Ministry Of Higher Education

Northern Technical University

Technical College /Mosul
Department Of Medical Instruments

Report Of :-

Student Name :-
Mohammed Ali Diab

Teacher :-
Ghasan Ahmed Al Qassab

Class 2nd B

Date of Report : - 11 / 6 / 2020 - 19/ 10 / 1441

 Contents

Subject Page No.

Abstract 1

Introduction 1

BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) 2

Basic concept 2

AC or Small Signal Equivalent Circuit 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 9

BJT DC Bias Model and Measurements 10

BJT Small Signal Equivalent Circuit Parameter

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Measurements

REFERENCES 13
ABSTRACT

In this experiment, the output I-V characteristic curves, the small-signal low
frequency equivalent circuit parameters, and the switching times are determined for one

of the commonly used transistors: a bipolar junction transistor.

INTRODUCTION

The advent of the modern electronic and communication age began in late 1947
with the invention of the transistor. Rarely has any component of any apparatus received
the public attention and acclaim of this invention. Although everyone knows what a
transistor radio is, few know how it works or why the transistor itself is so important in
electronic systems. From an economic point-of-view its main advantages are small size,
low-cost, and high reliability. Basically, however, the importance of the transistor derives
from the fact that it is a three-terminal device that can provide amplification or gain. The
three terminals serve to isolate input and output, while gain allows for conversion of dc
power into signal power.

Two of the most important applications for the transistor are (1) as an amplifier in analog
electronic systems, and (2) as a switch in digital systems. In this experiment we will
examine some of the characteristics of transistors in these modes of operation. For this
purpose we will investigate one of the common transistors, the bipolar junction transistor
(BJT).

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BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

Basic Concepts

The operation of the BJT is based on the principles of the pn junction. As indicated in
Figure 6.1, there are two basic types: (a) the npn and (b) the pnp. In the npn, electrons are
injected from the forward-biased emitter into the thin base region where, as minority
carriers, they diffuse toward the reverse-biased collector. Some of these electrons
recombine with holes in the base region, thus producing a small base current, iB. The
remaining electrons reach the collector where they provide the main source of carriers for
the collector current, iC. Thus, if there are no electrons injected from the emitter, there will
be (almost) no collector current and, therefore, the emitter current controls the collector
current. Combining currents, the total emitter current is given as

iE = iB + iC. (1)

Note that the total emitter current, iE = IE + ie, where IE is the DC component and ie is
the time varying component. The behavior of the npn transistor is indicated schematically
in Figure 2 with the voltage polarities required for normal npn operation. For normal pnp
operation, the polarity of both voltage sources must be reversed. For the configuration

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 Figure 2: Representation of npn transistor in operation with forward biased emitter-base
junction and reverse biased collector-base junction (e = electrons, 0 = holes, and oe =
recombination of holes and electrons).

shown in Figure 6.2, we can define a (normal operation) DC current gain as

αDC = IiC / IiE (2)

Since IC is somewhat less than IE , αDC is a number less than one. A typical value would

be 0.99. It is also useful to define a current transfer ratio as,

βDC = IC/IB (3)

Using Equations (6.1) and (6.2) in (6.3), we get

βDC = αDC/(1 - αDC). (4)

If αDC = 0.99, then βDC = 99.

When the BJT is used in a system with the emitter and base contacts as the input and the
collector and base contacts as the output, from Eq. (2) the current gain is less than 1. The
forward-biased emitter-base junction, however, has a small impedance while the reverse-
biased collector-base junction has a large impedance. Thus, the voltage gain is large. This
is called the common-base configuration.

When the BJT is used with the base and emitter terminals as the input and the collector
and emitter terminals as the output, from Eq. (4) the current gain as well as the voltage

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gain is large. It is for this reason that this common-emitter (CE) configuration is the most
useful connection for the BJT in electronic systems.

Figure 3b: Collector characteristic

Figure 3a: Cornmon-emitter
curves for the common- emitter
connections for npn transistor.
connection of npn transistor.
This configuration is shown in Figure 3a with the output I-V characteristics indicated in
Figure 3b. Notice from the I-V characteristics that the output collector current is controlled
by the input base current as modeled in Equation. (3).

AC or Small Signal Equivalent Circuit

In order to analyze the operation of the BJT as an amplifier, an AC (or small signal)
equivalent circuit is utilized. A widely used small signal circuit model is called the Hybrid-
π model and is shown in Figure 7. Use of this small signal model assumes the BJT is
operating in its normal active region; that is, it is biased at a Q point in the active region
and provides an equivalent circuit for small changes in voltage and current around the Q
point.

Figure 6.7: Hybrid-π model for BJT.

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In this equivalent circuit, rbb, ree, and rcc represent the ohmic resistance of each region.
Thus, rbb is the resistance of the thin base region, ree is the resistance of the emitter
region, etc. Typical values of these ohmic resistances are:

rbb = 20 to 200 Ω
ree = 0.5 to 5Ω
rcc = 10 to 100Ω .
The resistance rπ represents the small signal or AC resistance of the forward- biased
baseernitter junction. Cπ is the space-charge capacitance of the base- emitter junction plus
the diffusion capacitance of the injected carriers while Cμ is the space-charge capacitance
of the reversed-biased collector-base junction. Finally, the resistance roc is the effective
small signal output resistance from the collector to emitter and βAC represents the small
signal or AC current transfer ratio between the collector and the base. At low frequencies,
the capacitive reactances of Cπ and Cμ are large and can be neglected. In addition, the
values of the ohmic resistances, i.e., rbb, ree and rcc, can often be ignored. This results in
a simplified small signal model, which can be used for low frequency analysis, and is
shown in Figure 6.8. Notice that the polarity of the AC currents (ib, ic, and ie) and the AC
voltages (Vbe, Vce) are assumed as shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8: Low frequency hybrid-π model for a BJT

Each of the parameters of Fig. 8 can be determined for a given BJT. To do this, we need
to take into account the effects of small variations around the dc operating point (or Q

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point). First, we determine the small-signal resistance of the base-emitter junction.
Viewed from the base side, it follows that

where VT is the thermal voltage and depends only on the base-emitter junction

Thus, rπ can be determined from the Q point, the junction temperature of the transistor,

and the value of βAC for the transistor.

From the small signal circuit model in Figure 8 we see that a small change in current at
the input to the transistor (i.e., the base current, ib) will result in a change of the current at
the output of the transistor (i.e., the collector current, ic). These two current changes are
related by the small signal current gain of the transistor, βAC. So,

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Using the above and analyzing the characteristic curve and Q point from Figure.4

The operation of the CE amplifier shown in Figure 6.3a, as a result of applying a small AC
signal to the input, can now be analyzed using our small signal model. Assume a 3.3 volt
peak-to-peak sinusoidal signal is placed in series with VBB as shown in Figure 9. In this
case, a sinusoidal voltage vin = 1.65 V sin(ωt) is applied in addition to the DC voltage
VBB.

Figure 9: Sinusoidal signal input voltage.

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In order to analyze the circuit, the small signal model is substituted into the circuit in place
of the BJT and the DC voltages are eliminated as shown in Figure 6.10.

Figure 6.10: Small signal equivalent circuit

The output voltage swing can also be determined from the IV characteristic curve and Q
point shown in Figure 6.4. The variation of the total base current, iB, is given by

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We have already determined that IB(DC)) = IBQ = 40μA from the Q point. The AC
component of the base current is given by

It follows that the base current changes ± 20μA (or 40μA peak-to-peak). Thus, during the
positive half cycle, the base current changes from 40μA to 60μA and during the negative
halt cycle, it changes from 40μA to 20μA. Plotting this change on Figure 6.4 and moving
along the 1 KΩ load-line results in a value of iC ≈ 6.4mA for iB = 60μA and ic ≈ 2.4mA
for iB = 20μA. Thus, V0 = Vce changes from approximately 3.7V to 7.5V which represents
a 3.8 V peak-to-peak voltage output or Vo = -1.9V sin ωt where the minus sign represents
the 180° phase shift between the input and output voltages.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

BJT Curve Tracer Analysis

You will be provided with a npn BJT and should first produce a copy of the transistor's
characteristics using the Tektronix 571 Curve Tracer. Your laboratory instructor will
provide an overview regarding the operation and settings to use on the curve tracer.

1. With an RC and VCC as specified by your laboratory instructor, and a grounded

emitter, draw the corresponding load-line on your copy of the transistor's characteristic
curve. Determine and record an appropriate "Q" point along the loadline for "midpoint
biasing" that is a good approximation for operation as a minimum distortion amplifier.
Specify ICQ, VCEQ, and IBQ for your Q point. (Note: IBQ is determined by
multiplying the base current per step indication by the number of steps you count from
cutoff to the desired Q point using interpolation for the distance between two base
steps.)
2. Determine and record βDC, βAC, and rOC using graphical techniques and Equations
(6.3), (6.19) and (6.20), respectively.
3. Finally, determine and record the value of iB required to switch the BJT from cutoff to
saturation along the load-line determined in (a) above.

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 BJT DC Bias Model and Measurements
Measurements of the DC bias characteristics can best be made using the circuit
shown in Figure 6.12 below:

1. Construct this circuit with the values of RC and VCC used in 6.4.1 above, a shunt
resistor RSH = 1 kΩ, and a decade box with RDB = 999,999 Ω. Now adjust RDB until
the BJT is biased at the VCEQ point previously defined in 6.4.1 (a) above. Note that
on any mV scale, DMM1 reads IB directly in μA. At this point, take appropriate
measurements of IBQ and ICQ and compute the value of βDC using Equation (.3).
Also measure VCC, VBEQ, and VCEQ using a third DMM and record these voltages.
2. Using the DC model for the transistor, compute the value of RB required to saturate
the transistor. Note that RB = RSH + RDB. Now, change the value of the decade
resistor box used for RDB slowly in about 5 increments between the Q point value and
the saturation value and record the value of IB, IC and VCE at each point. Continue to
decrease RDB until you have reached saturation, i.e., constant IC, but don't overdrive
the BJT.
3. Now open the base connection so that IB = 0 and measure the leakage current with
the DMM set to the 200μA scale.

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BJT Small Signal Equivalent Circuit Parameter Measurements

Measurement needed to calculate the small signal equivalent circuit parameters can best
be made by connecting the BJT as shown in Figure 6.13 below.

Figure 6.13 Small Signal Parameter measurement Circuit

As indicated, one DC supply is to be used to provide the input voltage VBB to the base
through a shunt resistor RSH of 1 kΩ and a decade box RDB with resistance set to 470 kΩ.
A second DC supply is to be used to supply the collector voltage VCC directly without any
collector resistor. Note that DMM1 is used to measure the base current IB. Note also that
on any mV scale, DMM1 measures base current IB directly in μA. The second DMM is to
be used to measure the collector current IC directly in mA. A third DMM (not shown) is
used to measure VCE or VBE, as required.

Bias the BJT at the Q point determined in 6.4.1 (a) by setting VCE equal to VCEQ by
adjusting VCC. Now adjust VBB to get the desired ICQ. Measure IBQ and calculate the
value of βDC. Compare this value the βDC obtained in 6.4.2(a) above. Is it the same?

Determine and record data needed to calculate βAC and rπ using Equations (6.19) and
(6.14), respectively, by adjusting VBB to obtain approximately ±20% changes in IB around
the Q point value and measuring the resultant changes in IC and VBE.

Reset VBB to obtain ICQ. Now determine and record data needed to calculate rOC using
Eq. (6.20) by changing VCE ± 20% around the Q point and measuring the resultant changes
in IC. Note and record any change in IB and VBE.

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 Figure 6.14: Square wave testing circuit

Connect the BJT as indicated in Figure 6.14 with RB equal to 100 kΏ, VCC equal to +10
volts, and RL equal to 1 kΏ.

 Set the amplitude and DC offset on the square-wave generator to drive the transistor
from cutoff to saturation. This is best obtained by setting the peak to-peak (p-p) value
of the function generator output to its minimum value and adjusting the DC offset so
the BJT is biased at a Q point with VCE = 5 Volts. Now increase the p-p output value
to the level required to drive the transistor from cutoff to saturation. Recall that since
all BJTs are cutoff at IB = 0, make sure that the square-wave goes from zero to the
proper polarity and value of VB to drive the transistor into saturation. Measure and
record values of delay, rise, storage, and fall times as indicated in Figure 6.11(a) and
make a sketch of the waveforms observed on the oscilloscope.
 Next, set VB to about one-half of the value required to drive the BJT into saturation
so Q remains in its active region, and measure and record tON and tOFF. You do not
need to individually measure td , tr , tS , and tf , just tON and tOFF .

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REFERENCES

[1] Sedra, Adel S. and Smith, Kenneth C., Microelectronic Circuits, 5th Edition,
Oxford University Press, New York, 2004
[2] Ben G. Streetman, Solid State Electronic Devices, 2nd Ed. (Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980).
[3] Adir Bar-Lev, Semiconductors and Electronic Devices, 2nd Ed. (PrenticeHall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1984)
[4] Maimstedt, H. V., Enke, C. G., Crouch, S. R., Control of Electrical Ouantities In
Instrumentation, (Benjamin, Menlo Park, NJ, 1973).
[5] Sifferien, T. P., and Vartanian, V., Digital Electronics, (Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1970).

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