10 EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY

POLITICAL FORMATIONS

I f you look at Maps 1 and 2 closely, you will see

something significant happening in the subcontinent
during the first half of the eighteenth century. Notice
how the boundaries of the Mughal Empire were
reshaped by the emergence of a number of independent

Map 1
State formations in
the eighteenth
century.

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kingdoms. By 1765,
notice how another
power, the British, had
successfully grabbed
major chunks of
territory in eastern
India. What these maps
tell us is that political
conditions in eighteenth-
century India changed
quite dramatically and
within a relatively short
span of time.
In this chapter we
will read about the
emergence of new
political groups in the
subcontinent during
the first half of the
eighteenth century –
roughly from 1707,
when Aurangzeb died,
till the third battle of
Panipat in 1761. Map 2
British territories in
the mid-eighteenth
The Crisis of the Empire and century.

the Later Mughals

In Chapter 4 you saw how the Mughal Empire reached
the height of its success and started facing a variety of
crises towards the closing years of the seventeenth ?
century. These were caused by a number of factors. See Chapter 4,
Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and Table 1. Which
financial resources of his empire by fighting a long group of people
war in the Deccan. challenged Mughal
authority for the
Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial longest time in
administration broke down. It became increasingly Aurangzeb’s reign?
difficult for the later Mughal emperors to keep a check
on their powerful mansabdars. Nobles appointed as

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 governors (subadars) often controlled the offices of
revenue and military administration (diwani and
faujdari) as well. This gave them extraordinary
political, economic and military powers over vast
regions of the Mughal Empire. As the governors
consolidated their control over the provinces, the
periodic remission of revenue to the capital declined.
Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of
northern and western India added to these problems.
These revolts were sometimes caused by the pressures
of mounting taxes. At other times they were attempts
by powerful chieftains to consolidate their own
positions. Mughal authority had been challenged by
rebellious groups in the past as well. But these groups
were now able to seize the economic resources of the
region to consolidate their positions. The Mughal
emperors after Aurangzeb were unable to arrest the
gradual shifting of political and economic authority
into the hands of provincial governors, local chieftains
and other groups.

Rich harvests and empty coffers

The following is a contemporary writer’s account of
the financial bankruptcy of the empire:
The great lords are helpless and impoverished. Their peasants
raise two crops a year, but their lords see nothing of either,
and their agents on the spot are virtual prisoners in the
peasants’ hands, like a peasant kept in his creditor’s house
until he can pay his debt. So complete is the collapse of all
order and administration that though the peasant reaps a
harvest of gold, his lord does not see so much as a wisp of
straw. How then can the lord keep the armed force he should?
How can he pay the soldiers who should go before him when
he goes out, or the horsemen who should ride behind him?

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 In the midst of this economic and political crisis,
the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered
the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense
amounts of wealth. This invasion was followed by a
series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad
Shah Abdali, who invaded north India five times
between 1748 and 1761.

Nadir Shah attacks Delhi

The devastation of Delhi after Nadir Shah’s invasion was
described by contemporary observers. One described
the wealth looted from the Mughal treasury as follows:
sixty lakhs of rupees and some thousand gold coins, nearly
one crore worth of gold-ware, nearly fifty crores worth of
jewels, most of them unrivalled in the world, and the above
included the Peacock throne.
Another account described the invasion’s impact
upon Delhi:
(those) … who had been masters were now in dire straits;
and those who had been revered couldn’t even (get water to) Fig. 1
quench their thirst. The recluses were pulled out of their A 1779 portrait of Nadir
Shah.
corners. The wealthy were turned into beggars. Those who
once set the style in clothes now went naked; and those who
owned property were now homeless … The New City
(Shahjahanabad) was turned into rubble. (Nadir Shah) then
attacked the Old quarters of the city and destroyed a whole
world that existed there …

Already under severe pressure from all sides, the

empire was further weakened by competition amongst
different groups of nobles. They were divided into two
major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis (nobles
of Turkish descent). For a long time, the later Mughal
emperors were puppets in the hands of either one or
the other of these two powerful groups. The worst
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 possible humiliation came when two Mughal
emperors, Farrukh Siyar (1713-1719) and
Alamgir II (1754-1759) were assassinated, and
two others Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) and
Shah Alam II (1759-1816) were blinded by
their nobles.

Emergence of New States

With the decline in the authority of the Mughal
emperors, the governors of large provinces,
subadars, and the great zamindars
consolidated their authority in different parts
of the subcontinent. Through the eighteenth
century, the Mughal Empire gradually
fragmented into a number of independent,
regional states. Broadly speaking the states
Fig. 2 of the eighteenth century can be divided into three
Farrukh Siyar overlapping groups: (1) States that were old Mughal
receiving a noble
in court. provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.
Although extremely powerful and quite independent,
the rulers of these states did not break their formal
ties with the Mughal emperor. (2) States that had
enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals
as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput
principalities. (3) The last group included states under
the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats.
These were of differing sizes and had seized their
independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn
armed struggle.

The Old Mughal Provinces

Amongst the states that were carved out of the old
Mughal provinces in the eighteenth century, three
stand out very prominently. These were Awadh, Bengal
and Hyderabad. All three states were founded by
members of the high Mughal nobility who had been
governors of large provinces – Sa‘adat Khan (Awadh),
Murshid Quli Khan (Bengal) and Asaf Jah (Hyderabad).
All three had occupied high mansabdari positions and
enjoyed the trust and confidence of the emperors. Both
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Asaf Jah and Murshid Quli Khan held a zat rank of
7,000 each, while Sa‘adat Khan’s zat was 6,000.

Hyderabad
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state
(1724-1748), was one of the most powerful members at
the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. He was
entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later
given charge of the Deccan. As the Mughal governor of
the Deccan provinces, during 1720-22 Asaf Jah had
already gained control over its political and financial
administration. Taking subsequent advantage of the
turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the
court nobility, he gathered power in his hands and became
the actual ruler of that region.
Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators
from northern India who welcomed the new opportunities
in the south. He appointed mansabdars and granted
jagirs. Although he was still a servant of the Mughal
emperor, he ruled quite independently without seeking
any direction from Delhi or facing any interference. The
Mughal emperor merely confirmed the decisions already
taken by the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah.
The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a
struggle against the Marathas to the west and with
independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.
The ambitions of the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah to control
the rich textile-producing areas of the Coromandel coast
in the east were checked by the British who were becoming
increasingly powerful in that region (see Map 2).

The Nizam’s army

A description of the Nizam of Hyderabad’s personal
troopers in 1790:
…The Nizam has a swaree (sawari) of 400 elephants, several
thousand of horsemen near his person who receive upwards
100 R(upees)s nominal pay (and) are extremely well mounted
and richly caparisoned …

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 Awadh
Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan
was appointed subadar of
? Awadh in 1722 and founded
In trying to a state which was one of the
consolidate their most important to emerge
rule, why did out of the break-up of the
Mughal subadars Mughal Empire. Awadh was a
also want to prosperous region, controlling
control the office the rich alluvial Ganga plain
of diwan? and the main trade route
between north India and
Bengal. Burhan-ul-Mulk also
held the combined offices of
subadari, diwani and faujdari.
In other words, he was
responsible for managing the
Fig. 3
political, financial and military Burhan-ul-Mulk
affairs of the province of Awadh. Sa‘adat Khan.

Burhan-ul-Mulk tried to
decrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region by
reducing the number of office holders (jagirdars)
appointed by the Mughals. He also reduced the size
of jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants to
vacant positions. The accounts of jagirdars were
checked to prevent cheating and the revenues of all
districts were reassessed by officials appointed by the
Nawab’s court. He seized a number of Rajput
zamindaris and the agriculturally fertile lands of the
Afghans of Rohilkhand.
The state depended on local bankers and mahajans
for loans. It sold the right to collect tax to the highest
bidders. These “revenue farmers” (ijaradars) agreed to
pay the state a fixed sum of money. Local bankers
guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to
the state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were given
considerable freedom in the assessment and collection
of taxes. These developments allowed new social
groups, like moneylenders and bankers, to influence

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the management of the state’s revenue system,
something which had not occurred in the past.

Bengal
Bengal gradually broke away from Mughal control under
Murshid Quli Khan who was appointed as the naib,
deputy to the governor of the province. Although never
a formal subadar, Murshid Quli Khan very quickly
seized all the power that went with that office. Like the
rulers of Hyderabad and Awadh he also commanded
the revenue administration of the state. In an effort to
reduce Mughal influence in Bengal he transferred all
Mughal jagirdars to Orissa and ordered a major
reassessment of the revenues of Bengal. Revenue was
collected in cash with great strictness from all
zamindars. As a result, many zamindars had to borrow
money from bankers and moneylenders. Those unable
to pay were forced to sell their lands to larger zamindars.
The formation of a regional state in eighteenth-
century Bengal therefore led to considerable change
amongst the zamindars. The close connection
between the state and bankers – noticeable in Fig. 4
Alivardi Khan holding
court.

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 Hyderabad and Awadh as well – was evident in Bengal
under the rule of Alivardi Khan (r. 1740-1756). During
his reign the banking house of Jagat Seth became
extremely prosperous.
If we take a bird’s eye view, we can detect three
common features amongst these states. First, though
many of the larger states were established by erstwhile
Mughal nobles they were highly suspicious of some of
the administrative systems that they had inherited, in
particular the jagirdari system. Second, their method
of tax collection differed. Rather than relying upon the
officers of the state, all three regimes contracted with
revenue-farmers for the collection of revenue. The
practice of ijaradari, thoroughly disapproved of by
the Mughals, spread all over India in the eighteenth
century. Their impact on the countryside differed
considerably. The third common feature in all these
regional states was their emerging relationship with
Many Rajput rich bankers and merchants. These people lent money
rulers had to revenue farmers, received land as security and
accepted the collected taxes from these lands through their own
suzerainty of the
agents. Throughout India the richest merchants and
Mughals but
Mewar was the
bankers were gaining a stake in the new political order.
only Rajput state
which defied The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs
Mughal authority.
Rana Pratap Many Rajput kings, particularly those belonging to
ascended the Amber and Jodhpur, had served under the Mughals
throne at Mewar in with distinction. In exchange, they were permitted to
1572, with enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs. In
Udaipur and large the eighteenth century, these rulers now attempted to
part of Mewar extend their control over adjacent regions. Ajit Singh,
under his control. the ruler of Jodhpur, was also involved in the factional
A series of envoys
politics at the Mughal court.
were sent to the
Rana to persuade These influential Rajput families claimed the
him to accept subadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa.
Mughal suzerainty, Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of
but he stood his Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was
ground.
governor of Malwa. These offices were renewed by
Emperor Jahandar Shah in 1713. They also tried to

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extend their territories by Many Rajput chieftains
seizing portions of imperial built a number of forts
territories neighbouring on hill tops which
their watans. Nagaur was became centres of
conquered and annexed to power. With extensive
the house of Jodhpur, fortifications, these
while Amber seized large majestic structures Fig. 4b.
portions of Bundi. Sawai housed urban centres, Chittorgarh Fort, Rajasthan
Raja Jai Singh founded his palaces, temples, trading centres, water
harvesting structures and other buildings. The
new capital at Jaipur and
Chittorgarh fort contained many water bodies
was given the subadari of varying from talabs (ponds) to kundis (wells),
Agra in 1722. Maratha baolis (stepwells), etc.
campaigns into Rajasthan
from the 1740s put severe pressure on these
principalities and checked their further expansion.

Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur

A description of Raja Jai Singh in a Persian account of
1732:
Fig. 4c
Raja Jai Singh was at the height of his power. He was the Jantar Mantar in
governor of Agra for 12 years and of Malwa for 5 or 6 years. Jaipur
He possessed a large army, artillery and great wealth. His
Sawai Jai Singh,
sway extended from Delhi to the banks of the Narmada.
the ruler of Amber
constructed five
astronomical
observatories, one
each in Delhi,
Jaipur, Ujjain,
Mathura and
Varanasi.
Commonly known
as Jantar Mantar,
these
observatories had
various
instruments to
study heavenly
bodies.

Fig. 5 Mehrangarh Fort, Jodhpur

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 Seizing Independence
? The Sikhs
What is the Khalsa? The organisation of the Sikhs into a political community
Do you recall during the seventeenth century (see Chapter 8) helped
reading about in regional state-building in the Punjab. Several battles
it in Chapter 8? were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput
and Mughal rulers, both before and after the institution
of the Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, the
Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority
under Banda Bahadur’s leadership, declared their
sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru
Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, and established their
own administration between the Sutlej and the Jamuna.
Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed
in 1716.

Fig. 7
Sword of Maharaja
Ranjit Singh.

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 Under a number of able leaders in the eighteenth
century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a number
of bands called jathas, and later on misls. Their
combined forces were known as the grand army (dal
khalsa). The entire body used to meet at Amritsar at
the time of Baisakhi and Diwali to take collective
decisions known as “resolutions of the Guru
(gurmatas)”. A system called rakhi was introduced, Fig. 7a
offering protection to cultivators on the payment of a Portrait of Shivaji
tax of 20 per cent of the produce.
Towards the end of the
Guru Gobind Singh had inspired the Khalsa with 17th century a powerful
the belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karega state started emerging
in the Deccan under the
khalsa). Their well-knit organization enabled them to leadership of Shivaji
put up a successful resistance to the Mughal governors which finally led to the
first and then to Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seized establishment of the
the rich province of the Punjab and the Sarkar of Maratha state. Shivaji
was born to Shahji and
Sirhind from the Mughals. The Khalsa declared their Jija Bai at Shivneri in
sovereign rule by striking their own coin again in 1765. 1630. Under the
Significantly, this coin bore the same inscription as guidance of his mother
the one on the orders issued by the Khalsa in the time and his guardian Dada
Konddev, Shivaji
of Banda Bahadur. embarked on a career
The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century of conquest at a young
age. The occupation of
extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they were Javli made him the
divided under different rulers. One of them, Maharaja undisputed leader of
Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established the Mavala highlands
his capital at Lahore in 1799. which paved the way
for further expansion.
His exploits against the
The Marathas forces of Bijapur and
the Mughals made him
The Maratha kingdom was another powerful regional a legendary figure. He
kingdom to arise out of a sustained opposition to often resorted to
Mughal rule. Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable guerrilla warfare
kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families against his opponents.
By introducing an
(deshmukhs). Groups of highly mobile, peasant- efficient administrative
pastoralists (kunbis) provided the backbone of the system supported by a
Maratha army. Shivaji used these forces to challenge revenue collection
the Mughals in the peninsula. After Shivaji’s death, method based on
chauth and
effective power in the Maratha state was wielded by a sardeshmukhi he laid
family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’s the foundations of a
successors as Peshwa (or principal minister). Poona strong Maratha state.
became the capital of the Maratha kingdom.
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Baji Rao I, also Under the Peshwas, the Marathas developed a very
known as Baji Rao successful military organisation. Their success lay
Ballal was the son in bypassing the fortified areas of the Mughals, by
of Peshwa Balaji raiding cities and by engaging Mughal armies in areas
Vishwanath. He
was a great
where their supply lines and reinforcements could
Maratha general be easily disturbed.
who is credited to
have expanded the
Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire
Maratha kingdom expanded. It gradually chipped away at the authority
beyond the of the Mughal Empire. Malwa and Gujarat were seized
Vindhyas and is from the Mughals by the 1720s. By the 1730s, the
known for his Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the
military campaigns
entire Deccan peninsula. He possessed the right to
against Malwa,
Bundelkhand, levy chauth and sardeshmukhi in the entire region.
Gujarat and the
After raiding Delhi in 1737 the frontiers of Maratha
Portugese.
domination expanded rapidly: into Rajasthan and the
Punjab in the north; into Bengal and Orissa in the
east; and into Karnataka and the Tamil and Telugu
countries in the south (see Map 1). These were not
formally included in the Maratha empire, but were
made to pay tribute as a way of accepting Maratha
sovereignty. Expansion brought enormous resources,
but it came at a price. These military campaigns also
made other rulers hostile towards the Marathas. As a
result, they were not inclined to support the Marathas
during the third battle of Panipat in 1761.
Alongside endless military campaigns, the Marathas
Chauth
25 per cent of the
developed an effective administrative system as well.
land revenue Once conquest had been completed and Maratha rule
claimed by was secure, revenue demands were gradually
zamindars. In the introduced taking local conditions into account.
Deccan this was Agriculture was encouraged and trade revived. This
collected by the allowed Maratha chiefs (sardars) like Sindhia of
Marathas. Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda and Bhonsle of Nagpur
Sardeshmukhi the resources to raise powerful armies. Maratha
9-10 per cent of the campaigns into Malwa in the 1720s did not challenge
land revenue paid the growth and prosperity of the cities in the region.
to the head revenue Ujjain expanded under Sindhia’s patronage and Indore
collector in the
under Holkar’s. By all accounts these cities were large
Deccan.
and prosperous and functioned as important

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commercial and cultural centres. New trade routes
emerged within the areas controlled by the Marathas.
The silk produced in the Chanderi region now found a
new outlet in Poona, the Maratha capital. Burhanpur
which had earlier participated in the trade between
Agra and Surat now expanded its hinterland to include
Poona and Nagpur in the south and Lucknow and
Allahabad in the east.

The Jats
Like the other states the Jats consolidated their power
during the late seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries.
Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control The power of the
Jats reached its
over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi, zenith under Suraj
and by the 1680s they had begun dominating the Mal who
region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and consolidated the Jat
Agra. For a while they became the virtual custodians state at Bharatpur
of the city of Agra. (in present day
Rajasthan) during
The Jats were prosperous agriculturists, and towns 1756-1763. The
like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important areas under the
political control of
trading centres in the areas dominated by them. Under
Suraj Mal broadly
Suraj Mal the kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a included parts of
strong state. When Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739, modern eastern
many of the city’s notables took refuge there. His son Rajasthan,
Jawahir Shah had 30,000 troops of his own and hired southern Haryana,
western Uttar
Pradesh and Delhi.
Suraj Mal built a
number of forts and
palaces and the
famous Lohagarh
fort in Bharatpur is
regarded as one of
the strongest forts
built in this region.

Fig. 8
Eighteenth-century
palace complex at Dig.
Note the “Bangla
dome” on the
assembly hall on the
roof of the building.

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 another 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops to
fight the Mughals.
While the Bharatpur fort was built in a fairly traditional
style, at Dig the Jats built an elaborate garden palace
combining styles seen at Amber and Agra. Its buildings
were modelled on architectural forms first associated
with royalty under Shah Jahan (see Figure 12 in Chapter
5 and Figure 12 in Chapter 9).

The French Revolution (1789-1794)

In the various state systems of eighteenth-century India, the common
people did not enjoy the right to participate in the affairs of their
ELSEWHERE

governments. In the Western world, this was the situation until the
late eighteenth century. The American (1776-1781) and French
Revolutions challenged the social and political privileges enjoyed
by the aristocrats.
During the French Revolution, the middle classes, peasants and
artisans fought against the special rights enjoyed by the clergy and
the nobility. They believed that no group in society should have
privileges based on birth. Rather, people’s social position must
depend on merit. The philosophers of the French Revolution
suggested that there be equal laws and opportunities for all. They
also held that the authority of the government should come from
the people who must possess the right to participate in its affairs.
Movements such as the French and American Revolutions gradually
transformed subjects into citizens.
The ideas of citizenship, nation-state and democratic rights took
root in India from the late nineteenth century.

Imagine

You are a ruler of an eighteenth-

century kingdom. Tell us about the
steps you would take to make your
position strong in your province, and
what opposition or problems you might
face while doing so.

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 Let’s recall

1. Match the following:

subadar a revenue farmer

faujdar a high noble
ijaradar provincial governor
misl Maratha peasant warriors
chauth a Mughal military commander
kunbis a band of Sikh warriors
umara tax levied by the Marathas KEYWORDS
6
2. Fill in the blanks:
subadari
(a) Aurangzeb fought a protracted war in the dal khalsa
____________________.
misl
(b) Umara and jagirdars constituted powerful
sections of the Mughal __________________. faujdari
ijaradari
(c) Asaf Jah founded the Hyderabad state in
_____________________. chauth
sardeshmukhi
(d) The founder of the Awadh state was
______________________. 5
3. State whether true or false:

(a) Nadir Shah invaded Bengal.

(b) Sawai Raja Jai Singh was the ruler of Indore.

(c) Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth Guru of

the Sikhs.

(d) Poona became the capital of the Marathas in

the eighteenth century.

4. What were the offices held by Sa‘adat Khan?

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 Let’s discuss

5. Why did the Nawabs of Awadh and Bengal try to do

away with the jagirdari system?

6. How were the Sikhs organised in the eighteenth

century?

7. Why did the Marathas want to expand beyond the

Deccan?

8. What were the policies adopted by Asaf Jah to

strengthen his position?

9. Do you think merchants and bankers today have the

kind of influence they had in the eighteenth century?

10. Did any of the kingdoms mentioned in this chapter

develop in your state? If so, in what ways do you
think life in the state would have been different in
the eighteenth century from what it is in the twenty-
first century?

Let’s do

11. Find out more about the architecture and culture

associated with the new courts of any of the following
Awadh, Bengal or Hyderabad.

12. Collect popular tales about-rulers from any one of the

following groups of people: the Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs
or Marathas.

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