CHAPTER II

SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
Internal forces; force due to interaction of the particle with the other particles of
the system.

External forces; All other force acting on the particle.

Newton’s second law, the equation of motion for the ith particle may be written as
  
 Fji  Fie  p
j

p  the momentum of the ith particle
i

Fe  the external force
i
F  the internal force on the ith particle due to the jth particle
 ij
 Fij  the total internal force acting on the ith particle
j
d 2r
 d  m r   m
2
p  d  m r    
i
i dt  i i  dt  i i 
2 i dt 2

r  the radius of the ith particle
i
d2  m r   F    
  
e  F 

since if i  j, then F  0
dt 2 i  i i  i i ij ij  ij 

From Newton’s third law, for every internal force there is an equal and opposite
  
reaction force i.e.,  F  F  0

 ij ji 

The centre of mass of a system to be a point radius vector R
 
MR   m r
i ii
  
d 2   d 2R
  m r   M   F e  F e
dt 2 i  i i  dt 2 i i

The total linear momentum of the system,

 
m r  
 d r   2
P    m  i   M d  i i   M d R  MVCM
 i  dt dt  M 
  dt 2
i i  
The total angular momentum of a system of particles is
    
L   L    r  p 
i i i  i i
 d     e  
L    r  p    r  F   r  F
i dt  i i  i i i ij i ji
    
r  F  r  F  r  r  F


i ij j ji i j  ij


   
 ri  Fij    ri  rj  Fji   r j  Fji  0


ij ij   ij
 
Since  r  r  is identical with the vector ri j from j to i and also Newton’s law of
 i j
action and reaction gives r  F  0
i j ij

 dL  e
L    r  F  Ne
dt i i i
   e    e
τ   r  F  r  F   r  F   r  F  Ne
i i i i i i ij i ij i i i
 
R  the radius vector from the origin O

r  the radius vector from C.M to the ith particle
i
     
r  R  r ' and v  v  v
i i i i

 dr  dR  dr 
v  , v , v 
i dt dt i dt
     
   
L   r  p   r  m v    r  R   m . v  v
i i i i i i i  i   i 

          d 
L   R  m v   r  m v    m r  v  R   m r 
i i i i i i  i i i  dt i i i
 1 
R   m r'
M i i
But radius vector at the centre of mass with respect to centre of mass = 0,i.e.,a null
vector   
R  0  1  m r   mi ri  0
M ii
   
L  R  MV   r  p
CM i i i
2.1 CENTRE OF MASS
When we consider the motion of a system of n particles, there is a point in it which
behaves as if the entire mass of the system is concentrated at that point. This point is
called the centre of mass of the system.
The centre of mass C of a system of particles (see Fig. 2.1) whose radius vector is R
is related to the mass m and radius vectors r of all n particles of the system by
i i
the equation

m r  m r    m r    mi ri
R  1m1
 m    m    M      2.1)
22 ii i
1 2 i
where M is the total mass of the system for a continuous body, the co-ordinates of the
centre of mass are

X  1  ρx d V Y  1  ρy d V Z  1  ρz d V
Mv Mv Mv
For a homogeneous body, the density ρ is constant and V is the volume of the body

X  1  x dV Y  1  y dV Z  1  z d V      2.1a)
Vv Vv Vv

centre of mass frame of reference

A frame of reference with the centre of mass as the origin is called the centre of mass
frame of reference.
In this frame of reference, obviously, the position vector of the centre of mass R is
equal to zero.
Consequently, the linear momentum P of the system dR dt is also zero.
2.2 CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3,mn Let their position vectors
at time t be r1, r2, r3,rn The force acting on the ith particle F has two parts:
i
( i ) a force applied on the system from outside or external force
( ii ) an internal force which is a force among the particles of the system.
Newton’s second law for the ith particle of the system can be written as
dp n
i F F   F j  i - - - - - 2.2)
dt i ie j1 ij
where F is the external force on the ith particle and F is the internal force on the ith
ie ij
particle due to the jth one. Since F  0 , j  i in the summation.
ij
Summing over all particles of the system, Eq. 2.2 takes the form
n d pi n n n
 dt   ie   Fij j  i - - - - - 2.3)
F 
i1 i1 i1 j1
Assuming that Newton’s third law is valid for the internal force
F   F      2.4)
ij ji
Use of this condition reduces the second term on the right of Eq. 2.3 to zero.
The first term  Fie  Fe , the total external force acting on the system. The sum
i
p  p  p    pn  P
1 2 3
is the total linear momentum of the system. Now Eq. 2.3 reduce to
d P  F      2.5)
dt e
which provides the law of conservation of linear momentum of a system of particles:
If the external force acting on a system of particles is zero, then the total linear
momentum of the system is conserved.
When external force acting on a system is zero, it is called a closed system. For a
closed system, linear momentum is conserved.
Another interesting result is the relation connecting the total linear momentum and the
velocity of the centre of mass. With the definition of centre of mass in Eq. 2.1
dp d2 m r  M d2 R
 dti  2 i i
i d t i dt 2
and Eq. 2.3 takes the form
d 2 R dP
M   Fe      2.6)
dt 2 d t

That is, the centre of mass moves as if the total external force were acting on the
entire mass of the system concentrated at the centre of mass.

2.3 ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We now derive the angular momentum L of a system of particles which is defined as
L   r  p      2.7)
i i i
Figure 2.2 illustrates the position vector of the centre of mass of the system and that of
the ith particle.
From Fig. 2.2 we have
r  R  r or r  R  r      2.8)
i i i i
Consequently, p  m r  m (R  r) - - - - - 2.9)
i ii i i
Substituting these values in Eq. 2.7
L   (R  r)  m (R   r)
i i i i
   
    
  m (R  R)   R   m r     m r  R    (m r  r) - - - 2.10)
i i 
 i i i   i i i 
 i ii i
The quantity  mi ri vanishes as it defines the radius vector of the centre of mass in the
i
co-ordinate system in which the origin is the centre of mass. The quantity
 
 mi ri  dt   mi ri   0
d  

i  i 

Hence, the total angular momentum

 )   m r  r'
L   m (R  R
i i i ii i
 R  MV  (r  p )      2..11)
CM  i i i
where v is the velocity of the centre of mass with respect to the origin O. The
CM
meaning of the equation is that the total angular momentum about a point O is equal to
the sum of the angular momentum of the system concentrated at the centre of mass and
the angular momentum of the system of particles about the centre of mass.

2.4 CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

We now consider the angular momentum of a system of n particles which is defined as
n
L   r p
i1 i i
dL  d ri  p  r  dpi      2.12)
dt i d t i  i dt
i
The first term on the right is zero since the vector product of a vector with itself is zero.
Substituting for (dp dt) from Eq. 2.2
i
  
dL  r   F  F 
dt   i  ie
i  
 ij
j 

  (r  F )    (r  F ) j  i - - - - - 2.13)
i i ie i j i ij
The second term on the right contains pairs of terms like
r F r F
i ij j ji
Since F   F , this pair reduces to
ij ji
r  F  r  F  (r  r )  F  r  F      2.14)
i ij j ij i j ij ij ij
which is zero if the internal forces are central, that is, the internal forces are along the
line joining the two particles. Hence, the second term on the right of Eq. 2.13 vanishes.
Since r  F is the torque due to the external force on the ith particle, Eq. 2.13 reduces to
i ie
dL  N  N      2.15)
dt  i ie
e
where Ne is the total external torque acting on the system. Eq. 2.15 leads to the
conservation law:

If the total torque due to external forces on a system of particles is zero, then the total
angular momentum is a constant of motion.
2.5 KINETIC ENERGY FOR A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
For a system of particles the kinetic energy of the system
1 n
T   m v2      2.16)
2 i1 i i

The position of the centre of mass of the system and that of the ith particle is shown in
Fig. 2.2. From the figure, we have
r  R  r or v  VCM  v
i i i i
With this value of v , Eq. 2.16 takes the form
i
T  1  m (VCM  v )(VCM  v )
2 i i i i
 1 M VCM2  1 m v2  m (V
  CM
. v )
2 2i i i i i i
 
1 2 1
 M VCM   m v  VCM .   m r       2.17)
2 d 
2 2i i i dt  i i i 
The term  mi ri vanishes as it defines the radius vector of the centre of mass in the
co-ordinate system in which the origin is the centre of mass. Hence,
 T  1 M VCM
2  1 m v2      2.18)
2 2
i i i
Thus, like angular momentum, the kinetic energy also consists of two parts:
( i ) the kinetic energy obtained if all the mass were concentrated at the centre of mass,
and ( ii ) the kinetic energy of motion about the centre of mass.

2.6 ENERGY CONSERVATION OF A SYSTEM OF PARTICLES

The energy conservation law of a single particle system can easily be extended to a
system of particles. The force acting on the ith particle is given by Eq. 2.2. As in the
case of a single particle, the work done by all forces in moving the system from an
initial position 1 to a final position 2 is given by
2 2 2
W    F .d r    F .d r    F .d r i  j- - - - - 2.19)
12 i i i i ie i i j ij i
1 1 1
2
Again, reducing the integral   Fi .d ri using equation of motion, we have
i1
2 2d v 2d v
W    F .d r   m  i .d r   m  i .v dt
12 i i i i i 1 dt i i i 1 dt i
1
 2 2
W    F .d r   m  v d v   1 m [vi2]12
12 i i i i i1 i i i 2 i
1
 T  T      2.20)
2 1
where T is the total kinetic energy of the system.
Next we consider the right hand side of Eq. 2.19. If both Fie and F are conservative,
ij
they are derivable from potential functions
F    V (r ) and F    V (r , r ) - - - - - 2.21)
ie i ie i ij ij i j
where the subscript i on the del operator indicates that the derivative is with respect to
the co-ordinates of the ith particle. The first term on the right side of Eq. 2.19 now takes
the form
2 2
  Fie.d ri     iVie (ri ).d ri
i1 i1
2  
2
    d V    V       2.22)
i 1 ie  i
ie 1
In order to satisfy Newton’s third law, F  F . Hence,
.
ij ji
 Fij.d ri   Fji .d r j    Fij.d r j i  j- - - - - 2.23)
i j i j i j
1
 Fij.d ri  2  Fij . (d ri  d r j) i  j
i j i j
 1  F . d r , d r  d r  d r i  j- - - - - 2.24)
2 i j ij ij ij i j

where the factor 12 is introduced to avoid each member of a pair being included
twice, first in the i summation and then in the j summation. Substituting this value
2 1 2
  Fij.d ri  2   Fij.d rij i  j
i j1 i j1
2
  1    V .d r i  j
2 i j 1 ij ij ij
1 2
    d V
2 i j 1 ij
 
2
  1  V  i  j- - - - - 2.25)
2  i j ij
 1
Here Vijstands for the gradient with respect to ijr
Equation 2.19 can now be written as
2  
2
 
 
W12    V


 1  V

   i  j- - - - - 2.26)
i ie
 2 i j ij
1 


1

As the internal and external forces are derivable from potentials, it is possible to define
a total potential energy V of the system:
V   V  1   V i  j- - - - - 2.27)
i ie 2 i j ij
With this potential, Eq. 2.19 reduces to
W12   (V2  V1) - - - - - 2.28)

From Eq. 2.20 and 2.28, we get

T2  T1  V1  V2
T1  V1  T2  V2      2.29)

which gives the energy conservation law:

For a conservative system of n particles, the total energy E  T  V is constant,
where T is given by Eq. 2.18 and V by Eq. 2.27.
2.7 TIME VARYING MASS SYSTEMS__ROCKETS
At time t assume that the rocket of mass m is moving with a velocity v relative to the
fixed co-ordinate system, say earth. The exhaust is ejected with a constant velocity u
relative to the rocket and therefore v u relative to the fixed co-ordinate system
(see Fig. 2.3). At time t  dt the mass of the rocket has changed to m d m
and the velocity to v dv . At this time an amount of fuel denoted by  d m
is moving with velocity v u relative to the fixed co-ordinate frame.
Momentum of the system at time t is P(t)  mv
Momentum of the rocket alone at t  dt
P (t  dt)  (m  d m) (v  d v)
rocket
 (mv  mdv  vdm)
The second order term dm dv is neglected.
The momentum of the fuel P (t  dt)   dm (v  u)
fuel
  d mv  dmu
Hence, the total momentum of the system at (t  dt) is

P (t  dt)  Procket (t  dt)  Pfuel (t  dt)

 mv  mdv  dmu - - - - - 2.30)
Change of momentum dP is given by
d P  P (t  dt)  P (t)  mdv  dmu - - - - - 2.31)

Rate of change of momentum dP  m dv  u dm      2.32)

dt dt dt
Rate of change of momentum is the external force applied, that is, F. Then

F  m dv  u dm      2.33)
dt dt
When rocket is in deep space, F 0 , then
m dv  u dm      2.34)
dt dt
The term on the left side, m ( dv dt ), is the thrust, the force felt by the rocket. Thus,
the thrust depends on the exhaust velocity u and the fuel mass flow rate dm dt

The thrust on the rocket F  m dv  u dm      2.34a)

dt dt
The solution of Eq. 2.34 is simple. It can be written as
d v  u dm
m

v m dm
 d v  u  m
v0 m 0
m
v  v  u ln m      2.35)
0 0
Since m  m , it is more convenient to write this equation as
0
m
v  v0  u ln m0      2.36)
Near the earth surface, the external force on the rocket due to the attraction of the earth
has to be taken into account. In such a situation, Eq. 2.34 takes the form

m dv  u dm  mg
dt dt
dv  u dm
m  gdt      2.37)

m
v  v0  u ln m0  gt - - - - - 2.38)

Remembering that u and g are in a direction opposite to that of v, the corresponding

scalar equation for a rocket fired vertically upward from rest v  0
0
m0
v  u ln m  gt - - - - - 2.39)

In the present-day rockets, the high final speed is achieved by continued acceleration;
the value of the acceleration increases as the remaining mass of the rocket decreases.
Another useful relation is the one connecting the original mass of the rocket m
0
, mass of the rocket at time t and the rate of mass decrease α . Form definition
 dm   α
dt

where the negative sign indicates that there is a mass decrease. Integrating,

 dm    α d t or m  m0   αt

m  m0  αt - - - - - 2.40)

The mass at the end of the mission will be the sum of the body of the rocket plus the
mass of the satellite or bomb in the case of missiles.