Al-Muthanna University Dr.

Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

Lecture 2

1.3 Pavement Structures

The main purpose of the pavement or pavement layers is to minimize stresses generated by
traffic on the subgrade to such a level where no deformations occur. At the same time, the
pavement layers themselves should be withstanding the stresses and strains which are
imposed on each layer for the entire life of the pavement. Typically, modern pavement
structures are either flexible, rigid or a composite of the two. As can be seen in Figure (1-4),
normally bituminous, hydraulic bound or concrete layers are built on foundation courses
depending on the design decision. The decision and selection of course and layer type is
generally dependent on common practices, availability of the materials, site characteristics,
etc.

Figure (1-4) Modern pavement types

It should be known that a layer is an element of a pavement laid in a single operation, while a
course is a structural element of a pavement constructed with a single material; a course may
be laid in one or more layers. However, construction of the pavement normally starts with
enhancing the subgrade “natural soil” bearing capacity by compaction, and then layers are
constructed one by one. A capping course may be constructed over the subgrade depending
on the site terrain, and then the sub-base course is placed; both capping and sub-base form the
pavement foundation.

In a rigid pavement type, a quality concrete layer is normally constructed over the
foundation; in some cases a subbase course is used. The concrete slab could be reinforced or

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 1

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

plain concrete; also it could be jointed or continuous. Rigid pavement is preferred for some
sites such as petrol stations and heavy vehicle lots. Additionally, a bituminous layer could
overlay the concrete course, mainly to enhance ride quality in terms of noise: this pavement
structure is called composite pavement.

Flexible pavement courses over the foundation may include base, binder and surface courses.
The base course is the main structural element and it could be constructed from granular
material which may sometimes be mixed with hydraulic or bituminous material. Binder and
surface courses are bituminous mixtures; the surface course is exposed directly to weather
and traffic actions, so this course should withstand traffic loading, weather action and
wearing from tires. Furthermore, the surface course has to provide high riding quality and
sufficient skid resistance. Flexible pavements represent the majority of paved roads globally.
In Europe and North America, more than 90% of roads and highways are surfaced with
flexible pavements (NAPA and EAEA, 2011), due to their unique high quality and riding
quality, together with the lower cost compared with other pavement types.

1.4 Functional Classification

1.4.1 Functional Relationships
Functional classification groups streets and highways according to the character of service
they are intended to provide. Highways and streets are initially categorised depending on the
area they are located in. They are functionally divided into Urban and Rural roads.

Rural highway system Urban highway system

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 2

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

1.4.2 Functional System of Rural Roads:

Rural roads facilities outside of urban areas. The functional classification of rural roads:
Principal Serves mostly interstate long uninterrupted trips, highest level of mobility and
arterials highest speeds. Posted speed is between (100-120 km/h). Principal arterial
system system includes: freeway and other principal arterials
Minor The principal arterials, connects cities, large towns, other large traffic
arterials generators (such as resort areas). Posted speed limits (90-110 km/h).
Major Carry traffic to and from counties (villages) and large cities not served by the
collectors arterial system. Collectors provide less mobility than arterial at lower speed
(70- 90 km/h) and for shorter distance.
Minor Collects traffic from local roads and convey it to other facilities
collectors
Local roads All roads within the rural area not classified above. Local road system
provides access to land adjacent to the collator network and serves travel over
relatively short distances with posted speed between (50-70 km/h)

1.4.3 Functional System of Urban Roads:

Function in communities with a population of 5000 or more people. Functional classification
of urban roads:

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 3

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

Principal Serves the major activity centres of activity of urbanized areas, highest traffic
Arterials
volume and the longest trip. Urban principal arterial system should be
system
classified as follows: Interstate, expressways, other principal arterials
(Interstate, Other freeways, & other principal arterials). Design speed is (90-
110 km/h). Parking, loading and unloading of goods and pedestrian traffic are
not permitted on these facilities. They are generally provided with grade-
separation at intersections.
Minor Interconnect with and augment principal arterials. It accommodates trips of
arterials
moderate length at lower level of travel mobility than principal arterial. Design
speed is (70-90 km/h)
Collector Collect traffic from local streets and convey it to the arterial system. It provides
Streets
both land access and traffic circulation within residential, commercial and
system
industrial areas. Design speed is (50-70 km/h)
Local It comprises all facilities not in one of higher systems. It permits direct access
Streets
to abutting lands and connections to the higher order systems. Design speed is
system
(20-40 km/h).

1.5 System of Iraqi Highways

1. Primary System
Highways of international importance (the main highways connecting main cities) and
highways of special importance should form the primary system of national highways. These
highways are to be designed to the highest standards.
2. Secondary system
Highways connecting major cities of economic or other importance, highways connecting
agricultural, commercial or recreational areas.
3. Tertiary system
Highway of district and local importance

1.6 Principles of Highway Route Location Process

The basic principle for locating highways is that roadway elements such as curvature and
grade must blend with each other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of
traffic at the design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety standards. The highway

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 4

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

should also cause a minimal disruption to historic and archeological sites and to other land-
use activities. Environmental impact studies are therefore required in most cases before a
highway location is finally agreed upon. The highway location process involves four phases:
1. Office study of existing information.
2. Reconnaissance survey.
3. Preliminary location survey.
4. Final location survey.

1- Office study of existing information:

The first phase in any highway location study is the examination of all available data of the
area in which the road is to be constructed. This phase is usually carried out in the office prior
to any field or photogrammetric investigation. All the available data are collected and
examined. These data can be obtained from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial
photographs, and charts, which are usually available at one or more of the state’s
departments of transportation, agriculture, geology, hydrology, and mining. The type and
amount of data collected and examined depend on the type of highway being considered, but
in general, data should be obtained on the following characteristics of the area:
 Engineering, including topography, geology, climate, and traffic volumes.
 Social and demographic, including land use and zoning patterns.
 Environmental, including types of wildlife; location of recreational, historic, and
archeological sites; and the possible effects of air, noise, and water pollution.
 Economic, including unit costs for construction and the trend of agricultural,
commercial, and industrial activities.

Preliminary analysis of the data obtained will indicate whether any of the specific sites should
be excluded from further consideration because of one or more of the above characteristics.
For example, if it is found that a site of historic and archeological importance is located
within an area being considered for possible route location, it may be immediately decided
that any route that traverse that site should be excluded from further consideration. At the
completion of this phase of the study, the engineer will be able to select general areas through
which the highway can traverse.

2- Reconnaissance Survey:

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 5

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

The object of this phase of the study is to identify several feasible routes, each within a band
of a limited width of a few hundred meters. When rural roads are being considered, there is
often very little or no information available on maps or photographs, and therefore aerial
photography is widely used to obtain the required information. Feasible routes are identified
by a stereoscopic examination of the aerial photographs, taking into consideration factors
such as:
 Terrain and soil conditions.
 Serviceability of route to industrial and population areas.
 Crossing of other transportation facilities, such as rivers, railroads, and other highways.
 Directness of route.
Control points between the two terminals are determined for each feasible route. For
example, a unique bridge site with no alternative may be taken as a primary control point.
The feasible routes identified are then plotted on photographic base maps.

3- Preliminary Location Survey:

During this phase of the study, the positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as
possible by establishing all the control points and determining preliminary vertical and
horizontal alignments for each. Preliminary alignments are used to evaluate the economic and
environmental feasibility of the alternative routes.

4- Final Location Survey:

It is a detailed layout of the selected route. The horizontal and vertical alignments are
determined, and the positions of structures and drainage channels are located.

1.7 Highway Survey Methods

Highway surveys usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles,
vertical heights (elevations), and horizontal distances. They are used to prepare base maps,
contour lines and longitudinal cross-section of the highway. Highway surveys are usually
grouped into three general categories:
 Ground surveys, they are the basic location technique for the highway. Common survey
equipment such as the total station and the level are used in this method.
 Remote sensing, is the measurement of distances and elevations by using devices located
above the earth, such as airplanes or orbiting satellites using Global Positioning Satellite
systems (GPS). The most commonly used remote-sensing method is the photogrammetry.

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 6

Al-Muthanna University Dr. Hayder Shanbara
College of Engineering 4 th Year Stage
Department of Civil Engineering Subject: Transportation

Photogrammetry in highway engineering is for the identification of suitable locations for

highways, referred to as corridor study.
 Computer graphics, this method is a combination of photogrammetry and computer
techniques. All line styles, objects, feature tables and photographic features are recorded
digitally and stored in a computer file. A typical workstation should be controlled by a
system software that covers the following points:
- Preparatory work (project setup)
- Photo orientation
- Data transfer
- Plotting and storage

Academic Year 2019-2020 / 1st Semester (Lecture 2) 7