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 Nanik Mariani
Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

AN INTRODUCTION TO

LINGUISTICS

Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni

Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan
Universitas Lambung Mangkurat

i
 National Library : Catalog in print

An Introduction to Linguistics

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

viii + 148 pages, 21 x 29,7 cm

ISBN : 978-602-53643-6-5

Editor :
Fahmi Hidayat
Bayu

Cover desainer:
Galih Rizki Khairul Ulum

Second Printing : November 2019 (Revison)

Published by
Jurusan PBS FKIP Universitas Lambung Mangkurat Banjarmasin, Kalimantan
Selatan, Indonesia

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillah, we have accomplished this learning and teaching material for the subject of
Introduction to Linguistics. First, we are indebted to the Rector of and Dean of Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary facilities in
accomplishing it.
We are indebted to the Head of UPT Bahasa, Lambung Mangkurat University, Prof. Dr.
Fatchul Mu’in, M.Hum., for giving us the opportunity of revising our Teaching Material of
Introduction to Linguistics to be adopted and adapted in the form of monograph. Also, to Dean of
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, for providing necessary
facilities in accomplishing it. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr. Jumariati, M.Pd, and Dr.
Sainul Hermawan, M.Hum. as the chairperson and the secretary of the Department of Language and
Arts, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University for motivating and
providing us the chance to use the office facilities. We want to express our sincere gratitude to Dr.
Noor Eka Chandra, M.Pd., the Head of English Language Education Program, Faculty of Teacher
Training and Education, Lambung Mangkurat University, motivating and providing us to provide the
references for the students of the English Language Education Program.
We would also like to express our appreciation to Prof. Emer. M.P. Lambut, Dra.Nirmala Sari,
M.A Drs. Aris Djinal, Dr. H. Ahmad Sofyan, M.A, Prof. Dr. Abdul Muth’im, M.Pd, and Dr. Cayandrawati
Sutionom M.A, as well as Dr. Rina Listia, M.Pd, the senior lecturers of English Education Study
Program for sharing their ideas and academic experiences with us.
Banjarmasin, November 2019

Nanik Mariani, Fatchul Mu’in & Yusuf Al Arief

iii
iv
Acknowledgments

Contents

Preface

Chapter I What is Language? / 1- 8

Chapter II Language in Social Context / 9 - 12

Chapter III Linguistics & Language Teaching/ 13 - 18

Chapter IV Phonetics /19 - 30

Chapter v Phonology / 31 - 34

Chapter VI Morphology / 35 - 46

Chapter VII Syntax / 47 - 54

Chapter VIII Transformational Generative Grammar/55 - 62

Chapter IX Semantics/63 - 78

Chapter X Pragmatics / 79 - 94

Chapter XI Discourse Analysis / 95 - 114

Chapter XII Sociolinguistics / 115 - 138

Chapter XIII Psycholinguistics / 139 - 148

REFERENCES

v
vi
 PREFACE

The book entitled An Introduction to Linguistics is intended for providing materials

to our students attending the subject of Introduction to Linguistics. Up to the present time,
the subject has been lectured by using the handouts as a result of our compilation of some
references on language and linguistics. This book is written based on the handouts that have
been used since the writers handled the subject.
The materials discussed in this book cover What is a Language, Characteristics of
Language, What is Linguistics, Phonetics, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax,
Transformational Grammar, Semantics, Sociolinguistics, and Psycholinguistics. In What is a
language, the writers elaborate on the definition and concept of Human Language and
Animal Language. In Characteristics of the human language, they explain some concepts on
“A language is systematic, A language is arbitrary, A language is social, A language is
spoken, A language is used for communication, and A language is complete for its
speakers.”
In Linguistics and Language Teaching, they present the definition of linguistics and
its branches of linguistics, and linguistics in language teaching.
In Phonetics, they present the concept of phonetics and organs of speech are used for
producing speech sounds, both vowels, and consonants, and will be explained how to
differentiate voiced from voiceless sounds. While in classification of consonants, the kinds of
consonants based on (a) Manner of Articulation, namely: Plosives/Stops, Fricatives,
Affricates, Nasals, Lateral/Liquids, and Semi-vowels/Glides, and (b) Place of Articulation,
namely: Bilabial, Labiodental, Interdental, Alveolar, Palatal, Velar, dan Glottal sounds will
be explained in detail so that the students understand the mechanism of producing the
consonants. In the classification of vowels, the kinds of vowels: (a) Front, Central, Back
Vowels, (b) Open, Half-open, Close, Half-close vowels, and (c) Rounded and Unrounded
Vowels and (d) Tenses and Lax Vowels will be elaborated.
In Phonology, the definition of phonology and the difference between phonetics and
phonology will be presented. Also, in this chapter, phonemes, phones, and allophones will
be discussed; these sub-topics include the ways to identify phonemes and phones, and also
allophonic variation. The minimal pairs and minimal sets are also presented. The other sub-
topic contains a brief description of Phonological Rules and its types such as Aspiration,
Vowel Lengthening, Vowel Nasalization, Flapping, dan Nasal Deletion. The description is
meant to help students to classify sounds in the processes of aspiration, vowel lengthening,
vowel nasalization, flapping, and nasal deletion.
In Morphology, the definition of morphology, differences between phonemes and
morphemes, differences between morphemes dan allomorph, and types of morphemes: Free
morphemes and Bound morphemes are presented. This chapter also discusses the Word-
formation process to show the students the process of word-formations (inflection and
derivation).
In Syntax, the definition of syntax, content words and functional words, syntactical
construction, and its types and sub-types, syntactic devices, and syntactical analysis are
presented and elaborated. In Transformational-Generative Grammar, the definition of TG
Grammar and its principles, and types of transformation are discussed briefly.

vii
 In Semantics, the definition of semantics and its aspects are discussed. While in
Pragmatics, the definition of pragmatics and the difference between pragmatics and
semantics are elaborated. While in Sociolinguistics, the definition of sociolinguistics,
Language in socio-cultural aspects, Language variation, Language use, etc. are explained.
And, in Psycholinguistics, the definition of psycholinguistics, the relation of linguistics and
psychological aspects, language acquisition and language learning, mastery of two or more
languages are presented.

viii
 Chapter I

WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
Fatchul Mu’in

Before starting to discuss a language, sometimes we are necessary to define it. In this relation,
we may make some questions such as: “What is a language?”, or “What do you know about a language,” or
“What is meant by a language?” Someone’s answer may be different from that of the other. For instance, he
says: “Oh, it is what we use in communication” or the other says: “It is made up of sentences that convey
meaning,” or perhaps someone else says: “It is a means of communication.” If those definitions are viewed
from the study of language, they are insufficient ones. Let us examine the following definitions:
A language is a system of arbitrary, vocal symbols that permit all people in a given
culture or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or to
interact (Finocchiaro, in Ramelan 1984). A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used
for human communication (Wardhaugh, in Ramelan, 1984). A language is an arbitrary system
of articulated sounds made use of by a group of humans as a means of carrying on the affairs of
their society (Francis, in Ramelan, 1984). A language is a set of rules enabling speakers to
translate information from the outside world into sound (Gumperz, 1972).
Based on the definitions of a language above, we say that a language a means of
communication. But, if the definition of a language is used in the study of language, we must
involve the other means of communication that are not categorized as a language. If we regard
a language as consisting of sounds, the fact shows that the different means of communication
may use sounds as its medium. In short, a means of interface known as a language must have
some characteristics that do not belong to the other means of communication.
Characteristics of Language
Based on the definitions of a language above, we can state some features of human language, as
follows:
1. A language is a system.
2. A language is said to be arbitrary
3. A Language is social.
4. A language is spoken.
5. A language is productive or creative.
6. A language is complete for its native speakers.

Language is systematic.
Since a language is said to be a system, it must be systematic in nature. The systematism
of a language can be seen from the fact that, take an example, if we regard a language as being
made up of sounds, we find out that only certain sounds occur in any one language that these
occur in specific regular and predictable patterns. In English, for instance, when a name for a
new shampoo was coined, Prell was possible but not Srell, because the cluster sr does not occur
in the language.
As has been known, a sentence is a combination of some words. The sentence is not
1 An Introduction to Linguistics
ordered at random. In this relation, we cannot say, “Goes Ali school to every day.” The English
language has its own patterns of ordering some words to be a sentence. The patterns of
ordering show that a language must be systematic.
As has been known, a sentence is a combination of some words. The sentence is not
ordered at random. In this relation, we cannot say, “Goes Ali school to every day.” The English
language has its own patterns of ordering some words to be a sentence. The patterns of
ordering show that a language must be systematic.
Language is a highly organized system in which each unit plays an important part
which is related to other components (Boey, 1975: 1). All human languages have specific
characteristics. This is to say, for instance, that a particular language, say Bahasa Indonesia or
English, has its system. As a consequence, it has a dual structure, that is two levels of
formation of systematic relationships. In other words, each language is a system consisting of
two subsystems. One is the subsystem of meaningful units. The other is the subsystem of
sounds, which have no meaning in themselves but which form the meaningful units.
The idea of systematicness of language as it is found in the arrangement of words
implies the notion of predictability. In an English sentence a noun is usually preceded by a
determiner, and so when someone hears a determiner, he can anticipate that a noun is
following it; this noun, which may function as the subject of a sentence, will be followed by a
verb as the central part of the predicate; this verb will take an -s or –es ending when the
preceding noun functioning as subject is third-person singular actor and the sentence is in the
simple present tense (Ramelan, 1984: 45).
A language is said to be arbitrary
A language is said to be arbitrary. This means that it is initially created based on social
agreement. In this relation, there is no reasonable explanation, for instance, why a specific
four-footed domestic animal is called a dog in English, asu in Javanese, or anjing in Indonesian.
Giving a name of the animal is based on the agreement among the members of the social
groups. On other words, Javanese, English and Indonesian people agreed to call the animal as
asu, dog, and anjing respectively. In this relation, George Yule (1987: 118-19) states that the
linguistic form has no natural relationship with that four-legged barking object. Recognizing
this general fact about language leads us to conclude that a property of linguistic signs is their
arbitrary relationship with the objects they are used to indicate.
A language is social.
Thirdly. Language is social. We all know that a language is socially acquired, learned,
and then used. If this statement is related to language acquisition and/or language learning,
we may have an illustration that a new-born child acquires a communicative competence with
a given language in a speech community; in the next step, he learns and uses the language in a
speech community. Thus, a language is not genetically transmitted; but, it is socio-culturally
acquired and/or learned.
In the social context, a language is not only means for communication, but also it is a
vital medium for establishing and maintaining a social relationship. For instance, there are two
persons sitting in a waiting room of a bus station; they begin to introduce and talk to each
other. In short, they know each other. At the time of introducing, communicating, and
understanding each other, they establish a social relationship, and they will probably maintain
their social relations in future time. Setting and maintaining social relationship must involve
2 An Introduction to Linguistics
the use of language.
A language is spoken.
A language is always spoken. This statement implies that all people the world over,
regardless of their race or ethnic group, still speak a language. This means that they still have a
way of communicating ideas by using sounds that are produced by their speech organs.
Human language can be said to be an oral-auditory communication system. Why?
Oral-auditory communication has many advantages over other possible means of
communication. A speaker and a listener do not need an instrument, as writers and readers
do. This is to say that the writers and readers need writing implements and written texts,
respectively. A speaker and a listener do not look at one another, like the deaf using hand-
gestures language do. One can speak and listen while carrying out other activities, as long as
they do not involve the mouth and the ear (Taylor, p. 6).
The kind of oral-auditory communication has some weaknesses. One weakness is that
people cannot converse directly at distances greater than fifty feet. Another weakness is that
speech signals are gone without a trace as soon as they are uttered. Nowadays, the spoken
language can be recorded using a tape recorder.
Another means of communicating ideas is printed or written symbols, which is more
prevailing and more often used in daily life. This means that they are exposed to the written
language as found in newspapers, magazines, or letters so that they often confuse written
language and the actual language, which is spoken. In this relation, it can be said that the
spoken form of a language is primary, whereas the written form is secondary. This is to say
that the written form of a language is only a representation of what is actually spoken.
A language is productive or creative.
Another characteristic of human language is that it is productive or creative. This refers
to the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of sentences (which
they never heard before) in their native language.
The first aspect of the creative use of language is that a human being can say things that
have never been said before. If we think back about our talk we have just had with our friend,
we may be sure that our conversation consisted of sentences that neither we nor our
conversant have heard or produced before.
A language is complete for its native speakers
A language is a part of human culture. Besides, it is used for establishing and
maintaining a social relationship, and it is used for expressing human culture. A language is
complete for its native speakers to express their own culture. If a language is regarded as a
system of symbol, it can be used as constitutive, cognitive, expressive, and evaluative symbols.
A constitutive symbol refers to a symbol of human belief to God or supernatural power; for
instance, human beings pray to God by using a language. A cognitive symbol refers to a symbol
created by human beings to recognize and introduce human knowledge about their
environment; for instance, they create some terms that represent something existing in their
surroundings. People in South Kalimantan understand some terms of water transportation
means such as jukung, klotok, ketinting, etc. Javenese people understand some words such as
pari, gabah, beras, and nasi; meanwhile, English people know them as rice.
An expressive symbol refers to a symbol used by the human being to express their

3 An Introduction to Linguistics
emotion. An evaluative symbol refers to a symbol used by the human being to state something
good or bad, honest or dishonest, and the like.

Functions of a language
Forms of sentences of a language generally serve a specific function. The sentences are
created, among others, based on purposes. The purposes of creating sentences are (a) to inform
something or someone to the audiences; the sentences created are called statements
(declarative sentences), (b) to question about something or someone; the resultant forms are
interrogative sentences, (c) to ask or command someone to do something; the consequent
structures are imperative sentences, and (d) to show a surprise on someone or something; the
resultant forms are exclamatory sentences.
Traditionally, there are three functions of a language. These three functions of a
language are actually related from one to another. For the sake of discussion, they are
discussed in separate ways. The prime function of a language has been assumed to be
cognitive; a language is used to express ideas, concepts, and thought. The second function is
said to be evaluative; a language has been viewed as a means of conveying attitudes and
values. The third function of a language is referred to be affective; a language is used by its
speakers to transmit emotions and feelings.
According to Mary Finocchiaro, there are six functions of a language are; they are as
follows:
1. Personal. The personal function enables the user of a language to express his innermost
thoughts; his emotions such as love, hatred, and sorrow; his needs, desires, or attitudes;
and to clarify or classify ideas in his mind.
2. Interpersonal. The interpersonal function enables him to establish and maintain good
social relations with individuals and groups; to express praise, sympathy, or joy at
another’s success; to inquire about health; to apologize; to invite.
3. Directive function. The directive function enables him to control the behavior of others
through advice, warnings, requests, persuasion, suggestions, orders, or discussion.
4. Referential function. The referential function enables him to talk about objects or events in
the immediate setting or environment or the culture; to discuss the present, the past, and
the future.
5. Metalinguistic function. The metalinguistic function enables him to talk about language, for
example, “What does mean?”
6. Imaginative function. The imaginative function enables him to use language creatively in
rhyming, composing poetry, writing, or speaking (1989:1-2).

According to Roman Jacobson (in Bell, Roger T. 1976:83), functions of a language are
related to aspects

4 An Introduction to Linguistics
 Although the model is primarily connected with the nature of literary language, it
provides a means of listing six primary language functions by indicating how the shift of focus
from one aspect of the speech event to another determines the function of the language that is
used in it. For example, (a) in relation to emotive function, the addresser aims at the direct
expressions of his attitude to the topic or situation; (b) in relation to conative function, the
speaker focuses on the person(s) addressed, for instance, when he calls the attention of another
or requires them to carry out some action; (c) in relation to context, the participants of a speech
act focus on the object, topic, content of the discourse; (d) in link to message, the speaker focuses
on the message; (e) in relation to contact, a (particular) language is used for the initiation,
continuation, and termination of linguistic encounters; and (f) in connection to code, a language
is used to talk about the language itself.

Human Language and Animal ‘Language’

When human beings come together, and when they play, fight, make love, or do
something else, at the same time, they talk; they use a language. They talk to their friends, their
associates, their husbands or wives, their parents, and parents-in-law; and they also speak to
total strangers. They may speak face to face and over the telephone (Fromkin and Roadman, p.
1).
A language is used as a means of communication. With language, human beings can
express their ideas and wishes to other people such as when they need the others’ help. With
language, they can establish and maintain social relationships; also, with language, they can
cooperate between one and another (Ramelan, 1984: 36). However, we may be still confused
about whether a language is the only means of communication or whether all means of
communication are known as languages.
Different people may differently perceive a language. Some regard everything used for
communication as a language. This statement is based on the fact that when we discuss a topic
about the definition of language, they give different statements. For example, they state that
gestures and bodily movement are referred to as languages; and, that there is what is known
as animal language. As a consequence, there have been, at least, two kinds of languages: a
human speech and an animal language. The human language may be perceived as having
some types such as oral, written and body languages. Concerning the animal language,
someone may give a question: “Does an animal have and use a language or is a means of
communication used by an animal regarded as a real language?”. The following discussion
may guide us to understand what is actually called a language.
Human beings are not only species that can communicate among themselves, as
animals are often said to possess some communication system too. As has been known,
animals communicate with one another using their own means of communication. For
instance, dogs bark when they want to send their message to another. They will bark in a
certain way when they want to show the others that there is something to eat; they will
produce a different kind of barking when they are in danger. The difference in the barking
sounds produced the dog can be ‘understood’ by the others, and so communication takes place
among them.
Another example is a hen cackling to her chickens. She will cackle in a certain way
when she wants to call her chickens to them food; she will produce a different kind of cackling

5 An Introduction to Linguistics
sounds if she wants to warn them of coming danger. Other animals such as cats, monkeys, and
elephants are also said to have a means of communication, which is understood by the animals
concerned (Ramelan, 1984: 38). To some extent, these sounds serve the same purposes as
human language. How does human language differ from animal language? Is animal language
called as a real language?
Whether animal language is a real language or not, the fact shows that both human
language and animal ‘language’ has a similarity between the two means of communication.
The similarity that can be identified is that the sounds produced by both human beings and
animals are intended to convey a message. Both human being and animal produce sounds by
using their mouth. However, there are great differences between the two in their varieties and
their possible combination. That is to say that the human system of communication enables
human beings to be able to produce various kinds of sounds, by using speech organs. The
sounds produced by the speech organs are often called speech sounds. The types of sounds
produced by human beings are rich in variation; they can produce such vowels and
consonants. Speech sounds can also be combined in many ways to form many utterances. The
combinations of vowels and consonants are referred to as morphemes or words.
They can convey unlimited messages and produce a new combination of linguistic
units to meet the needs of new situations.
Ramelan (1984: 38) states that with language, human beings can communicate not only
about things connected with their biological needs, or preventing themselves from dangers but
almost about anything at all. They may not only inform about objects which are in their
surroundings, but they can speak about things which are remote in space and time; they can
talk about things which are may miles away from them, and also about events which took
place in the past time, which take place at present, and which will take place many years
ahead.
On the other hand, animals can only communicate about things surrounding them;
their communication is only intended for the sake of biological needs or preventing themselves
from dangers, and the sounds produced are minimal and the sounds are further developed. A
dog, for instance, can only provide two or three kinds of barking sounds to suit the purpose
throughout its whole life.
In addition to the sounds produced and the content of the message sent by both human
being and animals, human language differs from animals’ means of communication in how the
two are transmitted to their young generation. Ability to speak for human beings is not
genetically transmitted but culturally learned from their elders. For instance, someone may
inherit brown eyes and dark hair from his/her parents, but he/she does not inherit their
language. He/she acquires a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental
genes. An infant born from Chinese parents (who live in China and speak Cantonese), which is
brought up from birth by English speakers in the United States, may have physical
characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but he/she will speak English (George Yule
(1987: 20). This process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next, is
described as cultural transmission. It has been believed that human beings are born with an
innate predisposition to acquire language.
All human languages are acquired, and humans have to exposed to a particular
language over some length of time before they can acquire that language, by contrast, animal
communication is mostly instinctive (Taylor, p. 7). If the ability to speak for human beings is

6 An Introduction to Linguistics
culturally learned from their elders, the ability to communicate for a dog using its barking
sound is genetically transmitted. Both human beings and animals use for their medium of
communication sounds that are produced in their mouth, but the sounds produced by human
beings are more varied than those provided by animals. The sounds produced by animals are
always the same and remain unchanged. A young animal will create the same kind of sounds
as their elders for their communication. The ability to produce sounds in animals for
communication is, therefore, said to be genetically transmitted; their elders never teach them.
A young dog, for instance, can bark without being guided by its elders.

Conclusion

Based on some definitions of a language, we can say a language is not only regarded as
a means of communication but it is a means of communication that has some characteristics. In
this relation, a language must be systematic; it is socially created, acquired, and used; it is
basically spoken; it is productive or creative, and it is complete for its speakers. Not all
characteristics of a language do not belong to an animal’s means of communication.

7 An Introduction to Linguistics
8 An Introduction to Linguistics
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