Biology

E-Book

2019
 BIOLOGY FACTS
CELL AND TISSUE

The cell is the basic living unit of all organisms. The simplest organisms consist of a single cell whereas
humans are composed of trillions of cells. The cell theory proposed by Jacob Matthias Schleiden and
Theodor Schwann states that organisms are composed of cells and the cell is the basic unit of life. Rudolf
Virchow proposed that all cells arise by division of pre-existing cells. The Cell was discovered by Robert Hook
in 1665.

Prokaryotic cells: are bounded by a plasma membrane but have little or no internal membrane
organization. They have a nuclear area rather than a membrane-bounded nucleus. Prokaryotes typically
have a cell wall and ribosomes and may have propeller-like flagella. Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound
organelles. Thus cell organelles like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum are all absent in
prokaryotes

Eukaryotic cells: have a membrane-bounded nucleus and cytoplasm, which is organized into organelles;
the fluid component of the cytoplasm is the cytosol.

• Plant cells differ from animal cells in that they have rigid cell walls, plastids, and large vacuoles; cells of
most plants lack centrioles.

• Membranes divide the cell into membrane-bounded compartments; this allows cells to conduct
specialized activities within small areas of the cytoplasm, concentrate molecules, and organize metabolic
reactions. A system of interacting membranes forms the endomembrane system.

The nucleus is the control center of the cell and contains genetic information coded in DNA.

Cell components:
The nucleolus is a region in the nucleus that is the site of ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome assembly

 The Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of folded internal membranes in the cytosol

 Rough ER is studded along its outer surface with ribosomes that manufacture proteins.

 Smooth ER is the site of lipid synthesis and detoxifying enzymes

 The Golgi complex consists of stacks of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae that process,
sort, and modify proteins synthesized on the ER

 Lysosomes function in intracellular digestion; they contain enzymes that break down both worn-
out cell structures and substances taken into cells.

 Peroxisomes are membrane-bounded sacs containing enzymes that catalyze a variety of reactions
in which hydrogen peroxide is formed as a by-product.

 Vacuoles are important in plant growth and development Many protists have food vacuoles
and contractile vacuoles.
  Mitochondria, the sites of aerobic respiration, are double-membraned organelles in which the
inner membrane is folded, forming cristae that increase the surface area of the membrane.

 Mitochondria contain DNA that codes for some of its proteins.

 Cells of algae and plants contain plastids; chloroplasts, the sites of photosynthesis, are double-
membraned plastids. Chlorophyll, the green pigment that traps light energy during photosynthesis,
is found in the chloroplast.

CELL WALL

In plant cells, a dead layer is also present outside the cell membrane called a cell wall. It is made up
of cellulose and is permeable to water, solutes, and gases.

Functions of the cell wall

(i) It helps in maintaining/determining cell shape.

(ii) It provides support and mechanical strength to plants

(iii) It protects the cell against mechanical injury and pathogens.

(iv) It helps in the transport of various substances across it.

(v) It helps the plant cells to withstand a lot of variations in the surrounding environment.

(vi) It prevents bursting of the cell on endosmosis.

Transport of substances across the membrane

The transport of substances across the plasma membrane can be of two types depending upon the
expenditure of energy.

1. Passive transport: The transport of substances across the membrane which does not
require the expenditure of energy is called passive transport. It is of two types-

(i) Diffusion: The process of movement of substances from the region of higher concentration to the region
of lower concentration so as to spread the substance uniformly in the given space is known as diffusion.

For example Transport of CO2 and O2 across the membrane.

(ii) Osmosis: Diffusion of water from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration across the semipermeable membrane is called osmosis.

For example Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Types of osmosis:

(a) Endosmosis: Movement of water into a cell.

(b) Exosmosis: Movement of water out of the cell.

1. Active transport: The process of transport of molecules across the plasma membrane against
the concentration gradient requires energy and is known as active transport.

For example The transport of glucose, amino acids and ions occur through active transport.

TISSUES

• Group of cells having a common origin and performing similar functions are called tissues.

• Meristematic tissue is a group of similar cells that are in a continuous state of division. These tissues are in
general called meristems.

• The meristematic cells when losing their power of division differentiate into permanent tissues. The cells
of these tissues are either living or dead, thin-walled or thick walled.

MICROORGANISMS

• Microorganisms are very tiny organisms which can be seen under a microscope. Some
examples of microorganisms are bacteria, virus, protozoa, fungi, and algae.

• Microorganisms range in size from 0. 015 microns to more than 100 microns.

• Microorganisms can be unicellular or multicellular. Bacteria, protozoans and some algae are
unicellular while most of the algae and fungi are multicellular.

• Microorganisms can be autotrophic or heterotrophic. Some bacteria, few fungi, and viruses are
heterotrophs while algae and some fungi are autotrophs.

• Microorganisms can reproduce sexually, asexually or both.

TYPES OF DISEASES

VIRAL DISEASES

(a) Jaundice or hepatitis

Hepatitis or liver inflammation is a disease related to the liver. The cause of this diseases is hepatitis
virus, it propagates through contaminated water, food or injected needle Hepatitis may be of A, B, C, D,
E or G type but A and B are more infectious. The incubation period for this disease is 15 to 80 days.
b) Rabies
The cause of this disease is a Rhabdovirus. This disease propagates by biting of an infected dog, cat, wolf,
monkey, etc. High fever, intense headache, contraction of throat and chest muscles with pain, excessive
secretion of saliva and restlessness are the primary symptoms of the diseases. Since the patient develops
fear for water, the disease is also called Hydrophobia.

(c) Polio: The cause of this disease is an Enterovirus. It is propagated through contaminated food, milk,
and water. Polio or poliomyelitis is a dangerous disease of children.

Child suffers paralysis due to damage to the central nervous system. Oral polio vaccine is the best
preventive measure of polio.

(d) Chickenpox: The cause of this disease is a Virus, known as Varicella zoster. It propagates through contact
with a patient or scab.

The patient suffers fever, headache, and loss of appetite. Dark red spots appear on back and chest soon
these spots get filled up with water and convert into blisters. Blisters dry after some days and scabbing get
started. This is the infectious stage of the disease.

(e) Measles: This is a highly infectious disease of children. It propagates through indirect contact or
through the air. The cause of this disease is the Rubella virus.

The patient gets a sore throat due to cold. Red grains appear on face after 4-5 days and afterward spread
on the entire body. For prevention, MMR vaccination should be done.

(f) Dengue: This is a dangerous disease caused by Dengue virus. It spreads by mosquito Aedesaegypti.

(g) Ebola virus disease: Ebola is a severe and often deadly disease caused by a virus called Ebola virus. It can
occur in humans and other primates (monkey, chimpanzee, and gorillas).

AIDS
Full name is Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome. It is a severe, life-threatening disease, first recognized
in 1981. The causative organism of this disease is (HIV-1 and HIV-2). “Human immune deficiency virus” which
is a ‘Retrovirus’.

HIV attacks the immune system by destroying CD4+ T cells, a type of white blood cell that is vital to fighting
off infection. The destruction of these cells makes people vulnerable to other diseases and infections and
may ultimately lead to the death of the patient.
3
A person is diagnosed with AIDS when the count of CD4+ T cells goes below 200 cells per ml of blood.

The virus is transmitted from an infected person to a healthy person mainly through sexual contact
and exposure to blood or tissues, or trans placental transmission from an infected mother to the
fetus.
st st
la case in 1981 America, la case in India 1986, Chennai.

Symptoms: Swollen lymph nodes, decreased the count of blood platelets causing hemorrhage and fever,
severe damage to the brain which may lead to loss of memory, ability to speak and even think.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment. Fetal infection can be reduced by using anti -HIV drug to reduce
transmission of the virus to the fetus of pregnant mothers.

Drugs used

(1) AZT (Azidothymidine)

(2) DDI (Dideoxyinosine)

These drugs inhibit the enzyme reverse transcriptase of HIV.

DISEASES CAUSED BY BACTERIA

(a)Tuberculosis (T.B.): Tuberculosis (T.B.) was first discovered by Robert Koch in 1882. It is an infectious
disease which is communicated from one human being to another directly or indirectly. Tuberculosis may
also be contracted from animals. It is caused by bacterium-called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The
bacterium releases a toxin called tuberculin. In T.B., the patient feels sick and weak. There is a loss of
appetite and weight. Typical fever pattern and night sweats are also common.

The child must be vaccinated for B.C.G. within a few hours after birth. Anti-tuberculosis (ATT) and
DOTS treatment methods are available.

(b)Typhoid: Typhoid is caused by the bacteria Salmonella typhi commonly found in the intestine of man.
Human infection is direct and the bacteria are spread through faecal matter by house flies, etc.

A symptom of this disease is a continuous increase in body temperature for a week. The second-week
temperature remains constant. Meanwhile, red grains appear on the stomach. Body temperature
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decreases during the 3 and 4 weeks.

TAB-vaccination provides immunity for three years.

Oral Typhoid Vaccine (OTV) is also available. The patient can take antibiotics drugs on the advice of a
doctor.

(c)Tetanus: It is a fatal disease caused by bacterium Clostridium tetani. These bacteria grow on fertile soil,
dung, etc. and enter the human body through wounds or cuts on the body. The cause of the disease is a
toxic secretion from bacteria known as Tetanospasmin.

For prevention, D.P.T. vaccine dose is given to infants. To save infants from infected mothers should be
vaccinated compulsorily.

DISEASE CAUSED BY PROTOZOA

Malaria: Malaria is caused by a protozoan parasite Plasmodium. This spreads through the bite of an insect
vector-female anopheles mosquito which feeds on human blood. (male Anopheles mosquito feeds upon
plant juices). Larvivorous fishes like Gambusia, Minnows, Trouts should be kept in large water bodies. These
fishes feed on mosquito larvae and help us. Mosquito repellents can also be used. The patient can be given
drugs like quinine, chloroquine, primaquine, paludrine, etc. on the advice of a doctor
VITAMINS AND MINERAL DEFICIENCY DISEASES:

1.Anemia It is caused due to deficiency of mineral Iron.

2.Ariboflavinosis It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin B2.
3.Beriberi It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin B1.
4.Goiter It is caused due to deficiency of Iodine.
5.Impaired clotting of the blood It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin K.
6.Kwashiorkor It is caused due to deficiency of Protein.
7.Night Blindness It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin A.
8.Osteoporosis It is caused due to deficiency of mineral Calcium.

9.Rickets It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin D.

10.Scurvy It is caused due to deficiency of Vitamin C.

MEDICINAL DISCOVERIES

Inventions/Discoveries Inventor/Discoveries
Vitamin Casimir Funk(coined the term)
Vitamin-A F.G Hopkins
Vitamin-C & Vitamin-P Albert Szent-Gyorgyi
Vitamin-D2(First Vitamin D) Adolf Windaus & Askew
Streptomycin Selman Waksman, Albert Schatz and
Elizabeth Bugie
Heart Transplantation Christian Bernard
Malaria parasite and treatment Ronald Ross
Robert Edwards and Patrick
First test tube baby Steptoe
Antigen Karl Landsteiner
RNA Friedrich Miescher
DNA James Watson and Francis Crick
Insulin Frederick Banting
T.B. bacteria Robert Koch
Penicillin Alexander Fleming
Polio vaccine Jonas Salk
BCG Camille Guerin & Albert Calmette
Bacteria Antony Van Leeuwenhoek
Blood transfer Karl Landsteiner
BLOOD GROUP AND ITS CLASSIFICATION:

Karl Landsteiner: Classified human beings (1900) in four groups on the basis of the reaction of their blood:
A, B, AB and O

Blood group Carries antigen carriers Can donate Can receive

blood to blood from
antibody

A A B A,AB A,O
B B A B,AB B,O
AB A, B None Only AB Universal
Accepter

O None A, B Universal Only O