation, whose advice must be
sought where the proposed ground investigation work falls within the protection boundary.
If it is necessary to excavate public roads, road excavation permits must be obtained

from the Utilities Section of the Highways Department. Where the proposed ground
investigation work may disrupt the use of public footpaths, streets or roads, including high
speed roads, the Highways Department should be consulted.
In cases where it is necessary to discharge effluents into public drains or sewers,

permission must first be obtained from the Drainage Services Department. The
Environmental Protection Department must also be consulted where toxic effluents are
involved.
306
If it is intended to use explosives, for example in a seismic survey, the prior permission
of the Commissioner of Mines at the Civil Engineering Department must be obtained.
In the case of marine investigations, the Marine Department must be notified of the
details of the proposals, so that notices to mariners can be issued. Special restrictions may be
imposed by Director of Marine where works is to be carried out in close proximity to fairways,
channels, typhoon shelter entrances, terminals and piers. There may be circumstances where
contractors vessels will need to provide mooring arrangements outside typhoon shelters for
their vessels during the passage of typhoons. Where investigations are proposed close to the
runway of Kai Tak Airport, permission must first be obtained from the Civil Aviation
Department. Similarly, permission must be obtained from the Mass Transit Railway
Corporation, the Cross Harbour Tunnel Co. Ltd, the Water Supplies Department, or the various
public utility companies, if investigations are proposed near submerged tunnels, pipelines or
utilities.
Where the proposed ground investigation works fall within a gazetted historical site,
permission must be obtained from the Antiquities & Monuments Office of the Government
Secretariat before commencement of any work. The Antiquities & Monuments Office should
also be consulted before any historical site is entered, even if it is not gazetted.
A.9 References
Government of Hong Kong (1974). Waterworks Ordinance (and Waterworks Regulations).

Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 102, revised edition 1974. Hong Kong Government
Printer, 45 p. (Amended from time to time).
Government of Hong Kong (1981a). Fire Services Ordinance (and Fire Services Regulation).
Government of Hong Kong (1981b). Summary Offences Ordinance (and Subsidiary

Legislation). Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 228, revised edition 1981. Hong Kong
Government Printer, 26 p. (Amended from time to time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983). Dangerous Goods Ordinance (and Dangerous Goods
Regulations). Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 295, revised edition 1983. Hong Kong
Government of Hong Kong (1985). Buildings Ordinance (and Building Regulations). Laws
of Hong Kong, Chapter 123, revised edition 1985. Hong Kong Government Printer,
307
Appendix B
Sources of Information
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
308
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 307
Contents 308
B.1 Generals 310
B.2 Slope-related Information Systems and Databases 310

B.2.1 Slope Information System (SIS) 310
B.2.2 Catalogue of Slopes 310
B.2.3 Slope Maintenance Responsibility Information System (SMRIS) 310
Maintained by the Lands Department
B.2.4 Rainfall Database 311
B.2.5 Landslide Database 311
B.2.6 Enhanced Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory (ENTLI) 311
B.2.7 Boulder Field Inventory 311
B.2.8 Large Landslide Study 311
B.3 Topographical Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs 312

B.3.1 Maps and Plans Produced by the Survey & Mapping Office 312
B.3.2 Other Maps 312
B.3.3 Aerial Photographs 313
B.4 Geological and Related Maps and Memoirs 313

B.4.1 Geological Maps and Memoirs 313
B.4.2 Terrain Classification and Engineering Geology Maps 313
B.4.3 Other Geological Records and Information 314
B.5 Nautical Charts and Marine Department Notices 314
B.6 Meteorological, Seismological and Tidal Information 314
B.7 Hydrological Information 315
B.8 Past Records 315

B.8.1 Records from Previous Investigations 315
B.8.2 Design and Construction Records 315
309
Page
No.
B.8.3 Hong Kong Rainfall and Landslide Studies 316

B.8.4 Slope Maintenance Records 317
B.8.5 Other Public Records 317
B.9 Notes and Circulars Related to Ground Investigation Works 317
B.10 Scheduled and Designated Areas and Other Concerned Areas 318
B.10.1 Mid-levels Scheduled Area 318
B.10.2 North-western New Territories and Ma On Shan Areas 318
B.10.3 Mass Transit Railway Areas 318
B.10.4 Sewage Tunnel Protection Areas 319
B.10.5 Designated Area of Northshore Lantau 319
B.10.6 Water Gathering Grounds (WGG) 319
B.10.7 Marine Ground Investigation in Difficult Ground Areas 320
B.11 Services and Utilities 320
B.12 Local Libraries 320

B.12.1 The Civil Engineering Library and the Geotechnical 320
Information Unit
B.12.2 Other Libraries 321
B.13 Addresses of Local Organizations 322
B.14 References 325

310
B.1 Generals
This document gives important sources of information for the planning of site
investigation in Hong Kong, in addition to the publications and guidance documents prepared
by the GEO. A complete list of GEO publications and a list of TGNs, which are continually
updated, can be found at the website http://www.cedd.gov.hk. Other information that could
be useful for planning, design, construction and maintenance of geotechnical works can be
found at the Hong Kong Slope Safety Website http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk.
B.2 Slope-related Information Systems and Databases

B.2.1 Slope Information System (SIS)
The SIS is a geographical information system developed by the GEO to enable on-line
examination and analysis of information on slopes and the surrounding ground. It contains
computerised information including the catalogue of slopes (see Section B.2.2 below), slope
maps, locations of previous landslide incidents reported to GEO and ground investigation
stations, geology, natural terrain landslides and selected geotechnical information for the
various districts in Hong Kong. The SIS can be accessed through the SIS terminals in the
Civil Engineering and Development Building and also via the Hong Kong Slope Safety Website
(http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk). The GEO Slope Safety Division can be contacted for up-to-date
information on the development of the SIS.
B.2.2 Catalogue of Slopes
The Catalogue of Slopes contains information on physical properties, conditions and

histories of over 57,000 sizeable man-made slopes in Hong Kong (e.g. slope type, slope
geometry, type of surface protection, signs of seepage, movements and previous failures).
Information on slopes in the Catalogue can be retrieved from SIS terminals in the Civil
Engineering and Development Building, via the Hong Kong Slope Safety Website
(http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk), or by application in writing to the GEO Slope Safety Division.
B.2.3 Slope Maintenance Responsibility Information System (SMRIS) Maintained by

the Lands Department
The SMRIS, which is maintained by the Lands Department, systematically identifies the
maintenance responsibility of all man-made slopes registered in the Catalogue of Slopes. The
most up-to-date information of maintenance responsibility can be accessed via the Lands
Department or at the Lands Department’s Website (http://www.landsd.gov.hk). Where the
land status of a slope is not available in SMRIS, the Systematic Identification of Maintenance
Responsibility of Slopes (SIMAR) Unit or the respective DLO of Lands Department should be
consulted.
311
B.2.4 Rainfall Database
The GEO in collaboration with the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) has established and
maintains a network of automatic raingauges throughout Hong Kong. Rainfall data have been
recorded at 5-minute intervals at these raingauges since 1984. In 1999, the GEO automatic
raingauge system was upgraded and expanded to include 86 GEO raingauges (Pang et al, 2000).
Verified rainfall data are available either from the HKO or the GEO Standards and Testing
Division.
B.2.5 Landslide Database
An Incident Report contains information on the date, time (where known) and location
of the incident, the type, size, possible causes contributing to and consequence of the failure,
the advice given, evidence of past instabilities, photographs taken of the failure, etc. If the
failure mass exceeds 50 m3 or where a fatality is involved, a Landslip Card, which contains
more detailed information, is also prepared and is available for inspection in the Public Section
of the Civil Engineering Library (CEL) (Section B.12.1). A computerised landslide database
containing data from the Incident Reports and Landslip Cards is available and is accessible via
the SIS. The database is maintained and updated by the GEO Landslip Preventive Measures
Division 1.
B.2.6 Enhanced Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory (ENTLI)
The ENTLI contains information on over 105,000 landslides occurred on natural terrain.
Comprehensive information is recorded in Geographical Information System for each landslide
record including the dates of the aerial photographs when the landslide was first observed, width
and length of the landslide scar, slope gradient, and nature of vegetation cover across the
landslide source. The ENTLI is available for inspection as 1:5 000 scale map sheet paper
copies in the CEL and the digital copy of the data is held in the GEO Planning Division.
B.2.7 Boulder Field Inventory
A series of fifteen 1:20 000 scale boulder field inventory maps covering the Hong Kong
Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) is available for viewing in GEO Planning Division
and the CEL and a digitised version is available in the SIS. A multiple attribute mapping
technique was adopted to present the results. Four attributes were mapped-percentage area
covered by boulders, boulder type, boulder size and boulder shape.
B.2.8 Large Landslide Study
In this study, covering the whole of Hong Kong, a geomorphological interpretation was
conducted to identify features thought to be landslides with sources areas greater than 20 m
wide (Scott Wilson (Hong Kong) Ltd., 1999a, 1999b). The 1:5 000 scale maps containing the
features are available for viewing in the GEO Planning Division.
312
B.3 Topographical Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs

B.3.1 Maps and Plans Produced by the Survey & Mapping Office
The Survey & Mapping Office (SMO) of the Lands Department provides maps and plans
in various scales and for various purposes in both digital and paper forms. A list of the
currently available plans and maps, and their coverage, is given in Table B1.
The Land Information Centre of the SMO operates a Computerised Land Information
System (CLIS) and maintains the topographic mapping database covering the whole territory
of Hong Kong. Many utility companies, engineering consultants, computing system
consultants and education institutes have established their own automated mapping, facilities
management, customer support and geographic information systems using the digital maps
provided by the SMO as their common reference. The digital map data are available in four
different formats, namely E00, DGN, DXF and DWG, to suit applications in different platforms.
Services offered by the SMO include the supply of photographic copies of available
maps, plans and aerial photographs, as well as producing enlargements and reductions.
Updated information on map products and related publications, data map products and map
price catalogue, etc., can also be found at the Lands Department Website
(http://www.landsd.gov.hk/mapping/ en/pro&ser/products.htm).
B.3.2 Other Maps
Other map sources include the following:
(a) Early maps of Hong Kong are held for reference by the
Survey & Mapping Office and the Government Records
Service (GRS).
(b) The Antiquities and Monuments Office (AMO) of Leisure

and Cultural Services Department (LCSD) holds research
files covering declared monuments, historic buildings,
structures and boundaries of archaeological sites. Most of
these research materials can be accessed by the public in
AMO by appointment. Declared monuments, historic
buildings, structures and boundaries of archaeological sites
may also be indicated in non-statutory plans which are
available for sale in the Map Publications Centres of the
Survey & Mapping Office of the Lands Department
(Section B.3.1).
313
B.3.3 Aerial Photographs
The availability of vertical aerial photographs is summarised in Tables B.2a and B.2b.
In general the aerial photograph scales range from 1:2 500 down to 1:50 000. The low altitude
aerial photographs, mainly in the range of 1:6 000 to 1:10 000, are the most useful scale for the
majority of aerial photograph interpretation undertaken.
The GEO Aerial Photograph Library contains over 280,000 aerial photographs including
oblique aerial photographs. They can be borrowed by GEO staff as well as consultants
working on Government projects. A GIS-based computerised aerial photograph retrieval
system is now available for users to identify the photograph collection at a workstation in the
Library. The Library, which is housed in the GEO Planning Division on the 11th Floor of the
Civil Engineering and Development Building, is accessible by staff of the HKSAR Government
and also non-Government staff engaged in Government projects.
A similar system for searching aerial photographs is also available in the SIS.
Aerial photographs can be purchased directly from the Map Publications Centres of the
Lands Department.
B.4 Geological and Related Maps and Memoirs

B.4.1 Geological Maps and Memoirs
Geological surveying in Hong Kong is carried out by the Hong Kong Geological Survey
(HKGS) of the GEO. Thirty-four maps and six sheet reports have been published to date and
the Sheet Reports are available (free of charge) either from the GEO Planning Division or
downloaded from the CEDD Website (http://www.cedd.gov.hk). In 2003, the HKGS
embarked on a programme to update the 1:20 000 scale geological maps and to release them in
digital form. The coverage of the maps, memoirs and reports is shown in Figure B1. The
maps and memoirs (except those which are free of charge) can be obtained from the Map
Publications Centres of the Survey and Mapping Office while the memoirs are also available
from the online Government Bookstore at http://www.bookstore.gov.hk.
B.4.2 Terrain Classification and Engineering Geology Maps
A series of eleven 1:20 000 scale terrain classification maps (TCM) covering the whole
of the HKSAR was produced by the GEO in the 1980s. Each map covers an irregular area
based on catchment boundaries. Derivative maps and accompanying reports have been
published for each area as the Geotechnical Area Studies Programme (GASP) series. The
series contains 12 volumes, of which Volume XII is a summary report for the whole of the
HKSAR. They are available for viewing in the Geotechnical Information Unit (GIU) of the
CEL. Limited copies are available for sale at the Map Publications Centres of the Survey and
Mapping Office, and online Government Bookstore.
Nine catchments with extensive colluvial deposits were also identified for GAS mapping
at 1:2 500 scale. These maps contain details of old landslide scars. In 1990, a 1:5 000 scale
314
terrain classification mapping exercise was carried out for eleven 1:5 000 scale map sheets in
North Lantau. These are available for viewing in the CEL and have been incorporated into
three Engineering Geology Reports on the North Lantau Area (Franks, 1991, 1992; Woods,
1992).
B.4.3 Other Geological Records and Information
The GEO Planning Division is the repository for geological records for the HKSAR.
These include the field observations embodied in the geological maps and memoirs, manuscript
geological maps, and offshore data. Requests for information should be directed to the Chief
Geotechnical Engineer of the Planning Division. The GEO also holds a collection of
representative rock types and thin sections. These are available for inspection by arrangement.
An on-line version of the geology of Hong Kong, based on the two memoirs but with additions
from the current map updating programme now underway, has been published on the internet
(Lee & Sewell, 2007). The on-line geological memoir of Hong Kong can be accessed at
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/organisation/ org_geo_pln_map.htm. A summary of the
nature and occurrence of Hong Kong rocks and superficial deposits is also given in Appendix A
of Geoguide 3 (GEO, 2017).
B.5 Nautical Charts and Marine Department Notices
The Hydrographic Office of the Marine Department complies and publishes paper charts
and electronic navigational charts. Further information on the products and services of the
Hydrographic Office can be found at the website http://www.mardep.gov.hk.
Marine Department Notices are issued as and when required concerning information
relating to navigational safety and other marine activities in Hong Kong waters. Copies of the
Notices can be downloaded from the website http://www.mardep.gov.hk.
B.6 Meteorological, Seismological and Tidal Information
The Hong Kong Observatory (HKO) collects and publishes meteorological information
in Hong Kong. It issues daily weather reports and forecasts as well as warnings on tropical
cyclone, thunderstorm, rainstorm, landslip, strong monsoon, fire danger, frost, tsunami, cold
and very hot weather. Rainfall records are published monthly and annually. The HKO also
maintains a local seismological network to monitor earthquakes near Hong Kong.
Predicted tide levels at selected locations are published annually in ‘Tide Tables for
Hong Kong’ which are available at the online Government Bookstore.
Further information on the services of the HKO can be found at the website
http://www.hko.gov.hk.
315
B.7 Hydrological Information
The Drainage Services Department and Water Supplies Department operate and
maintain separate systems of stream/river gauging stations in the main catchment areas of the
HKSAR.
B.8 Past Records

B.8.1 Records from Previous Investigations
The GIU of the GEO holds reports of previous ground investigation, which usually
include borehole logs and sometimes results from geophysical surveys and laboratory testing
of soils, rocks and sediments. Digital Geotechnical Information Unit (DGIU) system is also
available for fast retrieval of these reports in the CEL.
The GIU also contains a large amount of other information of direct relevance to site
investigation, and this is described in Section B.12.1.
B.8.2 Design and Construction Records
Several Government Departments possess information that is of value to the planning

and execution of site investigation in Hong Kong, but this is often not readily accessible.
However, arrangements can usually be made for specific information to be made available to
bona fide users.
For example, each Government Department retains its own files on projects that are
carried out under its control. Copies of design reports and record drawings of completed
projects are also kept.
A brief summary of information possessed by some of the Government Departments is

given below:
316
Department Record/Information
Architectural Services Department Records of Government buildings
Buildings Department Building plans and related documents of existing

buildings in Hong Kong (except for pre-war buildings
and New Territories Exempted Houses). These
documents may be available for viewing by the public
in the Buildings Department upon application.
Environmental Infrastructure Records of known landfills

Division of the Environmental
Protection Department
Civil Engineering Library Plans showing the locations of disused tunnels
Drainage Services Department Records of sewerage tunnels (see also Section B.10.4)
Geotechnical Engineering Office of Landslip Preventive Measures study reports,

the Civil and Engineering and information on slopes and records of all known disused
Development Department tunnels and quarries. Catalogue of Hong Kong
Tunnels and Catalogue of Notable Tunnel Failure Case
Histories. The Catalogues can be accessed at the
CEDD Website
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/reference/do
c/HK%20Tunnel%20Cat.pdf and
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/reference/do
c/HK%20NotableTunnel%20Cat.pdf
(Designers should obtain the design and construction
details of such tunnels from the relevant owners and
maintenance agents.)
Water Supplies Department Record of water tunnels, water mains, catchwaters,

impounding reservoirs, service reservoirs, water
treatment works, pumping stations, and ancillary
structures.
B.8.3 Hong Kong Rainfall and Landslide Studies
Since 1984, the GEO has compiled annual reports to document information on rainfall
and landslides occurring in the HKSAR. GEO has also prepared detailed/forensic
investigation reports on some selected major landslide incidents and incidents involving
casualties. Since 1997, GEO has started engaging consultants to carry out investigation of
some selected landslides and to prepare landslide study reports. The annual reports,
detailed/forensic investigation reports and landslide study reports are either published as GEO
Reports or produced as GEO internal reports. GEO Reports can be purchased from the online
Government Bookstore or downloaded from the CEDD Website http://www.cedd.gov.hk.
317
GEO internal reports can be viewed in the CEL. Summary of findings of selected landslide
studies are also uploaded onto the Hong Kong Slope Safety Website http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk for
viewing.
B.8.4 Slope Maintenance Records
Slope maintenance records (e.g. maintenance manuals, records of slope upgrading,

records of routine maintenance and Engineer Inspections, records of monitoring of special
measures such as permanent prestressed ground anchors and designed horizontal drains) are
kept by the slope owners or their maintenance agents (GEO, 2003).
B.8.5 Other Public Records
The GRS is the central repository for the permanent archives and selected official
publications of the HKSAR Government. It maintains catalogued collections of maps and
photographs dating from 1860, together with almost complete collections of the Hong Kong
Government Gazette, Blue Books, Sessional Papers, Administrative Reports, Historical &
Statistical Abstracts of Hong Kong, Legislative Council Minutes, Annual Departmental Reports,
Ordinances and Regulations, Hong Kong Hansard and a comprehensive newspaper collection.
In November 2002, GRS introduced an integrated information access system to facilitate online
searching of all catalogues and access to selected visual images via the Internet.
(http://www.grs.gov.hk/ws/english/es_online_cata.htm)
The Photo Library of the Information Services Department has in place some old
photographs which may be reproduced for use by members of the public.
Lists of declared monuments and deemed monuments as well as archaeological sites are
maintained by the Antiquities & Monuments Office (AMO) of the Leisure and Cultural Services
Department (see also Section B.3.2).
B.9 Notes and Circulars Related to Ground Investigation Works
For private development, the general requirements for carrying out ground investigation
works, including the site supervision requirements, are given in PNAP APP-49 which can be
downloaded from Buildings Department Website http://www.bd.gov.hk. For public
development, the requirements are given in WBTC No. 13/90. Ground Investigation Note No.
1/2008, which can be downloaded from CEDD Website http://www.cedd.gov.hk gives the
details of procurement of ground investigation and laboratory testing services provided by
CEDD for Government projects. Guidance on specific aspects of site investigation for tunnel
works in Hong Kong are given in Sections 10.9, 16.5 and 40.4 of this Geoguide.
318
B.10 Scheduled and Designated Areas and Other Concerned Areas

B.10.1 Mid-levels Scheduled Area
Ground investigation works in scheduled areas, including the Mid-levels Scheduled

Area, are subject to special geotechnical control under the Buildings Ordinance. The Mid-
levels Scheduled Area is specified as Area Number 1 of the Scheduled Areas in the Fifth
Schedule of the Buildings Ordinance. A plan showing the boundary of the Mid-levels
Scheduled Area is on display in Buildings Department and in the GIU of the CEL.
The Mid-levels Consultants’ study was summarised in a report entitled “Mid-levels

Study: Report on Geology, Hydrology and Soil Properties” (GCO, 1982). The report is
available for sale at the online Government Bookstore. All factual data on geology, hydrology
and soil properties collected in the course of the Mid-levels Study between 1979 and 1981 are
available for inspection in the GIU.
For private development, the requirements on the special geotechnical control for
ground investigation works in the Mid-levels Scheduled Area are given in PNAP APP-30. For
public development, the requirements are specified in ETWB TC (Works) No. 29/2002A.
B.10.2 North-western New Territories and Ma On Shan Areas
The designated areas in North-western New Territories and Ma On Shan are specified
as Area Numbers 2 and 4 respectively of the Scheduled Areas in the Fifth Schedule of the
Buildings Ordinance. The plans illustrating the exact extent of these Areas are on display in
the Buildings Department and in the GIU.
Considerable information exists on the geology of the Scheduled Areas. Twenty

1:5 000 Geological Map sheets, together with the Hong Kong Geological Survey Sheet Report
No. 1 - Geology of Yuen Long, covers Area Number 2. Scheduled Area 4 is covered by
1:5 000 Geological Map Sheets 7-NE-C and 7-NE-D, together with a report on the geology.
These can be obtained from the GEO Planning Division.
For private development, the requirements on the special geotechnical control for
ground investigation works in these Scheduled Areas are given in PNAP APP-61. For public
development, the requirements are specified in ETWB TC (Works) No. 4/2004.
B.10.3 Mass Transit Railway Areas
To safeguard the safety and stability of the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) structures
operated and maintained by the MTR Corporation Limited (MTRCL), a “protection boundary”
for the railways has been drawn on plans or determined by a figure and a set of
building/engineering guidelines produced. The areas within the “protection boundary” are
commonly known as the railway protection areas.
The MTR operates a network of railways. Amongst the railway protection areas, some
areas are designated as Scheduled Area No. 3 in the Fifth Schedule of the Buildings Ordinance
319
(Scheduled Area No. 3). The areas within the “protection boundary” have been designated as
Scheduled Area No. 3. The plans illustrating the extent of these areas are available for
inspection in the Buildings Department (BD) and the MTRCL. Information on the “alignment
of the railways as constructed” may be obtained direct from MTRCL. For private
development, the additional requirements for ground investigation works within Scheduled
Area No. 3 are given in PNAP APP-24 and PNAP APP-131. WB Technical Circular No.
19/2002, ETWB Technical Circular (Works) Nos. 33/2003 and 2/2005 shall be referred to for
guidance on ground investigation works near the MTR and liaison with the Railway Protection
& Land Survey Manager of the MTRCL.
The Survey and Mapping Office of Lands Department maintains a set of digital land
records covering the whole territory of Hong Kong. Useful information, e.g. lot boundaries,
the railway reserves and others, is recorded in this database.
B.10.4 Sewage Tunnel Protection Areas
The sewage tunnel protection areas are designated as Area Number 5 of the Scheduled
Areas in the Fifth Schedule of the Buildings Ordinance (Scheduled Area No. 5). The plans
illustrating the extent of these areas are available for inspection in the Buildings Department
and the Drainage Services Department. For private development, the additional requirements
for ground investigation work within Scheduled Area No. 5 are given in PNAP APP-62. For
ground investigation works proposals of Government Departments in the vicinity of the sewage
tunnels, the project proponents shall refer to ETWB Technical Circular (Works) No. 28/2003
for the procedures for forwarding proposals to Drainage Services Department and GEO for
comment/agreement.
B.10.5 Designated Area of Northshore Lantau
The Designated Area is underlain by locally complex geological conditions that require
due attention to be given to the potential problems associated with high-rise buildings and other
structures involving deep foundations. Technical recommendations and the plan illustrating
the exact extent of the area are given in GEO TGN No. 12.
For private development, administrative procedures and general guidance for ground
investigation work in the Designated Area are given in PNAP APP-134. For public
development, the requirements are specified in ETWB TC(W) No. 4/2004.
B.10.6 Water Gathering Grounds (WGG)
Information on the limits of the WGG and the required conditions for protection of the
WGG against pollution should be obtained from the relevant regional office of the Water
Supplies Department. Maps showing WGG are also held by the relevant District Lands
Offices of the Lands Department.
320
B.10.7 Marine Ground Investigation in Difficult Ground Areas
Difficult ground conditions generally refer to the existence of unfavourable subsoil strata
on site. Technical guidelines on the areas and the plan illustrating the extent of the areas are
given in Port Works Design Manual issued by CEDD.
B.11 Services and Utilities
Information on gas, electricity, telephone, cable television and similar services,

including both the locations and details of existing facilities and the provision of further services,
should be sought from the private companies supplying these services (see local telephone
directories or the Yellow Pages for their latest addresses and telephone numbers).
Information on the locations of water mains, water tunnels, reservoirs and other
waterwork facilities maintained by the Water Supplies Department (WSD) should be sought
from the Department. Application forms and further information on the customer services of
the WSD can be found at the website http://www.wsd.gov.hk.
As-built records of public stormwater drains and foul sewers should be sought from the
Drainage Services Department (DSD). Similar records for private lots can be obtained from
the Buildings Department. As-built records of exclusive road drainage should be sought from
the Highways Department.
Tentative limits of allowable settlement, groundwater drawdown and vibration may be

obtained from DSD, WSD, public corporations and private utility undertakers.
B.12 Local Libraries

B.12.1 The Civil Engineering Library and the Geotechnical Information Unit
The CEL is the central reference library of the Civil Engineering and Development
Department. The CEL contains over 150,000 documents, including periodicals, books,
conference proceedings, manuals, standards, codes of practice, geotechnical reports, maps,
documents submitted to GEO in support of private developments, and documents produced by
or for Government Departments.
The GIU forms part of the CEL and comprises a collection of geotechnical data from
ground investigations throughout the HKSAR. The following GIU materials are among those
available for inspection within the Public Section of the CEL.
(a) ground investigation and geophysical survey reports;
(b) reports on the laboratory testing of soil and rock;
(c) Landslip Cards;
(d) piezometer monitoring data; and

321
(e) an inventory of natural terrain landslides.
The Bibliography on the Geology and Geotechnical Engineering of Hong Kong,

produced by the GEO, lists more than 4,600 items that are known to have been published
specifically on aspects of the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong. The
Bibliography can be found under the Publications Section of the CEDD Website
http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/publications/reference/index.htm.
Members of the public are free to view documents held within the Public Section of the
CEL and search for library materials using the Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) – V
Lib computer terminals. Retrieval of ground investigation and laboratory testing reports can
be accessed by the Digital Geotechnical Information Unit (DGIU) system. A user’s manual
for DGIU is provided in the CEL. Photocopying and printing facilities are available.
Further information on the services of the CEL and GIU can be found under the Public
Services Section of the CEDD Website http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/services/library/ index.htm.
B.12.2 Other Libraries
The City Hall Public Library, the Hong Kong Central Library and the Kowloon Public
Library each houses a reference section which contains a number of published documents on
the geology and geotechnical engineering of Hong Kong, together with some unpublished
reports. They also house Hong Kong Collections of considerable interest. Direct access is
permitted to the shelved items, and bibliographic information of the items can be accessed
through the Online Public Access Catalogue. Photocopying facilities are available for public
use.
The University of Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong
Polytechnic University, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology and the City
University of Hong Kong each has a large library which contains a collection of general
geological and geotechnical information. The first three, however, can only be accessed by
special permission, although for bona fide visitors this is usually not difficult to obtain. The
University of Hong Kong maintains the Hong Kong Collection, which contains considerable
unpublished information, as well as master and doctoral degree theses on geological and
geotechnical topics.
322
B.13 Addresses of Local Organizations
Antiquities and Monuments Office, Architectural Services Department,

Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Queensway Government Offices,
136 Nathan Road, Tsim Sha Tsui, Kowloon. 66 Queensway, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2721 2326) (Tel.: 2867 3628)
(Website: http://www.amo.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.archsd.gov.hk)
Buildings Department, City Hall Public Library,

12th-18th Floors and 21st to 22nd Floors City Hall High Block,
Pioneer Centre, 750 Nathan Road, Kowloon. Edinburgh Place, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2626 1616) (Tel.: 2921 2672)
(Website: http://www.bd.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.hkpl.gov.hk)
Chinese University of Hong Kong Library, City University of Hong Kong,

122 Milestone, Tai Po Road, Run Run Shaw Library,
Sha Tin, New Territories. Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2609 7301) (Tel.: 2788 8311)
(Website: http://www.lib.cuhk.edu.hk) (Website: http://www.cityu.edu.hk)
Civil Engineering Office, District Lands Office,

Civil Engineering and Development Lands Department,
Department, 20th Floor, North Point Government
Civil Engineering and Development Building, Offices,
101 Princess Margaret Road, 333 Java Road, North Point,
Homantin, Kowloon. Hong Kong
(Tel.: 2762 5111) (Tel: 2525 6694)
(Website: http://www.cedd.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.landsd.gov.hk)
Drainage Services Department, Environmental Infrastructure Division,

43rd Floor, Revenue Tower, Environmental Protection Department,
5 Gloucester Road, 4/F, East Wing, Island West Transfer
Wan Chai, Hong Kong. Station,
(Tel.: 2877 0660) 88, Victoria Road,
(Website: http://www.dsd.gov.hk) Kennedy Town, Hong Kong
(Tel: 2872 1807)
(Website: http://www.epd.gov.hk)
Government Record Service, Geotechnical Engineering Office,

Hong Kong Public Record Building, Civil Engineering and Development
13 Tsui Ping Road, Department,
Kwun Tong, Kowloon, Civil Engineering and Department
(Tel: 2195 7801) Building,
(Website: http://www.grs.gov.hk) 101 Princess Margaret Road,
Homantin, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2762 5111)
(Website: http://www.cedd.gov.hk)
323
Geotechnical Information Unit, Geotechnical Projects Division, GEO,

Civil Engineering Library,LG1, Civil 23rd Floor, 410 Kwun Tong Road,
Engineering and Development Building, Kwun Tong, Kowloon,
101 Princess Margaret Road, (Tel: 2716 8612)
Homantin, Kowloon. (Email: [email protected])
(Tel.: 2762 5148)
(Email: [email protected])
Highways Department, Hong Kong Observatory,

5th Floor, Homantin Government Offices, 134A Nathan Road,
88 Chung Hau Street, Tsim Sha Tsui,
Homantin, Kowloon. Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2926 4111) (Tel: 2926 8200)
(Website: http://www.hyd.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.hko.gov.hk)
Hong Kong Central Library, Hong Kong Geological Survey,

55 Causeway Road, Hong Kong, Geotechnical Engineering Office,
(Tel: 2921 0222) 11th Floor, Civil Engineering and
(Website: http://www.hkpl.gov.hk) Development Building,
Homantin, Kowloon,
(Tel: 2762 5380)
(Email: [email protected])
Hong Kong Polytechnic University Library, Hong Kong University of Science &
Pao Yue-kong Library, Technology Library,
Yuk Choi Road, Clear Water Bay,
Hung Hom, Kowloon. Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2766 6863) (Tel.: 2358 6762)
(Website: http://www.lib.polyu.edu.hk) (Website: http://library.ust.hk)
Kowloon Public Library, Lands Department,

5 Pui Ching Road, 1st, 2nd, 6th, 18th to 24th Floors,
Homantin, North Point Government Offices,
Kowloon. 333 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2926 4062) (Tel.: 2231 3294)
(Website: http://www.hkp1.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.landsd.gov.hk)
Lands Information Centre, Landslip Preventive Measures Division 1,

Survey and Mapping Office, GEO, 1st Floor, Civil Engineering and
Lands Department, Development Building,
23rd Floor, North Point Government Offices, 101 Princess Margaret Road,
333 Java Road, Homantin, Kowloon.
North Point, Hong Kong, (Tel.: 2760 5778)
(Tel: 2231 3452) (E-mail: [email protected])
(Website: http://www.landsd.gov.hk)
324
Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Map Publications Centre (Hong Kong),
1-3 Pai Tau Street, Survey and Mapping Office
Sha Tin, Lands Department
New Territories. 23rd Floor, North Point Government
(Tel.: 2603 4567) Offices,
(Website: http://www.lcsd.gov.hk) 333 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2231 3187)
(E-mail: [email protected])
Map Publications Centre (Kowloon), Marine Department,

Survey and Mapping Office, Harbour Building,
Lands Department 38 Pier Road, Hong Kong.
382 Nathan Road, (Tel.: 2542 3711)
Yau Ma Tei, Kowloon. (Website: http://www.mardep.gov.hk)
(Tel.: 2780 0981)
(E-mail:[email protected])
Mines Division, GEO, MTR Corporation Limited

25th Floor, 410 Kwun Tong Road, MTR Tower Telford Plaza,
Kwun Tong, Kowloon. Kowloon Bay, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2716 8666) (Tel.: 2993 2111)
(E-mail:[email protected]) (Website:http://www.mtr.com.hk/engtxt/r
ailway/protection_index.html)
Online Geological Memoir Online Government Bookstore,

(Website:http://www.cedd.gov.hk/eng/about/or (Website: http://www.bookstore.gov.hk)
ganisation/org_geo_pln_map.htm)
Planning Division, GEO, Publications Sales Unit,

11th Floor, Civil Engineering and Development Information Services Department,
Building, Room 402, 4th Floor, Murray Building,
101 Princess Margaret Road, Garden Road, Central, Hong Kong.
Homantin, Kowloon. (Tel.: 2537 1910)
(Tel.: 2762 5400) (Website: http://www.isd.gov.hk)
Slope Maintenance Responsibility Information Slope Safety Division, GEO,

Centre, 7th Floor, Civil Engineering and
Lands Department, Development Building,
1st Floor, North Point Government Offices, 101 Princess Margaret Road,
333, Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong. Homantin, Kowloon.
(Tel.: 2231 3333) (Tel.: 2760 5760)
(Website: http://www.landsd.gov.hk) (Hong Kong Slope Safety Website:
http://hkss.cedd.gov.hk)
325
Standards and Testing Division, GEO, The University of Hong Kong Library,
12th Floor, Civil Engineering and Development Pokfulam Road,
Building, Hong Kong.
101 Princess Margaret Road, (Tel.: 2859 2203)
Homantin, Kowloon. (Website: http://lib.hku.hk)
(Tel.: 2762 5345)
Water Supplies Department, Waste Facilities Business Unit,

48th, Floor, Immigration Tower, Environmental Protection Department,
7 Gloucester Road, 4th Floor, West Wing, 88 Victoria Road,
Wan Chai, Hong Kong. Kennedy Town, Hong Kong.
(Tel.: 2829 4500) (Tel.: 2872 1888)
(Website: http://www.wsd.gov.hk) (Website: http://www.epd.gov.hk)
B.14 References
Allen, P.M. & Stephens, E.A. (1971). Report on the Geological Survey of Hong Kong, 1967-
1969. Hong Kong Government Press, 116 p, plus 2 maps.
Fyfe, J.A., Shaw, R., Campbell, S.D.G., Lai, K.W. & Kirk, P.A. (2000). The Quaternary
Geology of Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 208 p. plus 6
maps.
Franks, C.A.M. (1991). Engineering Geology of North Lantau: Tsing Chau Tsai Peninsula to
Ta Pang Po (Special Project Report SPR 4/91). Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 148 p. plus 9 drgs.
Franks, C.A.M. (1992). Engineering Geology of North Lantau: Ta Pang Po to Tai Ho Wan
(Special Project Report SPR 2/92). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
109 p. plus 5 drgs.
GCO (1982). Mid-levels Study: Report on Geology, Hydrology and Soil Properties (1982).
Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 265 p. plus 54 drgs.
GEO (1998), GEO Emergency Manual, Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong
(Amended from time to time)
GEO (2003) Guide to Slope Maintenance (Geoguide 5). (Third Edition) Geotechnical
Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 132 p
GEO (2017). Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions (Geoguide 3). (Continuously Updated E-
Version released on 29 August 2017). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Civil
Engineering and Development Department, HKSAR Government, 171 p.
King, J.P. (1999). Natural Terrain Landslide Study, the Natural Terrain Landslide Inventory
(GEO Report No. 74). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, 127 p.
326
Lee, C.W. & Sewell, R.J. (2007). On-line Geological Memoir of Hong Kong. Episodes,
vol. 30, no.1, 62 p.
Pang, P.L.R., Evans, N.C., Lam, T.W.K., Au, D. & Man, K.S. (2000). Upgrading of an
automatic raingauge system. Proceedings of the Symposium on Slope Hazards and
their Prevention, Hong Kong, pp 297-302.
Scott Wilson (Hong Kong) Ltd (1999a). Specialist API Services for the Natural Terrain
Landslide Study – Task B Factual Report. Report to Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 9 p. plus 4 Appendices.
Scott Wilson (Hong Kong) Ltd (1999b). Specialist API Services for the Natural Terrain
Landslide Study – Interpretive Report. Report to Geotechnical Engineering Office,
Hong Kong, 32 p. plus 6 Appendices.
Sewell, R.J., Campbell, S.D.G., Fletcher, C.J.N., Lai, K.W. & Kirk, P.A. (2000). The Pre-
Quaternary Geology of Hong Kong. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
181 p. plus 4 maps
Woods, N.W. (1992). Engineering Geology of North Lantau: Tung Chung, Vol. I & II
(Special Project Report SPR 1/93). Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong,
94 p. plus 8 drgs.
327
Table B1 - Selected Maps, Plans and Aerial Photographs Available from

the Lands Department
Paper Map Products Digital Map Products

Map/Plan Coverage
No. of Product
Series No. Size (mm) Colour No. of Sheets
Sheets Name
Topographic Maps
1. 1:1 000 Full HPIC 750 x 850 3254 B&W B1000 3254
2. 1:5 000 Full HP5C 750 x 850 166 B&W B5000 189
3. 1:10 000
Full SM10C 685 x 980 59 B&W B10000 57
(Street Map)
4. 1:20 000 Full HM20C 685 x 980 16 Colour B20000 16
5. 1:50 000 Full HM50CL 1010 x 690 2 Colour N.A. N.A.
8. 1:300 000
(Hong Kong in As per
HM300C 610 x 860 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
its regional title
setting)
Digital Orthophotos / Orthophoto Maps
1. 1:5 000 Full N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. DOP5000 189
2. 1:10 000 Full N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. DOP10000 55
3. 1:50 000 Full OPM50 1080 x 1400 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
4. 1:100 000 Full OPM100 600 x 770 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
B&W/
Aerial Photos Full# N.A. 250 x 250 Numerous DAP numerous
Colour
Geological Maps
Selective
1. 1:5 000* HGP5, 5A, 5B 760 x 1000 34 Colour N.A. N.A.
Areas
2. 1:20 000* Full HGM20 & 20S 775 x 1000 14 & 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
2a. 1:20 000 Full HGM20 700 x 1000 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
3. 1:100 000 Full HGM100 660 x 1000 1 Colour N.A. N.A.
Town Planning
Plan by Planning N.A. 471 Various Various B&W N.A. N.A.
Department
Legend:
* See Figure B1 for area coverage
# See Table B2 for further details
328
Table B2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department

(Low Attitude Photographs) (Sheet 1 of 2)
Approximate
HKI K NT
Medium to low resolution, single frames

1924 Approx. 1:14 000 60 10 30
with incidental stereo overlap.
Medium to good resolution. Almost all
1945 1:12 000 95 60 95 areas except east-west strip from Tuen Mun
to Sai Kung.
1:4 800 Good resolution. Excellent coverage of

1949 100 95 30 north-west New Territories. Good
1:11 600 coverage of lowland areas.
1956 1:10 000
10 50 5 Good resolution; some stereo overlap.
1959 1:13 300
1961-1962 1:10 000 100 100 10 Good resolution; small relief exaggeration.
NT = 1:7 800 Excellent resolution, full stereo coverage.

1963 100 100 95 Coverage of all areas except Mai Po to Sha
HKI + K = 1:5 400 Tau Kok.
1964 1:3 600 5 5 10 Coverage of trunk roads.
1967 1:7 800 - 1:12 500 90 90 20 Coverage of main Urban Area only.
1968-1970 1:5 000 - 1:10 000 40 100 20 Coverage of Urban Areas.
1972 1:6 000 - 1:13 000 40 80 20 Coverage of trunk road.
1:3 000 70 100 5 Urban Areas only.
1973
1:10 000 - 1:12 000 70 100 90 Most of HKSAR.
1974 1:5 000 10 70 30
Territories.
1975 1:4 600 - 1:10 000 5 40 30
Territories.
1976 1:2 000 - 1:8000 100 100 40 Coverage of Urban Areas and New Towns.
Detailed coverage of north-west and north
1977 1:2 800 - 1:8 000 100 100 50
New Territories plus New Towns.
Annual coverage of Urban Areas including
1978-1987 1:4 000 - 1:8 000 100 100 60
New Towns and lowland areas.
Annual coverage of New Territories varies
1988 to present 1:2 000 - 1:12 000 100 100 45-90
from year to year.
329
Table B2 - Aerial Photographs Available from the Lands Department

(High Altitude Photographs) (Sheet 2 of 2)
Approximate
HKI K NT
1954 1:60 000 2 80 90 Good resolution.

Excellent resolution. Mosaic of aerial
1964 1:25 000 100 100 100 photographs available. East to west flight
lines, 4 to 5 km apart.
Good resolution. East to west flight lines
1973 1:25 000 100 100 90
3 to 5 km apart.
Good resolution. Annual coverage. East
1974-1976 1:25 000 100 100 100
to west flight lines, 1 to 4 km apart.
Obliques only of Urban Area. Coverage
1977 1:25 000 20 20 of Lantau, west New Territories and Sha
Tin.
1980 1:20 000 100 80 20 Southern half of HKSAR only.
1981
1:50 000 80 80 10 Urban Area and Lantau only.
1982 1:20 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage

1983
1:40 000 100 100 95 Almost complete coverage.
Coverage of Urban Area, Clearwater Bay
1984 1:20 000 30 40 15
and Sai Kung Peninsula.
1:20000
1985 100 100 100 Complete coverage
1:30 000
1988 – 1997* 1:20 000 - 1:40 000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
1998 to present 1:16 000 - 1:40000 100 100 100 Complete coverage.
*Year 1996: only 1:20 000 available
330
Geological Memoir Nos. 1:20 000 Map Sheet Nos.
Geological Map Coverage

Area of Coverage
Memoir Nos. 1:20 000 Sheet Nos.
1 Sha Tin 7
2 Hong Kong Island and Kowloon 10, 11, 14, 15, 16
3 Western New Territories 2, 5, 6
4 Sai Kung and Clearwater Bay 8, 12, 16
5 Northeastern New Territories 3, 4
6 Lantau District 9, 10, 13, 14
1:5 000 Map Sheet Nos. Numbering System of

Sheet Report Nos. 1:5 000 Series
Map Coverage
Sheet Report Nos. Area of Coverage
1:5 000 Sheet Nos.
1 Yuen Long - Scheduled Area No. 2 14 map sheets
2 Chek Lap Kok 9-NE-C and 9-NE-D
3 Tsing Yi and surrounding offshore area 6-SE-B and 10-NE-B,D
4 North Lantau Island and Ma Wan 10-NE-A,C, 10-NW-B,C,D, and 10-
SW-A
5 Ma On Shan - Scheduled Area No. 4 7-NE-D and 7-NE-C
6 Tung Chung and Northshore Lantau Island 9-SE-A, 9-SE-B and 5 offshore part
map sheets
Figure B1 - Geological Maps, Memoirs and Sheet Reports

331
Appendix C
Notes on Site Reconnaissance

332
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 331
Contents 332
C.1 General 333
C.2 Preparatory Work 333
C.3 General Procedure 333
C.4 Information on Ground Conditions 334
C.5 Site Inspection Prior to Commencement of Ground 335

Investigations
333
C.1 General
The purpose of the site reconnaissance is to confirm and supplement the information
collected during the desk study (see Section 4.2). The site reconnaissance may include both
site inspection and local enquiries concerning existing and proposed features on and adjacent
to the site.
Although site reconnaissance is normally carried out after completion of a thorough desk
study (see Section 4.2 and Appendix A), an early site visit/reconnaissance preceding the desk
study may sometimes be very useful.
C.2 Preparatory Work
Prior to undertaking the site reconnaissance, the following preparations should be made :
(a) Permission to gain access to the site should have been

obtained from both the owner and occupier.
(b) The site plan, topographic and geological maps and the
necessary equipment should be available; for example,
notebook, pencil, large clip board, camera, measuring tape,
geological compass (compass and clinometer), geological
hammer, penknife and hand lens (x10). For large sites, a
range finder and binoculars may also be useful. Any
equipment necessary to ensure the safety of field personnel
should also be included.
C.3 General Procedure
Where appropriate, the following procedure may be adopted :
(a) The whole area should be traversed, preferably on foot, and

photographs should be taken of selected features of the site
and its surroundings.
(b) The proposed location of work shown on plans should be set-

out.
(c) Differences and omissions on plans and maps (e.g. site

boundaries, buildings, roads, etc.) should be recorded.
(d) An inspection should be made of the details of all existing

structures, and, where appropriate, records should be made.
(e) Potential obstructions (e.g. transmission lines, telephone lines,

historical features, large trees, gas and water pipes, electricity
334
cables and sewers) should be recorded.
(f) Access, including the effects of construction traffic and heavy

construction loads on existing roads, bridges and services,
should be checked.
(g) Water levels, direction and rate of flow in nullahs and streams,
and also flood levels and tidal and other fluctuations, should
be noted where relevant.
(h) Features of the adjacent property should be recorded, and the

likelihood of these being affected by proposed works should
be assessed.
(i) Old structures, and any other features, should be inspected

and relevant records should be made.
(j) Local inhabitants should be interviewed about the past uses

of the site, structural damage to buildings on or near the site,
flooding and land instability. Such information should be
treated with due caution, but should be recorded and
evaluated.
C.4 Information on Ground Conditions
Data on and relating to ground conditions should be gathered and recorded, as follows :
(a) Surface features, both on site and nearby should be studied

and recorded, preferably in conjunction with geological maps
and aerial photographs. The following should be noted.
(i) Slope angles, types of slope (convex or concave) and

sudden changes in slope.
(ii) Comparison of topography with previous map records

or aerial photographs to check for the presence of
erosion, cut slopes, fill or buried stream courses.
(iii) Surface features which may indicate geological faults,

shear zones, previous slope instability or karst formation.
(iv) Positions and extent of tension cracks or other features

which may indicate impending slope instability.
(b) An inspection should be made of soil and rock outcrops and

cut slope exposures, both on site and nearby. Relevant
details should be recorded.
335
(c) Where relevant, groundwater levels, positions of wells and

springs, the occurrence of seepage, and any evidence of
seepage erosion, including soil pipes and sinkholes, should
be assessed and recorded.
(d) The surface drainage pattern and any evidence of active soil
erosion from surface water (e.g. gullies) should be noted.
(e) The nature and distribution of vegetation on the site should

be studied and noted; this information may provide an
indication of soil and groundwater conditions.
(f) The condition of embankments, buildings and other

structures (e.g. tunnel portals and ventilation shafts) in the
vicinity should be studied and recorded.
(g) On extensive or more complex projects, a site reconnaissance

survey should be carried out, followed by the production of
engineering geological maps and/or plans and an evaluation
of the terrain based on the underlying soils, vegetation cover,
and other features (see Chapter 9). This type of mapping
should be carried out with the assistance of an engineering
geologist.
C.5 Site Inspection Prior to Commencement of Ground Investigations
A supplementary site visit will often be necessary just prior to commencement of the
actual ground investigations. Where appropriate, this should include the following activities :
(a) The locations and conditions of access to the working sites

should be inspected and recorded.
(b) Obstructions, such as power cables, telephone lines,

boundary fences and trenches, should be located and recorded.
(c) Areas for sample storage should be identified.
(d) Where applicable, suitable points of water supply and

electricity supply should be located and recorded.
336
Appendix D
Information Required for Design and Construction

337
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 336
Contents 337
D.1 General 338
D.2 Detailed Land Survey and Engineering Assessment 338
D.3 Hydrographic and Hydraulic Data 338
D.4 Influences of Weather 339
D.5 Material Sources 340
D.6 Disposal of Waste and Surplus Materials 340

338
D.1 General
In addition to the determination of ground conditions at the site, which are considered
elsewhere in this Geoguide, other information that may be required for design and construction
is briefly summarised in the following sections.
The items listed in this Appendix are by no means exhaustive, and relevant guidance
documents on the information requirements for design and construction should be consulted for
additional advice. Time constraints may limit the extent of detailed study that can be given to
the project, in which case allowance should be made in the design, e.g. by adopting conservative
assumptions for design parameters.
D.2 Detailed Land Survey and Engineering Assessment
A detailed survey of the site and its boundaries, showing means of access, utilities and
services, easements and drainage networks, will be necessary. Survey coordinates should be
referenced to the 1980 Hong Kong Metric Grid and levels to the Hong Kong Principal Datum.
Exact locations of site boundaries should be ascertained from the appropriate District Lands
Office (see Appendix A.8). The following may also be required :
(a) Particulars of existing structures or obstructions, and whether

they have to be demolished or maintained.
(b) Particulars of adjacent or nearby structures that may be

affected by works on the site, including building heights,
floor levels, types of foundations, structural condition, and
other pertinent information.
(c) Particulars of adjacent slopes and retaining walls that may

affect the site, including assessment of stability and details of
any necessary support or remedial works. This assessment
should include boulders that may pose a hazard to the site or
the work.
(d) Locations and depths of any underground obstructions or

features, such as tunnels or cavities, where known, with
supporting details.
(e) Locations of survey markers and bench marks near the site,
with accompanying details; documentation of site markers
and bench marks.
D.3 Hydrographic and Hydraulic Data
The design of structures in, adjoining or near the sea, nullahs or streams may require
information on the following :
339
(a) Marine survey data, to supplement the Admiralty charts and

other available data.
(b) Detailed information about nullah or stream flows, size and

nature of catchment areas, tidal limits, flood levels and their
relation to the Hong Kong Chart Datum.
(c) Observations on tide levels (referred to Chart Datum) and the

rate of tidal fluctuations, velocity and direction of currents,
and wave data.
(d) Information on scour and siltation, movement of foreshore

material by drift; stability conditions of beaches, breakwaters
and training works.
(e) Locations and details of existing nullahs, streams and marine

structures, wrecks and other obstructions above and below
the water line; the effect of obstructions and floating debris
on permanent and temporary works, including clearances of
obstructions.
(f) Observations on the condition of existing structures, such as

attack by marine growth and borers, corrosion of metal work,
disintegration of concrete and attrition by floating debris or
bed movements.
(g) Data on water quality.
D.4 Influences of Weather
Information on the following may be necessary :
(a) Predictions of surface water flows and groundwater levels

resulting from rainfall events with return periods of 10, 50
and 200 years, or from more extreme rainfall events.
(b) Groundwater responses to major rainstorms, including

projections or assessments of response to a one-in-ten year
rainfall event.
(c) Local wind speeds and wave heights generated during

tropical cyclones.
(d) Range of temperature, seasonal and diurnal.

340
D.5 Material Sources
Sources of materials for construction may need to be located and proven, including:
(a) fill and filter materials for earthworks and reclamation,
(b) road base and surfacing materials,
(c) concrete aggregates,
(d) stone for building, pitching, or riprap,
(e) water,
(f) topsoil for landscaping.
D.6 Disposal of Waste and Surplus Materials
Sites for disposal of wastes or surplus materials may need to be located, and methods of
disposal resolved, for such materials as :
(a) excavated soil and rock,
(b) dredged materials,
(c) building debris and construction wastes,
(d) liquid wastes.
Access to controlled tips and public dumping areas must be determined, as well as
transport requirements and environmental controls.
341
Appendix E
Safety Precautions
342
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 341
Contents 342
E.1 General 343
E.2 Safety Regulations 343
E.3 Services and Utilities 344
E.4 Work Disrupting Roads, Streets or Footpaths 344
E.5 References 345

343
E.1 General
The prime factors required to ensure safe working conditions are supervision by a
competent person and the engagement of a suitably experienced contractor who possesses
adequate resources for the project in hand.
Emergency procedures should be decided at the commencement of a job. A first aid

kit should be readily accessible, and should include items suited to the working conditions.
Efficient communications with outside services (police, fire and hospital) should be established.
Safety helmets, gloves, safety footwear, goggles and masks should always be worn when
required.
Reference should always be made to relevant Ordinances and Safety Regulations, and
to the British Standards and Codes of Practice for advice on the manufacture and use of
equipment.
E.2 Safety Regulations
A comprehensive set of regulations exists in Hong Kong governing the safety, health
and welfare of personnel employed in construction works. For construction sites generally,
the principal statutory requirements are given in the Factories and Industrial Undertaking
Ordinance and its subsidiary Regulations (Government of Hong Kong, 1985), and the
Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations (Government of Hong Kong, 1983a). These statutes
cover general as well as specific areas of construction works, including :
(a) Excavations, caissons and shafts, dealt with under Part VI of

the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.
(b) Construction sites situated on or adjacent to water, dealt with

under Regulation 52A in Part VII of the Construction Sites
(Safety) Regulations.
(c) Use of lifting appliances and lifting gears, dealt with under
Parts II, III and V of the Construction Sites (Safety)
Regulations.
(d) Working in the vicinity of cables, dealt with under

Regulation 47 in Part VII of the Construction Sites (Safety)
Regulations.
The use of explosives and compressed gas (for example, in seismic surveys) is dealt with
under the Dangerous Goods Ordinance and its subsidiary Regulations (Government of Hong
Kong, 1983b).
The use of equipment incorporating radioactive sources is dealt with under the Radiation
Ordinance and its subsidiary Regulations (Government of Hong Kong, 1982). Such
equipment should always be used fully in accordance with the manufacturers' recommendations.
344
Reference should also be made to the following publications :
(a) A Guide to the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations

(Labour Department, 1985), which briefly sets out the
provisions of the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations and
explains the law in simple language. This is designed so
that, besides serving as a handy reference, it also serves as a
check-list of matters requiring attention.
(b) Reference Manual for Construction Sites Inspection Report

(Labour Department, 1986), which contains most of the
requirements that are necessary to maintain a favourable
working environment for the workforce and to comply with
the provisions of the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations.
(c) BS 8008: Safety Precautions and Procedures for the

Construction and Descent of Machine-bored Shafts for Piling
and Other Purposes (BSI, 2008). This describes the safety
precautions that should be taken, the specific safety
requirements for the equipment to be used, and the gas
hazards which might be encountered in deep and large
diameter boreholes. [Amd GG2/01/2017]
(d) Guidance Notes on Hand-dug Caissons (HKIE, 1981), which

deals with the safety and technical aspects of hand-dug
caissons.
E.3 Services and Utilities
In urban areas, significant hazards may be encountered from underground services such
as electricity and gas. Particular attention should be paid to the hazards resulting from damage
to high voltage power cables, gas pipelines and associated installations. Before any trial pits,
probes or boreholes are commenced in areas where there may be underground services, hand-
excavated inspection pits should be used to establish the presence or otherwise of all such
services. Hand-operated power tools may be necessary in inspection pits to assist excavation
through hard materials, but should be used with extreme care.
E.4 Works Disrupting Roads, Streets or Footpaths
For works on or adjacent to public roads and pavements, the requirements of the Road
Traffic (Traffic Control) Regulations (Government of Hong Kong, 1983c) must be complied
with. Reference should also be made to the Code of Practice for the Lighting, Signing &
Guarding of Road Works (Highways Office, 1984).
345
E.5 References
[Amd GG2/01/2017]
BSI (2008). Safety Precautions and Procedures for the Construction and Descent of Machine-
bored Shafts for Piling and Other Purposes (BS 8008:1996+A1:2008). British
Government of Hong Kong (1982). Radiation Ordinance (and Radiation Regulations).

Government of Hong Kong (1983a). Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations. Laws of Hong
Kong, Chapter 59, revised edition 1983. Hong Kong Government Printer, 58 p.
(Amended from time to time).
Government of Hong Kong (1983b). Dangerous Goods Ordinance (and Dangerous Goods
Regulations). Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 295, revised edition 1983. Hong Kong
Government of Hong Kong (1983c). Road Traffic (Traffic Control) Regulations. Laws of
Hong Kong, Chapter 374, revised edition 1983. Hong Kong Government Printer,
Government of Hong Kong (1985). Factories and Industrial Undertakings Ordinance (and
Subsidiary Legislation). Laws of Hong Kong, Chapter 59, revised edition 1985.
Hong Kong Government Printer, 270 p. (Amended from time to time).
Highways Office (1984). Code of Practice for the Lighting, Signing & Guarding of Road
Works. Hong Kong Government Printer, 41 p.
HKIE (1981). Guidance Notes on Hand-dug Caissons. Hong Kong Institution of Engineers,
15 p.
Labour Department (1985). A Guide to the Construction Sites (Safety) Regulations. Hong
Kong Government Printer, 48 p.
Labour Department (1986). Reference Manual for Construction Sites Inspection Report.
Hong Kong Government Printer, 24 p.
346
Appendix F
Supplementary Information on Ground Investigation Techniques

[Amd GG2/01/2017]
347
Contents
Page
No.
Title Page 346
Contents 347
F.1 Geophysics 348
F.2 Vertical and Inclined Boreholes 348
F.3 Horizontal Boreholes 348
F.4 Directional Coring Techniques 349
F.5 Other Aspects 349

348
F.1 Geophysics
Non-invasive surveying methods using geophysics techniques are comparatively

inexpensive compared with invasive ground investigation. Furthermore, they can often be
completed within a short time, without major conflict over land use, and can cover large areas.
Magnetic surveys to identify faults have been successful in offshore areas in Hong Kong
(Sewell et al, 2000 and references therein). Confirmatory boreholes and insitu testing should
be carried out to verify the interpretation obtained from the survey.
Geophysical surveys do not provide direct measurement of engineering properties such

as strength and permeability. They may not detect small-scale geological features. The
interpretation and translation of the survey data into engineering geological information
requires expertise and professional judgement.
F.2 Vertical and Inclined Boreholes
Although vertical boreholes are the most commonly used method of ground
investigation, the samples and logging obtained may only indicate very localised characteristics
of the ground along a tunnel alignment.
Inclined boreholes may give comparatively more information along the tunnel alignment
than vertical boreholes. Where the orientation of suspected subvertical fault zones or other
significant geological features is known, targeting an inclined borehole in a direction roughly
perpendicular to the feature may give a useful indication of the location, overall thickness and
engineering properties of the feature.
The relative inclinations of the borehole and the feature being investigated govern the
success of the inclined borehole. Faults in Hong Kong are commonly discontinuous and
typically have variable dip, dip direction, width and weathering characteristics. These factors
may affect the effectiveness of inclined boreholes.
F.3 Horizontal Boreholes
Drilling of horizontal boreholes can be carried out either from the excavation face, an
intermediate shaft or from the other end of the tunnel to investigate the ground conditions, in
particular to check whether suspected features of poor ground are present and if so their nature
and extent.
There are limitations to the maximum length that the horizontal borehole can be driven,
depending on the ground conditions, the size of the hole and the power of the drilling rig. 'N'
and 'H' size cores have been obtained from an 800 m long hole in Hong Kong.
Drilling of a horizontal borehole during the planning and design stage is often not
feasible due to lack of access to the tunnel level; usually, for deep tunnels, the construction of
vertical access shafts will not have commenced at this stage.
349
During the construction stage, drilling of horizontal boreholes from the tunnel face can
affect the rate of progress of the excavation; hence alternative access points should be
investigated and the cost-effectiveness of the operation needs to be carefully assessed in the
light of the adequacy of ground data for the design and risk management.
F.4 Directional Coring Techniques
Directional coring techniques are now available to drill from ground level to great depth
and then along a horizontal alignment. This method does not require provision of working
space at the tunnel level and can be very useful for investigating deep tunnels.
These techniques could provide continuous information of the geological conditions

along the alignment of a tunnel. Insitu tests could also be carried out for assessing the actual
conditions of the ground to be excavated. The information along the alignment would
minimize uncertainty of the tunnel works and enhance the management of risks for the project.
There may be limitations as to the maximum depth and length that a directional corehole
can reach as well as the type of core samples that can be taken and the type of geotechnical tests
that can be performed. These matters, as well as drilling location accuracy, cost, mobilisation
considerations and drilling rate should be examined as early as possible in a tunnel project.
F.5 Other Aspects
To avoid creating preferential flow paths and obstructions in the ground that could pose
hazards to the tunnel excavation, for boreholes that are close to or intercept the tunnel, the
person supervising the ground investigation should ensure that all metal casings are removed
and the boreholes are properly grouted after completion of sampling and testing.
For long boreholes, probe holes and core holes, the position of which could impact on
the design and construction, the specification should require the orientation (dip and dip
direction) and the position of the holes to be checked regularly as drilling progresses to ensure
that they follow the intended alignment.
GEO PUBLICATIONS AND ORDERING INFORMATION
土力工程處刊物及訂購資料
An up-to-date full list of GEO publications can be found at the 詳盡及最新的土力工程處刊物目錄，已登載於土木工程拓展署

CEDD Website http://www.cedd.gov.hk on the Internet under 的互聯網網頁http://www.cedd.gov.hk 的“刊物”版面之內。以下
“Publications”. The following GEO publications can also be 的土力工程處刊物亦可於該網頁下載：
downloaded from the CEDD Website: i. 指南、指引及規格
i. Manuals, Guides and Specifications
ii. GEO technical guidance notes ii. 土力工程處技術指引
iii. GEO reports iii. 土力工程處報告
iv. Geotechnical area studies programme iv. 岩土工程地區研究計劃
v. Geological survey memoirs v. 地質研究報告
vi. Geological survey sheet reports vi. 地質調查圖表報告
Copies of some GEO publications (except geological maps and 讀者可採用以下方法購買部分土力工程處刊物(地質圖及免費

other publications which are free of charge) can be purchased 刊物除外):
either by:
Writing to 書面訂購
Publications Sales Unit, 香港北角渣華道333號
Information Services Department, 北角政府合署6樓626室
Room 626, 6th Floor, 政府新聞處
North Point Government Offices,
333 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong. 刊物銷售組
or 或
 Calling the Publications Sales Section of Information Services  致電政府新聞處刊物銷售小組訂購 (電話：(852) 2537 1910)
Department (ISD) at (852) 2537 1910
 進入網上「政府書店」選購，網址為
 Visiting the online Government Bookstore at
http:// www.bookstore.gov.hk http://www.bookstore.gov.hk
 Downloading the order form from the ISD website at  透過政府新聞處的網站 (http://www.isd.gov.hk) 於網上遞交
http://www.isd.gov.hk and submitting the order online or by 訂購表格，或將表格傳真至刊物銷售小組 (傳真：(852) 2523
fax to (852) 2523 7195 7195)
 Placing order with ISD by e-mail at [email protected]  以電郵方式訂購 (電郵地址：[email protected])
1:100 000, 1:20 000 and 1:5 000 geological maps can be 讀者可於下列地點購買1:100 000、1:20 000及1:5 000地質圖：
purchased from:
Map Publications Centre/HK, 香港北角渣華道333號

Survey & Mapping Office, Lands Department, 北角政府合署23樓
23th Floor, North Point Government Offices, 地政總署測繪處
333 Java Road, North Point, Hong Kong. 電話: (852) 2231 3187
Tel: (852) 2231 3187
Fax: (852) 2116 0774 傳真: (852) 2116 0774
Any enquires on GEO publications should be directed to: 如對本處刊物有任何查詢，請致函：
Chief Geotechnical Engineer/Standards and Testing, 香港九龍何文田公主道101號

Geotechnical Engineering Office, 土木工程拓展署大樓
Civil Engineering and Development Department, 土木工程拓展署
Civil Engineering and Development Building, 土力工程處
Homantin, Kowloon, Hong Kong. 標準及測試部總土力工程師
Tel: (852) 2762 5365 電話: (852) 2762 5365
Fax: (852) 2714 0275 傳真: (852) 2714 0275
E-mail: [email protected] 電子郵件: [email protected]

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Geoguide 2

Geotechnical Engineering Office

Geotechnical Engineering Office

© The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region

First published, September 1987

Geotechnical Engineering Office,

This Geoguide covers Sections l to 7 of BS 5930, while Section 8 is dealt with in

Part II : General Considerations 21

3. Primary Objectives of Site Investigation 22

5. Earlier Uses of the Site 28

6.2.1 Map and Plan Scales 30

Part III : Planning the Ground Investigation 33

7. Introduction to Ground Investigation 34

8. Types of Ground Investigation 37

9. Geological Mapping for Ground Investigation 41

10. Extent of the Ground Investigation 42

11. Selection of Ground Investigation Methods 53

12. Effect of Ground Conditions on Investigation Methods 55

13. Aggressive Ground and Groundwater 62

14. Ground Investigations over Water 64

15. Personnel for Ground Investigation 68

16. Review during Construction 72

Part IV : Ground Investigation Methods 75

17. Introduction to Ground Investigation Methods 76

18. Excavations and Boreholes 77

19. Sampling the Ground 84

21. Tests in Boreholes 105

21.2.3 Advantages and Limitations 106

21.7 Pressuremeter Tests 119

22. Frequency of Sampling and Testing in Boreholes 123

23. Probing and Penetration Testing 126

Part V : Field and Laboratory Tests 130

24. Field Tests 131

24.2 Rock Strength Index Tests 132

25. Pumping Tests 135

26. Discontinuity Surveys 140

27. Field Density Tests 142

28. Insitu Stress Measurements 146

29. Bearing Tests 149

30. Insitu Direct Shear Tests 157

31. Large-scale Field Trials 160

32. Back Analysis 163

32.2 Failures and Design of Slope Preventive or Remendial Works 163

33. Geophysical Surveying 166

34. Principles of Laboratory Testing 173

35. Sample Storage and Inspection Facilities 174

36. Visual Examination 176

36.4 Photographic Records 176

37. Tests on Soil 178

38. Tests on Rock 180

Part VI : Reports and Interpretation 181

39. Field Reports 182

40. Site Investigation Report 183

40.3.7 Failures 192

From Part II onwards, this Geoguide is divided as follows :

Part II. Part II deals with those matters of a technical, legal or

Part III. Part III discusses general aspects and planning of

Parts IV and V. Parts IV and V discuss methods of ground

"Boring" is a method of advancing a cased or uncased hole (viz a "borehole") in the