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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 2016; 4(1): 373-378

Indigenous technical knowledge in aquaculture sector: A literature review

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 International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies 2016; 4(1): 373-378 

ISSN: 2347-5129
(ICV-Poland) Impact Value: 5.62 
(GIF) Impact Factor: 0.352 Indigenous technical knowledge in aquaculture sector:
IJFAS 2016; 4(1): 373-378
© 2016 IJFAS A literature review
www.fisheriesjournal.com
Received: 16-11-2015
Accepted: 18-12-2015 Barlaya Gangadhar, Narasimhan Sridhar, Kannur Hemaprasanth,
Magadi Raghunath, Pallipuram Jayasankar
Barlaya Gangadhar
Regional Research Centre,
Abstract
ICAR- Central Institute of
A review of literature was conducted to bring together information available on the indigenous practices
Freshwater Aquaculture,
Hesaraghatta Lake Post,
followed by aqua farmers in various parts of the world. The information was grouped under the different
Bangalore-560089, India. steps of aquaculture starting from site selection for pond construction to fish health management. In
addition, aquaculture practices based on indigenous knowledge like the periphyton-based aquaculture and
Narasimhan Sridhar various integrations of aquaculture are discussed.
Regional Research Centre,
ICAR- Central Institute of Keywords: Aquaculture, Traditional practice, Fish breeding, Fish feeding, Integrated aquaculture
Freshwater Aquaculture,
Hesaraghatta Lake Post, 1. Introduction
Bangalore-560089, India. Aquaculture remained as the fastest-growing food production sector in the last decade. Asia
Kannur Hemaprasanth
has been the center of aquaculture production for decades and currently, more than 90 percent
Regional Research Centre, of the total aquaculture production comes from Asian countries, China being the biggest
ICAR- Central Institute of producer in the world [1]. Interestingly, more than 70 percent of the total aquaculture
Freshwater Aquaculture, production comes from small-scale farmers, who are also the major contributors of small-scale
Hesaraghatta Lake Post, innovations and adaptations of aquaculture technologies. In many countries of the world, the
Bangalore-560089, India.
adaptation of indigenous technologies has resulted in the development of sustainable and
Magadi Raghunath environmentally friendly aquaculture practices and hence helped the farmers to increase
Regional Research Centre, aquaculture production during the past decade [2, 3]. In this paper, we have attempted to enlist
ICAR- Central Institute of some of the indigenous knowledge practiced by fish farmers.
Freshwater Aquaculture,
Hesaraghatta Lake Post, 2. Methodology
Bangalore-560089, India.
The topic of the review was searched in Google database with different key words related to
Pallipuram Jayasankar the subject and with the literature available with us. Personal contacts were also made with
ICAR - Central Institute of experts to collect information. The experiences gained by the first author during interaction
Freshwater Aquaculture, with farming community as a part of extension service were also included. The information
Kausalyaganga, Bhubaneswar, thus received was utilized for writing this article.
Orissa-751002, India.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. ITKs in aquaculture practice
Aquaculture is the controlled production, propagation and rearing of aquatic organisms of
highly economic value in a controlled environment such as ponds, channels and enclosures,
using a higher density of cultured aquatic organisms than normally found in nature. Many rural
farmers have applied indigenous knowledge in various stages of aquaculture in order to meet
their livelihood necessities.

3.1.1. Pond construction and maintenance

i. Site selection: The fish farmers of Assam hill district are reported to have selected low-
Correspondence
lying areas near the home for fish pond. These ponds can be used as multipurpose ponds
Barlaya Gangadhar for bathing, cloth and utensil washing in addition to fish culture [4]. They preferred to
Regional Research Centre, construct embankment ponds to the dugout ponds considering economy.
ICAR- Central Institute of ii. Soil quality: In order to test the suitability of soil in terms of water retention, a mud ball is
Freshwater Aquaculture, prepared from the soil where the pond is to be constructed. If the ball does not break, the
Hesaraghatta Lake Post,
Bangalore-560089, India.
soil is considered to have enough water holding capacity, hence suitable for pond
construction (Saha and De, unpublished).
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies  
 
iii. Outlet: Farmers of Assam hill district used hollow pulverized earth and activated charcoal tend to absorb
bamboo fitted at a certain height from the bottom as out- carbon dioxide and ammonia from the medium,
let pipes. The end of the bamboo facing the ponds is consequently increasing the survival of fry.
blocked with stone and clay soil [4]. Use of around 50 ml of rice beer for every 10 l of water in
iv. Protection of pond dyke: During pond construction, the aluminum hundis, which probably acts as an anesthetizer
top of the pond is made wider than the bottom as it can has been reported in Assam during seed transport [4].
better withstand the force of water (Saha and De, However, traditional methods of transporting fish seed in
unpublished). In places experiencing heavy rainfall, most hundies (earthen or aluminum pots) resulted in heavy
dykes are prone to erosion and damage. Farmers plant mortality of fish seed [10].
plantation crops like coconut, papaya or vegetable crops
with creeping vine like cucumber, gherkin etc. or turf with 3.1.3. Seed stocking
fodder grass. In Manipur, farmers use pond dykes for i. Weed fish eradication: Mahua oil cake is used for killing
Colocasia plantation at 3000 nos. ha-1, which is used as a unwanted fish. This later gets converted into organic
vegetable in many parts of India [5]. manure enhancing pond fertility, reducing the quantity of
cow dung to be applied subsequently.
3.1.2. Fish breeding and seed transportation ii. Bird scaring: The first author of this article has recorded
i. Breeding: Knowledge on dry and wet bundh systems of the use of audio/video tapes/coloured plastics for bird
fish breeding and spawn production has been recorded scaring in several fish farms of Karnataka.
from farmers (Saha and De, unpublished). Breeding in iii. Testing the seed quality and species identification: To
bundh including Bangla bundh with hormonal injection is test the quality of seeds, farmers keep a few of them in the
a very cheap and effective method practiced by the water taken in a plate and rotate the water with finger.
farmers in many parts of West Bengal. These bundhs are Those seeds which swim in the opposite direction are
most economical and very much tuned to the considered as healthy seeds (Saha and De, unpublished).
environment. Kalitha et al. [4] have recorded that farmers distinguishing
Farmers in West Bengal were reported to use proper doses fry of catla from rohu and mrigal by its bigger head and
of the extract of water-immersed catechu (Acacia catechu) their preference of fingerlings to fry since they grow
and myrobalan (Myrobolus indica) nut in hatching pool, quickly.
to make the eggshell hard [6]. This is known to help in iv. Stunted seeds: Andhra Pradesh farmers have developed
shell hardening and prevent immature release of the technique of using stunted seed that are aged but have
hatchlings, enabling higher hatching rates. not attained a weight proportionate to their age, and
In Tamil Nadu, the practice of covering the rostrum of stimulating their rapid growth in a limited period of time
brood stock of freshwater prawn with plastic tube has by compensatory growth effect [11].
been reported (TNAU). This is done to avoid damage of
packing material during transport. 3.1.4. Fish feeding
TNAU also recorded that some fish breeders use banana i. Fish feeding using gunny bags: Andhra Pradesh farmers
leaves for deposition of eggs and teak leaves to maintain have developed a simple feeding method called “the bag
acidic pH in the ornamental fish tanks during breeding feeding technique” whereby the feed is kept in feed bags
egg layers and place carrot/ potato slices and banana peels with small perforations that may be arranged in two to
in ornamental fish larval rearing tanks to enhance the three rows. Indian major carps have the habit of browsing,
formation of live feed Infusorians. sucking the feed through perforations [11].
ii. Seed collection: Collection of spawn of murrells like ii. Supplementing common salt with feed: Another
Channa punctatus, which moves in shoals and indigenous practice followed by Andhra farmers is the use
periodically comes to the surface for breathing in natural of common salt in feed [11]. Studies conducted at College
waters using bamboo sieve/mosquito net/ cloths is of Fisheries, Mangalore with carps have revealed the
reported to be a practice during monsoon in Assam [4]. growth promoting potential of NaCl [12-14].
iii. Seed transportation: Saha and Chowdhary [7] have iii. Use of agriculture by-products as fish feed: Some
described the traditional method of transporting fry and farmers are reported to feed partially fermented maize,
fingerlings in hundis, practiced in Bengal. A traditional poultry offal and chopped dead poultry birds to the
hundi is an earthen vessel, but later aluminum hundis were African catfish for high growth (Saha and De,
introduced. Though the hundis are of variable sizes, they unpublished). Many farmers in Bangladesh were found to
are generally of two types, the smaller one has 22 cm use kura, the red powdery coating of rice under the husk
mouth diameter and 23 l capacity carried as a head load as feed. Other food sources include cow dung, poultry
and the other larger one has 23 cm diameter and 32 l waste, choker (the remains of wheat grains) obtained after
capacity used for transport by rail or bicycle or as slings. the extraction of aata and oil cake [15]. Chowdhury [16] had
The hundis are filled with water from the same source as observed that farmers in Lalmonirhat, north-west
the fry and are stocked at 50 000 in the smaller and 75 000 Bangladesh, frequently grind up the intestines of livestock
in the larger ones. About 58 g of fine silt is sprinkled over and feed it to fish. In Joydebpur, termites are a frequently
the water surface in the hundi. During transport, the cited problem by farmers. It is reported that the local
hundis are shaken periodically. Basu [8] had reported that women and children collect up the mounds which are then
addition of silt coagulates the suspended organic thrown into fish ponds. Carp, particularly rohu, catla and
pollutants. Saha and Chowdhury [7] have observed that Thai saputi appear particularly fond of termite eggs.
management practices like addition of silt, removal of Feeding fish with other on-farm resources like grass,
sediments by mopping them up with a rough cloth rope azolla have been observed by the first author in some parts
and partial exchange of water permitted transport up to a of Karnataka. The addition of banana leaves to ponds
duration of 30 hrs. Saha et al. [9] demonstrated that stocked with grass carp was recorded by Islam [15]. Grass-
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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies  
 
fed fishponds are reported mainly from China and vii. Removal of poisonous gas: Raking of the pond bottom by
Thailand [17, 18]. In a polyculture pond, the poorly-digested dragging tree-branches or brick suspended from a rope is
excreta from grass carp serve as fertilization for the pond practiced by some farmers for the release of obnoxious
ecosystem and also as direct feed for other fish species. gases trapped inside the soils (Saha and De, unpublished).
The inclusion of grass carp as ‘grass bio-processor’ viii. Hiding places: Farmers cultivating Australian freshwater
enables the use of near-pond grass sources and leads to crayfish Cherax quadricarinatus use tyres and bricks as
marked increases in overall fish production. hiding places [11]. They also use onion bag bundles to
protect and harvest small juveniles from ponds. Use of
3.1.5. Fish health management bricks/tiles/ tyres as hid outs is also seen in India in prawn
i. Dissolved oxygen deficiency: Depletion of dissolved culture ponds.
oxygen especially during morning hours is managed by
farmers through indigenous methods like channelizing 3.2. Aquaculture practices based on indigenous knowledge
fresh spring water, beating the water with bamboo 3.2.1. Sticks in the mud- the periphyton-based aquaculture
pole/banana pseudo stem (TNAU), spraying water with The acadja practice of West Africa was first described by
open containers, making children swim in ponds (Adarsh Welcomme [20] based on the practices followed in western
G. Pers. Comn.) etc. Saha and De (unpublished) reported African countries to capture fish through trapping by
the use of ducks which swim in pond and aerate the water. establishing periphyton-based food production systems
ii. Turbidity management: For controlling persistent clay through installing bushy substrates where fish gather to breed,
turbidity farmers in Assam apply paddy straw/pieces of feed or shelter. These periphyton-based practices have been
banana stem [4]. The application of lime to ponds to clear developed independently in various geographical locations all
unclean water and addition of pieces of banana stem was over the world, following a very similar strategy like the katha
also recorded by Chowdhury et al. [16] in Bangladesh. fishery in Bangladesh and the samarah fishery in Cambodia.
When these substances rot, they will be removed The idea of exploiting periphyton techniques in ponds, based
periodically. To control algal bloom, practices like on traditional farmers’ practices, has attracted a wide research
spraying cattle urine in considerable quantities [4] or interest [21]. Results clearly demonstrate the scope to increase
mixture or red soil and sand on pond surface (Rajesh, fish production by using the periphyton system [22]. The
K.M. Pers. Comn.) have been reported to be effective. practice originated from indigenous knowledge to attract fish,
Goswami et al. [6] have observed the use of bamboo poles and fish farmers have found easy and feasible ways to
with toothed prongs or coir rope to remove aquatic weed understand its principle and apply it in aquaculture. The
(Jahanesbaptistia sp.) from water bodies where Penaeus farmers in Bangladesh, where the substrate-based fish culture
monodon (Bagda) is cultivated. is more prevalent, believe that shaola (periphyton) can grow
iii. Argulus (fish lice) control: In cases of infection with the on substrate, and that this can not only be used as fish feed, but
crustacean ecto-parasite Argulus sp., farmers plant can protect the farmers’ ponds from fish poachers, since it is
bamboo pieces in ponds. Farmers believe that the fishes difficult to use nets in ponds with substrate. The substrates
can get rid of Argulus by rubbing their bodies against the used by them are available within their farming systems.
bamboo pieces [4, 6]. In fact, Bamboo poles are good
substrates for Argulus to breed. They colonize on bamboo 3.2.2. Integrated aquaculture
poles and lay eggs on them (Hemaprashanth, Pers. Integrated fish farming systems such as crop-livestock-fish
Comn.). Some farmers also keep old gunny bags culture integration were developed by Chinese farmers
submerged in pond water. Bamboo poles or gunny bags thousands of years ago [23], and they are still playing a major
will be removed periodically and dried to kill eggs of the role as nutrient-recycling strategies in many developing
Argulus deposited over them. countries of the world.
iv. Leach control: Farmers in Assam are reported to throw i. Paddy-cum-fish culture
peels of cucumber or leaves of bitter gourd made into Paddy-cum-fish culture is considered among the most basic
paste form. It is believed that these bitter plant materials type of traditional integrated fish farming system in the world
help in eradicating leaches [4]. [11]
. Archaeological evidence has indicated the possible co-
v. Control of epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS): evolution of agriculture and integrated aquaculture systems
Application of a paste of turmeric powder and ash of hay since more than 8000 years ago in China [24, 25], with numerous
or bamboo to control EUS has been practiced by fish designs and experiences in experimentation and
farmers in Assam. Some farmers even apply branches of implementation [26-29]. Usually, a small portion (5-20%) of the
Neem plant into fish ponds [4]. Goswami et al. [6] have area of the rice field is converted into a trench, a refuge pond,
reported the use of a paste made from garlic (2 kg), salt (2 or both in combination. Trench layouts vary considerably in
kg), CuSO4 (20 g), KMnO4 (20 g) mixed in 30-50 liter of their location in the rice fields. The integrated fish-in-paddy
water and sprayed over pond water of 0.133 ha pond by field system functions through the feeding of fish on
hatchery owners in West Bengal to control EUS. Saha and organisms (particularly insects and other possible rice pests)
De (unpublished) reported the application of a solution of and weeds, and the stirring of the sediment through their
rotten jaggery on fish for controlling ulcers. foraging action which leads to nutrient re-suspension [30, 31]. It
vi. pH control: Toddy (palm sap) is used by shrimp farmers has been observed frequently that rice yields increase through
for pH control [19]. Goswami et al. [6] have reported that the inclusion of fish [26, 28].
banana pseudo stem can be used to increase pH through In India, where traditional aquaculture was mainly practiced
their alkaline secretion by cutting them into pieces and along the coastline by fisheries communities, the most ancient
immersing in pond water. This practice of West Bengal traditional fish farming systems include the bheri system in
farmers is reported to minimize protozoan diseases and West Bengal, the gheri system in Orissa, the pokkali system in
Argulus. Kerala, the khazan system of Goa and the khar lands or gazani

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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies  
 
(coastal khar lands) in Karnataka [11]. West Africa) from ancient times and is based on the
In West Bengal, where the salinity is either low or lowered by integration of the culture of Tilapia spp. and Clarias spp. (both
fresh water discharge diluting the tidal water, the cultivation of can tolerate high salinity rates) with rice production [11]. The
fish is undertaken in paddy fields. The bheri system is system is based on the construction of a main dam and
implemented for rice-fish culture or for fish monoculture. secondary dykes to regulate the entrance of seawater and to
Most bheries are used for fish culture using the Kolkata city facilitate the storage of rain water into the rice field, in order to
domestic sewage as the feeding source [32, 33]. This technique of create a brackish environment appropriate for rice and fish
sewage-fed system is considered to be unique, and it is the culture. This “artificial” ecosystem created by rainfall water
largest system under sewage-fed fish culture in the world. mixed with sea water decreases the number of predatory
In pokkali fields of Kerala, which cover an area of around species less tolerant to low salinity.
12,50,000 ha [34] summer fallow months are utilized for The integration of paddy cultivation with fish culture has also
brackish water aquaculture. These fields are under the been an indigenous practice followed in other Asian countries.
influence of Vembanad backwaters, which are in, turn In Bangladesh, a recent achievement is the control of the
controlled by tides. Rice is cultivated in these fields, as they golden apple snail, a rice pest, by the common carp [38]. A
are flooded during southwest monsoon (June-September). Fish beneficial technology for smallholders has been the use of rice
and prawns are cultured during other periods. Immediately fields as nurseries for rearing fish fry to fingerlings during the
after the harvest of rice, the fields are leased out for the culture 3-month rice-cropping period [39]. In Indonesia, traditional
of fish and prawns. The small fishes and prawns enter the systems combined rice and fish culture and the wastes from
fields from near shore waters along with high tides. These this system often flowed downstream into brackish water
fishes feed on the vegetative contents of the left over paddy aquaculture systems (tambak). The tambaks themselves were
plants and weeds. The production of fish and shrimp in such poly culture ponds, often combining fish, vegetables and tree
culture varies from 500 to 1,200 kg/ha. After the prawn crops [40].
harvest, the water is drained off. Subsequently, the saline ii. Integration of Makhana cultivation with fish culture
nature of rice fields is nullified because of the monsoon rains Integration of Makhana (Euryale ferox) cultivation with fish
and the fields are again made fit for rice culture. The culture is reported from Manipur [5]. Indian major carps and
traditional paddy varieties used even withstood the flooding by exotic carps, air-breathing fishes like Channa sp. and Anabas
the 2004 tsunami. The pokkali paddy is a unique variety which testudineus have been used for culture. Makhana fruits are
is known to be saline, flood and acid resistant. This organically tasty, have herbal value, mature and immature fruits serve as
grown variety is known for its peculiar taste, high protein vegetables and the tender leaves and petioles also serve as
content and medicinal properties. vegetables after removing the spiny part. The rhizome of the
Apatani paddy-cum-fish cultivation is an indigenous farming plant is used as diuretic and in the treatment of dropsy,
system of North East India. ‘Aptani’s, a progressive jaundice, scabies and gonorrhoea. Ripe seeds are used in the
agricultural community and one of the relatively advanced treatment of chronic diarrhea. The plants are propagated from
tribal societies in North East India practice paddy-cum-fish mature seeds. Soaked mature seeds are sown up to the end of
farming along with shifting cultivation (Jhum) [35]. The system January in a separate pond. Seedlings are transplanted in
uses a combination of paddy and fish together with finger culture ponds with a plant to plant gap of 5-6 ft,
millet (Eleusine coracana) on the bunds separating each plot. accommodating around 700-800 plants/ha. The integration is
A small pit is dug in each terrace where paddy is grown, reported to give farmer a net profit of around Rs.
fingerlings are put. When water supply is sufficient in 1,78.525/ha/yr.
monsoon season, the whole paddy field is kept under shallow iii. Other integrations
submergence of 5-10 cm and fishes come out of the pits and Trenches in fruit orchards: In the Mekong Delta in southern
move around the terrace. During water scarcity, fishes run Vietnam, farmers implement a system of trenches within their
back to the pits and grow. Fishes get nutrition due to manuring fruit orchards, usually surrounded by a lateral trench and a
of paddy field, wash-out from the hill slopes, house and connection to the adjacent rice field [41]. Fish and freshwater
granary sites and larger surface area for grazing. Studies have prawns can move between the sub-systems and benefit from
shown the possibility of getting up to 5 t of rice/ha and an the decomposing rice straw, the fallen fruit and from insects
average of 500 kg fish/ha. dropping into the water.
The khazan system of paddy-cum--fish culture is practiced Mangroves and brackish water shrimps: The term ‘forestry-
along the coast of Goa and is an example of a community- fish’ co-culture is used for the cultivation of brackish water
managed agriculture-aquaculture integrated ecosystem. The fish and shrimps in fenced-off mangrove forests in Malaysia,
history of the system dates back to the sixth century [36]. This the Philippines and Vietnam [42].
system was developed by local farmers who used their Bamboo-fish culture is conducted in China, in which the mud
traditional knowledge on climate, tidal cycles, geomorphology, from fish ponds is used to fertilize bamboo plantations grown
monsoon precipitation, runoff, sediment dynamics, soil around the ponds. The waste from the processing of the
properties and drainage characteristics of estuarine lands, in bamboo shoots is fed into fishponds [17].
order to develop a suitable practice [37]. The production system Another system previously utilised widely in China is the
is located in the mangroves, which have been reclaimed using combination of aquaculture and mulberry trees growing
a system of dykes, canals and gates. The traditional and highly adjacent to ponds, in which silkworm droppings and waste
adapted khazan technology is based on the principle of salinity pupae are fed into fishponds along with the washings from
regulation and tidal clock. The system is currently under threat silkworm trays [43, 17, 44].
due to urban growth; thus, efforts are being made to preserve
this traditional fish farming technology. 4. Conclusion
A traditional paddy-cum-fish culture system has been In the coming years, small scale aquaculture (sometime
practiced in mangrove areas of Guinea Bissau (a country in referred to as ‘rural aquaculture’) is poised to play significant

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International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies  
 
role in increasing freshwater fish production in the country. Aquaculture 2010, Phuket, Thailand. September 2010.
This low-input aquaculture system is closely associated with FAO, Rome and NACA, Bangkok 2012; 22-25:823-875.
Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITKs). Though efforts are 12. Nandeesha MC, Gangadhar B, Varghese TJ, Keshavanath
made to identify, validate and recommend ITK by some P. Effect of dietary sodium chloride supplementation on
Governments, much indigenous knowledge remains growth, biochemical composition and digestive enzyme
undocumented. There is a need to recognize ITK, compile, activity of Cyprinus carpio (Linn.) and Cirrhinus mrigala
value and appreciate their interaction with local communities. (Ham.). J. Aquacult. Trop. 2000; 15:135-144.
The enhancement of the quality of life of the people who 13. Keshavanath P, Gangadhar B, Khadri S. Growth
depend on aquaculture production would be almost impossible enhancement of carp and prawn through dietary sodium
if this rich tradition of ITK is kept to a few people. Therefore, chloride supplementation. Aquacult. Asia. 2003; 8(4):4-8.
ITK needs to be incorporated into the zonal research and 14. Gangadhara B, Nandeesha MC, Keshavanath P, Varghese
development agenda. However, before reliable TJ. Growth response, biochemical composition and
recommendations can be made, there is an urgent need to digestive enzyme activity of Labeo rohita (Ham.) fed salt
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so as to integrate the best ones into the farming system. 176.
15. Islam MM. Farmers’ use of indigenous technical
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