National Textile University

BSc. Textile Engineering

Technology: Garments Manufacturing

Assignment title
Assignment No. 1

Course code: GM-2114

Course title: polymer engineering fundamentals

Semester: 4rth

Name: ALI ABBAS ZAFAR

Registration Number: 18-NTU-0021
 Bakelite (polyoxybenzylmethyle

Raw materials :
Bakelite is a polymer made up of the monomers phenol and formaldehyde. This
phenol-formaldehyde resin is a thermosetting polymer.

Polymerization reaction:

Grades available in market:

Product Classification Availability Features Uses

Bakelite® Polyester, TS Africa & Middle East; Flame Retardant; Electrical

UP 3415 Asia Pacific; Europe High Parts;
Dimensional Housings
Stability

Bakelite® Africa & Middle East; Bobbins;

PF 31 Asia Pacific; Europe Caps;
Electrical/El
ectronic
Applications
 Phenolic

Bakelite® phenolic Africa & Middle East; Good Impact Bobbins;

PF 85 Asia Pacific; Europe Resistance Handles;
Housings

Bakelite® phenolic Africa & Middle East; High Automotive

PF 1110 Asia Pacific; Europe Dimensional Applications
Stability; High ;
Heat Resistance Automotive
Under the
Hood

Bakelite® epoxy Africa & Middle East; Chemical Electrical/El

EP 8412 Asia Pacific; Europe Resistant; Good ectronic
Dimensional Applications
Stability

Properties:
Some important properties of Bakelite are listed below.

 It can be quickly molded.

 Very smooth molding can be obtained from this polymer.
 Bakelite moldings are heat-resistant and scratch-resistant.
 They are also resistant to several destructive solvents.
 Owing to its low electrical conductivity, Bakelite is resistant to electric current

End applications
:Insulation of wires

 , manufacturing sockets,
 electrical devices,
 brake pads

technique used for polymerization

The condensation reaction happens so this technique will be condensation
polymerization
 2: Kevlar (Para-aramid fiber)
Raw material:

There are two main stages involved in making Kevlar. First you have to produce the
basic plastic from which Kevlar is made (a chemical called poly-Para-phenylene
terephthalamide—no wonder they call it Kevlar). Second, you have to turn it into strong fibers.

Polymerization reaction of Kevlar:

Grades available in market:
Several grades of Kevlar are available:
[1] Kevlar K-29 – in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement, brake
linings, and body/vehicle armor.
[2] Kevlar K49 – high modulus used in cable and rope products.
[3] Kevlar K100 – colored version of Kevlar
[4] Kevlar K119 – higher-elongation, flexible and more fatigue resistant.
[5] Kevlar K129–higher tenacity for ballistic applications.

[6] Kevlar AP – has 15% higher tensile strength than K-29.

Technique used for polymerization:

Kevlar is produced by copolymerization of monomers benzene-1,4-diamine

and terephthaloyl dichloride (an acid chloride derived from terephthalic acid). Polymerization
occurs by the nucleophilic carbonyl substitution mechanism. Kevlar's strength is due in part to
hydrogen bonding between the polymer chains

Properties of Kevlar:
●It is strong but relatively light.
●Unlike most plastics it does not melt: it's reasonably good at withstanding temperatures
and decomposes only at ~450°C (850°F).
●Kevlar can be ignited but burning usually stops when the heat source is removed.
●Very low temperatures have no effect on Kevlar. There is no appreciable embrittlement or
degradation down to -196°C (-320°F), which makes it excellent for Arctic conditions.
●Like other plastics, long exposure to ultraviolet light (in sunlight, for example) causes
discoloration and some degradation of the fibres.
●Kevlar can resist attacks from many different chemicals, though long exposure to strong
acids or bases will degrade it over time.
●Kevlar remains virtually unchanged after exposure to hot water for more than 200 days
and its properties are virtually unaffected by moisture.

End uses of Kevlar:

 Military Body Armor & Jackets
 Protection Vests
 Military Helmets
 Automotive Uses
● Kevlar® also use in following parts

● Belts

● Brake pads

● Clutches

● Gaskets

Kevlar as a Composite
Kevlar® in Aero Plane:
●Aircraft cabin, flooring and interiors
●Landing gear doors
●Wing boxes and control surfaces
●Filament-wound pressure bottles
●Engine nacelles
●Engine containment rings
●Aircraft tires
●Rotor blades
●Spacecraft
●Maritime vessels

3: Twaron (para aramid)

Raw material
Twaron is a lightweight, super strong synthetic fiber made from aramid polymer. Aramid
molecules are characterized by relatively rigid polymer chains linked by strong hydrogen bonds,
which transfer mechanical stress back and forth, rather like a zipper. This permits the use of
chains of relatively low molecular weight.

Polymerization reaction of Twaron:

Grades of Twaron available in market:
 Properties of Twaron:

 High strength: excellent strength-to-weight ratio

 High modulus
 High dimensional stability: very low creep, small negative thermal
expansion coefficient
 Excellent thermal stability: usable across a wide temperature range, no
melting point, high heat stability, low heat conductivity
 High cut resistance
 Good chemical resistance
 Low flammability
 Electrically non-conductive
 Long, well-defined lifetime

End uses of Twaron:


Bullet-proof body armor,
  Helmets
 Brake pads
 Ropes
 Cables
 Optical fiber cables,
 Asbestos substitute

Technique used for polymerization:

Step wise polymerization
4: Mylar
(Polyethylene terephthalate film)
Raw material of mylar:
RawMylar, also known as BoPET (Biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate) is a polyester
film made from stretched polyethylene terephthalate (PET) material

Polymerization reaction of mylar:

Grades available in market:

Properties of Mylar:
 High strength

 Stiffness

 Less permeable to gases

 almost reflects light completely

uses of Mylar
 End Food packaging
 Transparent covering over paper
 reflector for rollsigns
 solar cooking stoves

techniques used for polymerization:

step wise polymerization
5:Neoprene (Polychloroprene)

Raw material:

 Neoprene  is mostly composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Neoprene is made

through a chemical reaction which uses chloroprene, and as a result polychloroprene

chips are left behind. The chips are then melted and mixed with various carbon
pigments and foaming agents, which is then put in an oven and baked till it expands.
The resulting neoprene is sliced up to create neoprene sheets in your desired thickness.
Polymerization reaction:

Grades of neoprene available in market:

1:Closed Cell Rubber - Blend:

A Blend of Neoprene, and SBR in a Closed Cell Rubber Form

2: Neoprene - Commercial Grade - 45A

45 Durometer Neoprene is a Flexible and More Compressible Industrial Rubber

3: Neoprene - Commercial Grade - 50A

Industrial Grade Rubber and A Perfect Option for Gasketing, Sealing and Bumpers

4: Closed Cell Rubber - Neoprene

High Quality Oil and Weather Resistant Closed Cell Neoprene

Properties of neoprene:
  high tensile strength
 resilience
 oil and flame resistance
 resistance to degradation by oxygen and ozone
 Chemically inert

 End uses:

 Manufacturing gaskets
 corrosion resistant coatings
  waterproof seat covers
 substitute for corks and latex

polymerization technique:
polymerization of choloropene

6: nylon 6

Raw material of nylon 6:

nylon 6 is only made from one kind of monomer, a monomer called
caprolactam.

Polymerization reaction of nylon 6:

Grades of nylon 6 available in market:

 A1020BRL Ultra-low-viscosity

 A1030BRL Medium viscosity

Medium to
 A1030BRF
high viscosity

 A1030BRT High-viscosity

 M1040 Ultrahigh-viscosity

 A1030JR Low-viscosity

 A1030SR Medium viscosity

Medium to
 A1030FR
high viscosity

 A1030R Low-viscosity

 A1022GFL15 Low-viscosity

 A1022GFL Low-viscosity

 A1030GFL Medium viscosity

 A1030GFL45 Medium viscosity

  A1022GFL60(A) Low-viscosity

 EX-8406G30 Medium viscosity

 A1030SR(S) Medium viscosity

 A1022GFL(S) Low-viscosity

 A3130 Medium viscosity

 A3130HR-25 Low-viscosity

 A3030N-2 Medium viscosity

 RUN35-C25 Low-viscosity

 A1025NO Low-viscosity

 A1025GO Low-viscosity

 A1030TF Medium viscosity

 A1030M Medium viscosity

 A1030L15 Medium viscosity

 EX-1020K Medium viscosity

 EX-1222 Medium viscosity

 EX-1030 High-viscosity

 M1030DH Medium viscosity

Properties of nylon 6:
Nylon 6 fibres are tough, possessing high tensile strength, as well as elasticity and luster. They are
wrinkle proof and highly resistant to abrasion and chemicals such as acids and alkalis. The fibres
can absorb up to 2.4% of water, although this lowers tensile strength. The glass transition
temperature of Nylon 6 is 47 °C.
As a synthetic fiber, Nylon 6 is generally white but can be dyed to in a solution bath prior to
production for different color results. Its tenacity is between 6 and 8.5 gm/den with a density of 1.14
gm/cc. Its melting point is at 215 °C and can protect heat up to 150 °C on average.
Polymerization technique of nylon 6:
Nylon 6 is
synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of caprolactam. ... When caprolactam is heated at
about 533 K in an inert atmosphere of nitrogen for about 4-5 hours, the ring breaks and
undergoes polymerization. Then the molten mass is passed through spinnerets to form fibres
of nylon 6

7: nylon 6,6
Raw materials of nylon 6,6:
Nylon -6,6 is synthesized by polycondensation of
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid. Equivalent amounts of hexamethylenediamine and
adipic acid are combined with water in a reactor

Polymerization reaction of nylon 6,6:

Grades of nylon 6,6:
i. Nylatron® GS
ii. Ertalon® 66 GF30
iii. Nylatron® 66 SA FR
iv. Nylatron® 66 SA FST

Properties of nylon 6,6:

 More crystalline
 Exhibits greater mold shrinkage
 Higher melting point
 heat deflection temperature
 Lower water absorption rate
 Better chemical resistance to acids
 Better stiffness, tensile modulus and flexural modulus

Polymerization technique :
Nylon -6,6 is synthesized by polycondensation of
hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid

8: nomex (Meta-aramid polymer)
Raw materials:
Nomex is produced by condensation reaction from the monomers m-
phenylenediamine and isophthaloyl chloride.
Polymerization reaction:

Grades of nomex available in market:

 Nomex® Type E56
 Nomex® Type E410
 Nomex® Type E411
 Nomex® meta-aramid

Properties of nomex:

 High inherent dielectric strength

 Mechanical toughness

 Thermal stability

 Flexibility

 Resilience
 durable
 fireproof.

End uses of nomex:

Shoe
Gloves
Trouser
Shirt
Balaclava
Sock
Racing suit

Polymerization technique:
Aramids are made in a two-stage process. First, the basic polymer is made by reacting

together organic (carbon-based) substances to form a liquid. In the second stage, the liquid is

spun out to make solid fibers, which can then be woven into textiles or converted into sheet

form.

9: Orlon(Polyacrylonitrile):
Raw material:
Orlon is polymer of vinyl cyanide.It is made by addition of acryolnitrile molecules.

It is a brand of synthetic, acrylic textile fiber of light weight and wrinkle resistant fabric.

Polymerization reaction:
Main Properties :
Strength
This fibre is of moderate strength, but it is the weakest of the acrylic fibres The abrasion
resistance of this fibre is good and compares favorably with that of wool.

Elasticity
Orlon has little stretch. The low stretchability makes it useful for knitted wear. Most of the
stretch that does exit is due to the mechanical crimp put into the fibre.

Resilience
It has very good resilience and therefore will not wrinkle easily. High resilience makes Orlon
desirable for men’s slacks and suits as well as for women’s dresses.

Drapability
The drapability of this fibre varies with the type of fibre. Generally speaking, it provides
satisfactory draping qualities.

Heat Conductivity
Like all Acrylics, it does not conduct heat rapidly; therefore, fabrics of this fibre can be warm.
The fibre has a dog-bone cross section, which provides overlapping and bulk (with little weight).

Absorbency
Like other Acrylics, it has low absorbency. Nevertheless, fabrics made of this staple will
take on quite a bit of water on account of the staple’s absorbency
Cleanliness And Washability
These fabrics do not soil or stain easily, and washing or dry cleaning quickly renews their
freshness. A mild detergent should, however, be used in laundering since strong detergents will
damage them. If desired, any ordinary cleaning fluid and household beach may be safely used.

Effect Of Bleaches
Fabrics of this yarn may be safely bleached with any of the household bleaches.

Shrinkage
The discussion regarding the various types of Orlon fibre shows that some will shrink in
processing and that this characteristic is utilized in obtaining desired effects, such as high-bulk
yarns and pile fabrics. However, once the finished product reaches the consumer, it may be
expected to have excellent dimensional stability since the Orlon fibre will have practically no
further shrinkage.

Effect Of Heat
This fibre gets tacky at 455o F which is slightly above that of Nylon. At higher temperatures, it
will melt. Fabrics from this fibre should be ironed with a moderately warm iron; in fact, they may
be ironed while dry. Old creases may be removed, and new ones added. Since fabrics of this
yarn may be heat set, it is often unnecessary to press them, but some ironing may be desired to
smooth the cloth.

Effect Of Light
It has resistance to light. Its extreme resistance to such degradation makes it especially useful
for fabrics that will be exposed to sunlight for an extended period of time.

Resistance To Mildew
Mildew may form on the surface, but it will have no effect on fabric of this yarn. It may be easily
wiped off.

Resistance To Insects
It is unaffected by moths or their larvae or by carpet beetles.

Reaction To Alkalies
It has fair to good resistance to weak alkalies and to strong alkalies at room temperature.

Reaction To Acids
It has well to excellent resistance to strong mineral acids as well as organic acids.

Affinity To Dyes
Some types of Orlon fibres are specific to acid dyes and some to basic dyes, which can
provide interesting cross-dyed effects. Other types of Orlon can be dyed in a wide range
of colors and hues with cationic, disperse, napthol, and selected vat dyes. The colors
have satisfactory fastness to washing and light.

Resistance To Perspiration
All indications are that fabrics of this yarn are not readily deteriorated by perspiration,
but the color may be affected.

End uses of orlon:

 Blanket
 Carpet
 Sweater
 Tracksuit
 Upholstery
 Boot
 Rug

Polymerization technique :
Orlon is polymer of vinyl cyanide in terms of science. Thus, it
is made by addition of acryolnitrile molecules. The ventral carbon breaks their double bonds to
form a new bond a new additional carbon bonds. Orlon is a brand of synthetic, acrylic textile
fibre of light weight and wrinkle resistant fabric

Technora

RAW MATERIAL:

Technora is a para-aramid high performance fibre, made

from copolymers and produced in a different process from PPTA (Twaron)

Polymerization reaction
 Grades available in market:

 Technora T200
 Technora T200W
 Technora T240B
 Technora T221

Properties:

 High strength-to-weight ratio

 High modulus
 High dimensional stability: low creep, small negative
 thermal expansion coefficient
 Excellent thermal stability: effective over an
 extremely wide temperature range, no melting point,
 high heat stability, low heat conductivity
 Good abrasion and fatigue resistance
 High cut resistance
 Excellent chemical resistance
 Low flammability
 Electrically non-conductive
 Long, well-defined lifetime

End uses of technora:

 Automotive and other industries:

 Automotive and other industries:
 Automotive and other industries:
o Turbo hoses
o high pressure hoses
o Timing and V-belts
o mechanical rubber goods reinforcement
 Linear tension
o Optical fiber cables (OFC)
o Ram air parachute suspension lines
 o ropes, wire ropes and cables
o Umbilical cables
o Electrical mechanical cable (EMC)
o Windsurfing sails
o Hangglider sails

Technique use for polymerization:

Technora is produced by condensation polymerization of terephthaloyl chloride (TCl) with a
mixture of p-phenylenediamine (PPD) and 3,4'-diaminodiphenylether (3,4'-ODA)

11:TEFLON (polytetrafluoroethylene)
Raw material:

The main raw materials of polytetrafluoroethylene are Chloroform, Fluorspar, and

hydrochloric acid.

Polymerization reaction :
(a) Production of trichloromethane (chloroform)
Trichloromethane is one of the products formed by the reaction of methane and a mixture of
chlorine and hydrogen chloride.  This can be performed in the liquid phase at 370-420 K
using a zinc chloride catalyst.  Alternatively, the reaction is carried out in the vapour phase,
using alumina gel or zinc oxide on silica as a catalyst at 620-720 K.

(b) Production of chlorodifluoromethane

Trichloromethane is reacted with anhydrous hydrogen fluoride in the presence of
antimony(III) and antimony(V) chlorofluoride to give chlorodifluoromethane:
(c) Production of tetrafluoroethene (tetrafluoroethylene, TFE))
Since TFE is an explosive gas (bp 197 K), it is usually made when and where required for
polymerization so that there is minimum storage time of the monomer between its production
and its polymerization.
Chlorodifluoromethane is heated in the absence of air, a process known as pyrolysis:

Low pressures (atmospheric) and high temperatures (940-1070 K) favour the reaction.
Steam, preheated to 1220 K, and chlorodifluoromethane, at 670 K, are fed into a reactor.
Steam is used to dilute the reaction mixture and hence reduce the reactant partial pressure,
and thus the formation of carbon and toxic by-products.  The steam also supplies all the heat
required by this endothermic reaction.  Very little hydrolysis of reactant and product occurs.
Once formed, the product must be rapidly cooled to 770 K to prevent the reverse reaction
occurring and the explosive decomposition of TFE:

The cooling is done by passing the vapour through a water-cooled heat exchanger, made of
graphite to resist chemical attack and thermal shock.  Reactor residence time is 1 second.
(d) Polymerization of tetrafluoroethene (tetrafluoroethylene)
The monomer is transformed into the polymer poly(tetrafluoroethene) (PTFE), by radical
polymerization.  The reaction is carried out by passing TFE into water containing a radical
initiator, e.g. ammonium persulfate, (NH4)2S2O8, at 310-350 K and a pressure of 10-20 atm.

Grades available in market:

Chemically Modified PTFE

Pigmented PTFE
Carbon / Coke filled PTFE (soft amorphous carbon hard fiber)
Graphite filled PTFE(pure crystalline carbon)
Carbon + Graphite + Glass Filled
Bronze filled PTFE(oxidising /Non oxidising)
Bronze plus, Molybdenu filled PTFE
Calcium Fluoride m Disulphide filled PTFE
Properties:

Use

High thermal stability

High melting point

Stable to chemical attack

Low dielectric constant

Low coefficient of friction

The cohesive forces between

polymer and water are much
less than between water
molecules

Stable to UV radiation

End uses:

Use

Can be used between  60 to 630 K

From 453 K (PVDF) to 600 K (PTFE)

Can be used in contact with mineral acids, alkalis, inorganic oxidizing agents,
solvents (for example, alcohols, ketones, esters,  chlorocarbons and
fluorocarbons)
 Excellent insulator

Little friction between moving parts

 Imparts non-stick properties to utensils

Can be used outside in  sunlight

Polymerization technique:
PTFE is polymerized from the chemical compound tetrafluoroethylene, or TFE. ...
The polymerization process uses a very small amount of other chemicals as initiators. Various
initiators can be used, including ammonium persulfate or disuccinic acid peroxide.

12:ULTEM (POLYIMIDE)

RAW MATERIAL:
ULTEM® is an amor- phous thermoplastic polyetherimide (PEI) material which com- bines
exceptional mechanical, thermal, and electrical proper- ties. Natural ULTEM® 1000
(unreinforced) is a translucent amber material.
Polymerization reaction:

Grades available in market:

 glass-reinforced grades 30%
 glass-filled (Ultem 2300)
 , 20% glass-filled (Ultem 2200)
 10% glass-filled (Ultem 2100).

Properties:

 Heat,flame
 solvent resistant.
 Has high dielectric strength
 extremely low smoke generation.

End uses :

Used in medical

Chemical instrumentation

Guitar picks
Polymerization technique:
This technique provides a high degree of mechanical reliability with excellent pull-out ... This
amorphous polymer with the Ultem

13:

Vectran(aromatic polyester)

Raw material:
Vectran is a manufactured fiber, spun from a liquid-crystal polymer (LCP).  Chemically it is
an aromatic polyester produced by the polycondensation of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and 6-
hydroxynaphthalene-2-carboxylic acid.

Polymerization reaction:

Grades of vectran:
 Vectran vt-6a
 Vectran vt-6d
 Vectran vt-7a
  Vectran vt-7d

Properties:

 High strength and modulus.

 Excellent creep resistance.
 High abrasion resistance.
 Excellent flex/fold characteristics.
 Minimal moisture absorption.
 Hydrolytically stable.
 Resistance to organic solvents.
 Stable to acids (<90% concentration)

End uses :
Vectran fibers are used as reinforcing (matrix) fibers for ropes, electrical cables, sailcloth, and
advanced composite materials, professional bike tires, and in electronics applications.

Polymerization technique:
Vectran® fibers have been utilized by NASA on the Mars Pathfinder. Vectran® is an aromatic
polyester spun from a liquid crystal polymer in a melt extrusion process

14: Zylon(poly-p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole)
Raw material:
Zylon®, the world's strongest fiber, contradicts almost everything we know about fibers and
fabrics. Zylon is made by mixing a polymer called PBO (para-phenylene benzobisoxazole),
while forcing it through a spinning machine

Polymerization reaction of zylon:

Grades available in market:

 Zylon@ AS
 Zylon@AM

Properties:
Mechanical properties

ZYLON® (PBO fiber) is the next generation super fiber with strength and modulus almost doubles
that of p-Aramid fiber.

o Thermal properties
o ZYLON® shows 100 C higher decomposition temperature than p-Aramid fiber. –
o The limiting oxygen index is 68, which is the highest among organic super fibers.
o   A significant difference of weight loss behavior is observed at 500 C between
ZYLON® and Aramid fibers.
The strength of ZYLON® gradually decreases even at the temperature of less than 100 C in high
humidity condition. ZYLON® fiber should be stored free from high humidity at normal room
temperatures.
 Hot air shrinkage
 Flame resistance
 ZYLON® shows extremely high flame resistance. In a vertical flame test (JIS L1091 A-4),
char length is almost zero.
 Light resistance
 Chemical resistance
 Exposure to strong acids causes strength losses. However, ZYLON® is more stable than p-
Aramid..
 Abrasion resistance between fiber andmetal

Uses:

 1Body armor
 2Space elevator research
 3High-altitude balloon science
 4Motorsport
 5Standing rigging
 6Parachutes
 7Conductive textile
 8Structural Rehabilitation

Polymerization techniques:
It is produced by gel spinning, a super drawing technique that uses a dilute solution of ultra-
high molecular weight polymer such as polyethylene to unfold chains further and thus
increases both tensile strength and fibre modulus.
15: polystyrene:
Raw material:
 Polystyrene (PS) is a polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is
commercially manufactured from petroleum.

Polymerization reaction :
Grades available in market:

 polystyrene foam
 regular polystyrene plastic
  polystyrene film.

Properties :

Property Value
Density (g/cm3) 1.07
Surface Hardness RM80
Tensile Strength (MPa) 34
Flexural Modulus (GPa) 3
Notched Izod (kJ/m) 0.02
Linear Expansion (/°C x 10 ) -5
7
Elongation at Break (%) 1.6
Strain at Yield (%) 1.4
Max. Operating Temp. (°C) 50
Water Absorption (%) 0.05
Oxygen Index (%) 18
Flammability UL94 HB
Volume Resistivity (log ohm.cm) 16
Dielectric Strength (MV/m) 20
Dissipation Factor 1 kHz 0.0002
Dielectric Constant 1 kHz 2.6
HDT @ 0.45 MPa (°C) 90
HDT @ 1.80 MPa (°C) 80
Material. Drying hrs @ (°C) 2 @ 70
Melting Temp. Range (°C) 200 - 250
Mould Shrinkage (%) 0.5
Mould Temp. Range (°C) 20 - 50

End uses:

Polystyrene in Appliances
Refrigerators, air conditioners, ovens, microwaves, vacuum cleaners, blenders – these and
other appliances often are made with polystyrene (solid and foam) because it is inert (doesn’t
react with other materials), cost-effective and long-lasting.

Polystyrene in Automotive
Polystyrene (solid and foam) is used to make many car parts, including knobs, instrument
panels, trim, energy absorbing door panels and sound dampening foam. Foam polystyrene also
is widely used in child protective seats. 

Polystyrene in Electronics
Polystyrene is used for the housing and other parts for televisions, computers and all types of IT
equipment, where the combination of form, function and aesthetics are essential. 

Polystyrene in Foodservice
Polystyrene foodservice packaging typically insulates better, keeps food fresher longer and
costs less than alternatives. 

Polystyrene in Insulation
Lightweight polystyrene foam provides excellent thermal insulation in numerous applications,
such as building walls and roofing, refrigerators and freezers, and industrial cold storage
facilities. Polystyrene insulation is inert, durable and resistant to water damage.

Polystyrene in Medical
Due to its clarity and ease of sterilization, polystyrene is used for a wide range of medical
applications, including tissue culture trays, test tubes, petri dishes, diagnostic components,
housings for test kits and medical devices.

Polystyrene in Packaging
Polystyrene (solid and foam) is widely used to protect consumer products. CD and DVD cases,
foam packaging peanuts for shipping, food packaging, meat/poultry trays and egg cartons
typically are made with polystyrene to protect against damage or spoilage

Polymerization technique:
Commercial polystyrene is mostly synthesized by bulk, suspension or
solution polymerization of ethylbenzene (styrene). The most common method is free
radical polymerization, using benzoyl peroxide as initiator
16: polyester
Raw material:
Synthetic polyester is made using a chemical reaction involving coal, petroleum, air and water.
This material is made up of purified terephthalic acid (PTS) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT) and monotheluene glycol (MEG).

Polymerization reaction:
Grades available in market:

 flat FDY
 (air-)textured yarn
 monofilament
 high tenacity yarn
 high tenacity yarn in flame retardant
 spun yarn
 flock
 fiber
 POY
 tow
 flock
 Jacquard harness cord
  chenille
 micro yarn

properties:

 Polyester fabrics and fibers are extremely strong.

 Polyester is very durable: resistant to most chemicals, stretching and shrinking,
wrinkle resistant, mildew and abrasion resistant.
 Polyester is hydrophobic in nature and quick drying. It can be used for insulation by
manufacturing hollow fibers.
 Polyester retains its shape and hence is good for making outdoor clothing for harsh
climates.
 It is easily washed and dried.

End uses:

 Clothing
 Trouser
 Blanket
 Rope
 Hat
 Tarpaulin
 Holo graphy
 Conveyer belt

Polymerization technique:

A method for the production of solid polyester polymer resin comprising: a) esterifying the

diacids and diols to form an oligomer mixture with a DP of less than 20; and b) polycondensing
the oligomer mixture in the presence of a polycondensation catalyst

17: ACRYLIC FIBER

RAW MATERIAL:

Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer (polyacrylonitrile) with an average

molecular weight of -100,000, about 1900 monomer units. For a fiber to be called "acrylic" in
the US, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer. Typical comonomers are
vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate.

Polymerization reaction:

Grades available in market:

 Acrilan,
 Creslan
 Orlon
 Sayelle
 Zefran

Properties:

Length
The length of the acrylic fibre can be controlled. That means, it may be in filament or
staple form.

Fineness
Fineness of this fibre is also controllable. The filament yarns are made 75 to 200 denier
ranges while staple fibres are made 2 and 3 denier cut into 1.5”, 2”, 3” and 4” length.

Strength and Extension

It is fairly strong fibre. Its tenacity is 5 gm per denier in dry state and 4.8 gm per denier
in wet state. Extension at break is 15%. Good recovery from deformation.

Elasticity
It has an elastic recovery of 85% after 4% extension when the load is extremely
released.

Cross-sectional shape
Normally round but cross-section of this fibre could be varied.

Appearance
It is about 30% bulkier than wool. Regarding insulating warmth, it has about 20% greater
insulating power than wool.

Effects of chemical
 Acid:It has good resistance to mineral acid.
 Alkali:The resistance to weak alkali is fairly good but hot strong alkali damages this
fibre.
 Solvent:It has excellent resistance to common solvents, oils, greases, and natural salts.
 Water:moisture regain of this fibre varies from 1.5% to 3%. Easy to wash and quick
drying.
Effect of heat and sunlight
This fiber has very good thermal stability. Safe ironing temperature is at 1600C. At 230 –
2350C acrylic sticks with the iron i.e. melting occurs. High temperature may sometime
causes yellowing of this fibre.

Effect of Biological agents

This fibre is unaffected by mildew, moulds, larves and insects.

End uses :
 Blanket
 Carpet
 Sweater
 Socks gloves
 Tracksuit
 Boot

Polymerization technique:
Suspension polymerization is the process used to produce most of the acrylic fiber in the
world. The polymer chain production from monomer/comonomer does not take place in solvent,
but in demineralized water (where the polymer is insoluble). This polymerization reaction is
easy to control.

18:vinyon:
Raw material:

It is a copolmyer of 86% vinyl chloride and 14% vinyl acetate. The raw material is broken up in
CH3)2CO and dry-spun

Polymerization reaction:

Grades available in market:

Dynel

Saran

Properties:
 doesn't flame, but softens at low temperatures(55 C)
 high resistance to chemicals
 Moisture absorption is less than 0.5% and moisture regained is less than 0.1%
 crease resistant and elastic

good resistance to chemicals, bacteria, and insects

. They soften at low temperatures and are often used to bond other fibers into nonwoven
fabrics and to make heat sealable paper. 

end uses of vinyon:

They are used as flame-resistant fibers in children's clothing

blankets,

draperies, and carpeting

polymerization technique:
step growth polymerization

19:ACETATE
Acetate fabrics are made with spun filaments of cellulose taken from wood pulp. Classified as
a chemical fiber textile or semi-synthetic, acetate is sometimes mixed with silk, wool or cotton to
make it stronger. Acetate flakes are generated by a reaction of the wood pulp to a variety of
acetic acids.

POLYMERIZATION REACTION
Grades available in market:
Zinc acetate

Ehthyl acetate

Sodium acetate

Ammounium acetate

Potassium acetate

Physical Properties Of Acetate

Acetate filament: It is in broken strands. The length relies on the capacity of winding
mechanism. Modern winders hold many pounds of yarns with one or two knots per cone.
 Acetate staple fibre: It can be cut into desired length. Commonly desired lengths are
1.50, 2, 2.50 and 3 inches till 7 inches for silk industries.
 Fineness: The diameter of the strand ranges from 1.5 to 4.1 deniers for filaments and 1.5
to 20 deniers for staple fibres.
 Appearance and Color: The luster and color may be as desired. Bright luster may be
received by lesser twist. Staple are not as lustrous as filaments. Various shades from paler
tints to heavy may be acquired as they are the whitest fibres.
 Density: The density ranges from 1.25 to 1.33 gm per cc. relying on the methods of
measurement and moisture at the time of making.
 Absorption: The hygroscopicity is corresponding to cellulose but absorption is much
less since hydroxyl groups are removed by acetyl groups.
 Tenacity: The wet strength is 65% of dry strength. The fibres can be changed in tenacity
by the manufacturers.
 Elasticity: Under general situations, elastic recovery of fibre is completed within few
seconds. But for longer time and heavier load creep, deterioration or clearage occurs.
 Thermal properties: It is a thermoplastic material. With temperature it becomes soft. It
can be ironed at the temperature up to 2500 F. Above this sticking and melting occurs.
 Conductivity: It is a perfect insulator. The static electricity is created by friction.
Chemical Properties Of Acetate
 Effect of alkalis: It is stable to water even at boil and can withstand soap solutions and
alkalis at normal temperature.
 Effect of acids: It is unaffected by thin solution but is attacked by strong acids. The
degradation of molecules occurs and the chain breaks.
 Effect of oxidizing agents: Mild oxidizing agents may be utilized i.e. chlorine is old and
mild peroxide.
 Effect of organisms: It is resistant to attack by bacteria and mildew but it is attacked by
moth which makes holes in fabric.

End uses :
Apparel- Blouses

, dresses

, linings,

special occasion apparel

Home Fashion – Draperies

, upholstery,

Curtains

, bedspreads

Polymerization technique:
This process is usually carried out according to a free radical emulsion polymerization of the
monomer in water in the presence of surfactant
 20 rayon

Raw material:
Raw material used in rayon is wood pulp/wood cellulose. Raw materials used in nylon are
petroleum,natural gas,lime stone, coal,water,acetylene etc. polyster is made using purified
terephthalic acid and monoethelyne glycol etc

Polymerization reaction:

Grades available in market:

Modal

Lyocell

Properties:

 Tenacity: 2.4 – 3.2 gm/den.

 Density: 1.64 – 1.54 gm/c.c.
 Elongation at break: 13%
 Elasticity: Good.
 Moisture Regain (MR%): 11 – 13%
 Melting point: This fiber becomes weak when it heated above 150 oc.
 Ability to protest friction: Less.
 Color: White.
 properties and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds
and mildew.
Action of Acids:
The resistance of regenerated cellulose rayon’s to acids is generally less than that of cotton to
the same concentrations of the same acids. Therefore , acid treatments must not be too drastic
with respect to concentration ,temperature and time .Organic acids can be safely used in 1 to 2
percent concentration without injury to the fiber. Inorganic acids such as hydrochloric & nitric can
be used in surprisingly strong concentrations provided the temperatures are not too high and the
treatment is brief. Oxalic acid for removal of iron stains is not recommended except at
temperatures lower than 150°F.At high temperatures and concentrations all acid will destroy or
carbonize regenerated rayon’s. No harmful action will result if applied at .5 to 3 percent solution
at room temperature.

Action of Soaps:
Ordinary soaps in usual textile concentration have no direct effect on regenerated cellulose
materials. Improper use of soap or use of poorly made soap results in rancidity and odor in rayon
fabrics or yarns. When soaps alone is used ,there is a tendency for the ionized fatty acid from
the soap to adhere tenaciously to the individual rayon filaments. During the drying filament of
such materials and subsequent storage .The free fatty acid radical is very likely to turn rancid &
to give the goods & objectionable odor. This phenomenon is specially Prevalent on oil-
delustered rayons, because the fatty acid radical of the soap adheres Tenaciously to the minute
oil globules in the structure of the yarn.If given time enough the fatty acid radical

Action of Dry Heat:

Most regenerated celluloses, under the influence of heat as well as light ,show rapid loss in
strength, this change being accompanied by a increase in copper number and alkali solubility. In
a study of effect of drying conditions of textile yearns, Wiegerink in 1940 showed that the quality
index of cellulose fibers decreases either as the temperature is increased or as the moisture
content of the surrounding atmosphere is increased .Both the breaking strength & fluidity of
viscose rayon appear to be functions of the relative humidity to which the samples are exposed.
Degradation of cellulose is lower in the absence of oxygen. Continued heating , however , in the
absence of oxygen leads to deterioration of the cellulose but little is known about the course of
the reactions. Short heating at high temperatures ,such as 140°c is less harmful than long
heating at lower temperatures. A decrease of tenacity & eventually a yellow to brown
discoloration occurs on aging.

Action of Solvents
Textile solvents can be used on Viscose rayon without any deteriorating effect. Viscose rayon
dissolves in cuprammonium hydroxide solution.

Effect of Iron
Contact with iron in the form of ferrous hydroxide weakens viscose rayon yarns. Therefore
staining, marking or touching of rayon to iron or iron surface should be avoided.
 Action of Microorganisms
Microorganisms ( moulds, mildew, fungus, bacteria) affect the colour, strength, dyeing properties
and lustre of rayon. Clean and dry viscose rayon is rarely attacked by moulds and mildew.

End uses of rayon:

 Rayon is used in textile industry for making clothing like sarees, blouses, dresses
and socks.
 Used to make bed-sheets, curtains, blankets, etc.
 Used to make carpets.
 Used in medical field for making bandages and surgical dressing.
 Used in tyre industry for the manufacture of tyre cod

Polymerization technique:
In the case of viscose Rayon, the cellulose is reacted with sodium hydroxide to form alkali
celulose, which, in turn, is reacted with carbon disulfide (CS2) to convert it to cellulose
xanthate. It is then dissolved in dilute sodium hydroxide and then extruded through
spinnerets into an acid bath (wet spinning)

21: Polyurethane:
21.1 Monomer:
Polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a di- or
triisocyanate with a polyol. Since polyurethanes contain two types of monomers, which
polymerise one after the other, they are classed as alternating copolymers.

21.2 Polymerization reaction:

21.3 Polymerization technique:

Polyurethane polymers are traditionally and most commonly formed by reacting a di- or
triisocyanate with a polyol. Since polyurethanes contain two types of monomers, which
polymerise one after the other, they are classed as alternating copolymers.
21.4 Properties:
The physical properties of polyurethane are considerable.

 Polyurethane performs well for hardness, tensile strength, compression strength, impact

resistance, abrasion resistance and tear strength.

21.5 Applications:
 Building insulation.
 Refrigerators and freezers.
 Furniture and bedding.
 Footwear.
 Automotive.
 Coatings and adhesives.
 Other applications.

22:Cumene:
22.1 Monomer

22.2 Reaction

22.3 Technique
 Friedel–Crafts alkylation[3].

22.4 Property
 A colorless, volatile liquid with a gasoline-like odor[3].

22.5 Application
Cumene in minor amounts is used as a solvent during the manufacture of paints, lacquers,
and enamels[2].
23. Polycarbonate
23.1 Monomers

23.2 Reaction

23.3 Technique
Polycarbonate can be formed into a variety of complex shapes using thermoforming, a heat-
based thermoplastic shaping technique[11].

23.4 Property
 Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 °C [2].

23.5 Application
Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its collective safety
features[11].

13) Polychloroprene
24.1 Monomer
24.2 Reaction

24.3 Technique
Produced by polymerization of chloroprene[16].

24.4 Property
 Polychloroprene exhibits good chemical stability.
 Maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range[2].

24.5 Application
 Used in production of laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote controls and mouse pads.
 The Rhodes piano used hammer tips made of polychloroprene[16].

25) Polysulfide:
25.1 Monomer:
The predominant monomer in the manufacture of liquid polysulfide polymers is Bis-(2-
chloroethyl-) formal (diformal) and sodium-polysulfide (Na2Sx) with a sulfur x-rank of 2.4 to
2.6.

25.2 Polymerization reaction:

25.3 Polymerization technique:
Polysulfide polymers can be synthesized by condensation polymerization reactions between
organic dihalides and alkali metal salts of polysulfide anions:

 n Na2S5 + n ClCH2CH2Cl → [CH2CH2S5]n + 2n NaCl.

25.4 Properties:
 Underwater curing capability.
 Exceptional chemical resistance.
 High dielectric strength.
 High physical strength.
 High and low cryogenic temperature serviceability.
 Resistance to vibration, impact, shock and thermal cycling.

25.5 Applications:
Master Bond polysulfides are versatile synthetic elastomers that are used in:

 The electronic, electrical, computer, metalworking, appliance, automotive and chemical

industries.
 They can be used in a wide range of applications, such as: Aircraft fuel tank sealants.
.