Report Form 2020/2021

Ministry Of Higher Education And Scientific Research

University Of Baghdad

Department Of Computer Science

Student Name:- Saif Asaad Abdulraheem

Title:- C++ Program

Course:-Programming Essentials

Stage:- First Year B

Lecturer Name:-Dr. Amina Daham

Introduction

The very first thing you need to do, before starting out in C++, is to make sure that
you have a compiler. What is a compiler, you ask? A compiler turns the program that
you write into an executable that your computer can actually understand and run. If
you're taking a course, you probably have one provided through your school. If you're
starting out on your own, your best bet is to use Code::Blocks with MinGW. If you're
on Linux, you can use g++, and if you're on Mac OS X, you can use XCode. (If you
are stuck using an older compiler, such as Turbo C++, you'll need to read this page
on compatibility issues.) If you haven't yet done so, go ahead and get a compiler set
up--you'll need it for the rest of the tutorial.

Intro to the C++ Language

A C++ program is a collection of commands, which tell the computer to do
"something". This collection of commands is usually called C++ source code, source
code or just code. Commands are either "functions" or "keywords". Keywords are a
basic building block of the language, while functions are, in fact, usually written in
terms of simpler functions--you'll see this in our very first program, below.
(Confused? Think of it a bit like an outline for a book; the outline might show every
chapter in the book; each chapter might have its own outline, composed of sections.
Each section might have its own outline, or it might have all of the details written up.)
Thankfully, C++ provides a great many common functions and keywords that you can
use.

But how does a program actually start? Every program in C++ has one function,
always named main, that is always called when your program first executes. From
main, you can also call other functions whether they are written by us or, as
mentioned earlier, provided by the compiler.

So how do you get access to those prewritten functions? To access those standard
functions that comes with the compiler, you include a header with the #include
directive. What this does is effectively take everything in the header and paste it into
your program. Let's look at a working program:

1 #include <iostream>
2
3 using namespace std;
4
5 int main()
6 {
7 cout<<"HEY, you, I'm alive! Oh, and Hello World!\n";
8 cin.get();
9 }
Let's look at the elements of the program. The #include is a "preprocessor" directive
that tells the compiler to put code from the header called iostream into our program

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before actually creating the executable. By including header files, you gain access to
many different functions. For example, the cout function requires iostream. Following
the include is the statement, "using namespace std;". This line tells the compiler to use
a group of functions that are part of the standard library (std). By including this line at
the top of a file, you allow the program to use functions such as cout. The semicolon
is part of the syntax of C++. It tells the compiler that you're at the end of a command.
You will see later that the semicolon is used to end most commands in C++.

The next important line is int main(). This line tells the compiler that there is a
function named main, and that the function returns an integer, hence int. The "curly
braces" ({ and }) signal the beginning and end of functions and other code blocks.
You can think of them as meaning BEGIN and END.

The next line of the program may seem strange. If you have programmed in another
language, you might expect that print would be the function used to display text. In
C++, however, the cout object is used to display text (pronounced "C out"). It uses the
<< symbols, known as "insertion operators", to indicate what to output. cout<< results
in a function call with the ensuing text as an argument to the function. The quotes tell
the compiler that you want to output the literal string as-is. The '\n' sequence is
actually treated as a single character that stands for a newline (we'll talk about this
later in more detail). It moves the cursor on your screen to the next line. Again, notice
the semicolon: it is added onto the end of most lines, such as function calls, in C++.

The next command is cin.get(). This is another function call: it reads in input and
expects the user to hit the return key. Many compiler environments will open a new
console window, run the program, and then close the window. This command keeps
that window from closing because the program is not done yet because it waits for
you to hit enter. Including that line gives you time to see the program run.

Upon reaching the end of main, the closing brace, our program will return the value of
0 (and integer, hence why we told main to return an int) to the operating system. This
return value is important as it can be used to tell the OS whether our program
succeeded or not. A return value of 0 means success and is returned automatically
(but only for main, other functions require you to manually return a value), but if we
wanted to return something else, such as 1, we would have to do it with a return
statement:
1 #include <iostream>
2
3 using namespace std;
4
5 int main()
6 {
7 cout<<"HEY, you, I'm alive! Oh, and Hello World!\n";
8 cin.get();
9
10 return 1;
11 }
The final brace closes off the function. You should try compiling this program and
running it. You can cut and paste the code into a file, save it as a .cpp file.
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Our Code::Blocks tutorial actually takes you through creating a simple program, so
check it out if you're confused.

If you are not using Code::Blocks, you should read the compiler instructions for
information on how to compile.
Once you've got your first program running, why don't you try playing around with
the cout function to get used to writing C++?

An Aside on Commenting Your Programs

As you are learning to program, you should also start to learn how to explain your
programs (for yourself, if no one else). You do this by adding comments to code; I'll
use them frequently to help explain code examples.

When you tell the compiler a section of text is a comment, it will ignore it when
running the code, allowing you to use any text you want to describe the real code. To
create a comment use either //, which tells the compiler that the rest of the line is a
comment, or /* and then */ to block off everything between as a comment. Certain
compiler environments will change the color of a commented area, but some will not.
Be certain not to accidentally comment out code (that is, to tell the compiler part of
your code is a comment) you need for the program. When you are learning to
program, it is useful to be able to comment out sections of code in order to see how
the output is affected.

User interaction and Saving Information with Variables

So far you've learned how to write a simple program to display information typed in
by you, the programmer, and how to describe your program with comments. That's
great, but what about interacting with your user? Fortunately, it is also possible for
your program to accept input. The function you use is known as cin, and is followed
by the extraction operator >>.

Of course, before you try to receive input, you must have a place to store that input. In
programming, input and data are stored in variables. There are several different types
of variables which store different kinds of information (e.g. numbers versus letters);
when you tell the compiler you are declaring a variable, you must include the data
type along with the name of the variable. Several basic types include char, int, and
float.

A variable of type char stores a single character, variables of type int store integers
(numbers without decimal places), and variables of type float store numbers with
decimal places. Each of these variable types - char, int, and float - is each a keyword
that you use when you declare a variable.

What's with all these variable types?

Sometimes it can be confusing to have multiple variable types when it seems like
some variable types are redundant (why have integer numbers when you have

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floats?). Using the right variable type can be important for making your code readable
and for efficiency--some variables require more memory than others. Moreover,
because of the way the numbers are actually stored in memory, a float is "inexact",
and should not be used when you need to store an "exact" integer value.

Declaring Variables in C++

To declare a variable you use the syntax "type <name>;". Here are some variable
declaration examples:
1 int x;
2 char letter;
3 float the_float;
It is permissible to declare multiple variables of the same type on the same line; each
one should be separated by a comma.
1 int a, b, c, d;
If you were watching closely, you might have seen that declaration of a variable is
always followed by a semicolon (note that this is the same procedure used when you
call a function).

Common Errors when Declaring Variables in C++

If you attempt to use a variable that you have not declared, your program will not be
compiled or run, and you will receive an error message informing you that you have
made a mistake. Usually, this is called an undeclared variable.

Case Sensitivity
Now is a good time to talk about an important concept that can easily throw you off:
case sensitivity. Basically, in C++, whether you use uppercase or lowercase letters
matters. The words Cat and cat mean different things to the compiler. In C++, all
language keywords, all functions and all variables are case sensitive. A difference in
case between your variable declaration and the use of the variable is one reason you
might get an undeclared variable error.

Using Variables

Ok, so you now know how to tell the compiler about variables, but what about using
them?

Here is a sample program demonstrating the use of a variable:

1 #include <iostream>
2
3 using namespace std;
4
5 int main()
6 {
7 int thisisanumber;
8
4
9 cout<<"Please enter a number: ";
10 cin>> thisisanumber;
11 cin.ignore();
12 cout<<"You entered: "<< thisisanumber <<"\n";
13 cin.get();
14 }
Let's break apart this program and examine it line by line. The keyword int declares
thisisanumber to be an integer. The function cin>> reads a value into thisisanumber;
the user must press enter before the number is read by the program. cin.ignore() is
another function that reads and discards a character. Remember that when you type
input into a program, it takes the enter key too. We don't need this, so we throw it
away. Keep in mind that the variable was declared an integer; if the user attempts to
type in a decimal number, it will be truncated (that is, the decimal component of the
number will be ignored). Try typing in a sequence of characters or a decimal number
when you run the example program; the response will vary from input to input, but in
no case is it particularly pretty. Notice that when printing out a variable quotation
marks are not used. Were there quotation marks, the output would be "You Entered:
thisisanumber." The lack of quotation marks informs the compiler that there is a
variable, and therefore that the program should check the value of the variable in
order to replace the variable name with the variable when executing the output
function. Do not be confused by the inclusion of two separate insertion operators on
one line. Including multiple insertion operators on one line is perfectly acceptable and
all of the output will go to the same place. In fact, you must separate string literals
(strings enclosed in quotation marks) and variables by giving each its own insertion
operators (<<). Trying to put two variables together with only one << will give you an
error message, do not try it. Do not forget to end functions and declarations with a
semicolon. If you forget the semicolon, the compiler will give you an error message
when you attempt to compile the program.

Changing and Comparing Variables

Of course, no matter what type you use, variables are uninteresting without the ability
to modify them. Several operators used with variables include the following: *, -, +, /,
=, ==, >, <. The * multiplies, the - subtracts, and the + adds. It is of course important
to realize that to modify the value of a variable inside the program it is rather
important to use the equal sign. In some languages, the equal sign compares the value
of the left and right values, but in C++ == is used for that task. The equal sign is still
extremely useful. It sets the left input to the equal sign, which must be one, and only
one, variable equal to the value on the right side of the equal sign. The operators that
perform mathematical functions should be used on the right side of an equal sign in
order to assign the result to a variable on the left side.

Here are a few examples:

1 a = 4 * 6; // (Note use of comments and of semicolon) a is 24
2 a = a + 5; // a equals the original value of a with five added to it
3 a == 5 // Does NOT assign five to a. Rather, it checks to see if a equals 5.
The other form of equal, ==, is not a way to assign a value to a variable. Rather, it
checks to see if the variables are equal. It is useful in other areas of C++; for example,
you will often use == in such constructions as conditional statements and loops. You
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can probably guess how < and > function. They are greater than and less than
operators.

For example:
1 a < 5 // Checks to see if a is less than five
2 a > 5 // Checks to see if a is greater than five
3 a == 5 // Checks to see if a equals five, for good measure

If statements in C++
Without a conditional statement such as the if statement, programs would run almost
the exact same way every time. If statements allow the flow of the program to be
changed, and so they allow algorithms and more interesting code.

Before discussing the actual structure of the if statement, let us examine the meaning
of TRUE and FALSE in computer terminology. A true statement is one that evaluates
to a nonzero number. A false statement evaluates to zero. When you perform
comparison with the relational operators, the operator will return 1 if the comparison
is true, or 0 if the comparison is false. For example, the check 0 == 2 evaluates to 0.
The check 2 == 2 evaluates to a 1. If this confuses you, try to use a cout statement to
output the result of those various comparisons (for example cout<< ( 2 == 1 );)

When programming, the aim of the program will often require the checking of one
value stored by a variable against another value to determine whether one is larger,
smaller, or equal to the other.

There are a number of operators that allow these checks.

Here are the relational operators, as they are known, along with examples:
> greater than 5 > 4 is TRUE
< less than 4 < 5 is TRUE
>= greater than or equal 4 >= 4 is TRUE
<= less than or equal 3 <= 4 is TRUE
== equal to 5 == 5 is TRUE
!= not equal to 5 != 4 is TRUE
It is highly probable that you have seen these before, probably with slightly different
symbols. They should not present any hindrance to understanding. Now that you
understand TRUE and FALSE in computer terminology as well as the comparison
operators, let us look at the actual structure of if statements.

Basic If Statement Syntax

The structure of an if statement is as follows:

if ( TRUE )
Execute the next statement
Here is a simple example that shows the syntax:

6
if ( 5 < 10 )
cout<<"Five is now less than ten, that's a big surprise";
Here, we're just evaluating the statement, "is five less than ten", to see if it is true or
not; with any luck, it is! If you want, you can write your own full program including
iostream and put this in the main function and run it to test.

To have more than one statement execute after an if statement that evaluates to true,
use braces, like we did with the body of a function. Anything inside braces is called a
compound statement, or a block.

For example:
if ( TRUE ) {
Execute all statements inside the braces
}
I recommend always putting braces following if statements. If you do this, you never
have to remember to put them in when you want more than one statement to be
executed, and you make the body of the if statement more visually clear.

Else

Sometimes when the condition in an if statement evaluates to false, it would be nice to

execute some code instead of the code executed when the statement evaluates to true.
The "else" statement effectively says that whatever code after it (whether a single line
or code between brackets) is executed if the if statement is FALSE.

It can look like this:

if ( TRUE ) {
// Execute these statements if TRUE
}
else {
// Execute these statements if FALSE
}

Else If

Another use of else is when there are multiple conditional statements that may all
evaluate to true, yet you want only one if statement's body to execute. You can use an
"else if" statement following an if statement and its body; that way, if the first
statement is true, the "else if" will be ignored, but if the if statement is false, it will
then check the condition for the else if statement. If the if statement was true the else
statement will not be checked. It is possible to use numerous else if statements to
ensure that only one block of code is executed.
if ( <condition> ) {
// Execute these statements if <condition> is TRUE
}
else if ( <another condition> ) {
7
 // Execute these statements if <another condition> is TRUE and
// <condition> is FALSE
}

Let's look at a simple program for you to try out on your own.
#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() // Most important part of the program!

{
int age; // Need a variable...

cout<<"Please input your age: "; // Asks for age

cin>> age; // The input is put in age
cin.ignore(); // Throw away enter
if ( age < 100 ) { // If the age is less than 100
cout<<"You are pretty young!\n"; // Just to show you it works...
}
else if ( age == 100 ) { // I use else just to show an example
cout<<"You are old\n"; // Just to show you it works...
}
else {
cout<<"You are really old\n"; // Executed if no other statement is
}
cin.get();
}

More interesting conditions using Boolean operators

Boolean operators allow you to create more complex conditional statements. For
example, if you wish to check if a variable is both greater than five and less than ten,
you could use the boolean AND to ensure both var > 5 and var < 10 are true. In the
following discussion of boolean operators, I will capitalize the boolean operators in
order to distinguish them from normal English. The actual C++ operators of
equivalent function will be described further into the tutorial - the C++ symbols are
not: OR, AND, NOT, although they are of equivalent function.

When using if statements, you will often wish to check multiple different conditions.
You must understand the Boolean operators OR, NOT, and AND. The boolean
operators function in a similar way to the comparison operators: each returns 0 if
evaluates to FALSE or 1 if it evaluates to TRUE.

NOT: The NOT operator accepts one input. If that input is TRUE, it returns FALSE,
and if that input is FALSE, it returns TRUE. For example, NOT (1) evaluates to 0,
and NOT (0) evaluates to 1. NOT (any number but zero) evaluates to 0. In C and C++
8
NOT is written as !. NOT is evaluated prior to both AND and OR.

AND: This is another important command. AND returns TRUE if both inputs are
TRUE (if 'this' AND 'that' are true). (1) AND (0) would evaluate to zero because one
of the inputs is false (both must be TRUE for it to evaluate to TRUE). (1) AND (1)
evaluates to 1. (any number but 0) AND (0) evaluates to 0. The AND operator is
written && in C++. Do not be confused by thinking it checks equality between
numbers: it does not. Keep in mind that the AND operator is evaluated before the OR
operator.
OR: Very useful is the OR statement! If either (or both) of the two values it checks
are TRUE then it returns TRUE. For example, (1) OR (0) evaluates to 1. (0) OR (0)
evaluates to 0. The OR is written as || in C++. Those are the pipe characters. On your
keyboard, they may look like a stretched colon. On my computer the pipe shares its
key with \. Keep in mind that OR will be evaluated after AND.

It is possible to combine several boolean operators in a single statement; often you

will find doing so to be of great value when creating complex expressions for if
statements. What is !(1 && 0)? Of course, it would be TRUE. It is true is because 1
&& 0 evaluates to 0 and !0 evaluates to TRUE (ie, 1).
Try some of these - they're not too hard. If you have questions about them, feel free to
stop by our forums.
A. !( 1 || 0 ) ANSWER: 0
B. !( 1 || 1 && 0 ) ANSWER: 0 (AND is evaluated before OR)
C. !( ( 1 || 0 ) && 0 ) ANSWER: 1 (Parenthesis are useful)
If you find you enjoyed this section, then you might want to look more at Boolean
Algebra.
Lesson 3: Loops
Loops are used to repeat a block of code. Being able to have your program repeatedly
execute a block of code is one of the most basic but useful tasks in programming --
many programs or websites that produce extremely complex output (such as a
message board) are really only executing a single task many times. (They may be
executing a small number of tasks, but in principle, to produce a list of messages only
requires repeating the operation of reading in some data and displaying it.) Now, think
about what this means: a loop lets you write a very simple statement to produce a
significantly greater result simply by repetition.
One Caveat: before going further, you should understand the concept of C++'s true
and false, because it will be necessary when working with loops (the conditions are
the same as with if statements). There are three types of loops: for, while, and
do..while. Each of them has their specific uses. They are all outlined below.

FOR - for loops are the most useful type. The syntax for a for loop is

for ( variable initialization; condition; variable update ) {

Code to execute while the condition is true
}
The variable initialization allows you to either declare a variable and give it a value or
give a value to an already existing variable. Second, the condition tells the program
9
that while the conditional expression is true the loop should continue to repeat itself.
The variable update section is the easiest way for a for loop to handle changing of the
variable. It is possible to do things like x++, x = x + 10, or even x = random ( 5 ), and
if you really wanted to, you could call other functions that do nothing to the variable
but still have a useful effect on the code. Notice that a semicolon separates each of
these sections, that is important. Also note that every single one of the sections may
be empty, though the semicolons still have to be there. If the condition is empty, it is
evaluated as true and the loop will repeat until something else stops it.

Example:
#include <iostream>

using namespace std; // So the program can see cout and endl

int main()
{
// The loop goes while x < 10, and x increases by one every loop
for ( int x = 0; x < 10; x++ ) {
// Keep in mind that the loop condition checks
// the conditional statement before it loops again.
// consequently, when x equals 10 the loop breaks.
// x is updated before the condition is checked.
cout<< x <<endl;
}
cin.get();
}
This program is a very simple example of a for loop. x is set to zero, while x is less
than 10 it calls cout<< x <<endl; and it adds 1 to x until the condition is met. Keep in
mind also that the variable is incremented after the code in the loop is run for the first
time.

Conclusion
The state pattern is very powerful indeed. It facilitates breaking your program code
into discrete states. This approach has been used successfully in the telecom industry
for decades to produce what is arguably the most solid software in the world. As you
can see, it’s pretty easy to implement state management in C++. With it, you have the
ability to add code in a very structured fashion—just create a new State subclass
interface and implementation file pair. Then just add this code wherever you need it in
the program, as in Listing 8.

The state pattern can be used effectively with a small investment in coding. The
source code for this article consists of five C++ header files and five accompanying
C++ implementation files. To build this code and try it for yourself, just create a
Visual C++ console project, drop the files in, switch off precompiled headers, and
away you go!

10
References
[1] Stroustrup, Bjarne (1997). "1". The C++ Programming Language (Third ed.)
[2] Stroustrup, Bjarne. "The C++ Programming Language" (First ed.)
[3] Stroustrup, Bjarne (2013). The C++ Programming Language. Addison
Wesley.
[4] Graziano Lo Russo (2008). "An Interview with A. Stepanov". stlport.org.

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