Durability of Asphalt Pavements

Best practice guide for durability
of asphalt pavements
Road Note
RN42
Road Note 42 gives guidance on the procedures for maximising the durability of asphalt pavements. Some of the
concepts may not be practical in all circumstances, particularly for emergency repairs, but the ideas should be used as
ideals to be aimed at whenever practicable. Best practice guide
Together with the companion publication, Road Note 41 ‘Best practice guide for overlaying concrete’, it is the result of
a three-year project at TRL commissioned by the Highways Agency, Quarry Products Association and Refined Bitumen for durability of
Association. The two guides provide guidance and advice on design, materials and construction, that encapsulate the
overall concepts. These documents should become essential reading for all involved in road construction. asphalt pavements
Other recent titles from this subject area J C Nicholls, M J McHale and R D Griffiths
RN41 Best practice guide for overlaying concrete. R W Jordan, C Coley, H M Harding, I Carswell
and K E Hassan. 2008
RN39 Design guide for road surface dressing. C Roberts and J C Nicholls. Sixth edition. 2008
PPR304 Recycled asphalt in surfacing materials: a case study of carbon dioxide emission savings. I Schiavi,
I Carswell and M Wayman. 2008
TRL666 Durability of continuously reinforced concrete surfaced with asphalt. K E Hassan, J C Nicholls,
H M Harding and M E Nunn. 2008
TRL660 Durability of thin asphalt surfacing systems. Part 3: Findings after six years monitoring. J C Nicholls,
I Carswell, C Thomas and L K Walter. 2007
TRL645 Feasibility of recycling thin surfacing back into thin surfacing systems. I Carswell, J C Nicholls,
R C Elliott, J Harris and D Strickland. 2005
PPR023 Comparison of tyre/road noise for a range of surfaces on the A47, A447, A511 and B582
in Leicestershire. M H Balsom, P M Nelson and C Summers. 2005
CT40.5 Bituminous road design and construction update (2005-2007)
CT68.4 Deterioration of road surfaces update (2003-2007)
Price code: E
TRL Published by IHS

Crowthorne House, Nine Mile Ride Willoughby Road, Bracknell
Wokingham, Berkshire RG40 3GA Berkshire RG12 8FB
United Kingdom United Kingdom
RN42
T: +44 (0) 1344 773131 T: +44 (0) 1344 328038

F: +44 (0) 1344 770356 F: +44 (0) 1344 328005
E: [email protected] E: [email protected]
W: www.trl.co.uk W: http://emeastore.ihs.com
J C Nicholls, M J McHale and R D Griffiths
with the advice of the Best-practice Focus Group:

C A Loveday Quarry Products Association & Tarmac
D J James Highways Agency
C D Southwell Refined Bitumen Association
D J Williams Quarry Products Association & Lafarge Aggregates
Road Note 42
Project: Performance and durability of asphalt roads
Topic 2: Durability of asphalt pavements
Road Note 42
First published 2008
ISBN 978-1-84608-709-7
Copyright Transport Research Laboratory 2008
This report has been produced by TRL, under/as part of a

contract placed by the Highways Agency, Quarry Products
Association and Refined Bitumen Association. Any views
expressed are not necessarily those of the Highways Agency,
Quarry Products Association or Refined Bitumen Association.
Published by IHS for TRL
TRL
Crowthorne House
Nine Mile Ride
Wokingham
Berkshire RG40 3GA
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1344 773131
Fax: +44 (0) 1344 770356
Email: [email protected]
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TRL publications are available from

www.trl.co.uk
or
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Willoughby Road
Bracknell RG12 8FB
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1344 328038
Fax: +44 (0) 1344 328005
Email: [email protected]
http://emeastore.ihs.com
TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing

waste and promoting recycling and re-use. In support if these
environmental goals, this report has been printed on recycled
paper, comprising 100% post-consumer waste, manufactured
using a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.
ii
foreword
Good road infrastructure is an essential requirement for Overlaying Concrete) were carried out by garnering
national growth and prosperity by fostering efficient existing information. These topics included both
national and international trade as well as facilitating literature searches and a number of industry workshops
personal mobility to citizens. For communities and involving all sectors of the asphalt road construction
individuals, a road network opens up opportunities for industry and substantial input from the three sponsoring
accessing employment, markets, education and health organisations.
facilities as well as contributing to social inclusion and
security. The Steering Committee believes that the increased
involvement of Highways Agency, Quarry Products
A road infrastructure can be defined as good when there Association and Refined Bitumen Association
are sufficient routes linking all relevant locations and members through focus groups for these topics and the
those routes are maintained in a serviceable condition. broader highways community through the consultative
In order to keep road pavements in a serviceable workshops has enhanced the programme, in terms both
condition without having to have major rehabilitation at of the quality of the outputs and of the wider ownership
frequent intervals, they have to be built in a manner that of them. All parties now expect that the durability
will extend their durability. Maximising the durability of outputs will help to foster an environment where all
road pavements has the benefits of: parties in the industry co-operate in maximising the
durability of the pavement.
• reducing the delays to road users caused by
maintenance; There are three outputs from the study into improving
• reducing the costs to the road authority of that durability; a revision to the Specification for Highway
maintenance; and Works and two new TRL Road Notes (Road Note 41
• improving the sustainability of asphalt pavement and Road Note 42). TRL Road Notes are used very
construction. successfully in other sectors of the road construction
industry and were considered ideal for this type of
Improving durability is, in fact, generally regarded as advisory document. The changes to be made to the
the best long-term means of improving sustainability. Specification for Highway Works were to the 900
series and included the introduction of a new clause
The importance of sustainability extends to making 903, Placing and Compaction of Bituminous Mixtures,
the best use of existing materials. In general, road that explicitly covers those subjects (although much
users prefer asphalt surfacings because they are quieter was taken for it from the old Clause 901, Bituminous
and provide a smoother ride. There are also moves to Pavement Mixtures).
overlay existing concrete pavements with asphalt to
improve the driver comfort as well as to extend the Road Note 41, Best Practice Guide for Overlaying
service-life of the pavement. The choice of treatment Concrete, identifies the different techniques for
is dependent on the type and condition of the concrete overlaying concrete pavements and bridges with asphalt,
pavement and can affect the performance and durability. assists in the choice of treatment for a specific situation
and gives advice on how to maximise the durability
The Highways Agency, Quarry Products Association of the treatments. The basic durability of the asphalt
and Refined Bitumen Association are separate material used for the overlay covered by Road Note 42.
organisations that are very aware of the benefits of
improving asphalt durability. They have, for many Road Note 42, Best Practice Guide for Durability of
years, jointly commissioned research at TRL on various Asphalt Pavements (this document), gives general
subjects related to asphalt roads. The latest three-year guidance on the procedures for maximising the
programme, entitled Performance and Durability of durability of asphalt pavements. Whilst it is appreciated
Asphalt Roads, included a study to assess how durability that some concepts may not be practical in all
could be improved. However, it was not possible to circumstances, particularly for emergency repairs,
carry meaningful research on the subject that finished the ideas should be used as ideals that are strived for
in three years using traditional methods. Therefore, whenever practicable.
two of the three topics within the project that covered
durability (Durability of Asphalt Pavements and for
iii
foreword (cont’d)
Both Road Notes are set out as sister documents in the

same format with specific advice on design, materials
and construction. Guidance and advice are also included
to encapsulate the overall concepts. It is anticipated that
these documents will become essential reading for all
involved in road construction.
iv
Contents
Executive Summary 1
1 Introduction 2
1.1 Development of this guide 2
1.2 Definition of durability 2
1.3 Aspects not covered 3
1.4 Use of this guide 3
1.5 The guiding principles for asphalt pavements 4
2 Job planning 5
2.1 Principal themes 5
2.2 Supervision 6
2.3 Risk assessment 7
2.4 Equipment and manpower availability 7
2.5 Timing 7
2.6 Continuity of work 8
2.7 Established practice and latest technology 8
3 Constraining influences 9
3.1 Foundations 9
3.1.1 Principal themes 9
3.1.2 Impermeability 9
3.1.3 Strength 10
3.1.4 Consistency 10
3.2 Drainage 10
3.2.2 New pavement construction 12
3.2.3 Highway improvements 12
3.2.4 Coordinated design 13
3.2.5 Maintenance of drainage systems 13
4 Design 14
4.1 Pavement 14
4.1.2 Durability as performance requirement 14
4.1.3 Layer thickness 15
4.2 Materials 15
4.2.2 Selection of component materials 16
4.2.3 Temperature 17
5 Joints and sealing 18

5.1 Joints 18
5.1.2 Location 19
5.1.3 Method of forming joints 19
5.1.4 Free edges 19
5.1.5 Painting of joints 20
5.1.6 Surface sealing joints 20
Cont’d...

contents (cont’d)
5 Joints and sealing (cont’d)

5.2 Tack and bond coats 20
5.2.2 Cleanliness of substrate 21
5.2.3 Properties 21
5.2.4 Sealing 21
5.2.5 Adhesion 22
5.2.6 Uniformity 22
5.3 Edge sealing 22
5.3.2 Advice 23
6 Application 24
6.1 Compaction 24
6.1.2 Job mixture trials 25
6.1.3 Number of rollers 25
6.1.4 Over-running of edges 25
6.1.5 Around ironwork 26
6.1.6 Weather 26
6.2 Finish 26
6.2.2 Advice 27
6.3 Maintenance 27
6.3.2 Advice 28
7 Conclusions 29
Acknowledgements 29
References 30
vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Highways Agency (HA), Quarry Products produce designs that are buildable, materials that have
Association (QPA) and Refined Bitumen Association the potential to perform and a pavement that is fit for
(RBA) all appreciate the need to maximise the purpose.
durability of asphalt pavements. Therefore, one of the
tasks in their jointly funded research project at TRL The desire to achieve longer durability for asphalt
entitled Performance and Durability of Asphalt Roads pavements is common among those involved in
was Durability of Asphalt Pavements. One of the designing, specifying, producing and laying asphalt
principal aims of this task was to identify the techniques materials and pavements. Therefore, all parties have
and procedures currently considered to produce the best to work together in a spirit where positive actions
practice and to produce a Best Practice Guide based on are rewarded and negative actions or omissions are
that knowledge. discouraged.
Durability as a concept needs to be clearly defined The main aspects that lead to durability are:
for any guide on best practice, and it was decided to
concentrate on the durability of the whole pavement • the control of water (getting it away from the
rather than just that of the asphalt mixture. For this structure if not actually stopping it ever entering);
purpose, pavement durability is defined as: • limiting the number of and sealing joints (both
vertical and horizontal); and
the retention over the structure’s expected service-life • adequate compaction (particularly at joints).
of a satisfactory level of performance without major
maintenance for all properties that are required for the These aspects are likely to rise in importance with the
particular road situation in addition to asphalt durability. predicted changes from global warming, with hotter,
dryer conditions in summer but more intense rainfall,
The aim of the Best Practice Guide is to encourage and possibly more of it, in the winter. Such conditions
everyone working in the asphalt industry to contribute will exacerbate the potential for unwanted water to
to making pavements as durable as practical. To penetrate into the pavement, causing irreversible
enable people to fulfil this aim, they need to know not damage to the asphalt.
only the actions they can take to enhance or damage
durability, but also how their actions may impinge on However, lack of maintenance, particularly of the
the efforts of others. An understanding of the intentions drainage, can lead to premature failure even if the best
and constraints during other phases should help to practice was followed in design and construction.

BEST PRACTICE GUIDE for DURABILITY OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
1 Introduction
1.1 Development of this guide using both conventional library sources and on the
internet. Finally, the laboratory and pilot-scale studies
The Highways Agency (HA), Quarry Products were undertaken to fill in any minor knowledge gaps.
Association (QPA) and Refined Bitumen Association However, there were a limited number of gaps that
(RBA) all appreciate the need to maximise the could be filled by such limited studies.
durability of asphalt pavements. Therefore, one of
the tasks in their jointly funded research project at 1.2 Definition of durability
TRL entitled Performance and Durability of Asphalt
Roads was Durability of Asphalt Pavements. One An asphalt material or a pavement can be said to
of the principal aims of this task was to identify the be durable if it maintains its structural integrity and
techniques and procedures currently considered to be functional properties at a satisfactory level within its
best practice and to produce a Best Practice Guide based nominal design-life when exposed to the effects of the
on that knowledge. This document is that Best Practice environment and the expected traffic loading. However,
Guide. However, it is appreciated that it may well need two distinct definitions are proposed for this Guide, as
updating in future when additional techniques, materials follows:
and procedures have been developed, and any suggested
changes or information about developments will be
gratefully received by the authors. • Asphalt durability
Maintenance of the structural integrity of
To oversee the durability task, the Best-practice Focus compacted material over its expected service-life
Group (BFG) was formed consisting of Colin Loveday when exposed to the effects of the environment
(Convenor), Donna James (HA representative), Chris (water, oxygen, sunlight) and traffic loading
Southwell (RBA representative), David Williams (QPA • Pavement durability
representative) and Cliff Nicholls (TRL and secretariat). Retention of a satisfactory level of performance
The work of identifying the best practice to maximise over the structure’s expected service-life without
durability was considered not practical to achieve with major maintenance for all properties that are
pure research, monitoring a series of trials with different required for the particular road situation in
addition to asphalt durability
options to assess their relative durability. Therefore, the
BFG initiated the triple pronged approach of industrial
workshops, literature reviews and limited laboratory and
pilot-scale studies.
This Guide primarily covers pavement durability.
Two industry workshops to provide the initial ideas
were held on consecutive days in November 2005, one Notes on the definition of durability:
for designers and one for contractors. The workshops 1 Asphalt durability is dependent on:
were led by a professional facilitator. Considerable • the component materials used
information was gleaned from the workshops, • the weather conditions during laying
both for this Guide and for possible changes to the • the mixture, both the generic type and the job mix
Specification for Highway Works, the later being dealt design
with separately. A follow-up workshop of all parties in • the workmanship during mixing, transport, laying
January 2007 was held in order to refine the findings and compaction
and outcomes. • the site conditions, including geometry,
subsequent local weather conditions, drainage and
(possibly) traffic.
The literature reviews were undertaken to identify
what is already known. These reviews were undertaken

1 INTRODUCTION
2 Pavement durability is dependent on: 1.4 Use of this guide

• the asphalt durability
• the traffic and other site conditions The aim of this Best Practice Guide is to encourage
• the performance requirements set everyone working in the asphalt industry to contribute
• the asphalt performance characteristics. to making pavements as durable as practicable. To
enable people to fulfil this aim, they need to know not
3 The performance requirements could include any only the actions they can take to enhance or damage
or all of the following: durability, but also how their actions may impinge on
• stiffness the efforts of others. An understanding of the intentions
• resistance to fatigue and constraints during other phases should help to
• texture depth produce designs that are buildable, materials that have
• transverse rutting the potential to perform and a pavement that is fit for
• longitudinal ride quality purpose.
• skid resistance
• noise level Each of the main sections is prefaced by one or more
• colour. simple quotations or other short statements that have
been selected to encapsulate the overall concept of that
Not all the properties in the current list, which is section. It is hoped that these statements will stimulate
not necessarily comprehensive, have in-service the reader to understand the wider implications of their
requirements. specific role.
1.3 Aspects not covered Following the quotation, the principal themes give
general advice on what needs to be achieved to enhance,
There were several issues raised at the workshops that or at least not detract from, the goal of extended
are considered to be outside the scope of the Guide. durability for the construction of asphalt pavements.
These issues include the availability of funds, the type This general advice is kept relatively brief so that the
of contract, the knowledge base and personnel. essence is not hidden among detailed considerations.
It is intended to give advice about what issues should
The overlaying of concrete by asphalt raises specific be covered but does not provide detailed instructions
issues that are not covered in this Road Note. Guidance on precisely what to do in all cases. The latter would
on best practice for the relevant techniques is given in a require a very large document that would need continual
separate document (Hassan et al., 2008). updating.
The only solution suggested for the availability of Each section contains more specific advice on design,
funds was lobbying, which is clearly outside the scope materials and laying which is set out in different
of a Best Practice Guide. The contract types and the coloured boxes. Despite a wish for everybody to
associated definition of responsibilities can have an understand the full scenario of what can be done to
affect, particularly with the current trend to demand enhance the durability of the final pavement, the advice
guarantees, but are not relevant here other than for the on each aspect is split in this way to improve the clarity.
need to define them so that all relevant responsibilities For these boxes, it is assumed that the overall objectives
are allocated to an appropriate person or organisation. of the associated activities are as follows:
The knowledge base concerns included the loss of • The objective of design is to produce a specification
County Surveyors and experienced inspectors, which from which a high-quality pavement can be
has led to less supervision, together with more designers produced and which excludes the use of materials
who are not sufficiently aware of construction details or techniques that have a high risk of making the
and contractors whose skill-base has been eroded. The pavement perform inadequately, whether initially or
in-service.
main worry, however, was the lack of accurate records
about what is already there on the national network. • The objective of material production is to produce
The availability of skilled labour was expected to be an asphalt that can be transported and laid without
increasing problem with a declining operator skills base unnecessary difficulty in a condition that it can meet
unless the industry can attract and train more young all the functional requirements, including their long-
engineers. The panacea of increased salaries was widely term maintenance.
accepted as the solution!

• The objective of laying is to install the asphalt under Underpinning these universal truths, the following are
appropriate conditions and in a manner conducive some general concepts that should be borne in mind at
to maximise the functional requirements, including all stages of design and manufacture:
durability.
However, the overriding objective for all involved

must be to get it right first time. Replacement or even General
premature maintenance is not in the best interests of • Planning of the work can reduce the risk of
anybody – client, contractor or, most importantly, the under-achievement.
motoring public. • Solid foundations allow good compaction.
• It is impossible to fully compact unsupported
The relative importance of the three sections varies edges.
on different aspects. The advice is split in this way to • The limiting factor on paving output is the rolling
improve clarity, but it is not intended that designers, capacity rather than the paver speed or the
materials suppliers and site staff only read the advice available supply.
on their aspect. Everyone should read all three sections,
even if they then concentrate on the one(s) most closely Mixtures
related to their particular responsibilities. • High binder content is good.
• Smaller nominal sizes of aggregate are good to
1.5 The guiding principles for avoid segregation.
asphalt pavements • Low air voids content is good.
Layers
‘Everything should be made as simple as
possible, but not simpler’
• All joints (vertical and horizontal) are weaknesses.
Albert Einstein • A few thick layers are better than multiple thinner
layers.
• Pavements are designed to act as one layer.
There are many approaches that can be used when
striving for durable pavements. However, there are Drainage
some universal truths that should be borne in mind at • Water ingress from the side is bad.
all stages of design and manufacture, including the • Water will always find its way between unbonded
following: layers.
• Water between layers will always result in
deterioration.
The three core principles of asphalt • Water in asphalt with high voids content risks
• Pavements are designed to act as one layer reduction in stiffness.
• All joints are weaknesses • Drainage of the structure is essential.
• Sealing and bonding between layers are essential • Drainage will remove water from the pavement
only if adequately maintained.
The three core virtues of asphalt
• High binder content Joints
• Small nominal size aggregate • Sealing and bonding between layers is essential.
• Low air voids content • Sealing of joints (longitudinal and transverse) is
good.
Three things water should not do
• Get in from the side
• Get in from the joints
• Find its way between unbonded layers These truths will be repeated as short statements at the
start of the relevant sections of this Guide.
Three things to remember about drainage
• It is essential
• It needs to be continuous
• It needs to be maintained

2 JOB PLANNING
2 Job planning both between offices and on site. Good liaison should
develop into trust between parties, which allows for
issues to be resolved before they become problems.
‘A clever man overcomes problems that a wise
man would have avoided in the first place’
Problems usually result in errors that have repercussions
Confucius on the durability.
Method statements
2.1 Principal themes Requests for method statements should ensure that
the contractor thinks about how to do an operation
Knowledge may be king, but that knowledge before he does it without being prescriptive. Ideally,
needs to be passed to all involved for true they should be used in conjunction with performance
success requirements. A method statement should explain what
equipment will be used, in what order and by whom
as well as what tests will be carried out to ensure
Contract size consistency. However, the acceptance of a method
A continuous pavement with minimal joints will statement does not remove the contractor’s obligation to
produce a more durable product but it can be achieved meet any specified performance requirements.
only on relatively large contracts.
Seasonal working
Compromising durability to minimise traffic Much greater attention to detail is required when the
disruption weather is inclement because such conditions have
Minimising the immediate disruption to traffic by a substantial impact on the cost of the construction.
requiring a road to be reopened at peak periods may Throughout the planning, the time of day and season
be detrimental to the long-term traffic disruption when the work will be undertaken should be considered.
because working in small packages may increase the Ideally, all work should be done in daylight during
need for maintenance and bring forward the time when the summer when operatives can concentrate on their
replacement is needed. The differences should be fed duties (rather than keeping warm and trying to see)
into the whole-life costing of the works in order to and the hot asphalt will not cool too quickly. However,
achieve true value engineering. some projects are sufficiently large to span more than
just the summer whilst others are for repairs that need
Contractor involvement to be undertaken quickly so that the ideal is breached
Early discussions between the designers and contractors without allowing for the political need to work in the
are needed to ensure that everybody is working to winter or at night. Nevertheless, for safety as well as for
a common, and practical, goal. The responsibilities durability, laying asphalt during winter nights should
for each aspect should be allocated to the relevant be avoided whenever possible. When winter and night
organisation by the contract, and the relevant person or work is to be undertaken, the shorter compaction times
persons within that organisation who will undertake that available and additional constraints will need to be
responsibility should be clearly identified. The identified allowed for in planning the programme. Planning can
people should have both the technical knowledge then alleviate some of the adverse effect on durability,
and the appropriate authority to make any decisions but the final product is still likely to be inferior to that
relevant to that responsibility. Systems for adequate which can be obtained in benign, well-lit conditions.
communications between parties need to be established,

edges of the mat. Such procedures could be as simple

as putting cones to mark the edges or provide specific,
prepared locations where any traffic that needs to
transverse the new mat can gain access and egress.
Maintenance
A strategy for maintenance, particularly of the drainage,
needs to developed at initial design stage of any new
build, reconstruction or major maintenance scheme.
There then needs to be a procedure to ensure, as far as
is practicable, that the strategy is implemented after the
works have been completed.
Logistics
The haul, both in terms of distance and time, between
the asphalt plant and the site, should be considered
in terms of asphalt mixture(s) being laid, the likely
weather conditions and the equipment laying it.
Excessive haul times can lead to cool loads that
will leave insufficient time for their compaction.
The planning should also involve deciding on what
equipment is needed to undertake the work and what
reserves are necessary in case of breakdowns. Breaks
in the supply or delivery will lead to additional joints,
which are undesirable in terms of durability.
Trafficking
Both during construction and on opening to traffic,
premature trafficking can damage the new pavement. In
particular, procedures should be implemented to reduce
the risk of site vehicles over-running any exposed
2.2 Supervision
Checking to avoid errors is time better spent than time spent sorting out those errors
Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

• Professional standards need to be • Sector Schemes provide third-party • Sector Schemes provide third-party
maintained by regular review at all monitoring that can be supplemented monitoring that can be supplemented
levels. by additional testing to ensure by additional testing to ensure
continuing compliance. continuing compliance.

2 JOB PLANNING
2.3 Risk assessment
A risk is truly frightening only when it has not been foreseen

• A risk assessment should be carried • A risk assessment should be carried • A risk assessment should be carried
out to identify scenarios that would out to identify scenarios that have out to identify scenarios that have
have an adverse effect on durability an adverse effect on durability and a an adverse effect on durability and a
and a reasonable probability of reasonable probability of occurring. A reasonable probability of occurring. A
occurring. A decision should then decision should then be made about decision should then be made about
be made about how to reduce the how to reduce the probability and/or how to reduce the probability and/or the
probability and/or the effect to an the effect to an acceptable level. effect to an acceptable level.
acceptable level.
2.4 Equipment and manpower availability

• A sufficient number of adequately • The plant needs to be well maintained • A sufficient quantity of well-maintained
experienced and well-motivated and manned by adequately equipment and adequately experienced
designers and specifiers are needed. experienced and well-motivated staff. and well-motivated staff are needed.
2.5 Timing
Timing is everything
Design advice Laying advice

• The requirements should discourage • More resources, including manpower, tend to be needed for night and winter
night and winter working on site working, particularly in terms of a reserve in case of breakdowns.
whenever possible. • For night working, high-quality artificial lighting is essential. Such lighting can be
mounted on the mobile plant.
• The possibility of low-temperature conditions must be considered in winter.

2.6 Continuity of work
The work needs to be continuous in order to minimise any change in density, level or other property
that could initiate future problems

• There should be a review of the need • The supply from the plant to each job • When allowed to work long lengths and
for restricted-hours working and of the should be consistent with the amount great widths at a time, the procedure
extent of road that can be closed to that can be laid by the gangs and should minimise the number of cold
traffic at any time, with a preference equipment on those jobs. joints in the finished pavement.
for longer times and lengths being
available for working in order to attain
greater durability.
2.7 Established practice and latest technology
Experience tempered by innovation

• Past experience should be used as the • Past experience should be used as the • Past experience should be used as the
basis for selecting options when that basis for selecting mixing procedures, basis for selecting transporting, laying
experience is truly relevant, but not mix designs and component materials and compaction techniques when that
at the expense of potential technical when that experience is truly relevant, experience is truly relevant, but not
developments. but not at the expense of potential at the expense of potential technical
technical developments. developments.

3 CONSTRAINING INFLUENCES
3 Constraining influences
3.1 Foundations
3.1.1 Principal themes
Solid foundations allow good compaction
Site investigations
Before the pavement, including its drainage, is designed,
there should be sufficient inspection and assessment
of the existing construction to be able to complete a
meaningful design. Inadequate site investigation can before the full strength can be used in the design.
lead to wrong assumptions that will require changes on The alternative would be to design with a reduced
site when the true situation is discovered. This can be strength in the foundation. When dealing with moisture
costly, in both time and money, if a less than optimal control, knowledge of the permeability is important.
design, in terms of performance and/or durability, is to Permeability allows moisture to enter as well as to pass
be avoided. through a layer provided there is an opportunity for that
moisture to leave.
Strong foundations
A strong foundation will allow overlying layers to be Trafficking on foundations
fully compacted whereas weaker ones may deform, The function of a pavement foundation is to provide
particularly with vibratory compaction, to make the adequate support for the rest of the pavement, with
compaction equipment less efficient. However, it is not each layer, bound or unbound, acting as support for
always practicable to adequately enhance the strength of the next one during construction and in-service. The
weak foundations, particularly for minor roads. unbound foundation, or any layer before the pavement
is completed, is not necessarily suitable for use as a
Moisture control haul route unless it has been designed accordingly. The
Some sub-base materials weaken when wet, thus extent to which, and at what stages of construction, site
reducing the strength of the foundation. Therefore, traffic can be allowed access to a partially constructed
the moisture in these materials needs to be controlled pavement should be planned and this information
clearly communicated to site staff.
3.1.2 Impermeability
To minimise the infiltration of surface water into the pavement, a good surface drainage is always required

• If it is necessary to determ��
ine the • Aggregates to be used in drainage • With high water tables and moisture-
permeability of the sub-base or capping layers should consist of sound, clean sensitive subgrades, it may be
material, this assessment must be and open-graded materials that allow beneficial to use slot drains.
done on the full grading, and at the for free flow of any water that enters
correct density under a low hydra��
ulic the pavement structure.
head.

3.1.3 Strength
Other than water used during construction, the amount of water entering a foundation should be
minimised at all costs

• It is vitally important to keep water • A granular aggregate drainage blanket • During construction, every effort should
out of the sub-base, capping and between 150 mm and 200 mm thick be made to protect the subgrade by
subgrade, both during construction and may be used to drain water that constructing foundation layers before
during the service-life of the pavement. infiltrates through the pavement. rainwater can soften it.
• In reconstruction and widening • It is important to consider the likely
projects, it is necessary to maintain long-term equilibrium moisture
the continuity of drainage from existing condition of the subgrade. For some
capping and sub-base materials soils, determination of the moisture
to adjacent new materials using condition value is useful.
appropriate thickness and cross-falls.
3.1.4 Consistency
Non-uniform foundation strengths and properties cause localised deflections and stress concentrations
in the pavement, which can lead to premature failures

• Foundation strength test results should • Pavement life can be increased and • Uniformity in pavement foundations
be closely monitored in order to identify pavement performance improved requires close attention to construction
any inconsistencies in strength results. through using more uniform methods and field quality control
• Non-uniform foundation strengths foundations. testing.
and properties can lead to premature
pavement failures.
3.2 Drainage
3.2.1 Principal themes Coordination of drainage and pavement

There is not enough attention paid to drainage by
those involved directly with the asphalt. The efficiency
• Water ingress from the side is bad of most drainage systems is directly affected by the
• Water will always find its way between material properties achieved, particularly the air voids
unbonded layers content and permeability, which in turn have a direct
• Water between layers will always result in influence on the durability of the asphalt. Water retained
deterioration in a pavement, particularly in joints, will reduce the
longevity of the surrounding material. Therefore, there
• Water in asphalt with high voids content may
should be two-way dialogue between drainage and
lead to reduction in stiffness
pavement designers in order to ensure that the drainage
• Drainage of the structure is essential scheme and materials selected are mutually compatible
• Drainage will only remove water from the and that this information is available should any
pavement if adequately maintained changes to either be considered for whatever reason.
10
3 constraining influences
Changes to drainage path

The effect on drainage of all changes to the pavement,
including reconstruction, should be assessed. A change
to the properties of the asphalt in a pavement can have
implications on the drainage system. In particular, using
more open-textured materials means that the drainage
has to drain the surface to a lower level and, therefore,
be set further down. Furthermore, the drainage needs to
have continuous routes for the water, with no barriers
from changes to the texture or continuous road markings
across the route. These barriers can occur within
layers when relatively permeable asphalt abuts a more
impermeable material as well as on the surface. The
damming of water within the layers is more likely to
result in damage because it will be unobserved. whenever the surrounding material is damp, which
will depend on the water table as well as whether there
Temporary drainage has been any precipitation. If the drains at the side are
Temporary drainage may also be required to protect the not maintained and water is held in them, that water is
subgrade during construction. This requirement can be available to enter the side of the pavement for extended
important in order to avoid softening of the layer by periods. Water at the sides and bottom of a pavement
moisture. can be at higher pressures, encouraging its entry into
available voids and any unbonded joints.
Reasons for drainage
The main reasons for drainage are to remove water Sealing of joints
both from the running surface and from the bound and To keep the water out, there is a need to seal all
unbound layers of the pavement. The first reason is for horizontal and vertical joints, together with the upper
the safety and comfort of road users and the second (and possibly lower) pavement edge, as well as to keep
is for the durability of the pavement. The latter is the drains maintained. The sealing must include the join
usually achieved by excluding water from entering the between the kerb and the mat.
pavement, but there are cases where it is allowed to pass
through the pavement, requiring permeable materials Impermeability
and clear exit routes that can be maintained. The drainage system often relies on the impermeability
of the surface course, which is questioned by some
Water entry engineers for some thin surfacing systems. However,
Water can get into the pavement structure from all the overall systems are generally impermeable in
sides. It can enter from the surface, the sides and from terms of not allowing water to pass through continuous
below, with the duration being dependent on a number lengths of the mat (i.e. away from joints of any type)
of factors. Unless the material and any tack or bond into the layers below. The ingress of moisture due to
coat are relatively permeable, water gets in from the high texture depth is usually just within that layer – if
top via joints, either between asphalt rips, ironwork or to a greater depth than in more dense materials – and
other discontinuities, during rainfall and immediately not through the layers. Permeability is not just required
afterwards. Moisture from the side and bottom can enter of the surfacings but of all layers of most pavements
because, however well the pavement is sealed, there is
a chance that some water will enter at some point. In
particular, binder course materials should be selected
with due consideration of their impermeability. Of the
asphalt concrete mixtures defined in PD 6691 (BSI,
2007), EME2 mixtures can be assumed to be effectively
impermeable whilst the impermeability of DBM50 and
similar mixtures will need to be assessed on a design-
by-design basis.
Global warming
If the predictions for global warming are correct, the
summers will be drier but the winters will compensate
11
by being wetter. The winter rain will come in more

intense storms, so that what is now a one in ten year
storm, say, will occur more frequently. Therefore,
drainage designers need to consider carefully for what
intensity they need to design the pavement drainage
when that pavement itself is designed for, typically, a
40-year life.
Maintenance
Most drainage systems, particularly filter and fin
drains, need maintenance. Without that maintenance,
the efficiency of the system will decline and excess
water will remain were it can reduce the durability
of the pavement as well as endanger and discomfort
motorists. Therefore, the required maintenance regime
needs to be defined for the drainage system and a
procedure initiated that will ensure that it is carried out.
Furthermore, when designing and building a pavement
for, say, a 40-year life, it is necessary to ensure that the
drainage has, or can have with appropriate maintenance
and/or replacement, a similar or greater life. This
consideration applies to maintenance as well as new
construction, although the type of drainage may then be
predetermined.
3.2.2 New pavement construction
The drainage should be actively considered early

in the pavement design
Design advice
• Appropriate surface drainage systems should be put in
place to prevent surface water from penetrating into the
pavement structure.
3.2.3 Highway improvements
Changes in the pavement can have significant effects on the drainage – positive or negative

• Evaluations should be made of the condition of all existing pavement courses in • Simple clues to a failing pavement edge
terms of permeability before deciding about the depth of milling and/or selection of drain system include poor outlet flows
new asphalt layers. following rainfall.
• Where the carriageway is to be widened, great care should be taken to ensure that • Evaluations should be made of the
the drainage paths under the old and new pavements are maintained, particularly condition of all existing pavement
where falls and elevation are being altered. Longitudinal sections and cross-sections courses in terms of stripping and
should be produced to check that the drainage is not hindered. drainage before deciding about the
• It is recommended that an appraisal of surface and sub-surface drainage systems be depth of milling and/or selection of new
carried out as part of any highway improvement scheme. asphalt layers.
12
3 constraining influences
3.2.4 Coordinated design
‘He had hit upon the central secret of road-making: drainage was everything, all else was merely detail. If the
foundation was dry, and the road surface was impervious, then the road would be satisfactory. Otherwise, the
road would be unsatisfactory no matter how massively constructed.’
John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836)

• It is essential that the • Water will enter pavements and, for good pavement • Close attention should be
relationship between drainage durability, materials should possess low permeability, given to sealing joints because
and pavement materials, that is contain sufficient binder and be satisfactorily joints represent points of
and how they interact, is well compacted. weakness in pavements.
understood and coordinated. • Fine-graded mixtures have air voids that are not as Poorly sealed joints lead to
• Subsurface drainage interconnected as those in coarse-graded mixtures, moisture ingress into the
systems should be provided therefore coarse-graded mixtures tend to be more pavement.
to eliminate excess water/ permeable than fine-graded mixtures. • It is recommended that
moisture in pavement • The move towards thin surface courses in the UK has construction joints should
foundations and structures. increased the risk of moisture damage. The tendency not coincide with the wheel-
• If the subsurface drainage of for water to penetrate the lower layers is greater owing path and joints found in
the pavement is inadequate, to the open-textured nature of these materials. The use other layers. They should be
moisture can move upwards of binder courses with higher binder contents and a finer staggered and stepped.
due to capillary action and aggregate grading are recommended for use with thin • Shoulders, cracks, joints and
saturate the asphalt courses. surface courses. gaps should be sealed to
• Material used for sealing joints should not change reduce water ingress.
properties during different weather conditions. It should • Aggregates used for
not soften during hot weather or harden during cold construction should be laid
weather such that it fails in its function as a joint seal. before rainwater can enter and
• For high water tables with moisture sensitive subgrades soften the foundation.
(Plasticity Index > 25), installation of a granular aggregate
drainage blanket is beneficial.
• There is little risk of binder stripping in low air voids
content asphalt mixtures. However, materials which are
permeable to water, even those that are relatively dense,
are at risk of binder stripping.
3.2.5 Maintenance of drainage systems
Drainage can enhance pavement life – but only if

you maintain it!
Laying/aftercare advice
• A more proactive maintenance inspection regime should
be adopted wherever possible.
13
4 Design
4.1 Pavement
A few thick layers are better than multiple

thinner layers
Need for explicit durability requirements

Many criteria to ensure durability have been hidden
away in the conservativeness of certain parameter
selections when the recipe approach for materials and/or
mixing and laying techniques was used in standards. Full bond
With the move towards performance specifications, The assumption of full bond in analytical design has not
care must be taken to ensure that requirements for always been justified when layers have not been bonded
durability are not overlooked among the criteria to together. When combined with any underestimation
avoid more immediate modes of failure. Furthermore, of the traffic, the effect of the increasing use of super-
due allowance should be made for local knowledge of single tyres and poor appreciation of the effects of
component materials and/or site conditions that can the road layout, poor bond can lead to unrealistic
have implications, positive or negative, on the overall expectations from designs. Therefore, the assumption
durability by avoiding over-restrictive specifications of bond should be followed through by ensuring that
that do not encourage the “best” material for specific tack or bond coats are used at each interface, which is
situations. also necessary to preclude water from entering those
interfaces, as well as obtaining reliable data on over
Dangers of over-optimisation factors.
A consequence of over-reliance on performance
requirements without allowing for specific durability Tie-in details
considerations is that pavements are designed down to When undertaking designs, the tie-in details between the
minimum layer thicknesses and materials are designed existing and new constructions or between two different
down to minimum binder contents, both of which can parts of the new construction must not be overlooked.
be disastrous for longer-term performance. The overall Although generally a relatively small proportion of
thickness of the pavement and binder contents of the the works, they do represent the potentially weakest
mixtures should always be reviewed to ensure that they locations with regard to both structural strength and
have not been reduced to impractical values. drainage continuity.
4.1.2 Durability as a performance requirement
‘As we make the shift towards performance-based specifications, it becomes necessary to take a close look
at what type of durability tests and criteria can be used to ascertain performance’
Karthik Obla (TRB 2007)
Design advice Materials advice

• Include requirements encouraging extra binder alongside those requiring strength • Ensure that there is sufficient binder in
and deformation resistance that encourage low binder contents. the mixture produced.
• Ensure that the design is not so close to the margin that any local deficiency could
escalate into a major failure.
14
4 DESIGN
4.1.3 Layer thickness

• Pavements must be designed to have an overall thickness that is consistent with the • Ensure that the overall pavement thick
road usage. Thinning down layers is not acceptable if it results in excessively thin ness is not compromised.
pavements, however strong the material.
4.2 Materials
4.2.1 Principal themes films around other particles. The constraint on binder
film thickness is the need to avoid binder drainage, but
the use of fibres or polymers reduces the tendency of
• High binder content is good binders to drain and, hence, allows thicker binder films.
• Low air voids content is good
Harder binder rather than less binder
• Smaller nominal sizes are good to avoid
segregation Over the last 20 years, there has been a tendency to
reduce binder contents of mixtures in order to improve
their deformation resistance and stiffness. It is now
recognised that this tendency can compromise durability
Volumetrics and the emphasis has changed to using harder or
The quantities of component materials for a mixture are modified binders at higher binder contents.
generally measured by weight, but the design of asphalt
materials is based around volumetrics. Therefore, due Enrobé à module��
élevé
allowance should be made for component materials, The introduction of the concept of richness modulus in
particularly aggregates, with densities that are the design for enrobé à module élevé class 2 (EME2)
significantly different from the norm. from France provides an estimate of the average binder
thickness in a mixture. Although mechanics of the
Thick binder film measure need to be modified to be consistent with
For durability, asphalt has to have a high binder content currently used sieve sizes, the wider use of richness
and low air voids content. These parameters are modulus should be encouraged for all mixture types.
generally mutually compatible, although it is possible
to get relatively high binder contents with high void Workability
contents; for example, in a well-designed porous Although a mixture can be designed so that it can have
asphalt. The importance results from the binder being a low air voids content, to actually achieve that potential
the component material whose properties can change on site requires adequate compaction (Section 6.1).
in-service. A thick binder film around each particle The amount of compaction required for it to be deemed
limits any change to the binder on the surface of the film adequate will be dependent on the workability of the
whilst a low air voids content limits the surface of the mixture together with the pre-compaction achieved by
film exposed to the air rather than cohering to the binder the screed. The design of mixtures that are workable
15
will assist in achieving adequate compaction, binder content in base materials is the result of an over-
particularly in adverse weather conditions which shorten emphasis on stiffness, which in itself is not conducive to
the window when effective compaction can take place. asphalt durability.
Component materials Maximum aggregate size

The selection and combination of component materials There is a change in the thinking about the relevant
requires experience and can be helped by an in-depth nominal aggregate size with a recognition that,
knowledge of the locally available materials. Local particularly in bases, the use of smaller aggregate will
knowledge allows generalised assumptions to be honed reduce segregation and improve durability without
to fit what happens in specific cases. The options are compromising deformation resistance. For appropriately
becoming wider with the pressure to use secondary designed mixtures, maximum layer thicknesses much
and reclaimed materials, but if sustainability is to greater than those previous used are now considered
be the justification for their inclusion, the durability suitable. The minimum ratio of size to nominal layer
implications need to be considered. Reducing the thickness is around two to two-and-a-half, but can differ
demand for virgin aggregate by, say, 30% is not from that for certain mixture types, whilst the maximum
sustainable if the asphalt has to be replaced, say, twice ratio can be as high as 10.
as often but it is sustainable if the change does not
adversely affect the durability. Destructive testing
When checking the actual properties of the asphalt as
Binder course achieved on site, the extent of destructive testing should
There is a need for the properties required for the binder be limited with a balance between the information
course, particularly impermeability to limit any flow of gained by such testing and the damage to the pavement
water from the surface course downwards and/or from caused by it, even with good quality back-filling. There
the base upwards. With surfacing materials being made is no point in proving that the construction was perfectly
thinner and more open and with base layers often being constructed if the testing regime has developed a series
designed with relatively low binder contents, the need of weak spots.
for an impermeable binder layer becomes vital. The low
4.2.2 Selection of component materials
Good-quality products are important, but over-specification is wasteful

• Define the quality of products necessary for durability consistent with performance • Make use of component materials with
requirements and the use to which they will be put. appropriate performance, including
durability, for the use to which the
asphalt will be put.
16
4 DESIGN
4.2.3 Temperature
High bitumen and asphalt temperatures can cause premature ageing of the binder and failure
of the pavement

• Do not demand excessive • Minimise the temperature of the binder • Do not use any asphalt that will
temperatures when not necessary to consistent with: not retain a sufficient temperature
achieve full coating of the aggregate throughout the compaction procedure to
• being able to coat the aggregate
particles by the binder or to achieve be fully compacted.
fully in order to minimise both
a sufficiently workable mixture during
damage to the binder and energy
compaction.
demand;
• supplying it to site at a sufficient
temperature for it to be compacted
effectively.
17
5 Joints and sealing
5.1 Joints
• All vertical joints are weaknesses

• Sealing of joints (longitudinal and transverse)
is good
Joints as weaknesses
All joints are potential weaknesses where the material
is likely to be less well compacted and where there is Staggering of joints
increased opportunity for water to enter the pavement. The joints in different pavement layers should not
The dangers of water entering the pavements in an coincide in order to avoid water being able to travel
uncontrolled manner are discussed under drainage through several layers without being impeded. The
in Section 3.2.1. Therefore, the number of both minimum lateral distance between joints in adjacent
longitudinal and transverse joints in the mat should be layers is generally specified as 300 mm, but the distance
minimised, with the ideal being that there are no joints should be the maximum practical.
at all. The ideal is not practical for the vast majority of
sites, but a reduction in the number is practical on many Sealing of joints
sites. All joints in all layers should be sealed. The bituminous
seal is intended to ensure some bond between the
No longitudinal joints in wheel paths or adjacent sections as well as help to fill any excess of
nearside lanes voids. Sealing will help minimise the water transfer
Where there have to be longitudinal joints, it is between layers (Figure 5.1).
beneficial to have those joints where the applied stresses
are lowest. Therefore, longitudinal joints should not
be in either wheel-path. Another means of reducing
the stress is to avoid having a longitudinal joint in the
nearside lane of motorways by laying a narrow hard
shoulder first and then a wider mat spanning that lane.
Bitumen blinding to joints

Surface sealing of joints
Tack or bond coat
Bitumen blinding of edge
Figure 5.1 Overall sealing of all joints and edges in a pavement
18
5 JOINTS AND SEALING
5.1.2 Location
Joints need to be away from sensitive areas, whether due to higher traffic stresses or
limitations in the drainage

• Joints represent the weakest part of • Longitudinal joints in the surface course must coincide with either the lane edge or
the pavement, and are susceptible to the lane marking, whichever is appropriate.
the formation of longitudinal cracks. • Longitudinal joints in all layers must be situated outside wheel-track zones.
Pavement performance can be
• All joints shall be offset at least 300 mm from parallel joints in the layer beneath.
significantly improved by limiting the
number of longitudinal and transverse
joints formed.
5.1.3 Method of forming joints
‘Pavements with superior joint construction result in a longer pavement performance life
and reduced life cycle costs’
Sebaaly and Barrantes (2004)

• Joints are a potential source of weakness and great care • On completion, the joints must present the same texture as
should be taken in their formation because they are often the the remainder of the surface, and the accuracy of the surface
first part of the pavement to show signs of distress. across the joints must meet the criteria specified for all surface
• There is a clear need to select suitable joint construction layers.
technique(s) that will minimise or eliminate cracking and • Paving schemes should utilise experienced equipment
ravelling problems at the joint and improve its performance. operators who are well versed with paving and compaction
• Low density at the longitudinal joint is a major contributor to techniques. This approach limits operator error, which in turn
the premature loss of pavement performance. leads to construction of a good quality pavement.
5.1.4 Free edges
‘Maintaining continuity of density across the joint is generally considered a key factor
in maintaining durability’
Toepel (2003)

• Request method statements to ensure • Lay in echelon whenever practicable.
the contractor has thought about how • Consider possible means of providing a secure side against which to compact free
to minimise the increase in air voids edges that will be site specific. If there are no viable options (which will be a common
content at joints. case), consider how far the edge will need to be cut back to ensure continuity.
19
5.1.5 Painting of joints
All vertical existing faces need to be painted with binder to enhance the adhesion with the new asphalt

• Vertical or near-vertical faces of existing construction, including ironwork, kerbs and • The bituminous material used to paint
asphalt or concrete pavement, should be rquired to have an application of bituminous surfaces should be applied uniformly to
material to enhance adhesion to newly laid asphalt. the whole of the surface.
• In the specific case of porous asphalt, a painted joint can prevent the horizontal
movement of water. Therefore, the thickness of the bituminous paint should be
limited to avoid such sealing because it will affect the drainage.
5.1.6 Surface sealing joints
Joints need to be sealed, not only because of the discontinuity but also because of
potentially inferior compaction

• Joints, other than in the surface course, • The sealant should be increased at locations where the joint is not tight or where
should be sealed with a thin film of the asphalt on one or both sides of the joint has a particularly high air voids content.
bituminous sealer. Elsewhere, it should be applied uniformly along all joints.
5.2 Tack and bond coats
• Pavements are designed to act as one layer

• All horizontal joints are weaknesses
• Sealing and bonding between layers is
essential
Inhibiting water entry causing delamination

The dangers of water entering the pavements in an
uncontrolled manner are discussed under drainage in
Section 3.2.1. Therefore, a tack or bond coat should
be applied to all interfaces between all bound layers.
The bond is required to inhibit water ingress into those Surface preparation
interfaces which will then be pumped further into Before applying any tack or bond coat, the previous
the structure by the action of passing vehicle tyres. layer must be clean and free from dust, leaves or other
The upper layer will then act independently, moving detritus in order to be able to ensure good adhesion.
flexibly and allowing fatigue to become an issue. Such Once the tack or bond coat is applied, precautions
delamination will also invalidate the assumption, should be taken to ensure that the coat remains clean
usually made in structural design, that the whole until the asphalt is laid on it. These precautions should
pavement will act together. include limiting the time between the application of
20
the coat and the laying of the asphalt (consistent with

the time necessary for any emulsion to break unless an
integral sprayer is used) and stopping any trafficking of
the coat not directly necessary for laying the asphalt.
5.2.2 Cleanliness of substrate
The pavement surface receiving the tack or bond coat should be clean and dry to promote maximum bonding

• Slippage and delaminations will affect • Material cleaned from the surface should • Generally, traffic should not be allowed
the pavement if the substrate is not be removed and disposed of prior to on tack or bond coats.
clean. application of the tack or bond coat.
5.2.3 Properties
It is important to estimate the amount of tack or bond coat to be used as accurately as possible

• Verify the bond to the existing • It is important to ensure that tack or • Tack or bond coats should be applied to
pavement surfaces and between layers bond coat emulsions have broken areas that can be covered by the same
by checking cores. (changed colour from brown to black) day’s paving.
before paving. • Tack or bond coats should not be
applied to pavement surfaces with
excess binder on the surface.
5.2.4 Sealing

• A bond or tack coat should have • Tack or bond coats should be applied to all vertical surfaces of existing pavements,
adequate stability and viscosity to kerbs, gutters and joints where new pavement material is likely to be placed.
properly penetrate the surface onto • Tack or bond coats should be applied between all pavement layers.
which it is applied.
21
5.2.5 Adhesion
Adhesion between two materials depends on the surface energy and the area of contact, which will be
reduced by any detritus present

• Inadequate bonding between layers • A bond or tack coat should have • Tack or bond coats should be applied to
can result in delamination (debonding) adequate stability and viscosity to areas that can be covered by the same
followed by longitudinal wheel-path properly penetrate the surface onto day’s paving.
cracking, alligator cracking and which it is applied.
potholes.
5.2.6 Uniformity
Tack and bond coats should be applied uniformly across the entire pavement surface
Materials advice Laying advice

• Too much tack or bond coat can create a lubricated slippage • Tack and bond coats should be applied uniformly across the
plane between layers. entire pavement surface and result in good surface coverage.
5.3 Edge sealing
5.3.1 Principal themes Water entry from clogged drains

The dangers of water entering the pavements in an
uncontrolled manner are discussed under drainage in
Water entering the side of a pavement can often
Section 3.2.1. If the upstream edge of the pavement
travel a long way through the layer interfaces,
gaining pressure as it travels down gradients and
abuts against a drain or other permeable material, it
cambers should be sealed to avoid ingress of water from the side,
particularly at interfaces between layers. In the case of
drains, regular maintenance is required to ensure that
there is not a build up of water alongside the pavement.
Sealing downstream edge

For the downstream edge of pavements, sealing should
be considered if seasonal water table movements could
cause water to be pushed into the pavement at any level.
22
5.3.2 Advice
Keep moisture out but, for when it does enter, give it an exit route

• Sealing the upstream edges of a pavement assists in • Sealing the edge will need to be planned before construction
prolonging its life. because accessibility can be impaired once the structure is
• Sealing the downstream edge of a pavement needs to be complete.
considered in terms of whether water is likely to flow into or out
of the edge on that side.
23
6 Application
6.1 Compaction
• It is impossible to fully compact unsupported

edges
• The limiting factor on paving output is the
rolling capacity rather than the paver speed or
the available supply
Continuity of supply Haulage distances

The continuity of supply of asphalt during laying is Long haulage distances make it more difficult to achieve
important to avoid problems with stopping and starting, a continuous supply because of potentially differing
as well as avoiding cold material from either being left traffic conditions and increases any temperature loss
in the paver awaiting further supplies or from being kept during the operation, reducing the time available for
too long in the delivery vehicle because of oversupply. compaction. When long haulage distance are involved,
Stopping and starting will produce a poor ride quality additional care must be taken to ensure the continuity
which, in turn, can add dynamic loading to the of supply and avoid material being stored in delivery
pavement whilst cold material will have a more direct, vehicles for excessive periods.
and damaging, effect on durability.
Ends of loads
Temperature of asphalt The ends of loads are often significantly cooler than
The temperature of asphalt needs to be high enough the rest because of the extra delay before being
to allow the binder to completely cover the aggregate laid, particularly if the paver is not able to operate
during mixing and for the mixture to be fluid enough continuously. The cooler material can often be
during compaction to achieve the required density. If the inadequately compacted, leading to premature ravelling.
binder is too hot, it may be excessively hardened during When the paver is not working continuously, the
manufacture or be too fluid to support the compaction temperature of the material in the hopper should be
equipment. The time available when the mixture is in monitored on a more regular basis and the material
the appropriate temperature range will depend on the disposed of elsewhere if the temperature of the material
properties of the mixture (particularly the binder), the should fall below the critical temperature to allow
layer thickness and the weather conditions (temperature sufficient time for effective compaction.
and wind speed). Sufficient equipment should be
available for the job to be completed in that time on a Limits on air voids content
regular basis throughout the work. The aim of compaction should be to achieve the
appropriate air voids content. The compaction should,
as far as practicable, be uniform, but more care is likely
to be needed at joints. There are several methods to
improve compaction at free edges, including use of
temporary restraints and cutting back of the less well-
compacted material. Whichever method or combination
of methods is used, the increase in the air voids content
at joints should be limited. The limit currently suggested
is a maximum increase of 2%, but this value is tentative.
The smaller it is, the better the durability will be, but the
limit must be practicable.
24
6 APPLICATION
Compaction in constrained areas

The methodology for laying and compacting up to
ironwork, bridge joints and other specific disruptions
in the mat need to be such that maximum practicable
compaction is achieved up to them. The limit on air
voids content may have to be eased in a similar manner
to joints at free edges.
Early trafficking with site vehicles

As few vehicles as possible should be allowed to run
on pavements before they have been completed. In
particular, newly laid mats should not have site vehicles
on them which over-run their exposed edges to avoid
damaging the compacted mat.
6.1.2 Job mixture trials
The proof of the pudding is in the eating

• With novel or uncertain aspects, a • Job mixture trials can be used to • Job mixture trials can be used to
requirement for job mixture trials can assess the workability of mixtures. assess the effectiveness of equipment
demonstrate their practicability. and/or rolling patterns.
6.1.3 Number of rollers 6.1.4 Over-running of edges
Adequate compaction is essential and has to be Corners and edges are always vulnerable,
undertaken before the mat cools, which requires particularly in their early life
sufficient rollers to complete it everywhere
Laying advice
Laying advice • Routes should be identified and, where necessary,
• The number of rollers needs to be sufficient to consistently barriers erected to avoid traffic over-running the edges of
compact the asphalt to the required level irrespective of freshly laid asphalt. Care should be taken to ensure that
obstruction, delays or other influences. these routes are followed.
25
6.1.5 Around ironwork
Ironwork can interrupt the rolling pattern,

slowing work down
Laying advice
• The rolling pattern employed should allow for any ironwork
or other obstructions in the road.
6.1.6 Weather
It has been said that the UK does not have a climate, it just has weather, so allowance has to be made
for changing conditions

• If tenders are put out for work • Workers will be less efficient in cold and/or dark conditions, so their work schedules
when adverse weather is likely, need to allow for this factor.
due allowance should be made to • The available time for compaction will be less in cold conditions.
ensure that the materials can be laid
• Hot weather can result in significantly increased time before the newly laid material
successfully at that time and that
can be trafficked.
appropriate precautions are taken.
6.2 Finish
6.2.1 Principal themes the number of layers not only reduces the number of
horizontal interfaces but also leads to thicker layers.
The thickness should not exceed that which can be
It is when the job is completed that, at least
adequately compacted by the plant available, but
initially, the general public will judge the work
thicker layers should avoid any problems with thin
layer brittleness. Excessively thin layers, in particular
No joints binder course, may result in un-designed permeable
Ideally, all interfaces should be avoided. However, pavements.
it is not possible to lay the material in a single layer
without longitudinal or transverse joints. Nevertheless, Ride quality
the number of interfaces should be kept to a minimum, In order to minimise dynamic damage, the final layer
as described for joints in Section 5.1. Minimising should be laid to achieve a good ride quality rather than
to predetermined levels provided:
• the overall thickness is adequate for strength and

durability;
• the final levels allow the drainage system to work
efficiently; and
• there are no conflicts with safety barrier heights and
overbridge heights.
Therefore, the precise levels should not be sought to

the detriment of the ride quality. The monitoring by the
26
6 APPLICATION
“yellow submarine” is generally not adequate to provide

the ride quality and more technical advanced methods
should be encouraged. At the same time, laser and other
modern methods of assessing the level should be used
in preference to pins. Ideally, the set up should allow the
paver to run continuously with a compatible system for
monitoring both the layer thickness and level control.
Overlays at tie-ins
At tie-ins and locations where a new carriageway
overlays an existing one, the depth of the overlay used
to regulate out the difference in carriageway levels
should be at least the thickness appropriate for the
asphalt mixture being used without dragging and not too
thick to ensure effective compaction.
6.2.2 Advice
The final touch

• Levels should not be sought at the expense of ride quality. • Levelling beams or other methods of ensuring a consistent
finish should be used whenever practicable.
6.3 Maintenance
Nothing is for ever
Importance of maintenance
Everything will deteriorate with usage and time, so
maintenance is essential to ensure that deterioration
does not occur. In particular, the drainage should be
working efficiently because the repercussions on the
pavement could be disastrous.
Maintain all layers

When maintaining a pavement, any maintenance that
is superficial when the problems are deeper can only
be a temporary solution. The surface course is the most
accessible layer and the one that gets the most direct
punishment from the traffic and the environment, but it
is not the only one that requires maintenance.
27
6.3.2 Advice

• The ability to maintain the pavement, particularly its drainage, • The maintenance procedures should be implemented as soon
should be positively built into any design. as the pavement is complete.
28
7 CONCLUSIONS AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
7 Conclusions Acknowledgements
This project revealed a common desire from all parties The work described in this report was carried out in
involved in the industry (consultants, contractors the Infrastructure & Environment Division, TRL. The
and suppliers) to improve the durability of asphalt authors are grateful to:
pavements. There was a high degree of agreement on
the required strategies necessary to improve durability • all those that attended the workshops, who provided
and, therefore, assist with sustainability and reducing many of the ideas;
the impact of climate change. The challenge now is for • Glyn Harrison and Emma Williams (Capital Value &
us all to work together to improve asphalt durability Risk Limited) for facilitating the workshops;
despite the constraints of the contractual framework. • Colin Loveday (Tarmac Group), Donna James
(Highways Agency), Chris Southwell (Nynas UK
The desire to achieve longer durability for asphalt AB) and David Williams (Lafarge Aggregates)
pavements is common among those involved in who, as members of the Best-practice Focus Group,
designing, specifying, producing and laying asphalt steered the work and whose collective and individual
advice helped in the preparation of this Guide; and
materials and pavements. Therefore, all parties have
to work together in a spirit where positive actions • David Whiteoak, who carried out the technical
are rewarded and negative actions or omissions are review of this report.
discouraged.
The main aspects that maximise durability are:
• the control of water (getting it away from the

structure, if not actually stopping it ever entering);
• limiting the number of joints (both vertical and
horizontal), and sealing those joints; and
• adequate compaction (particularly at joints).
These aspects are likely to increase in importance with

the predicted changes from global warming, with hotter,
dryer conditions in summer but more intense rainfall,
and possibly more of it, in the winter. Such conditions
will exacerbate the potential for unwanted water to
penetrate into the pavement, causing irreversible
damage to the asphalt.
However, lack of maintenance, particularly of the

drainage, can lead to premature failure even if the best
practice was followed in design and construction.
29
References
British Standards Institution (2007). Guidance on the

use of BS EN 13108 ‘Bituminous mixtures – Material
specifications’. PD 6691. London: British Standards
Institution.
Hassan K E, Jordan R W, Harding M, Coley C and

Carswell I (2008). Best practice guide for overlaying
concrete. TRL Road Note 41. Wokingham: Transport
Research Laboratory.
Sebaaly P E and Barrantes J C (2004). Development

of a joint density specification: Phase 1: Literature
review and test plan. Nevada: Nevada Department of
Transportation.
Toepel, A (2003). Evaluation of techniques for asphaltic

pavement longitudinal joint construction. Report No.
WI-08-03, WisDOT Highway Research Study No. 93-
08. Wisconsin: Wisconsin Department of Transport.
30
Road Note 42 gives guidance on the procedures for maximising the durability of asphalt pavements. Some of the
concepts may not be practical in all circumstances, particularly for emergency repairs, but the ideas should be used as
ideals to be aimed at whenever practicable.
Together with the companion publication, Road Note 41 ‘Best practice guide for overlaying concrete’, it is the result of
a three-year project at TRL commissioned by the Highways Agency, Quarry Products Association and Refined Bitumen
Association. The two guides provide guidance and advice on design, materials and construction, that encapsulate the
overall concepts. These documents should become essential reading for all involved in road construction.
Other recent titles from this subject area
RN41 Best practice guide for overlaying concrete. R W Jordan, C Coley, H M Harding, I Carswell
and K E Hassan. 2008
RN39 Design guide for road surface dressing. C Roberts and J C Nicholls. Sixth edition. 2008
PPR304 Recycled asphalt in surfacing materials: a case study of carbon dioxide emission savings. I Schiavi,
I Carswell and M Wayman. 2008
TRL666 Durability of continuously reinforced concrete surfaced with asphalt. K E Hassan, J C Nicholls,
H M Harding and M E Nunn. 2008
TRL660 Durability of thin asphalt surfacing systems. Part 3: Findings after six years monitoring. J C Nicholls,
I Carswell, C Thomas and L K Walter. 2007
TRL645 Feasibility of recycling thin surfacing back into thin surfacing systems. I Carswell, J C Nicholls,
R C Elliott, J Harris and D Strickland. 2005
PPR023 Comparison of tyre/road noise for a range of surfaces on the A47, A447, A511 and B582
in Leicestershire. M H Balsom, P M Nelson and C Summers. 2005
CT40.5 Bituminous road design and construction update (2005-2007)
CT68.4 Deterioration of road surfaces update (2003-2007)
Price code: H
TRL Published by IHS

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Best practice guide for durability

CT40.5 Bituminous road design and construction update (2005-2007)

CT68.4 Deterioration of road surfaces update (2003-2007)

TRL Published by IHS

T: +44 (0) 1344 773131 T: +44 (0) 1344 328038

J C Nicholls, M J McHale and R D Griffiths

with the advice of the Best-practice Focus Group:

First published 2008

Copyright Transport Research Laboratory 2008

This report has been produced by TRL, under/as part of a

Published by IHS for TRL

TRL publications are available from

TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing

Both Road Notes are set out as sister documents in the

5 Joints and sealing 18

5 Joints and sealing (cont’d)

2 Pavement durability is dependent on: 1.4 Use of this guide

However, the overriding objective for all involved

edges of the mat. Such procedures could be as simple

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

2.3 Risk assessment

A risk is truly frightening only when it has not been foreseen

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

2.4 Equipment and manpower availability

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

Design advice Laying advice

2.6 Continuity of work

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

2.7 Established practice and latest technology

Experience tempered by innovation

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

3.1.1 Principal themes

Solid foundations allow good compaction

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

3.2.1 Principal themes Coordination of drainage and pavement

Changes to drainage path

by being wetter. The winter rain will come in more

3.2.2 New pavement construction

The drainage should be actively considered early

3.2.3 Highway improvements

Design advice Laying advice

3.2.4 Coordinated design

Design advice Materials advice Laying advice

3.2.5 Maintenance of drainage systems

Drainage can enhance pavement life – but only if

4.1.1 Principal themes

A few thick layers are better than multiple

Need for explicit durability requirements

4.1.2 Durability as a performance requirement

Design advice Materials advice

4.1.3 Layer thickness

Design advice Materials advice

Component materials Maximum aggregate size

4.2.2 Selection of component materials