Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University

Mechanical Design and Production Engineering

Two Semesters System – 3rd Year
Elasticity and Plasticity – MDP302

Autofrettage process

Submitted To
Dr. Sahour Nabil

Prepared by

Name E-mail Sitting Number B.N

Mahmoud Ahmed El-Sayed [email protected] 73524 24

June 1, 2020
Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. I

List of figures .................................................................................................................................. II

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... III

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Mechanism of Autofrettage process ............................................................................................... 5

The reason of usage in calculations perspective point of view ....................................................... 6

Benefits of Autofrettage .................................................................................................................. 8

Applications and Products of Autofrettage ..................................................................................... 9

Autofrettage in spherical pressure vessels ...................................................................................... 9

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 10

Reference ...................................................................................................................................... 11

I
List of figures

Figure 1: illustration of applying pressure ...................................................................................... 5

Figure 2: comparing between before and after autofrettage process and heat treatment ................ 5
Figure 3: the effect of the autofrettage on stresses ......................................................................... 7
Figure 4: diagram shows the effect of autofrettage on alternating stresses .................................... 7

II
Abstract

In French, “frettage” means the hooping cylinders increasing their strength to withstand
internal pressure. “Auto” means the metal can endure the stresses by its own without any use of
external devices.

Autofrettage process was invented by a French captain of the artillery in 1907 the idea behind it
was to improve the pressure in gun barrels so that you get a better range or higher kinetic energy
depends if you are attack officer or an artillery officer, but unfortunately, the first to use this idea
where the Germans during World War one in this method gun barrel that stands for cylinders in
the military, applying a very high pressure inside to create yielding of the wall of the cylinder, for
the most part of it or for all of it and then when you remove the pressure bank you are left with
residual stresses inside the cylinder that are compressive at the inner part of the cylinder and tensile
at the outer part.

III
Introduction

Autofrettage manufacturing method used for metals in which huge pressure applied to
pressure vessel causing inside parts of the vessel to yield plastically, that causes compressive residual
stress after releasing the pressure in the inside parts.

Autofrettage aims to improve the durability of the final product. Introducing residual compressive
stresses to the material also improve its resistance to cracking from stress corrosion: this is a non-
mechanical associated cracking that happens due to placement of the material in a corrosive
environment with the application of tensile stress.

Autofrettage would cause a small amount of work hardening but this is not the mechanism which
causes strengthening.

Autofrettage is a recognized as metal process that used only just to elements that get applied to it
pressures over 15,000 psi. Basic models like gun barrels, jackets for high-pressure pumps, and
injection elements in cars.

The term autofrettage is likewise utilized to describe a stage in the manufacturing of composite
overwrapped pressure vessel (COPV) that the liner is plastically deformed to extend inside the
composite overwrap. [1]

Page | 4
Mechanism of Autofrettage process

Starting with a steel tube that has internal diameter little bit less than the desired diameter,
then it's applied to internal pressure with enough value that could increase the bore and during this
process, the inside layers of the metal are stretched with tension stresses that make the material exceed
their elastic limit which means that the inside
layers have been extended to a point that
makes the steel can’t return to its previous
state anymore after removing the internal
pressure.

Even though the external layers of the cylinder Figure 1: illustration of applying pressure
are also extended, the level of inner pressure
subjected to the layers during the procedure is with the end goal of not extended past their elastic
limit. This case is conceivable because the stress distribution through the thickness of the cylinder is
non-uniform, its most extreme value happens in the metal contiguous the source of pressure,
diminishing towards the external layers of the cylinder.

The strain is corresponding to the stress applied unless it did not exceed the elastic limit, so the
extension at the external layers has a lower value from that at the bore. Since the external layers stay
elastic, they endeavor to come back to their first shape, but they are kept from doing so totally because
of permanent stretched inside layers. The impact that happens is the inside layers of the material are
compressed by the external layers similarly just as an external layer of material had been shrunk on
ex: built up gun. The subsequent stage is applying to the compressively strained inside layers a low-
temperature heat treatment that causes raising the elastic limit of the material as far as the autofrettage
pressure utilized in the primary phase of the procedure.

Figure 2: comparing between before and after autofrettage process and heat treatment

Page | 5
At last, the elasticity of the cylinder could be tested via internal pressure being applied again, however
you should ensure that the internal layers are not extended past their new elastic limit.

The final product is an internal surface of the gun barrel that has a residual compressive tress has the
ability to balance the tensile stress that will be prompted at the discharging of the gun, Furthermore,
the material will have an increase in the tensile stress because of the previous heat-treatment process.

For the case of a bent pipe that needs to perform an autofrettage process on it, then the autofrettage
should be doing after the bending process. The same for, if a part had a cross-cutting, caution must
be put into consideration during doing autofrettage as sections near to the hole would have stress
concentration that makes it tends to cracking, but the crack will only be developed until it reaches an
exact length after that it stops because of the internal stresses that exist inside the wall because the
internal stresses tend to press close the crack. to get the exact value of internal stresses that perform
that, the pressure applied in the autofrettage should be maintained only for a small period.

In the early act of autofrettage the barrel was getting pressurized through hydraulic systems. the
current two common procedures used for autofrettage process, a little bit larger die is pushed
gradually through the barrel using a hydraulic-driven ram arm, the measure of introductory under
bore and oversize of the die is determined and calculated to ensure that it strains the metal at the bore
to exceed its elastic limit and getting into plastic deformation zone, or using the method of Shot
peening the surface with small spheres that made of metallic or ceramic. [1]

The reason of usage in calculations perspective point of view

Curves obtained from the known relationships for tubes considered having non-negligible thickness
compared to their diameter. The σZ (stress acting on the tube’s axis) is negligible (equal to zero),
which means that both ends are externally supported.

Obtaining from the stress curves, the following notes:

• Tubes with small thickness (relatively thin) have a small difference from the highest and lowest
stresses, and the material is considered to have uniform distribution stress.

Page | 6
• thicker tubes are the opposite. Observation of a big difference between the highest and lowest
stresses. Internal layers support the majority of the load and the external layers support a small
portion. In these designs, it happens a large material waste and that’s increase cost extensively.
Making a comparison between two tubes with outer
diameters of 1.5 and 6 in. the highest value of shearing
stress on the internal surface of the larger tube gets
decreased with 50 percent, however, the material mass
gets increased with 2800 percent.
• The internal and external radial stresses are always like
all tubes. (also known that the internal value equal to
Figure 3: the effect of the autofrettage on stresses
the internal pressure and the external value is always
zero.) And they are compression stresses.
• The shearing stress is tensile, so material grains for the same layer tend to get away from each
other, that encourage the creation of cracks from inside out. these cracks fast propagate if the
pressure has a pulsating nature.

Applying one value pressure (static) high stresses could be tolerated, with engineers applying a
sufficient factor of safety. But if pressure alternate between high and low values at high frequencies
larger than 5 Hz, the fatigue of the material gets into consideration. Autofrettage helps decrease the
intensity of this issue. [2]

Figure 4: diagram shows the effect of autofrettage on alternating stresses

Page | 7
Benefits of Autofrettage

• the pressure that can be withstood by the autofrettaged element without getting fail, get
much higher. Ex: with pipes getting up to 1.8 times high and with elements that have cross
boring getting up to 2.5 times high.
• In tests, autofrettage elements got a spreading of T<=1.1, however, non-autofrettage
components generally gets a spreading of T=1.3.
• The sensitivity for notching is significantly getting reduced.
• The external layers, that was only contributing a little to the tube’s structural solidity before
the autofrettage process, now extraordinarily contributing in withstanding the stresses.
• moving the peak value point (maximum) of radial stress σR away from the tube’s internal
surface, that makes more appropriate utilization for the material.

The subsequent improvements occur corresponding to the collective benefits of autofrettage:

• The working pressure still with same value with the ability to reduce the wall thickness.
• For the previous advantage, inexpensive material is utilized.
• Overall working pressure is possible to increase.
• Eliminates finishing for all surfaces and borings.
• The service life of the part increases for the same corresponding working pressure (increase
durability). [3]

Page | 8
Applications and Products of Autofrettage

The autofrettage technique process is utilized in a lot of industries, to increase working

pressures like with defense systems, the method of autofrettage is utilized to increase the fatigue life
of parts.

Autofrettage is also utilized for increasing the strength of gun barrels. This technique is also utilized
for stretching the tubular parts downhole in oil and gas wells. Meta, a Norway-based oil service
company, which utilizes it to associate concentric tubular components with sealing and strength
properties also.

In specific, in the wide field of engineering, the autofrettage technique is used to change the internal
surface of a cylinder by introducing permanent compression stress to its internal layers. It’s the same
as pre-stressing concrete in building techniques. [3]

Autofrettage in spherical pressure vessels

Spherical pressure vessels are not so popular like cylindrical vessels and they have been
utilized in industries mainly because of their high specific strength ratio also for they are easy to pack.

to be mentioned, autofrettage is hardly used for spherical pressure vessels and the benefits from the
autofrettage process not really been tested yet to see if it feasible or not.

Page | 9
Conclusion

In autofrettage process, the vessel is loaded with very high pressure, causing the vessel wall
material to yield. then the pressure is released, as a result, residual stresses develop in the vessels
wall: compressive at the inner portion of the wall, and tensile at its outer part.

The presence of the autofrettage residual stress field within the vessel wall results in allowing an
increase of the vessel's internal pressure and decreasing the vessel susceptibility to cracking (delaying
crack initiation and slowing down crack growth rate).

For Estimations, the autofrettage post-processing makes it able to deal with peaks of the pressures
that continuously pulsate by a factor of 1.8 in tubes with considerable thicknesses. This makes
engineers have a choice of reducing the thickness without affecting the performance. [4]

Page | 10
Reference

[1] M. P. Manson, Guns, mortars, and rockets. London: Brassey’s, 1997.

[2] V. Wanke, “Understanding the basics of autofrettage | Machine Design,” MachineDesign,

2011. https://www.machinedesign.com/news/article/21829593/understanding-the-basics-of-
autofrettage (accessed May 21, 2020).

[3] G. . Thomas, “Autofrettage: Fundamentals, Industrial Applications and Benefits,” 2012.

https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=7893 (accessed May 21, 2020).

[4] M. Perl and M. Steiner, “3-D Stress Intensity Factors due to Full Autofrettage for Inner Radial
or Coplanar Crack Arrays and Ring Cracks in a Spherical Pressure Vessel,” Procedia Struct.
Integr., vol. 2, pp. 3625–3646, 2016, doi: 10.1016/j.prostr.2016.06.452.

Page | 11
 Faculty of Engineering – Cairo University

Mechanical Design and Production Engineering

Two Semesters System – 3rd Year

Engineering Elasticity and Plasticity – MDP 302

Autofrettage process
(Thick-Walled Cylinders & High-Pressure Tubes)

Submitted To
Prof. Sahour Nabil Sayed Mohammed

Prepared by

Name E-mail Sitting Number B.N

Ayman Hisham Mahmoud Ahmed [email protected] 73510 10

June 1, 2020
Table of Contents

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. I

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. II

Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... III

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 4

Autofrettage Principal Procedure .................................................................................................... 5

1. Pressure Limits..................................................................................................................... 5

2. Autofrettage Residual Stresses ............................................................................................ 5

3. Optimum Autofrettage ......................................................................................................... 6

4. Partial Autofrettage .............................................................................................................. 7

5. Full Autofrettage .................................................................................................................. 7

Autofrettage Techniques ................................................................................................................. 8

1. Hydraulic Autofrettage Technique ...................................................................................... 8

2. Swage Autofrettage Technique ............................................................................................ 9

3. Thermal Autofrettage Technique ....................................................................................... 10

Autofrettage Machining ................................................................................................................ 11

Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 12

References ..................................................................................................................................... 13

I
List of Figures

Figure 1: Hydraulic Autofrettage Technique .................................................................................. 8

Figure 2: Swage Autofrettage Technique ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 3: Mandrel in Swage Autofrettage Process ......................................................................... 9
Figure 4: Thermal Autofrettage Technique .................................................................................. 10
Figure 5: Thick-Walled Cylinders Machining After Autofrettage Process .................................. 11

II
Abstract

In design procedure of thick-walled cylinders and high-pressure tubes, there are two main
goals to be achieved: Increasing their pressure capacity and extending their durability which means
the lifetime. Those goals can be achieved by creating residual stresses in the wall of thick-walled
cylinders and high-pressure tubes, this process is named by Autofrettage Process.

The Autofrettage Process is considered as one of the most important procedure for those
components that may treat with extremely high pressures. Depending on their material strength,
the permeant deformation degrees of their walls are calculated or what is known as plastic
deformation degrees. At the optimum degree of plastic deformation, residual stresses should be
created in the walls. On its turn, the residual stresses make a reduction in the operating stresses
and increasing in durability. [1]

III
Introduction

In storage and transferring processes of fluids in extraordinary conditions of high pressures

and temperatures, the great role of pressure vessels in industry came to the light. For those
dangerous operating conditions of high pressures and temperatures, stress distribution on the
pressure vessel walls must be taken into consideration and well-studied to determine for how long
and for what range they could withstand.

By the language of industry nowadays, a wider range of pressures you need, a higher cost you will
afford. The challenge of this higher cost and the increasing of materials rarity in the world, beside
the continuous pursuit of making pressure vessels covering a wider range of pressures, innovative
methods and techniques of pressure vessels reinforcement field are achieved.

One of the common types of pressure vessels is the thick-walled cylinders. To reinforce thick-
walled cylinders, three common methods are used: “Compounding” method, “Wire Wounding”
method and “Autofrettage” method. Compounding and autofrettage methods are usually
combined, as two or three cylinders are used in autofrettage process.

The history of autofrettage process began at the first 1900s when it was first used by the French
army to enhance and improving the performance of their cannons. Since then, it is widely used in
many industries, especially in military and oil industries.

As mentioned, the autofrettage process is a process of creating or generating residual stresses in

the walls thick-walled cylinders before they are used. That is done by performing a high internal
pressure in cylinders, this pressure is enough to make the wall internal surface achieving its plastic
region without failure, then this pressure is released. When releasing pressure, residual stresses are
developed in the internal circumference of the wall and for a specific depth in the cavity (Junction
Radius). Those residual stresses are increasing pressure capacity and limiting operational stresses,
therefore the lifetime of thick-walled cylinders.

The autofrettage process can be performed by on of two main techniques: “The Hydraulic
Technique” and “The Swage Technique”. [2]

Page | 4
Autofrettage Principal Procedure

For thick-walled cylinders subjected to internal pressure 𝑃𝑖 , stresses distributions can be

presented as follows:
𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑜2 (1)
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜎𝑟 = [1 − ]
𝑘2 − 1 𝑟2
𝑃 𝑟2 (2)
𝑖
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜎𝜃 = 𝑘 2 −1 [1 + 𝑟𝑜2 ]
𝑃𝑖 (3)
𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠: 𝜎𝑍 =
𝑘2 −1

1. Pressure Limits
According to the equivalent stress (Tresca), Yield occurs when : 𝜎𝑇𝑟 = (𝜎𝜃 − 𝜎𝑟 ) = 𝜎𝑌

There are two yielding pressures 𝑃𝑌,𝑖 and 𝑃𝑌,0: The pressure at which the inner wall surface
becomes plastic and the pressure at which the whole cylinder thickness completely yields.
𝑝𝑖 𝑝
For 𝑃𝑌,𝑖 , (1 + 𝑘 2 ) − 𝑘 2 −1
𝑖
(1 − 𝑘 2 ) = 𝜎𝑌 (4)
𝑘 2 −1
2𝑝𝑖 (5)
For 𝑃𝑌,𝑜 , = 𝜎𝑌
𝑘 2 −1

2. Autofrettage Residual Stresses

After releasing autofrettage pressure, for specific thickness, the internal cylinder wall becomes
in its plastic region. At this moment, residual stresses are generated in this plastic part. By
assuming an ideal elastic plastic material and applying Hooke’s Law, the residual stresses can
be presented as follows:

• For plastic region:

𝜎𝑌 𝑟 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 𝑟𝑜 2 (6)
𝜎𝑟,𝑝,𝑅 = {[2𝑙𝑛( ) − 1 + 2 ] − [2𝑙𝑛(𝑚 + 1) − 2 ]( 2 )(1 − 2 )}
2 𝑟𝑎 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1 𝑟
𝜎𝑌 𝑟 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑙 𝑟𝑜2 (7)
𝜎𝜃,𝑝,𝑅 = {[2 + 2𝑙𝑛( ) − 1 + 2 ] − [2𝑙𝑛(𝑚 + 𝑙) − 2 ]( 2 )(1 + 2 )}
2 𝑟𝑎 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −𝑙 𝑟
𝜎𝑌 𝑟 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 (8)
𝜎𝑧,𝑝,𝑅 = {[1 + 2𝑙𝑛( ) − 1 + 2 ] − [2𝑙𝑛(𝑚 + 𝑙) − 2 ]( 2 )}
2 𝑟𝑎 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1

Page | 5
 • For elastic region:

𝜎𝑌 𝑟𝑜2 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 (9)
𝜎𝑟,𝑒,𝑅 = [1 − 2 ]{ 2 − (1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚))( 2 )}
2 𝑟 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1
𝜎𝑌 𝑟𝑜2 𝑚2 𝑚2 𝑙 (10)
𝜎𝜃,𝑒,𝑅 = [1 + 2 ]{ 2 − (1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚))( 2 )}
2 𝑟 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1
𝜎𝑌 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 (11)
𝜎𝑧,𝑒,𝑅 = { 2 − (1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚))( 2 )}
2 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1

• At the junction radius 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑎 , the residual stresses can be obtained by:

𝜎𝑌 𝑘 2 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 (12)
𝜎𝑟,𝑅 = [1 − 2 ]{ 2 − (1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚))( 2 )}
2 𝑚 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1
2 2 2
𝜎𝑌 𝑘 𝑚 𝑚 1 (13)
𝜎𝜃,𝑅 = [1 + 2 ]{ 2 − (1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚))( 2 )}
2 𝑚 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1
𝜎𝑌 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 (14)
𝜎𝑧,𝑅 = { 2 − [1 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚)]( 2 )}
2 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 −1

When applying the operating pressure, the stresses of the thick-walled cylinder is the summation
of those residual stresses and the operating stress:

𝜎𝑟,𝑇 = 𝜎𝑟 + 𝜎𝑟,𝑅 , 𝜎𝜃,𝑇 = 𝜎𝜃 + 𝜎𝜃,𝑅 and 𝜎𝑧,𝑇 = 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎𝑧,𝑅 (15), (16) and (17)

3. Optimum Autofrettage
As we mentioned, in autofrettage process the cylinder wall yields for a specific thickness which
called the junction radius. When applying an internal pressure, the equivalent Tresca stress
would be :

𝑘 2 𝑚2 𝑚2 1 2𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑟 𝑘 2 (18)
𝜎𝑇𝑟 = 𝜎𝑌 [ − (1 − + 2𝑙𝑛(𝑚)) ] + [ ]( )
𝑚2 𝑘 2 𝑘2 𝑘2 − 1 𝑘 2 − 1 𝑚2
So, when applying an operating pressure after autofrettage process, if we need a minimum total
equivalent stress, we should have decreased the autofrettage pressure 𝑃𝑎 to an optimum value
by determine the optimum autofrettage radius (Junction Radius) [3]. By calculating the internal
pressure needed to make yield:

𝜎𝑌 𝑟2 𝑟 (19)
𝑃 = [𝑙 − 2 + 2𝑙𝑛 ]
2 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖

Page | 6
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠: 𝑟𝑎,𝑜𝑝𝑡 = 𝑟𝑗 𝑒 𝑛 (20)
𝜎𝑌 𝑒 2𝑛 (21)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑢𝑡𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝑎,𝑜𝑝𝑡,𝑇,𝑟 = [1 − 2 + 2𝑛]
2 𝑘

4. Partial Autofrettage
Let us say that during autofrettage process, the cylinder wall is subjected to partial autofrettage,
the operating pressure needed to make the inner wall surface to yield:

𝜎𝑌 𝑚2 (22)
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑟,𝑌,𝑖 = [2𝑙𝑛(𝑚) + 𝑙 − 2 ]
2 𝑘
While the operating pressure needed to make the whole thickness of wall to yield:

𝜎𝑌 (23)
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑟,𝑌,0 = [2𝑙𝑛(𝑚) + 𝑘 2 − 𝑚 2 ]
2
Which means, if we have perfectly created a treated cylinder at an optimum autofrettage
pressure, the value of the internal pressure needed to make the internal surface to yield will be
much more greater than the value needed to reach yielding in the non-treated cylinders. But
the pressure needed to make the whole wall to yield will be lower than the pressure needed in
non-treated cylinders.

5. Full Autofrettage
During autofrettage we can make the whole cylinder wall thickness fully plastic which leads
to an equal equivalent stress at any radius:

2 ln(𝑘) 𝑟𝑜2 2𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑟 𝑟𝑜2 (24)

𝜎𝑌 = 𝜎𝑌 [1 − ( )] + ( )
𝑘2 − 1 𝑟2 𝑘2 − 1 𝑟2

Page | 7
Autofrettage Techniques

1. Hydraulic Autofrettage Technique

In hydraulic autofrettage technique, hydrostatic pressure is applied to the inner diameter of
thick-walled cylinders and high-pressure tubes, such that the total internal pressure on the inner
diameter exceeds the material yield strength so the permanent deformation (plastic
deformation) begins. Then, the pressure increased to start the deformation propagation for the
desired thickness or depth in the cylinder’s wall.

This technique is done by the safest way, by using oil, as it is very slightly compressible and
less harmful to the tubes. Unlike the compressible gasses which consume high power and work
to increase its pressure and there is always a chance of failure while processing.

To make this technique more economical and efficient, a spacer is used at the center of the
tubes or cylinders to reduce the pressurized oil volume needed to be pressured. In case of tubes,
Cabs must be used at each end of the tube to contain the pressurized oil during process. Those
cabs are applied to the axial forces
during the process, the total axial forces
make a change in stresses ratio at the
peak-point pressure. On the other hand,
without those cabs, this change could
not occur. But using the sealing -Despite
the changes- is especially important
because tubes tends to extend during the
pressure increasing. Those two cases are
Figure 1: Hydraulic Autofrettage Technique
named: Open-Ends Case and Closed-Ends Case.

The hydraulic autofrettage technique is considered as on the time-consuming processes, as the

applied pressure should be carefully monitored from time to time, to ensure that the desired
plastic deformation depth is achieved. Any slight changes in that pressure could make the
material yielding and gives undesirable changes in the needed depth.[4]

Page | 8
2. Swage Autofrettage Technique
In Swage Autofrettage Technique, the plastic deformation for a desired depth can be
obtained by what is called “Mechanical Penetration” , which means an interference assemblage
between a mandrel -which is oversized- and the internal surface of thick-wall cylinders and
high-pressure tubes.

Figure 2: Swage Autofrettage Technique

This process differs from the hydraulic autofrettage loading due to the small contact area
compared with the contact area in the hydraulic process. Besides that, shear stresses occurred
due to the friction between the mandrel and the inner surface of the tube. Residual stresses are
generated by driving the mandrel into the inner surface.

The mandrel consists of three main parts: Two cones (Forward and Rear) connected with
oversized small length circular cross-section, forward cone is less sloped than the rear one.
That serves their application of providing a smooth penetration and then the forward cone
starts the deformation
preparing entry to the
middle cross-section, the
rear cone maintains the
deformation created by
this section.[4]

Figure 3: Mandrel in Swage Autofrettage Process

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3. Thermal Autofrettage Technique
In thermal autofrettage technique, thick-wall cylinders are subjected to thermal gradient
which surrounds the outer wall surface causing heating in the seek of generating permanent
deformation to the desired depth. Then, the cylinder is kept being cooled at the room
temperature which creating residual stresses in the inner wall surface and for a specific depth.

This technique is simpler and safer than the hydraulic and swage technique, because it does
not need any external work done neither for pressurized an oil, nor driving and penetrating
another element through cylinder’s bore, so there is no friction generated. Also, it is
economical and time saving technique unlike the other techniques, all needed is to create a
temperature difference between the outer and inner wall surfaces to make the autofrettage
process to be done.

During this process, the outer wall surface is heated by a heating element which should be
isolated from surrounding to prevent any heat loss, at the same time, the cylinder bore is cooled
by a cold fluid like oil or cold water. The temperature of outer wall surface is controlled by a
temperature controller to maintain a certain value, this procedure generates the temperature
difference between the outer and the inner wall surfaces so, thermal gradient.

As a result of this thermal gradient between the outer and inner surfaces, thermal stresses are
generated inside cylinder wall thickness. Those stresses make the inner wall surface yield;
therefore, it is plastically deformed. On the other hand, those thermal stresses should be not
enough for making the whole cylinder wall to yield.

After this process, thermal residual stresses are generated in the inner surface for the desired
depth, completing the autofrettage process and reinforcing the cylinder wall.[5]

Figure 4: Thermal Autofrettage Technique

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Autofrettage Machining

Machining is required after autofrettage techniques (hydraulic, swage or thermal) to ensure

that the thick-walled cylinder and high-pressure tubes have the desired dimensions and will be
applied to a constant operating pressure along its length. Also, machining is applied to remove
both ends of the cylinder, cause the ends are probably demolished during autofrettage process by
the axial forces which may create undesired deformation at those ends.

Machining is also performed on the cylinder bore radius, not only for getting the desired diameter,
but also for removing the most deformed parts which may make changes in the residual stresses.[4]

Figure 5: Thick-Walled Cylinders Machining After Autofrettage Process

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Conclusion

Autofrettage process for thick-walled cylinders and high-pressure tubes becomes a must in several
industries, cause all industries nowadays are seeking for durability and economic efficiency. By
looking at autofrettage parameters which affects the pressure capacity, the autofrettage increases
the allowable operating pressure on high-pressure tubes and thick-walled cylinders. Also, levels
of autofrettage must be taken into consideration, according to the application suitability, an
autofrettage level is chosen; full, partial, or optimum autofrettage.

Autofrettage is performed by several techniques: hydraulic, swage and thermal techniques. Each
technique has it own advantages and disadvantages, optimum selection between those techniques
becomes clear when identifying the needs and whether technique provides the much more benefits.

Autofrettage process is one of the processes that thick-walled cylinders and high-pressure tubes
pass through. It is a reinforcing process which provide a treatment to cylinders and tubes, helping
them withstanding the extraordinary conditions of high pressure and temperature, comparing to
the same thicknesses but non-treated.

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References

[1] F. Trieb, J. Schedelmaier, and M. Poelzl, “Autofrettage-Basic Information and Practical

Application on Components for Waterjet Cutting,” 2005.
[2] A. Partovi and S. S. Shamili, “Analysis of Autofrettaged High Pressure Components,”
2012.
[3] N. Wahi, A. Ayob, and M. Elbasheer, “Effect of Autofrettage on Allowable Pressure of
Thick-Walled Cylinders,” Int. Conf. Environ. Agric. Eng., vol. 15, pp. 14–18, 2011.
[4] A. Stacey and G. A. Webster, “Determination of residual stress distributions in
autofrettaged tubing,” Int. J. Press. Vessel. Pip., vol. 31, no. 3, pp. 205–220, 1988.
[5] S. M. Kamal and U. S. Dixit, “A comparative study of thermal and hydraulic autofrettage,”
J. Mech. Sci. Technol., vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 2483–2496, 2016.

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