Never - Ending - Quest - Graves PDF
Never - Ending - Quest - Graves PDF
Never - Ending - Quest - Graves PDF
NEVER ENDING
Quest
Dr. Clare W. Graves
Explores Human Nature
ECLET Publishing
Santa Barbara, California
© Copyright 2005 by Christopher Cowan and Natasha Todorovic
ECLET Publishing
All Rights Reserved
First Printing
ECLET Publishing
PO Box 42212
Santa Barbara CA 93140-2212
http://www.ecletpublishing.com
Graves, Clare W.
The Never Ending Quest / Clare W. Graves
Christopher Cowan and Natasha Todorovic, editors
ISBN 0-9724742-1-8
To the memory of Marian Graves,
to Sue and to Bob,
and to the extended family of students
in the legacy of Dr. Clare W. Graves
CONTENTS
Editors’ Foreword
History
Every book has its history. If this one could speak, it would tell an
adventure story of excitement, catastrophe, and separation involving an
international border and hundreds of miles, both sides of a continent
and at least four states and two provinces. It could speak of a wild ride
through Canada avoiding moose and staying just ahead of a November
blizzard, and of a paragraph found on the last page of an article in box
#7 of the huge Carl Rogers archive at UCSB. It would celebrate what it
is and ask readers to help it grow into what Graves wanted it to become.
When he began this project, Clare Graves’s plan was to put out a
definitive work. He envisioned an opus that would stand among the
classics, a statement on human nature nothing short of revolutionary
that might be a key to open minds to new thinking about psychology.
iv Editors’ Foreword
But there was a catch. Reportedly, he had seen Abraham Maslow “torn
to pieces” by his colleagues at an APA seminar in the mid 1950’s.
Afterwards, Graves found Maslow hanging his head while slumped on a
couch in the lobby of the hotel. Maslow was wondering why his friends
and associates would treat him so shabbily and attack his point of view.
He mourned: ‘Why would they do that to me?’
That memory of an icon being lambasted and emotionally crushed
by colleagues stuck with Clare Graves who seems to have vowed that he
would never put himself in Maslow’s position. Instead, he would
conduct rigorous research and release his findings only when the theory
was ripe and defensible in the face of the harshest criticism. It would be
thorough and more. Thus, he published relatively little and held his
work very closely while surrounded by the behaviorists and Freudians of
his day.
His studies actually began in an effort to answer a student’s
semester-end question after a survey course in psychology: “OK, so
which one is right?” From there he went on to try and rationalize
Maslow’s views and to prove them valid. He quickly came to discover,
however, that the Maslowian approach was insufficient to frame his
mounting piles of data, and that even the great Maslow’s perspective
was only brushstrokes on a much larger canvas of human nature. That
picture was what he intended to reveal with this book.
The process of disclosure began in the 1960’s when Graves was
beginning to discuss his work and its implications more openly. He
crafted statements for conferences and presentations (many of which
are available on the www.clarewgraves.com website operated by the
editors and William Lee). He had some success with an article in the
Harvard Business Review1 applying his viewpoint to managerial issues, and
another in the Journal of Humanistic Psychology2 laying out an initial
statement of his theoretical perspective. A piece in Canada’s Maclean’s
Magazine3 suggested that his might just be “a theory that explains
everything,” though Graves was well aware that his, too, was only a
work in progress without finale, just as is nature of Homo sapiens. Still,
interest was growing. His approach was striking chords. A lengthy
October, 1967.
Editors’ Foreword v
4 Graves, Clare W. (1974). Human Nature Prepares for a Momentous Leap. The Futurist.
April, p. 72-87.
vi Editors’ Foreword
5
Chapters 1-6 in Part I, as well as 14 and 15 in Part III, are from a near-final draft
approved by Dr. Graves with only light editing and adjustment for this publication.
The graphics appearing herein are either direct reproductions of drawings Dr. Graves
used or reconstructions from rough copies in his other papers and notes.
viii Editors’ Foreword
Acknowledgements, 2005
who knew where their quotes came from, and from Mrs. William Gray
who aided with her late husband’s papers. All graciously took the time
to respond to our queries. And special thanks go to Dr. Kenneth Isaacs
who joined with us to explore where his work and Dr. Graves’s coincide
and differ.
In large measure, this book owes its existence to the support,
friendship, advice and confidence of futurist Ed Edwards who has
believed in the value of the Gravesian point of view for many, many
years. While the editors fought with the pieces, dug through libraries,
and doubted that it would ever come together, Ed always saw it as an
important thing to make available to a wider public and generously
facilitated that process. And, of course, this book is due to the
friendship and blessings of the late Marian Graves and to the Graves’s
children, Sue and Bob, for their encouragement and endorsement.
But this book could not tell its story of human nature and our
emergence were it not for the lifetime of work, research, dedication and
persistence of the man who said and wrote it, Clare W. Graves, even
though he is not physically present for the publication. This book is a
sampling of his genius, passion and insight. We hope we have done
justice to the work and to the man. We wish he could have been here
through the process to clear his throat and say in his deep, resonant,
professorial voice a protracted, “Welllll…” and then gently nudge for
improvements and continue to turn on those light bulbs of revelation.
We particularly wish he were here to discuss the innumerable questions
that arose in its compiling and all the new ones an understanding of this
point of view will surely pose. But those questions are now in your
hands, gentle reader, and the answers forthcoming as you join with us
move this work on.
xii Editors’ Foreword
ONLINE LINKS
http://www.neverendingquest.com
To read many of Dr. Graves’s papers online and to learn more about
the development of this theory, go to
http://www.clarewgraves.com
http://www.spiraldynamics.org
Preface 1
Preface 6
6 This preface was written by Dr. Graves in the late 1970’s when he still expected to
complete his book project. One working title was “The Sum of All Our Days is Just
the Beginning” and is probably borrowed from Lewis Mumford. Others were “What
is Human Life About? What is it Meant to Be?” and “The Existential Helix.” Since
this book is not what was planned, we have retitled it “The Never Ending Quest,” a
phrase drawn from Graves’s writing.
2 Preface
understand, predict and manage the behavior of the adult individual, the
operation of an organization, or the development of a society. It outlines
the goals toward which the future of a person, organization or society
should be pointed no matter the current position of that person, that
organization or that society on a complex that is called a human
existential helix. And it suggests, within its framework, that there are
ordered rules for dignifying or improving the state of existence of a
person, or organization or a society so as to provide all human kind a
future pregnant with hope rather than laden with the fear of our demise.
In these pages I take the position that human psychological
development is an infinite process - that there is not, even in theory, any
such thing as a state of psychological maturity. I say, instead, from the
data of my studies, that one’s conception of psychological maturity is a
function of one’s conditions for existence; and, I say that so long as
humans continue to solve their problems of existence they will create
new problems forever and on, and thus proliferate into new and higher-
order forms of psychological being. And, I say that what our definition
of psychological maturity is will change with each and every newly
emergent form of psychological existence.
It is the thesis of this book that a human, though one biological
organism, who does, in fact, develop biologically from a state of
immaturity to a relative state of biological maturity which is maintained
during the greater part of his or her individual existence, is an infinite
number of psychological beings. And that our understanding of the
human so far as ethics, values and purposes are concerned must be
changed accordingly if we are to make any real inroads into the
problems of human kind. We must reorganize our thinking and our
approaches to man’s problems to include the fact that there is no
ultimate set of ethics, values, and purposes by which humans should live
that will ever be revealed, laid down or discovered. There is instead, a
hierarchically ordered, always open to change, set of ethics, values and
purposes by which people can come to live. Thus, if we are to make
progress in attacking our problems, our task is to learn how to live with
an ever-changing process of values, ethics, and purposes rather than
how to rear a person to live by “the right and proper” human values of
ethics. Therefore:
If you have almost despaired of making sense of human life, of
the problems that we have and the people with whom you
* CWG: The existential helix is the basic construct utilized in this book to represent the
emergent-cyclical adult behavioral systems.
Preface 3
have to deal, this book may bring you clarification and new
hope because in it you may find new explanations of our past,
new understandings of our present and new visions for our
future.
If you have asked yourself what is this militancy, this violence
in so many of our people, or whether we are tearing apart at
our moral seams, then you may find new and possibly even
heretical thought in what I have to say.
If you are a social planner concerned with the current and
future goals of mankind, then the material in this book may
open new horizons to your thinking.
If, personally, you have asked, “Why can’t I get along with my
boss?” or if you are the boss, “Why are my subordinates so
intractable?” then what this book says about the adult human
being and the management of him at work may open new
vistas for your thinking.
If you are concerned with your organization and its viability,
whether it be profit or non-profit oriented, then what is said
about organizational decision-making may be something you
need well to consider.
If your interests are in basic social or behavioral sciences and if
you are seeking regions for research which might extend
man’s knowledge, then the theoretical framework of this
book may warrant your study and consideration.
If you are an applied social scientist, an educator, or the like
seeking new approaches to your problems, then you may find
new avenues opened for application by what is said herein.
If you are of the older generation trying to comprehend the
young, or if you are one of the young trying to communicate
your message of concern and hope, then this book may aid
you to see the breadth of your problem.
And finally, if you are just like me, simply a human being,
wondering what human life is really like and what it is meant
to be, then you may find what I have to say tantalizing. But if
you are of another ilk, then what I have to say may be
nothing less than scandalous.
The aim of this book is to attempt the impossible dream - to
develop, in basic form, a theory of adult behavior, which:
4 Preface
behavior. Some of this preparatory thought has been retained over the
two decades of preparation. Some of the earlier thought has been
discarded because, it seemed with time, it had aborted. Some of it has
been revised as new data forced reconsideration. Thus, my earlier works
reflect more the laborious process of an interpretive idea trying to be
born than what my research leads me to say in this book.
Therefore, he who has had previous contact with my work may find
much that is familiar but also some that is different from what I said
before. The underlying conception of emergent psychosocial systems
has been retained throughout the years, but the specifics of my
conceptualization of adult behavior have changed and the underlying
neurochemical, experiential explanation of their source will be quite new
to many.
During the years of research and preparation some of my original
sketches and interpretations have been attractive to others, even to the
extent that some have been stimulated to do research within the
confines of the preliminary conception expressed. Thus, I have been
urged to hurry into print more of the details of my thinking. Grateful as
I am for the acceptance the earlier expressions have received, and for
the flattering request for more of my thinking, I must state what it has
done. This very acceptance, use of, and call for more of my ideas has
caused me to delay publication until such a time that I could feel my
thinking was further developed, because even now, though it is being
printed, it is far from mature and can become more mature only through
the efforts of others.
Unfortunately, two years ago I was the victim of a surgical accident
which damaged my brain. The accident left me considerably dysphasic
and dyslexic and my conceptual capacities impaired. So the theory
presented herein is not the product I had envisioned. It is a sketch with
gaps and expressive deficiencies within.
In one sense, I apologize to those who sought more than I was, in
pre-accident days, of a mind to scatter. On the other hand, I do not
apologize, because then I did not feel that I was ready to stand on what
I, too early, might have said. But now, even within my problem, I am
ready to stand on what I say herein, but not on what I said before except
in a basically general sense. What I said before was a part of an effort
which produced the product contained herein. Even today it is not a
finished product. Obviously it is incomplete and obviously there will be
gaps and errors in my thinking. But when I say ON THESE WORDS I
STAND, what I mean is this: If my conception of adult behavior is to
be torn to shreds by criticism and even demolished by subsequent
6 Preface
Erikson leave off. The only other person, of whom I now know, who
has the extending systems concept which I utilize is John Calhoun.
Theoretically, this book is a contribution to phenomenological,
existential, humanistic and cognitive developmental emergent stage
psychologies. As such, it attempts to meet some of the criticisms that
have been directed at them. It attempts to bring some systematic
toughness to the loose and discursive phenomenological and existential
thinking. It attempts to move humanistic psychology away from its
maudlin and sentimental view of human nature toward an empathic
representation closer to the realities of being human.
As a contribution to cognitive-developmental stage theoretical
psychology, it deals with at least five of the major criticisms directed
toward them: (1) it offers an explanation of how constructs develop; (2)
it presents a picture of what the process of development is like; (3) it
hypothesizes what factors determine the hierarchical order of
constructs; (4) it explains what determines the particular characteristics
of constructs; and (5), it suggests how the constructs operate.
Herein, I should like to acknowledge those to whom I am in debt
for aid in the preparation of this book. Thanks are extended to Clare
Lumpkin, our departmental secretary, for her patience during the many
hours and days she typed and retyped the basic manuscript. Thanks go
as well to Richard Wakefield of Bethesda, Maryland, former President of
the now disbanded Human Needs Foundation. I thank him as the only
person who has provided moral support from the beginning of my first
attempt to rationalize my data in 1961. As President of the former
Human Needs Foundation, I thank him for the monetary support,
which made possible the development of the figures and diagrams
utilized to represent my thinking.
I desire, also, to express my thanks to the three people who
contributed so much to the basic editing and layout of this book; Linda
Wiens, Cliff McIntosh and Robert Michels of the professional staff of
Quetico Centre. Without their aid, in a time of travail, this book could
never have come to be. And finally, I wish to thank the Board of
Quetico Centre, for offering the staff and facilities of Quetico Centre to
me for the culmination of this book and its publication.
8 Preface
Section I 9
Section I
CHAPTER 1
The Problem
country and the towns. In Rhodesia and South Africa, the adult
white man, while demanding the right of one’s own decision,
denied these same rights to his non-white countrymen. In Uganda,
acting in the name of freedom and progress, Idi Amin7 dispatched
to exile or to death one after another of his countrymen.
In America, adult humans were so confused that they, in the
name of peace, for ten years carried on a hopelessly futile war. They
professed the need of equality for all, yet excluded many from the
rights and privileges that some adults enjoyed. They spoke of the
need to respect differences, both nationally and internationally,
both in the school and in the factory, yet these same adult humans
managed national and international affairs, the student, and the
employee in ways more to deny that such differences did exist. And
they professed concern for the poverty stricken but behaved toward
them so as to precipitate riots born of their deepening despair.
In other realms, academics preached the sermon of integration
of all knowledge, yet continued to devise curricula which
fractionated all learning and failed to achieve the educational goals
they so righteously proclaimed. Teachers acted to suppress the
surge of “student power” yet took up the cudgel of the strike for
their own, not just the public’s welfare. And peculiar was the
behavior of both labor leaders and labor members who condemned
the strike behavior of those on the public payroll while they readily
used the same weapon to further their own selfish interests. At the
legislative level, legislators, both liberal and conservative,
condemned youthful confrontation, sit-ins, and work stoppages
while they righteously defended the right of filibuster and the right
to slow the legislative process by committee machinations when to
do so served their own selfish ends.
In still other regions of adult behavior, human thought and
action was even more peculiar. Some professed an unshakable
belief in God while other insisted that God was dead. Among the
poor, apparently able-bodied people, living in the direst of
circumstances, seemed to sit and complain rather than do
something to improve their lot when it appeared that the
opportunity to do so was provided them. But the everyday behavior
of adults was not the only place where conflict and controversy,
confusion and contradiction abounded.
7 See Mittelman, James H. (1975). Ideology and politics in Uganda : from Obote to Amin.
Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press.
14 The Problem
14 Hawkins, Robert P. (1972). It’s time we taught the young how to be good
parents (and don’t you wish we’d started a long time ago?). Psychology Today, 6,
11:28-40.
The Problem 19
15 Kendler, Howard (1968). Basic Psychology, (2nd ed.). New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, p. 497. [Slightly modified by Graves. The actual text is: “Each
person does not proceed through a predtermined sequences of stages, but
instead learns important habits in certain situations of his early life.” ed.]
16 From Reich, Charles (1970). The Greening of America. New York: Random House.
17 Reference to the 1968 New York City teachers’ strike which began with
what it is. You have a tendency to trust people - maybe not all - but
you do have a tendency to trust. Don’t you realize what will happen
in this school if we trust anything those other people say?”
This is indeed a problem with the homo homini lupus
conception of human nature. Even the very best in people, such as
lack of prejudice, less materialism, less selfishness, trusting and the
like, is always suspected to be bad. But beyond this, as shown in the
annals of the psychoanalytic world, lies still more damning
evidence. The Hartmans, the Krises, the Lowensteins, the Eriksons
- all later day psychoanalysts - have found the early, orthodox
psychoanalytic view not to fit many people living in the middle
decades of the twentieth century.
The homo homini lupus conception of human nature does
explain some of the troubling behavior of humans. One can see it
in the behavior of those who go to any end to achieve, hold onto,
and exercise power positions.
In many places where the eyes might fall, one can see
Machiavelli’s view: “For it may be said of men in general that they
are ungrateful, voluble, dissemblers, anxious to avoid danger and
covetous of gain ...”20 But is this an immaturity or a failure to
properly transform the bad into good? Or, is there another point of
view? Does the total evidence support the Calvinist assertion that:
“... Infants themselves are rendered liable to
punishment by their sinfulness, not by the sinfulness
of others. For though they have not yet produced the
fruits of their iniquity, yet they have the seed of it
within them, even their whole nature is as it were a
seed of sin...”21
Or, must we include in our conceptualizing matrix what
happens in man’s behavior when the “sinfulness of others” is
removed? What about that which happens when the “sinfulness of
others” such as demeaning, degrading organizational practices are
removed? What about all the evidence as to the appearance of
positive work behavior when job enrichment supplants humanly
demeaning job simplification as found by the Fred Herzberg group?
Can this evidence be explained within the homo homini lupus
conception of humanity? It is doubtful. Therefore, as with the
20 Machiavelli, Niccolo (1903). The Prince. Chapter 17, Translation by Luigi Ricci.
21 Calvin, John (1949). Institutes of the Christian Religion. (8th Ed.). Translated by John
Allen. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, I, 1, 8.
24 The Problem
“My opinion is that the weight of the evidence so far indicates that
indiscriminately destructive hostility is reactive because uncovering
therapy reduces it, and changes its quality into healthy
self-affirmation, forcefulness, selective hostility, self-defense,
righteous indignation, etc. In any case, the ability to be aggressive
and angry is found in all self-actualizing people who are able to let it
flow forth freely when the external situations “calls for” it.”23
Thus, according to Maslow, immature adult behavior is
defensive, reactive behavior. It is not from an inner wickedness in
man. The critics of this point of view object not only to its
conceptual looseness but to its idealistic conception of human
nature. As one of these critics, Theodore Millon says:
“... The notion that man would be a constructive
rational and socially conscious being, were he free of the
malevolent distortions of society, seems not only
sentimental but invalid. There is something grossly
naive in exhorting man to live life to the fullest and then
expecting socially beneficial consequences.”24
Personally, I cannot accept that Millon’s words, as expressed,
are a valid criticism of the humanistic conception of human nature.
His last sentence, in the quote above, too obviously extends from
the homo homini lupus conception, a point of view I have already
dismissed as not totally adequate for explaining human behavior.
But rejection of this type of criticism does not mean that the
conceptual basis is accepted - not at all, because I do have my
objections to it.
Above all else, it is the conceptual looseness in the point of
view to which I object - a looseness which makes it impossible to
comprehend much of human behavior from within its framework.
This is so in at least four ways. The first stems from Maslowian
words as “... the ability to be aggressive and angry is found in
self-actualizing people.”25 This type of statement, plus the
admission that man can act in horrible ways, says to me that one of
the potentials in man’s nature - though Maslow chose to emphasize
Co., p. 10.
25 Ibid (Maslow, p. 195).
26 The Problem
29 Nance, John (1975). The Gentle Tasady: A Stone Age People in the Philippine Rain
Forest. Harcourt, Brace & Jovanovich.
The Problem 29
CHAPTER 2
33 All of these investigators are in Baltes, Paul B. and Schaie, Warner, et al. (1973). Life-
Span Developmental Psychology. Personality and Socialization Academic Press.
34 Ahammer, Inge, in Baltes, Paul B. and Schaie, Warner, et al. (1973). Life-Span
35 Katz, Joseph in Baltes, Paul B. and Schaie, Warner, et al. (1973). Life-Span Developmental
Psychology. Personality and Socialization Academic Press, p. 1.
36 Sanford, Nevitt in Baltes, Paul B. and Schaie, Warner, et al. (1973). Life-Span
some earlier information as to the nature of the species Homo sapiens and
its psychology.
37 Sutherland, John Derg (1959) Psychoanalysis and Contemporary Thought. New York Grove
Press.
Approach 37
other past and current theorists. There is need for the development of
adult psychological paradigms which meet not only the major criticism
of Ahammer (namely that behavior changes throughout life have been
neglected), but also depict the character of the development which takes
place, how this development proceeds, why it takes place as it does and
how this process of development can be influenced. This treatise is an
effort in that direction.
Lay people and professionals alike raise their children; run their
businesses; direct their educational enterprises; conduct their
international relations; draw up, lobby for and pass laws; and order their
societies so as to produce what is, in their minds, the mature adult
personality, the viable business, the mature student, the mature state of
national and international affairs, and the proper societal state made up
of properly behaving people. The professionals go quite beyond the
layperson. They not only conduct studies to ascertain the nature of the
mature condition, both individually and societally, but they also write
articles or books describing that state or that condition as they view it to
be. And they go much further. The professional mental hygienist, the
professional business manager, the professional educator, the
professional legal expert, or the professional international relations
practitioner extends efforts into the realm of therapeutic, managerial,
educational, international relations and social welfare practices. They
intervene, teach how to intervene, or administer the intervention into
the lives of people, the activities of business, the process of adult
education, or the practice of international and societal relations. They do
so in order to change the psychologically or sociologically
less-than-mature state into their conceived-to-be psychologically or
sociologically mature state.
These people, these laymen, and these professionals, in lay circles or
in professional circles, in mixed circles or in restricted circles, may argue
as to what is the ‘mature’ personality; but seldom do they do that which
needs to be done, namely, question whether the state should be
considered to exist.
Although I accept that it is proper, for research purposes, to assume
the existence of the ultimately mature state, I raise the question as to
whether this theoretical state actually can exist? Perhaps the belief of so
many people that this state not only exists but also is definable is a belief
that is more mythical than true. It seems to me that a thorough
investigation of how people conceive of mature states might clarify this
confused and controversial region of human behavior, and that a
clarification of psychological maturity as a process or as a state or a
condition might resolve much of the conflict and contradiction in other
regions of psychology and culture. Therefore, research toward this end
might profitably examine:
40 Approach
But this was not all that I felt might come from a study of
conceptualizations of mature personality. There is yet another set of
problems of mature personality which might be clarified by
investigation.
The other set of problems seems to arise from some peculiar
inferences present in existing conceptualizations of the mature human
being. These conceptions infer that a person who cannot take his basic
Approach 41
Phase 1
During the first four weeks of this semester you will be expected to
develop your own personal conception of what is the psychologically
mature, biologically mature human being. No reading will be assigned to
you during this time, and you are requested to do no reading on this
subject during this four-week period. You are to develop your
conception from what you now know, from that which you have
experienced and from what you now believe.
Approach 45
When you turn your papers in to me at the end of four weeks, they
will be read by me, and returned to you at a later class period.40 You will
then spend four weeks in small groups where each of you will, in turn,
present and receive criticism of your point of view before and from your
peers. After all have been presented and after all have received criticism,
you will be required, in the ninth week, to develop a defense or a
modification of your point of view elaborating on why you are
defending, if you choose to do so, or explaining the reasons for your
modification if that be your choice. This paper you will turned in to me
at the end of the tenth week and I will return it to you at a later class
period.41
After the second set of papers is returned, you will be reassigned to
small groups in which you, with the groups, will spend the next four
weeks studying the conceptions of mature personality which are in the
literature. You will study the position of many authorities and you will
compare and contrast your position to that of the various authorities. At
40 CWG: The subjects were never aware that copies were made of their productions
during this period of time.
41 CWG: Again, these papers were copied.
46 Approach
the end of this experience, again, you will modify or defend your
personal conception and give your reasons why.42 After you have
handed in your final papers, instead of a final written examination, I will
first read your paper and then talk with you individually about the total
experience.
From this basic design I was provided with three kinds of basic data
produced in Phase 1 of the studies:
Phase 2
The second phase of the investigation involved classification of the
most basic of the data, the original conceptions of psychologically
mature behavior. This phase began in the second year and was
continued on a cumulative basis each spring for the next eight years.
Independent judges, people not involved in the production of the
conceptions of mature personality who knew nothing of the project,
were assigned a task. They were handed the conceptions accumulated to
date and were instructed to place them into categories if they found
them to be classifiable.
42 CWG: These papers were also copied.
Approach 47
Phase 3
Phase 3 of the investigation involved an exploration of the
categories of conceptions of mature personality by means of a number
of different techniques. Once groupings of conceptions of mature
behavior were established, I made use of a fortunate coincidence which
enabled me to explore the meaning of these categories.
Most of the subjects took another class with me the following
semester. These were classes in Organizational or Industrial Psychology,
Experimental Psychology and Abnormal Psychology. These classes were
designed so that, where possible, students with like conceptions were
grouped into small groups and placed in problem-type situations
appropriate to the subject matter of the course they were taking.
Since some members of subsequent classes were not members of
the experimental groups, they too, were grouped and taught through the
same methodology. This served two purposes. It kept the experimental
subjects from being aware that they were being treated in a special
fashion and it served as a moderate control over the investigations in
process.
The experimental groups were studied through the one-way mirror,
as were the non-experimental groups. Special problems were designed
for the Organizational and Experimental students. In the Abnormal
Psychology class, many standard tests were administered under the guise
of providing the student with knowledge of diagnostic instruments and
providing self-insight, though these things they also did.
48 Approach
CHAPTER 3
“... the historical cycle of the body politic indicates that man
progresses from spiritual faith to courage, from courage to
freedom, from freedom to abundance, then comes the waning,
from abundance to selfishness, from selfishness to apathy, from
apathy to dependency right back into bondage again.”43
Or can we hope with Radoslav Tsanoff:
“...that the twilight in which we seem to be moving today is a
twilight not before night but before dawn: that we are reaching
the end of the dark ages of materialism; that the modern mind,
without surrendering the tools by which it has achieved its
mastery of material nature, will now more fully vindicate its
own self-recognition and achieve self-mastery and a more
humane life individual and social?”44
Perhaps we can so hope, but perhaps to do so is a futile effort. The
fact of the matter is we simply do not know which of these two men, if
either, more correctly perceives the character of man’s being or the
future of mankind. But I do believe, from the data of my studies, that
Tsanoff’s hope is closer to the facts of human life than all the
Stambaughs are. In fact, the latter poses a position which necessity
requires that I debate. I do so because, from the information I have
gathered, the strong suggestion has arisen that all such contradictory
explanations of man’s predicament exist because we have failed to solve
a problem - a problem we have not as yet unriddled because we have
not approached the goal James F.T. Bugental set down when he said:
“Humanistic psychology has as its ultimate goal, the preparation
of what it means to be alive as a human being. This is, of
course, not a goal which is likely ever to be fully obtained, yet it
is important to recognize the nature of the task. Such a
complete description would necessarily include an inventory of
man’s native endowment, his potentialities of feelings, thought
and action, his growth, evolution and decline, his interaction
with various environing conditions (and here a truly complete
psychology of man would subsume all physical and social
sciences since they bear on the human experience actually or
43 This quotation is variously attributed and and frequently repeated. Its true provenance
is unknown. A reference in John E. Stambaugh’s has not been located.
44 Tsanoff, Radoslav A. (1942). The Moral Ideals of Our Civilization. New York: E.P.
Exhibit I
got to live ain’t he. This aint no picnik world in which he live.
It better he do what have to be done cause he can’t hold his
head up if he ain’t a man. That’s the way life is any grown guy
know it. He know its him or me and it sure ain’t going to be
me if hes healthy. He gets what he can from this world and no
one pushes him around, even if the dice is loaded its up to
him to make them shake his way. If he don’t what kind of
man is he --.
Now don’t you set me down Doc for saying this. You said to
put down what we believed. I believe this and don’t you ever
forget it.”
This is the conception of a young man having his third try at college
after having been, literally, thrown out of two other institutions. In it we
see a frantic need to assert self, preferably for survival, but at least in
order to be seen as manly. This was typical of all variants of the express
self regardless of consequences type. In this conception, we see uncultivated
language which was typical of this variant of this particular type of
conception. Beyond these aspects, one can see a raw, idinal type of
thinking, impulsive, amoral and uninhibited in character. There is no
feeling of guilt in this thinking, but there is in it a strong element of fear
of shame. Also, there seems to be an underlying aspect of heroism in the
conception. It is as if the conceptualizer were saying: “If the dragon is
there, then one must join battle with it, even if he dies in the action;
otherwise he would be less than a man. If the dragon is not there, one
must create it in order to prove that one has the right to survive, or live
as a man.” So, in this conception it is better to die in the glory of having
tried rather than to live in the disgrace and humiliation of “being
chicken.” To die in the act of heroic living seems to enable this
conceptualizer to live at least in the minds of the surviving who would
say: “Sure he died. But, man! He had the guts to try. He was a man!”
Basic Data 59
To me, the second example of this type is quite like the first in basic
content, but it is quite obviously a softer, more relaxed, not quite as
barbarous version of the same theme:
“Psychologically mature human behavior is that mental
behavior that enables a human being not only to survive but
also to succeed and win over his environment. The
psychologically mature person is the one that fate has
endowed with the natural human qualities to rise above the
conditions of his being and to impose control over it and
modify it as he sees fit regardless of what others think. Being
an animal, the human being possesses certain natural qualities
normal for his species. He is temperamental and impulsive,
and thus given to violence, passion, stubbornness and
irrational actions. He desires to mate but not just to produce
children. He fights life as it is and he works most to survive.
He senses that he is alone and endangered and seeing
strength in numbers, he seeks to fit others to the needs of
himself. The drive for self-preservation is instilled in him and
the only way to be what he is, is to be selfish, placing his
needs before all others with the “possible” exception of his
own family. He must overcome his fears and inhibitions to his
own satisfaction.
He must fulfill his primal lusts and desires. A human being
free from guilt and frustrations closely approaches the ideal of
the mature personality. Unhampered expression of his
impulses might lead to his destruction but it is necessary to his
health. He must not temper his striving for pleasure.
He performs when he is motivated for not to do would
leave him less than a man. He is free from the threats and
negative reactions of others and does not fear for his own
psyche. In other words, he is confident of being a law unto
himself, the source and inspiration of all of his actions and of
good for others.”
This is the conception of a male college sophomore attending a
night school who has a full-time job as a self-tutored construction
engineer. In this young man’s conception is the same unabashed
60 Basic Data
normally the rules of living are quite strict upon them except
as, through his largeness, he provides them moment
uninhibited exultation. It is by example in his own life that he
brings forth the force for implementing his will. For example,
any man worthy of his name, any woman worthy of being
called a lady serves their human desires but in a manner that is
properly formalized.”
This variant of the express self lest one be ashamed for not being a man
theme is the conception of a 23-year-old black student reared in the
British Colonial System. He is a Nigerian Ibo. This is, indeed, a most
interesting conception. Within it we see all that is expressed in the two
previous ‘express self, regardless of consequences’ conceptions, but a new tone
seems present within it. The self-assertiveness, the lust, the survival
mode, the fear of shame are all present. But sneaking in seems to be the
element of guilt, the tendency to feel there is something a bit wrong in
not exercising at least some control over one’s impulse life. Raw want is
still there, but a questioning of its unbridled expression has crept into
the scene. Along with this we see developing a peculiar sense of
morality, but one that is imposed upon rather than derived from within.
Particularly, we note the suggestion that chaos might be just around the
corner. It is as if this person was desperately trying to hang on to the
idea of self-assertive expression, but quite aware that such a way of life,
if not bridled, can lead to disintegration. As a result, we see this
conceptualizer declaring that this system for being does indeed exist, but
only within rigidifying formalisms. It seems he is attempting to hold the
old ways together with the glue of moralistic prescription. But we must
ask: What does this moralistic, guilt-determined intrusion into this
expres self conception mean? Can it be the intruding germ that infects
this way of life with its fatal disease? Can it be, at the same time, the
herald preparing to trumpet the way of human life that is next to come
to be? We shall see as we examine the next phase of the human
existential helix.
47 CWG: Notice the language “learns” rather than the expected “knows.”
64 Basic Data
takes over centre stage and a moment when it exits as the theme
for human existence?
2. Does each theme specify itself into many different ways?
3. Is there something to be learned from the data which says an
expres self is followed by a sacrifice-self theme?
4. Do themes change, first in a progressively quantitative fashion
until, following a regressive movement, a qualitatively different
way of thinking about maturity emerges?
It seems to me that the data so far presented answers each of these
questions positively. And it seems to me, that these positive answers
tentatively define the next three movements on man’s existential helix.
According to the data to date, they should be: the rigidification of
the sacrifice now, to get later theme; the beginning of a return to a
self-assertive theme; to be followed by a nodal self expressive theme - in
an assertive fashion somewhat different from the express self, to hell
with others theme.
because assertion of the self was present before in the ‘express self, to
hell with others’ conception.
In this particular conception, the ‘express self’ is of a different order
than it was when previously we viewed it. Here the person asserts self by
beginning to take opposition to those who react against authority, to
those who see things in ways diverse from the conceptualizer. One can
almost feel the scorn and derision directed toward those who would
conceive of mature personality in a manner different from this
participant. The mature person is absolutistic in knowing what is right.
There is not a confused thought in his mind. He stands stubbornly
against change unless he decides upon it. He is that well-intentioned
person who rejects all those new-fangled ideas. The mature listens to all
sides, yes! But not to change his views. Rather to learn how to argue so
as to bring the dissidents to see that he is right.
Life to one who conceives of maturity in this manner is a matter of
proper procedure. It is not a matter to be interpreted. There is no other
better point of view. There is no other way to go. Life is not seen as a
place for theoretical speculation. It is a no-nonsense business, a matter
of dealing with the tangible and not with muddle-headed fuzziness.
To this conceptualizer, authority is still central in his life. But it is
the authority of his own right thinking mind that is supreme. Respect is
due to parents and the boss because they are the ones who show people
both the light and the right. They have set before him the standards of
what the mature person is like. They have taught him to believe in
honest hard work to get in position to stand on one’s feet. One gets
there by following the dictates of authority as to how to become
possessed of independence, not dependence; of certainty, not
uncertainty; of knowing, not grasping to know.
One cannot avoid perceiving the ‘he protesteth too much’ quality in
this conception. He fights so hard against those who question
authority’s established ways that it is obvious the germ of independent
thinking is beginning to infect him with doubt. Why else would he be
almost vicious with those who have come to peace with questioning? In
others words, this is not the unquestioning obeisance to and accepting
of authority shown in the 27-year-old woman’s conception. Instead, it is
the desperate attempt to hold onto belief when doubt has crept in.
Opposition has taken a foothold in this thinking. Independent thought
and action are not unthought of. They are, instead, a disturbing element
in an inner world that is no longer a sea of tranquil certainty.
In the previous sacrifice conception, there was no diversity in
thinking. In this one, diversity is present. However as seen by the
76 Basic Data
49 CWG: Multiplistic - the person accepts that there are a number of different views but
believes that there is one best one.
78 Basic Data
opportunity to express the self. The mature is the one who keeps
grasping for something not quite in hand.
Certainly this conception takes an oppositional, possibly even
negative attitude toward authority. And certainly the expression of self
stands supreme within it. But whether it is or is not a further notch up
on the helix of life is arguable - arguable to a degree that can be settled
only by more information. Thus I turn, now, to the conception of a 35-
year-old entrepreneur studying business administration.
by his data until his data proves him wrong and then he
changes however the data demand that he change.
9. The mature person is not afraid to do what has to be done. If
a person has to be told his weaknesses, the mature person
does so without being squeamish. He does not go out of his
way to spare feelings. When people need to be shaped up, a
mature person shapes them up. Wanting to be liked is not a
weakness, of the person who is mature.
10. The mature person does not feel guilty or ashamed for doing
what rationally has to be done.
11. The mature person being rational and objective is a shrewd
appraiser of that which is to his best interests.
12. The mature person accepts that he is human but he controls
such tendencies when it is to his welfare to do so. He does not
get sentimental and maudlin about such tendencies. He
controls them himself.
13. The mature person has a reasoned, risk taking, calculating
mind. He uses objective procedures to make his decisions. He
places faith in that which he knows works, he does not get
caught up in non-workable theory or speculation.
14. He is not afraid to stand alone, even in opposition to others,
but he plans so as to have the best chance then goes ahead
regardless of what others say or what effect it has.
15. The mature person is not afraid ‘to get his hands dirty’ in
order to do what has to be done. He plays hard when he plays
and he plays to win, but he does not waste his time in
activities which he sees as hopeless.
16. He is not satisfied with yesterday’s ways unless he has found
them to work and he holds to them only so long as he sees
them to work.
17. The mature person is not one who resigns himself to his fate
or surrenders to the inevitable. He changes his course rather
than accept what works against him. He never gives up
control to his environment. He seeks rather to get the control
that will enable him to do what he knows needs to be done.”
This conception of maturity is indeed an expres self type, but it is
not the raw assertive form we saw in the first three conceptions. It is a
conception which shows a lack of conscience and a disdain for empathy.
It expresses that to get involved in interpersonal relations is to enter a
very tenuous situation. This mature person seems to insist on
maintaining one’s self-evaluation even in the face of negative
Basic Data 81
CHAPTER 4
Since the purpose in this chapter is to show how the results dictated
a revised conceptual framework for explaining adult behavior, this
chapter deals only with the results of the studies, not with the details of
them. The details shall be dealt with at another time and in another
place. These investigations were studying conceptualizations of mature
personality and how those who professed conceptualization “A” versus
conceptualization “B”, versus conceptualization “C”, operated in a
variety of situations.
The subjects each developed, as a classroom exercise, his or her
personal conception of psychologically mature behavior. At the
beginning of a class in Normal Personality, the subjects were instructed
to take four weeks to develop their conception. During these four
weeks, the students were asked not to consult either authority or others
and to develop only their own ideas. Classroom time was devoted to
discussing the areas of human behavior, which might be included, and
to providing factual information sought by the students.
At the end of each of nine semesters, these conceptions of mature
personality were given to a group of seven to nine independent judges.
The judges were instructed to sort them into the fewest possible
internally consistent categories if they found them to be classifiable. The
judges worked first independently of one another, then as a group.
According to the judges, over sixty percent of the conceptions fell
clearly into two major categories, one of three and one of two sub-types.
Category 1. Mature personality expresses self
Sub-type (a) - aggressive, heroic, exploitative, expres self, to hell with
the consequences, no feeling of guilt.
Sub-type (b) - dogmatic, expres self with reasoned calculation for what
self desires with little feeling of shame or guilt, and
even at some expense to others but in such a way as
not to raise undue reaction from those others.
Sub-type (c) - a quiet, undogmatic, expres self with regard for others
and never at the expense of others.
Category 2. Mature personality denies self
Sub-type (a) - denies self to prescriptions of higher absolute authority
in order to get spiritual reward later.
Sub-type (b) - denies self to prescriptions of secular-valued other
people in order to get approval and spiritual
satisfaction now.
Confusion and Contradiction 93
Later the process was repeated with other subjects. New judges
were utilized. They classified the old and the new conceptions. From
their work, the first mildly surprising result developed. It pertained to
the consistency of results. I did not expect the extent of agreement that
occurred over nine successive years. Overall, each group of judges
agreed markedly both as to which documents were classifiable and the
number of basic and sub-type categories to be established. In fact these
judgmental runs resulted in many cases in each sub-type wherein no
disagreement existed50. This I did not expect. This had not been my
experience with previous psychological research - research which more
often than not produced ambiguous data. Now I began to feel some
trepidation. Now I started to doubt the secrecy of my design. I feared
that somehow the judges might be trying to please me or even that they
were in collusion. But as I thought it over, I dismissed this doubt from
mind.
I simply could not see any way that the judges could be trying to
please me because they knew nothing about what was being done except
that I wanted them to classify the documents. They had practically no
contact with the subjects who were also unaware of the nature of the
project and each year’s set of judges was gone from the scene before the
next year’s judges came to be. Also, there was no other source of
information for them because not even my family, my department head,
my administrators, my students, nor my colleagues knew I was involved
in this research. In fact, in those years I was oft times chided for being
‘nonproductive’. But this was not a crucial test of this problem. The
crucial test was that each set of judges worked first of all with the new
data of the current year. Yet with two exceptions, which I shall explain
later, exceptions which in no way affected this crucial test, each year’s
set of judges came up with essentially the same classification system and
roughly the same percentage of classifiable documents. Therefore, to my
mind, there was nothing left to do but accept this mildly peculiar result
as a psychological phenomenon suggesting that several discernible
conceptions of mature personality do indeed exist.
50 CWG: Only these cases were used in later behavioral and instrumental studies of the
sub-type categories.
94 Confusion and Contradiction
As time went on the peculiar aspects of the data became more and
more apparent. The next perplexing results arose from clinical
observations of the subjects - observations made over the two or three
years that many of them continued as my students. Clinical judgment
seemed to say (I have had many years’ experience as a clinician) that
something more was present in each sub-type category than simply the
expression of a subject’s belief as to what is a mature personality. In
each sub-type category established by the judges I observed:
the presence of subjects who seemed to function well and the
presence of subjects who seemed to function poorly;
subjects who displayed certain symptoms but not other
symptoms; and
subjects who were relatively free of symptomatic behavior.
These observations both intrigued me and confused me. I could not
help but ask, what does it mean that two people who think alike
psychologically, who have the same conception of mature personality,
behave so differently? Why does one of the pair perform so poorly, and
in a certain peculiar way? Why does the other perform so well, yet
behave differently in other ways, too? Why does the former never turn in
a paper without ridiculous errors, even when he has taken time and tried
carefully to prepare it? Why is his work full of omissions, commissions,
and obvious “slips of the tongue?” Why is this particularly true of one
whose conception professes that maturity is the orderly, the
rule-following, the carefully designed, authority respecting way of life?
Why does he do that when his conceptual bed-fellow produces work
which is consistent with his orderly, correct, rule-following, authority-
respecting conception? But more than this, much more than this: Why
do two representatives of the rational, calculating ‘express self’
conception of healthy personality behave similarly to the two ‘sacrifice
now for reward later’ subjects in that one functions well, the other
poorly, but well and poorly in a different way than the sacrificial
subjects? Why do the two sacrificial subjects function so differently
from the two ‘express self’ subjects when conceptual pair is compared to
conceptual pair?
Confusion and Contradiction 95
Why does the well-functioning ‘sacrifice now for spiritual reward later’
subject follow the suggestions of the instructor as he produces his well-
ordered conception? Why is the calculating risk taker driven to produce
his well-ordered conception in a manner quite contrary to that suggested
by the instructor? Why do both do so well when judged by the criterion
“quality of performance?” Why do they behave so differently in the way
that they do their work?
Why do two other conceptual antagonists show a similarity in that
they both function poorly, yet behave so dissimilarly in the way they
function poorly? For example, why does the ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual
reward later’ subject show his dysfunctional behavior in “silly” errors
which punish self, when his conceptual antagonist becomes
dysfunctional by interrupting his goal efforts with a mild to marked
tirade directed toward others, usually his instructor?
What is different in the former that causes him, under stress, to take
his frustration out on himself, while the latter takes it out on others,
particularly authority? These results, accruing from my study of many
such pairs, were bad enough, but the consternation they produced was
minor in comparison to that which further study of them revealed, let
alone what came to be when other sub-type pairs were studied. Soon I
was to see that the similarity and dissimilarity between the ‘sacrifice now for
spiritual reward later’ sub-type and the ‘rational calculating express self’ risk-
taker was even more peculiar.
The ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual reward later’ was not only punishing
himself, he was also punishing me. When I returned his paper for
correction stating it was returned for rewriting so that I could decipher
it, the resubmitted paper took, relatively speaking, hours to decipher
where previously it took minutes. In other words, this poorly
functioning ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual reward later’ subject hurt self directly,
but me indirectly. Subtly, he made me pay for what he felt I had done to
him. But the ‘rational, risk taking express self’ calculator’s behavior was
of a different order. There was nothing subtle in his direct attack upon
me. He let me have it. But, at least from my point of view, he subtly
attacked self by putting himself under the stress of much time lost in
getting on toward the goal he was required to achieve.
When I moved on to examine the ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual reward
now’ type, my consternation increased, but it was trifling in comparison
to the perplexity which developed when the ‘express self but not at the
expense of others’ data was encountered. The ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual
reward now’ displayed a tendency similar to the ‘sacrifice now for spiritual
reward later’ type. But once more, paradoxically enough, there was
96 Confusion and Contradiction
At this point, had I been predicting from the data studied to date
how the “poorly functioning,” ‘express self but not at the expense of others’
would perform (poorly functioning must be in quotes for reasons which
will soon be apparent), I would have said he will attack others directly
and self indirectly, but in a new and different form because this was
what I found in the other ‘express self’ category and because there was
this kind of consistency in the two ‘sacrifice-self’ categories. And I
would have predicted that he would produce an inferior product
because that is what I found in each of the three categories studied to
date. Had I done so, I would have been at one and the same time quite
right but also very, very wrong,
I would have been right in that this ‘express self’ type did openly
attack, and in that he did attack in a different form. But I would have
been wrong because he did not attack other personalities. Subjects of
this type did not attack people, nor did they displace their aggression on
things. When they attacked, they bore down on ideas. Personalities were
just not involved as they were in the ‘calculating risk-taking’ type. Thus,
here, as with any set of my data, had I been predicting from one set to
any other set there would always be something I could predict, namely the general
Confusion and Contradiction 97
form of the behavior, but there would also be something I would never have predicted,
namely its specificity. That is, the behavior did not change just
quantitatively; it also changed in a qualitative way. And more than this,
at least in so far as the ‘express self but not at the expense of others’ type was
concerned, I would have missed one aspect of their behavior
completely.
I would have predicted that this ‘express self’ type would harm self
indirectly through failure to produce a satisfactory product, a product
done well and also on time. Yet produce well and on time is precisely
what he did, though one would never have predicted it from his means.
When he was working on his conception or revision, he seemed at times
both unsure of himself and at other times lethargic. What he did made
no sense. Each task undertaken toward the goal seemed an
insurmountable obstacle. But, always, out of lassitude and/or chaos and
disorganization, an adequate, well-organized product emerged on the
assigned delivery date. Hardly ever, except in most dire circumstances
such as prolonged and incapacitating illness, did one of this type fail to
produce not only on time but well.
This behavior of the poorly functioning ‘express self but not at the
expense of others’ brought my developing comprehension to a halt.
Previous data had said poor functioning equals poor product, no matter
the conceptualization of mature personality. Now I had to accept that
for this category, this was not so. Poor functioning was not poor
functioning. It only looked that way, even though in other psychological
settings, other types of conceptions, poor functioning was poor
functioning. These accumulating like and unlike results plagued me.
They left me with the feeling that I was getting nowhere, and that I had
to find some other approach to my data if clarification were to come.
This was most evident in the early stages of data analysis. For nine
years I had collected data in the hope that it might help me clarify the
confusing and contradictory world. Instead of fulfilling my hope, I had
to face a fact. My data was screaming at me: “Psychology is a bigger
muddle that ever you expected, and if you want to comprehend it you
must find some other way than the one you are pursuing.”
From this torment and from the peculiar kind of information now
before me (similarity and dissimilarity both between major types and
within sub-types and across type categories), the idea emerged that the
conceptions represented something more than what some people
thought was the psychologically mature person. The idea that the
conceptions might represent personality systems in miniature came to be
98 Confusion and Contradiction
and the idea that psychological maturity was something other than a state
or a condition came to be.
When the idea that psychological maturity and its parent, human
personality, might be a systemically ordered process took root in my
mind, I began to examine, from a systemic orientation, the quasi-
experimental situations into which the subjects had been placed. Then
the rumblings in my mind became a psychological avalanche which
today has not subsided - an avalanche in which many feel my thinking
should be buried because of what its slippage has uncovered. To see
what this avalanche was and why so many think my findings should be
rested deep within it, we need to take another backward look.
Table I - a
Change Instigators for Each Conceptual Sub-type of
Healthy Personality
Table I - b
Direction of Change
The sub-type category, ‘sacrifice now to get spiritual reward now’ changed
in a way similar but dissimilar from the ‘sacrifice for spiritual reward later’
type. They, too, changed under the pressure of others, but their source
was their valued peer. Authority did not come from external higher
sources as in the ‘sacrifice now to get later’ subjects. The latter did not
respond to peer pressure, no matter what kind of people made up the
peer group and no matter what was the peer group’s orientation.
Neither of these two sub-types changed centrally when straightforward
factual information called into question the position they had taken.
Instead, they questioned whether the information was factual. The
‘sacrifice now to get later’ group called information a fact only when their
authority said it was a fact, and the ‘sacrifice now to get now’ subjects took
information as gospel when their valued other accepted or provided it.
These ‘sacrifice now to get now’ groups did not ignore authoritativeness, nor
did they disregard factual information. It was what they looked upon as
authority and what they did with factual information that was different.
They used the valued other as their authority, as the authority to pass
judgment on whether factual information should or should not be
accepted. If the valued other lent authoritativeness to the information, it
was accepted and then, and only then, did central change ensue.
As I considered the meaning in this tidy bit of information, it
became apparent that my psychological avalanche was now gaining
momentum. Now, one sub-type said, “A fact is not a fact unless my God
says it is so; but this same fact is not a fact if your particular God says it
is.” Another sub-type said, “A fact is not a fact when anyone’s God so
defines it. It is a fact only when my valued friends say so.” But it isn’t
even a fact then, as we shall see as we look at the result of the ‘express
self rationally’ sub-type.
The sub-type ‘express self rationally but calculatedly for what self desires
without shame or guilt’ accepted information as a fact in quite a different
way. Thus, in this group the impetus to central change was of another
order. These subjects paid no attention to what any authority said, least
of all me. In fact, one day, a certain subject astonished me and his class
when he demanded that I step aside and let him inform the class what
his experience had told him were the true psychological facts. He and
other sub-type subjects scoffed at peer opinion and disparaged all
authority. When information peripherally modified their point of view,
this information came to be and came to be “fact” only as a result of
their own actions. They did something themselves the results of which
signaled to them that their previous information did not work, and they
did it alone. Their road to central change was pragmatic. These subjects
102 Confusion and Contradiction
went so far as to openly fight the design of the course. They insisted that
they be excused from interaction with their peers and they even resisted
studying authorities. They finally acquiesced to this part of the course
only when I permitted them to demonstrate that from their own
experience the authorities studied seemed to be wrong.
So now we have, from the ‘express self rational calculators,’ another
interpretation of when information is a fact. It now becomes a fact if
one’s experience, and only one’s experience, says it is. But I do not want
to mislead the reader. There is nothing really new in the finding that
there are filters in the minds of men.
However, there is something quite extraordinary in these data. It is
the peculiar, similar-dissimilar aspect of the data in the first two
sub-types which is not completely upheld in the third sub-type. Because
of this, I wondered what I would find about a fact in the fourth
sub-type, the ‘express self, but not at the expense of others’ group.
The fourth group related in their papers and stated orally that at
times it was the word of authority which led them to change certain
points in their conception. They reported and stated that other changes
took place because of peer group experiences. And at other times, their
data showed that some change arose from what the self alone did or
what it alone thought. Thus, this group was again similar to the ‘express’
types than the ‘sacrifice’ types because information could become a fact
for them regardless of its source. All this seemed to say that they were
more open-minded.
Normally, we would readily explain the apparent open-mindedness
of the ‘express self concernedly’ subjects, particularly when the investigatory
subject matter is conceptions of mature personality, in a very simple
way. We would say that this sub-type is the psychologically mature state
in operation. But before this conclusion is drawn, one should consider
what it would leave unexplained in respect to the total data accumulated
to date, a consideration which might leave you more confused.
One should recall that we have three other psychological states
demonstrably different from each other, as well as different from the
‘express self concernedly’ type. And one should recall that in each of these
states, observation has indicated that people function well. Thus, if this
fourth state is the psychologically mature state, then logically the other
three are less mature states; and logically, there should be degrees of
immaturity between the other three. But denoting the fourth as the
mature state in no way explains the relationship of the other three to one
another, nor why or how they are less mature. Therefore, it is necessary
to entertain the idea that there is much more in the data than has been
Confusion and Contradiction 103
now’ group felt it put them in good stead with the peer group. The
‘express self at any cost without shame or guilt’ group felt it proved they had
been right about this world all the while. And the ‘express self but not at the
expense of others’ said the grade meant little or nothing, but the fact that
grading took place in a setting wherein they could think for themselves
meant a lot.
That which disturbed the person’s complacency, that is, that which
produced dissonance also varied from sub-type to sub-type. The ‘sacrifice
self now to get reward later’ sub-type was disturbed when a respected
authority questioned an idea the student believed his authority would
never question. A Catholic subject might find a Catholic authority
questioning whether sexual abstinence was good for psychological
health. A ‘sacrifice self now to gain now’ might find his valued other or
valued others taking a position contrary to general group opinion, and
he might find people who did not damn him if he differed with the
group. The ‘express self for what self desires without shame or guilt’ subject was
particularly disturbed when I, as his instructor, disagreed with him
violently and still gave him a good grade. He could not comprehend fair
authority. The ‘express self, but not at the expense of others’ became disturbed
by reading over what he had previously said or he became disturbed by
seeming to be too sure of himself.
The insights of each of the sub-types also varied. For example:
1. ‘Sacrifice now for reward later group.’
Insight - one can question authorities’ established rules and
not necessarily get into trouble.
2. ‘Sacrifice now to get now group.’
Insight - going against the group will not necessarily end in
ostracism, if you have good information.
3. ‘Express self calculatedly for what self desires without shame
or quilt group.’
Insight - others may help you expres self, they are not
always out to get you.
4. ‘Express self but not at the expense of others group.’
Insight - when I started this train of thought I felt I would
find the answer; now that I see that any answer is a
function of what information one has and of how he looks
at the information, I see there is really no one answer.
When these six factors were studied in order to determine the role
of each in change, I was far from prepared for what I was to find. When
existential problems alone were solved, the person went only to a more
106 Confusion and Contradiction
Two examples should illustrate this barrier factor. For the ‘express self
with little shame or guilt’ type, I had to completely remove intermediate
evaluation of his performance. He would permit no evaluation of his
work in process or evaluation of the way he was working. In the case of
the ‘sacrifice now to get later’ subjects, it was necessary to work toward
change gently, protectively, and methodically in the beginning of the
process to enable them to overcome the barrier of fear. When this was
managed to their satisfaction, a second barrier arose in its place. The
subjects were now blocked by any aid that I might proffer. Aid at this
point was so frustrating that they told me to get off their back, to leave
them alone, to let them work out the changed conception to their
satisfaction whether it fulfilled the established criteria or not. When I
learned to accept this change in them, they settled into the
consummation of a new, different, and reasonably ordered conception
which signaled the end of this change process.
Now I had a six-fold process of change. The first was potential -
some never changed. The second was the solution of existential
problems. The third was disturbance of the solution, that is dissonance,
which precipitated a stage of regression. Then insight came into the
picture as that which halted the regressive phase. This was followed by
the need to remove barriers so that a quantum-like jump to a different
way of thinking could occur. Then it was necessary for consummation
of the change to take effect.
But in this overall process there was much complicating data. For
each conception there were different kinds of dissonance, insights,
barriers, etc. Now, all had to be combined with the previous data before
I could think of rationalization. But this complication, though bad
enough, was just a minor rumble from the avalanche that was now
gaining mass and momentum - the avalanche that scrambled all
psychological data in its path.
The next data to be examined arose from the question: What is the
nature of the change which ensues when central change occurs? These
results became the most disconcerting ones to date because they so
aggravated the developing confusion in the data - an aggravation which
can best be reported by examples.
understand. I don’t deny that what I said then was me nor will I
let anyone dispute that what I believe at this writing is the me that
is.
I still believe that the mature personality disciplines himself
but he does so to get control over the world of which he is a part;
he does so to keep himself unwilling to submit to the arbitrary
controls put upon him by rule and others; he does so in order that
he can rationally and objectively question the validity of all ideas
of the society.
Today to consider the issue of perfect psychological maturity
one must accept the idea that behavior and character are
interrelated and measurable. And, to be measurable, in two or
more people, with the intent to compare the results are but a part
of the end.
Each individual, ideally at least, should be governed by
instincts and motivations which seem rationally to lead to his
betterment and to his comfort. This is the only logical end one
can attach to existence, the gratification of himself as an
individual.
It is evident that in determining what is mature psychological
behavior, we have based our conclusions on the prescriptions
handed down to us by authority, judging men by values that were
laid down “on Tablets of Salt.” It was thus that our moral
prescriptions for proper living and the means to their
implementation developed. In the past it was generally accepted
that the individual was subordinate to the cosmic whole, and
hence the psychological traits of the mature person were based on
value judgments concerning a collective rather than an
individualistic analysis of human nature.”
That is not how I see mature behavior today. Today it does
seem to me that psychological well being is dependent upon
man’s ability to overcome the inhibitions to his own satisfactions,
upon being free of guilt and free of shame and upon performing
when he is motivated and not tempering his striving for pleasure.
He is free from the threats and negative reactions of others. He
does not fear his own psyche or the consequences of being a law
unto himself. He is the source of inspiration for all of his actions,
the determiner of what means are appropriate to his ends.”
I doubt that anyone would deny that the centrality of Mike’s final
(final in the sense of the last class paper) conception is poles apart from
his original presentation, though some might doubt that he meant what
110 Confusion and Contradiction
must have. I do now believe that becoming one with other men,
leads more toward the maturity of man than all his certain
knowing can.”
These results, when first observed, were indeed disconcerting.
When the moral, ‘sacrifice self for reward later’ subjects changed centrally to
the immoral, ‘calculating, materialistic express self with little shame or guilt’ type
it was not unexpected. But when I saw this materialistic view change
into the ‘sacrifice self now to get peace and approval now’ conception, I began to
search for explanation. Then, when I searched for how the ‘sacrifice some
now for reward now’ changes, my capacities for explanation began to run
out. It changed to the ‘express self, but not at the expense of others’ type. As a
pattern started to emerge, my dismay subsided. The pattern was that
‘sacrifice-self’ types, when they change centrally, change to ‘express-self’
types. But what of the other major category? What of the ‘express-self’
types? How do they change when the subject is not under stress? Now,
still to my dismay, I was to learn that the pattern was repeating. The
‘express self for what self desires with little shame or guilt’ type changed to
‘sacrifice self for reward now.’ And, the ‘express self but not at the expense of others’
rocked the total foundation of my beliefs. It changed to a new form, to
‘maturity is accepting the realities of existence.’ Maturity is not trying to know
the unknowable. Maturity is adjusting to man’s existential dichotomies.51
In other words, the ‘express self but not at the expense of others’ changes to a
new form of adjusting and became more like the two ‘sacrifice-self’
groups and less like the two ‘express-self’ types.
An interesting factor here is that in the latter part of the basic
studies, a few subjects started to produce conceptions of this kind as
their original point of view.
Now you can see a major peculiarity in the data. Now you can see
that something remarkable has happened. The two ‘sacrifice-self’
groups, which look like one another in terms of being sacrificial,
accepting systems, are also like one another in terms of shifting centrally
to ‘express-self’ forms. But they are not like one another in terms of
what they perceive to be their existential problems. They are not like one
another in terms of what produces dissonance in the field, and they are
51 CWG: Existential dichotomies, according to Eric Fromm, are: Why was I born? - Why
must I die? Why was I born with more ability than can be used in a lifetime? Man is
alone and related at the same time.
Confusion and Contradiction 113
not like one another in terms of the insights they develop before and as
other change takes place. The two ‘express-self’ categories are like one
another in terms of changing centrally to ‘deny-self’ types of
conceptions. They are unlike one another in the same way as are the
sacrificial systems.
Now a cyclic, oscillating movement in adult development is
suggested. It is, sacrifice self, express self, sacrifice self, express self, and
so on. Next, the need for ordering this wavelike movement so that each
wave is properly related to the other waves was required.
Exhibit II
How this ordering should take place was suggested by another study,
but before we look at it, we must examine some unfinished business.
What of the subjects who did not change, or what of those that
changed in some other way than related above? Those who did not
change seemed unaffected by the way I handled the grade problem. In
other words, the power at my disposal could not solve any existential
problem important to them. Any existential problems which had to be
solved for them in order for them to be ready for change were problems
I could not affect.
As to other forms of change, only one need be mentioned now. It is
regressive change. As I look back, after the systems are ordered, I can
114 Confusion and Contradiction
52 CWG: The sacrifice self to existential realities were too few to study.
Confusion and Contradiction 115
c. The ‘express self for what self desires with little shame or guilt’ type
was not like the ‘express self but not at the expense of others’ in
terms of taking advantage of others.
These conflictual data started to make some sense when the change
data was combined with the data from the Freedom to Behave studies.
Now, if one hypothesized that adult man moved from fewer degrees of
behavioral freedom to more degrees of behavioral freedom, he had
dictated to the hierarchy:
‘sacrifice now to get later,’ to
‘expres self for what self desires with little shame or guilt,’ to
‘sacrifice now to get now,’ to
‘expres self but not at the expense of others,’ to possibly
‘adjust self to existential realities.’
But, this was still the germinal stage of an idea. It was necessary to
explore further.
Supplemental Studies
When these data took the peculiar character noted above, several
other studies were carried out in an attempt to see if further information
might possibly clarify the conflict in the data and support the idea of
adult personality systems. The first of them involved the Norman Maier
type53 problem solving situations but with some variations injected. For
example, problems similar to Maier’s were presented as problems for a
group to solve rather than just on an individual basis. A group in each
sub-type category was assigned not only the task of solving the problem
but also they were told to organize themselves for the task. Five kinds of
data were provided from these studies.
1. How each of the groups organized to carry out the assigned task.
2. How the members in each group interacted in the course of their
attack upon the problem.
3. The degree to which the approach taken was relevant to the
problem.
4. The quality of the solutions arrived at.
5. The quantity of solutions arrived at.
In a sense, the results of these studies did not clarify the previous
data. Yet, in another sense, the new data made the older more
53 CWG: These problems involved using objects in ways far removed from their normal
use. [Ed.: The New Truck Dilemma, an exercise in group decision making]
116 Confusion and Contradiction
meaningful, but not in the sense of removing any of the conflict in the
previous data. These studies simply added more of the same. But, in the
sense that they added more of the same, and thereby strengthened the
developing belief that something quite peculiar lay in the data, the
problem solving data was most helpful. We can see this by looking at
each of the five sub-studies carried on in the problem solving setting.
First, let us look at how each of the four basic groups organized to
approach the problems. The results of how each group organized are
shown in Exhibit III.
The groups varied in size from seven to fifteen. In each of the sub-
type categories, the organization took a different form. The ‘sacrifice self
now in order to gain reward later’ regularly organized in pyramidal fashion,
but never was just one pyramid formed. There were as many as four
and as few as two. In each overall organization the members lined up
under the direction of one they already considered an authority who
began laying out an attack upon the problem. Some members quickly
fell into line with and continued to carry out his/her instructions. But
not all members fell in line with the one who was given the lead role.
Before long, an obvious kibitzer or two emerged. The number of
kibitzers in the pyramidal group varied. Some markedly challenged the
position taken by the original leaders; other kibitzers did not. With time,
other members, who waited first to follow, lined up under the original
leader or a kibitzer. Still in most instances, one or two isolated or
floating uncommitted appeared in this type of group.
The ‘sacrifice self to gain reward later’ group, therefore, utilized a
pyramid type of organization, but all members could not be drawn into
one pyramid. The group organized itself basically into more than one
pyramidally structured group.
The ‘expres self for what self desires with little shame or guilt’ group
organized in a quite different fashion. Once the assignment was begun,
an obvious vying for the leadership position took place. Each member
seemed to be trying to get hold of the group. As the vying took place,
argument increased. The whole atmosphere became charged. Epithets
rolled; name-calling was the order of the day. The struggle continued
until one party managed to subdue all objections to his taking the lead.
Once he took the lead, he was not only the ‘boss man’ in the sense of
thinking for the group as to how to approach the problem, but he also
kept, so to speak, his finger constantly on the action and thought of all
members of the group. He would allow no change from his approach.
Confusion and Contradiction 117
Exhibit III
problem. They would express that they did not feel they should begin
with any single person’s approach until they were sure they were all in
agreement, and no one seemed to take the lead. Gradually, as one or
another expressed an opinion, form started to take place. Sub-groups
developed as the members related to the idea of one person or the idea
of some other member. The larger group, in other words, became
organized into smaller groups. As each smaller group evolved, they again
sought consensus and each again was reluctant to assume the lead. But
with time they agreed on an approach and assigned a member or
members the task of carrying it out. This type of organization was called
the “Circle” organization because it reminded the author of Bavelas’s
work.54
The last group, the ‘express self but not at the expense of others’ group,
operated in a most intriguing fashion. As soon as the assignment was
made, a squabble, sometimes more than just lively, tended to ensue.
Each member, as soon as he had an idea, insisted that he be heard. He
fought the ideas of others in order to get them to see his light but never
fought a person personally. The fight always related to the merits of the
idea. It was never reduced to epithets or name calling as in the other
‘expres self’ group.
In this group, a person who seemed to be best equipped in terms of
the problem, his knowledge, and his ideas emerged into leadership. But
he made no attempt to dominate the work. He would present his ideas
and he and the others would work them through. If his idea failed or
when a new problem arose, he might or might not continue to lead.
Whether he continued to lead seemed to be determined by whether the
group continued to see him as more equipped. In other words, this
group revolved leadership when, in their judgment, other knowledge
should prevail. The leadership, then, tended to change, but failure never
led to ostracism of the person whose approach did not work, as
occurred in the other ‘express-self’ group. Because of this, it was called
the “Revolving Leadership” organization.
Thus, as you can see from Exhibit III and the descriptions above,
the two ‘sacrifice-self’ types are more like one another than they are like
the ‘express-self’ types. But alike as they are, they are still unlike one
another. This like but not like relationship holds for the ‘self expressive’
types as well. Therefore, we can see that the trend of the data in the
organizational study follows the trend of the data from the previous
studies cited. We can therefore see that we have, from the organizational
studies, a reinforcement of the results of the previous studies.
irrelevant, more redundant than the ‘sacrifice now to get now’ group. And
the ‘express self for what self desires with little shame or guilt’ group was more
irrelevant and more redundant than the ‘express self but not at the expense of
others’ group which was the least redundant and most relevant of the
four.
Table II
Results of Psychometric Studies of Four Conceptualizations of
Healthy Personality per Sub-type
4 = s most of characteristic
1 = s least of characteristic
* = s significant difference in respect to other
types as numbered immediately below
20036.
58 College Board verbal and quatitative scales, now known as the the SAT and
differences were found between any of the sub-types studied so far as the
intelligence or the temperament of the subjects was concerned. So, by
now I had four, possibly five, behavior systems which varied in a cluster
of two from another cluster of two which varied from one another in a
system- specific fashion and which did not vary at all on some
dimensions. But this did not bring to a close the confusion in the basic
data, as the following information will show.
60 Adorno, T. W. , et al. (1950). The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper &
Brothers.
61 Edwards Preference Inventory (1967). Science Research Associates, Inc.
Confusion and Contradiction 125
This study was done after the ones I have reported, after W. A.
Scott’s 1965 scale was published. It is entered now because, as Table II
shows, adult man’s psychology is a crazy, mixed up thing. We have seen,
by now, that my four sub-types seem to follow an ordered hierarchical
plan. But one certainly would not normally expect, as Table II shows,
that a higher order conception of mature personality would be less self
controlled, less honest, less kind, and less loyal than a lower order
conception which is both so and not so in the data. It is so in that the
‘sacrifice self to get later’ conception is more controlled, kind, honest, and
loyal than are any other types. But it is not so, at least not completely so,
because the ‘sacrifice now to get now’ is more honest than the ‘express-self’
types. Oh my! How confusion doth reign in the realm of adult behavior;
and the further we go, the more confusing it all becomes. But let us add
a little more confusion, another ingredient to the pot. Then, let us
summarize and see what all of this has said about conceptualizing adult
personality.
63 See:Stone Age Men of the Philippines. National Geographic Magazine, August, 1972. See
also: John Nance (1975). The Gentle Tasaday: A Stone Age People in the Rain Forest.
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
128 Confusion and Contradiction
data were signals. Though the signals were obscure, the light that I was
seeking might emanate from them. So, I decided to summarize the basic
data to see what would arise.
The data seemed to suggest that eight central ways of being have emerged
from within the nature of man in his time on earth, and that eight basic
conceptions of mature personality are related thereto. If these are
numbered, and if the centrality of the way of existence is used to classify
them, then the order of their appearance in the hierarchy is:
1. Express self in order to stay alive as a human and so as to
perpetuate the species.
2. Sacrifice self to the established tribal ways of one’s elders.
3. Express self at all cost lest one feel ashamed for not living
forever in the mouths of humans.
4. Sacrifice now in order to get rewards later.
5. Express self for what self desires in a reasoned,
calculating, not overly risky manner.
6. Sacrifice self now to valued peers in order to get rewards
now.
7. Express self for what self desires but not at the expense
of others.
8. Sacrifice self to the natural existential realities of life by
adjusting to these realities.
But not all of the data fell into this hierarchy as it is ordered. If the
systems are numbered 1 through 8, the odd-numbered states - 1, 3, 5,
and 7 - are all express-self states. The even-numbered ones - 2, 4, 6, and 8
- are all sacrifice-self systems. The odd numbered states, though alike in
being express-self systems, are different from one another in terms of how
they believe expression should take place. The even-numbered states are
different from one another in terms of how sacrifice should be carried
out and what should be sacrificed.
These eight psychological systems differed from one another in still
other ways. When certain personality dimensions were studied - rigidity,
for example - there was a steady decrease from state to state. Yet
intelligence did not show hierarchical relationship after the first two
states.
The first six states had in common that they were driven by deficit
or deficiency motivation, whereas states 7 and 8 were, in a sense,
abundance motivated.
Confusion and Contradiction 129
The early data prior to 1962 brought forth what seemed to be only
four states (states 4, 5, 6, and 7). Later data added three others at the
bottom and one at the top of the current hierarchy. Thus, if at first there
were four, then six, then seven, then eight, one must ask: Are there
potentially, in the human being, even more than these? Also one must
ask: If the first six share something in common - deficiency motivation -
which is not present in states 7 and 8, and if 7 and 8 share something -
abundance motivation - which is not present in the first six states, are
states 7 and 8 the beginning of a second swing around a spiral staircase
of life? And if there is a second swing around the spiral staircase, is
there, off in man’s future, assuming he continues to exist, a third, a
fourth, an infinite number of swings?
This limited summation of the results of my studies seems to say
that an appropriately inclusive conception of adult psychological
development will include, at least, the 15 points listed below. It would:
1. See adult psychology as an infinitely emerging series of
hierarchically ordered psychosocial systems.
2. Show the systems to alternate their focus in a cyclic,
oscillating dominant, subordinate fashion.
3. Show the systems to focus first upon expression of attempts
to control the external world and expand power over it, then
upon the inner world and attempts to know and come to
peace with it.
4. Show little variation over most systems for personality
dimensions such as intelligence and temperament.
5. Show some personality dimensions to emerge at a particular
position in the hierarchy with a decreasing or increasing
quantitative dimension in subsequent systems. For example,
ideological dogmatism enters first in the ‘sacrifice now to get
later’ system and decreases there after. On the other hand,
cognitive complexity increases from the very beginning.
6. Show a particular dimension to emerge at a particular
position in the hierarchy. Then show the dimension to vary
quantitatively, by increase or decrease, in a cyclic, wave-like,
in-and-out fashion. For example, guilt as a felt emotion
seems to appear first in the ‘sacrifice now to get later’ system,
almost disappears in the next, the ‘express self calculatedly’
system, reappears to a lesser degree in the ‘sacrifice now to
valued peer to get now’ system. Honesty, authoritarianism and
130 Confusion and Contradiction
CHAPTER 5
By now I had traveled the road to conflict and controversy into the
by-road of consternation leading to despair. It seemed that my every
effort to clarify mature human behavior had completely missed its goal.
There seemed no clarification of these contradictory conceptions in the
data. There was only exacerbation of it, a fact which became ever more
apparent as new data came in and as it was collated and analyzed. Each
new set of data, each succeeding analysis of it, made it more than
obvious that this long-standing problem of psychology, in particular,
and behavioral science in general, was being amplified by my every
effort. Each new set of data, plus the old, made me painfully aware that
the total data simply could not be rationalized within any existing
conceptual system for explaining the many faceted aspects of mature
man’s behavior. Consequently, I was in a quandary. What now was I to
do? Should I accept that the project had aborted and stop the effort, or
should I go on? Were I to go on, how should I proceed? This was the
problem I found in the waning months of 1960.
As the situation developed, four choices seemed ahead. One was to
revise the whole attack, design anew, collect anew, and analyze new data.
But I could not bring myself to do this. The situation was too intriguing,
the predicament too tantalizing to let go. The truth of the matter was I
134 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
was enjoying the mess I was in. It had all the enticement of Makaha63 to
suffer - all the lure of the hunt when the prey has just deviously slipped
from view. So this choice was dismissed and the second was examined.
This choice was to report the unrationalized results so that others might
have their try at them - an action which, for me, would have taken all
the fun from the game. Therefore, this choice became as none and
therewith was dismissed.
The third choice seemed, on the surface, the most obvious of all. It
was to let the data do the talking - let them dictate the conceptualization
that should rationalize them. But this was easier said than done. For
talking to occur, one must have a basic language within which the
communication can take place, and this I had not found. I had not been
able to find it in the language of any other theorist. As a result from this
third alternative, and its problem offspring, an incestuous mating took
place which produced the fourth of my choices. This choice was to
search the more speculative, intuitionistic byways for the key to my
Rosetta stone. So I turned to the literature, the speculative psychologist
and the theoretical adventurer and there, in time, I came upon a basic
language for a conceptual explanation of the data.64
Four things stood out in the analysis of the basic data, my subjects’
conceptions of mature human behavior. First, it was relatively easy to
classify sixty percent of the conceptions the subjects submitted. They
fell readily into distinguishable categories. Examination of the data by
judges other than the investigator resulted in at first five, then six, and
later eight kinds of logically well developed positions, only five of which
63 Makaha: Hawaiian word meaning "in or through the breath of life;" a popular tourist
destination with a prime surfing beach at the foot of a lush valley on the island of
Oahu.
64 CWG: As regularly happens in science, I was to learn later that others had come, in
65 CWG: It was done for a very substantive reason that is referred to in part in the
1961 book of Harvey, Hunt and Schroder. On page 89, there is a footnote referring
to a state of development below the four cognitive stages theorized to exist in their
book. My work, over and beyond the studies reported herein, suggested three nodal
stages existing prior to the stages I - II - III and IV of Harvey, Hunt and Schroder
and suggested another than just those of Mumford and Heard. My data required
also that I hypothesize stages beyond those of any of these people or of others who
were beginning to think this way. Since the first stage of adult human behavior, as
per the data of my studies, can hardly be called a “cognitive” or “conceptual” stage,
the decision was made to use a more comprehensive term - level of existence.
A similar reason led to the rejection of the psychoanalytic terminology of “ego
defective” and “ego integrative” states. In one sense, the data of these
investigations found “ego defective” and “ego integrative” states present in each
conception of mature behavior. It should be noted, however, that earlier appearing
conceptions are, in the sense of ability to deal with a complex world, “ego
defective.” But regardless of this, I stuck to my decision that the level of existence
language was the more inclusive terminology.
66 Rokeach, M. (1960). The Open and Closed Mind. In collaboration with Richard Bovier et.
different mental set applied well to some other category, but not to the
remaining major classifications except that, in the sense of conformity or
non-conformity, the conceptions fell into similar and dissimilar
conceptions at one and the same time.
The second message in the data was as tantalizing as a love just
touched, but still unknown. It said the surface aspects here are quite easy
to perceive because the conceptions fall into an ordered hierarchy with
“a” proceeding “b” and “b” preceding “c,” etc. But, it also said there
may be more here than surface aspects show because after “c” there is
“d” and “e” and “f” and “g” and possibly others ad infinitum. In other
words, the known serves only to point out that which is unknown, and
psychological maturity is of this order. ‘There is no such thing as
psychological maturity’ was this message in these data. There are only
those forms of mature human behavior that have been conceived by
humans to date, plus the newest one that is now coming to be. New
forms of psychologically mature behavior are there just over man’s
horizon, there to come to be when their day and their hour arrives.
This message dictated, at least to me, that a conceptualization which
would rationalize my data must start with a revised conception of
human nature.
The third message in the data was a most salient one. It derived
from the evidence that in each type of conception two basic forms
appeared. One was a positivistic, almost vehement presentation of the
conception of mature behavior which was followed by an
uncompromising defense of it when the subjects were required to
compare their conception to that of their peers or when they were
defending their conception in comparison to authority. The other
conceptual form, within a category, was a relaxed straightforward
presentation which usually was peripherally modified after comparison
to either peers or authority. These two intra-category forms differed
markedly under critical evaluation. Those who produced rigid
conceptions were most defensive when criticized; this tendency was not
displayed in those who took a more relaxed attitude toward their
creation. Thus, the message to date said: ‘Seek a basic language that
allows the meaning of life to change with time, a language that allows
the meaning of life to change in an ordered hierarchical way, and which
leaves the hierarchy open-ended. Then seek a language which allows for
this normal open movement to become arrested and closed.’
From the third type of data another message emerged. Not all
categories were as related above. One group, the fourth group in the
hierarchy as it was seen at that time, which ultimately came to be the
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 137
Having deep respect for the perspicacity of the artist when it comes
to divining the character of man’s nature, I began a search through my
mind’s remembrances for what writers had said about the nature of man
and the meaning of his life. Three particularly come to mind. They were
Shakespeare, Keats, and Thoreau. Why these three were dredged out of
the depths of my memories I do not know. But it was their words
particularly which cast the first sliver of light upon my data.
The aid of Shakespeare’s words is obvious if we see them in a
slightly different way than he intended. “All the world’s a stage - and
each man in his time plays many parts,”68 gave me aid. I saw this as
suggesting that each of my subjects was conceptualizing an honest view.
A view of how s/he thought one could best play the part of being a
mature human and that I had to explain how these many honest views
came to be. But the words of Keats and Thoreau were more to the point
of my need than were the words of Shakespeare. In a letter penned to
John Hamilton Reynolds in 1818, Keats said:
“I will put down a simile of human life as far as I now
perceive it; that is, to the point to which I say we both have
69 Keats, J. (1933). Autobiography (1818 letters). Compiled from his letters and essays by
Carl Vonnard Weller; illustrated by Wm. Wilke. London: Stanford University Press,
H. Milford, Oxford Univ. Press.
140 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
70 Thoreau, H. D. (1854 letters). Correspondence. Walter Harding & Carl Bode, (Eds.).
(1958). New York: University Press.
71 Murphy, Gardener (1958). Human Potentialities. New York: Basic Books, Inc., p. 6.
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 141
social system - those that have found their reason for existence
somewhere other than in the self.
The behavior of man in this existentially described emergent state is
so foreign to the explanatory principles of existing behavioral theories
that psychologists and other behavioral scientists have found it difficult
to provide a satisfactory explanation of it. The older explanatory
systems, the associative learning psychologists, the psychoanalytic
psychologies, and the interpersonal psychologies either ignore it or
explain it as an aberration. They either try to force it into existing
conceptualizations, or to refurbish their old concepts in order to fit this
new behavior into the existing scheme. But this has not been done by all
psychologies. The phenomenologists, the existentialists, and some
humanists have attempted to develop new conceptualizations to account
for this emergent form of behavior; but as I see their efforts, there is a
minor error in the effort they are putting forth. An error which is
illustrated when May says:
“I, for one, believe we vastly overemphasize the human
being’s concern with security and survival satisfactions … In
my own work in psychotherapy there appears more and more
evidence that anxiety in our day arises not so much out of fear
of libidinal satisfactions (something he would not say from
the data of my studies) or security, but rather out of the
patient’s fear of his own powers and conflicts that arise from
that fear.”72
May’s criticism may hold increasingly for modern twentieth century
man, as compared to nineteenth century man. But the
phenomenological, existential, humanistic conceptualizers may tend to
slight the fact that even now, insofar as the data of my studies
demonstrates, there are more people who base their behavior and their
conception of mature personality in the belief that God exists or in
some other concept for living not based on the power of self than there
are people who base their behavior and their concept of maturity in the
belief that God is dead; that there are more people, now, even in our
most advanced regions, whose chief concern is with security and
survival satisfactions than there are people whose chief concern is with
the search for self; that even now there are more people whose anxieties
arise out of the fear of libidinal satisfactions than there are people whose
anxieties arise from a fear of their own powers.
72 May, Rollo (1961). Existential Psychology. New York: Random House, p. 18-19.
142 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
73 Murphy, Gardner (1958). Human Potentialities. New York: Basic Books Inc., p. 7.
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 143
74 Murphy, Gardner (1958). Human Potentialities. New York: Basic Books Inc.,
p. 324-325.
144 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
them. That assumption enabled me to say one thing and to ask two
crucial questions.
Within the assumption, I was able to say that most conceptualizers,
my subjects, and professional theorizers have an explanatory system
representing the human as he can and does sometimes believe and
behave. I was able to say most conceptualizers are explaining a particular
form of human behavior. This I could say because there is ample
evidence that the major theorists have limited the source of their data
just as, it seemed to me, had my subjects.75 But it was not necessary to
say that the conceptualizers are explaining all the forms of human
behavior. What could be said was that within the limitations of that
which the conceptualizer observed, that he observed well; that within
the data open to him, his conceptualizations were warranted. What did
not have to be said was that each observer saw representative samples of
all possible forms of human behavior; nor was it necessary to say that
the conceptualizations deduced were the only conceptualizations
deducible from each person’s data, at least when one person’s data is
viewed in conjunction with another person’s data. And it was not
necessary to say that each conceptualization allowed for all the forms of
human behavior not observed. Thus, it was suggested to me that there
was room for some one or some ones to conceive of human behavior in
ways that allow for all the forms of human behavior that have existed,
for all the forms of human behavior that do exist, and for all the forms
of human behavior which may appear in the future. With such in mind,
I went on to examine the two crucial questions which arose from the
assumption.
The first crucial question was: Why, if we assume most
conceptualizations are correct, is there so much argument as to whose
conception is correct? Why has Eysenck76 so offhandedly dismissed the
psychoanalytic point of view? Why did Horney77 so attack the biological
underpinning of Freud? Why did Freud78 become so antagonistic in
respect to Adler’s79 assertions about human behavior? Why did
Science. 105:61-75.
77 Horney, Karen (1939). New Ways in Psychoanalysis. New York: W. Norton and Co., Inc..
78 Freud, Sigmund (1933). New Introductory Lectures on Psychonalysis. (1912)
79 Adler, A. (1927)
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 145
psychology. Perceiving, Behaving and Becoming. A New Form for Education. Washington,
D.C.: Yearbook of Association for Supervision and Curriculum, Development.
84 Koch, Sigmund (1951, 1956).
85 Kroeber, Alfred L. (1953). Anthropology Today: An Encyclopedic Inventory. Chicago:
The Task
direction to the late fifties and early sixties. Myer Maskin (1960) writing on
Adaptions of Psychoanalytic Technique in Specific Disorders, in Jules H. Masserman, (Ed.).
Science and Psychoanalysis, Vol III “Psychoanalysis and Human Values.” New York:
Grune and Stratton, p. 321-352, point out that Jung, Rank, Freud, Sullivan et al.
based their theoretical-models on certain types of behavior. And Morris I. Stein
(1963), writing on “Explorations in Typology” in R.W. White (Ed.) The Study of
Lives. New York: Atherton, p. 280-303, called attention to the problem solving
behavior of some subjects he had studied. He said, in essence, one subject seemed
to follow the principles of reinforcement, while another seemed to follow the
principles of Gestalt psychology.
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 147
Schenectady, N.Y.: Value Analysis Inc., & Graves, Clare W. (1964). Proceedings of the
Fifth Annual Value Analysis Conference, Schenectady, N.Y.: Value Analysis, Inc..
91 Roe, Anne (1956). The Psychology of Occupations. New York: Wiley.
148 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
elders, valuing one’s higher authority, valuing one’s peers and valuing
one’s existential world.
Also, I had trouble with the meaning of Maslow’s physiological or
survival needs and the safety needs. The psychological need to survive,
according to my data, became central only after cognitive awareness of
the self came to be. It was, therefore, not the lowest-level need system.
And safety was a marked element in the first three belonging systems,
not just the second and not to the adjust-to-existential-realities subjects.
According to my data, the express self but not at the expense of others
behaved in many respects like Maslow’s description of the
self-actualizing person. But, some of my so-called “self-actualizing”
people changed in the course of my investigation to a new conception
of maturity. And late in my basic studies, this same conception of
mature behavior started to appear as the original concept of some
subjects. When this previously not seen and unforeseen form of
behavior appeared, obviously it was necessary to question what I then
thought Maslow meant by the self-actualizing person. And it became
necessary to accept the possibility that the human is an open system
from whom higher and higher levels of behavior will forever emerge.
Therefore, it was necessary to look beyond Maslow for a system for
rationalizing my data. As a result of this failure, and what I have related
about my data, I made another series of assumptions and added to them
the twist of open-endedness.
I assumed that conceptions of mature human behavior, like any
other behavior, grow and change with time. Like many other
phenomena, such concepts may progress, fixate, or regress. It was
assumed that there is something inherent in man which is triggered into
operation as one or another behavioral system, in one or another form,
under certain life circumstances. It was assumed that mature behavioral
systems are growth phenomena which tend to develop through a series
of definable but inclusive stages by an orderly progression from less
complex to more and more complex stages. And, like any other growth
phenomenon, it was assumed that once growth starts, there is no
assurance that subsequent stages will emerge. Growth, such as studied in
these investigations could, like a seed, progress on and on through its
preprogrammed stages; or like the seed, it could become stunted, or
even reorganize and take on a form not usually of its nature. And,
finally, it was assumed that just as the seed will not grow to its higher
form in adverse circumstances, so too, is man’s adult behavioral form
limited by the life circumstances in which the human lives. These
assumptions put before me the broader aspects of my task; but it was
New Problem, Opportunity, Task 149
which includes all forms of adult personality that are old, all
forms that are current and all forms that might come to be.
We have, nevertheless, made a start. We are truly
beginning to regard adult personality not as a state or form of
organization but as a direction of development. We now see
adult personality less as a recognizable cross section and more
as a multidimensional trend phase of a complex
developmental process. This approach to adult personality
cautiously and modestly makes the most of similarities
between cosmic evolution and human evolution with special
reference to the principles of organization, centralization,
differentiation and integration. This start takes note of the
specialized ontogenetic growth and differs from other
characteristic types of species development and from inorgan-
ic development. In this new view, it is natural and proper to
give a specific form of adult personality context by stating its
relation to the whole. It is equally proper to suggest the nature
of the whole by reference to any specific part. In this new way
of thinking, the fact is that a form, any form, of adult
personality is relevant to trying to decide what the universe,
personality, may be. In this way of thinking forms of
personality organization beyond those emphasized in past or
current personality organization may well lie ahead. This is so
because in this new frame of thought, adult personality is
relative. It takes on a different form when the
organism/environment complex changes as space and time
change. But this is not the sterile, culturally relativistic view of
personality. It is more. It is more because another principle is
relevant.
This other principle is the one of hierarchy. We do not
have just culturally relative systems. We have instead, an
ordered hierarchy of systems within and across culture, each
earlier appearing system in the course of development,
subordinated to and resting within. As we change our fixation
upon adult personality as a state of form or organization and
as we replace it with a conception of personality as a direction
of development our approach to the myriad of psychological
problems, also, changes. Still newer functional principles will
be derived. New principles of and for personal and group
evolution will appear and new forms of interaction between
people will be observed. A changed concept of psychological
152 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
states which strive to maintain the conditions of that state while at the
same time, under certain conditions, it allows one to think of these
states reorganizing and taking on another form. Since this way of
thinking seemed to correspond so well with my observations and my
thinking, I began to lean toward General Systems Theory. But I was still
faced with some lingering conceptual problems before creation could
begin.
With this in mind, I felt I must search for the “essential starting
points” toward the solution of the conceptual problems. Then I must
seek some insight that would combine these clues into the beginning of
a revised conceptualization of first, human personality and later,
individual psychology. Then, if that could be accomplished, I must begin
to consider the general form that the more inclusive conceptualization
might take.
One place where I searched for the “essential starting points” from
which a more inclusive adult psychology can be written is the lingering
aspects of some age-old psychological problems of which Murphy said,
as I related earlier:
“We do not know yet to what extent the principles
operating within man [in the psychosocial world] are identical
with the general principles which operate elsewhere in the
universe.”93
Yet, we continue to take one set of general principles, those of
classical physics, and generalize them to develop most theories of
culture and personality. We do this though it may be that some other set
of principles is more appropriate to our task. Or, we take other
proposed, but far less established sets of principles - those of the
Drieschien94 organicists, the Bergsonian95 vitalists - and strive to develop
some theory of man’s behavior based on them. But most psychological
93 Murphy, Gardner (1947). Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure. New
York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, p. 916.
94 Driesch, Hans (1925). The Crisis in Psychology. Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
95 Bergson, Henri (1946). Creative Mind. New York Philosophical Library. Bergson, Henri
and cultural authorities work from the former, not the latter. Again as
Murphy says:
“It is often assumed … that inert and purposeless matter
pushed and pulled, until quite fortuitously, living forms have
developed, and that these [living forms] have reacted in
accordance with [classical] physical properties until [behaving]
man as we know him appeared. Having started with a
purposeless and feelingless universe, we are confronted with a
thinking and feeling entity; we have tried either to deny the
feelings and the thoughts or to derive them from the inert,
non-sentient attributes described by physics.”96
Murphy goes on to relate how having striven to be scientific, we
have come a1most to deny the existence of organic behavioral modes.
This we have done, it seems, because along the way we got lost in a false
conception of the whole and a metaphysical conception of the concept
of purpose. We lost our way when mechanism as an explanation failed
and when Driesch’s monumental work erroneously replaced the failing
concept of mechanism with the untestable concept of vitalism. But,
perhaps we can find our way again because Spearman’s97
reconceptualization of the concept of the whole may point the way to a
more adequate conceptualization of the behavior of adult man and the
nature of his cultures. With Spearman’s conceptual change we may be
able to see our way out of both oversimplified mechanism and
unscientific vitalism, at least so far as personality and culture is
concerned.
For Driesch, the whole meant the typical end result which is the
highest form of organization, and purpose was the subliminal striving
toward the ultimate totality that the organism could become. In my
mind, it was Driesch’s conception of the whole which led organismically
minded psychologists and many anthropologists into trouble with the
concept of purpose. And, partially, it was our failure to develop an
adequate concept of purpose and an adequate concept of the whole
which fed our illusion both as to the nature of adult personality and our
cultural ways of life. These problems led us astray when we tried to
reconceptualize after the mechanism failed. The Drieschian concept of
the whole led us to conceive of the mature adult personality and of the
Utopian society as a describable, achievable state or condition - a
98 Murphy, Gardner (1947). Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure. New
York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, p. 917.
156 New Problem, Opportunity, Task
99 Murphy, Gardner (1958). Human Potentialities. New York: Basic Books Inc., p. 323.
100 Seiler, John A. (1967). Systems Analysis in Organizational Behavior. Homewood, IL:
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., p. 195.
158 The E-C Model
The E-C Model 159
CHAPTER 6
101 CWG: Prepotent - the problems of the first level take precedence over those of the
second level; those of the second level take precedence over the third, etc. At any
level, the problems of that level are more powerful than those of the preceding
levels.
162 E-C Model
parallel with the problems for living. It must also show that the
elaborating systems are built from originally uncommitted cells.
To accomplish this, I have chosen the upper case letters of the
second half of the alphabet. The letters N, O, P, Q, R and S were
chosen to represent the basic dynamic neurological coping systems.
These letters N, O, P, etc. will be primed and double primed, etc., to
signify higher order coping systems built upon the six basic coping
systems. The letters X, Y, and Z will represent, respectively, the activating
systems, the supporting systems, and the elaborating system. Thus, the organism
will be conceived to consist psychologically of N, O, P, Q, R and S then
N’, O’, P’, Q’, R’, and S’, plus X, Y, and Z.
From these conceptual decisions the need arises to represent not
the overall potentials in the double-helix, but the momentary operants in
each of the two sets of determining forces. To represent these
momentary operants on the environmental side, I will use the phrase The
Conditions OF Exsitence of the species, group or individual. The
conditions of existence are the totality of environmentosocial forces
setting the scene in which psychological being takes place.
To represent the momentary operants on the organismic side of the
helix, I will use the term The Conditions FOR Existence. The conditions for
existence thus are the activated psycho-neurological coping systems, the
cognitive capacities, and the temperamental dispositions of the species,
group, or individual.
Following from this decision arises the need to conceptualize the
psychodynamic resultant of the momentary operants in each of the
major force fields in the double-helix. On the environmental side, I will
call this resultant The Existential Problems of the species, group or
individual. On the organismic side, I will designate the resultant of the
activated coping systems, the developed cognitive capacities, memory
traces and the like and the temperamental disposition as The Existential
Means for Living of the species, group or individual.
When the momentary resultants of each side of the double-helix are
conceptualized as the existential problems of living and the existential
means for living, there is a need to represent the psychodynamic
resultant of the interaction of both sides of the double-helix. This
resultant I will designate as The Existential State of the species, group, or
individual. The existential state is the force field which must be
discerned if one is to understand the psychological nature of the species,
group, or individual. The existential state is that which produces the
levels of existence of the species, the psychological positioning and
organization along the double-helix of a group, and the psychosocial
E-C Model 163
Exhibit IV
102 Krech, David, & Crutchfield, R. (1948). Theory and Problems of Social Psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
103 Bartlett (1932).
166 E-C Model
Exhibit V (p. 168) presents, in one diagram, the basic aspects of the
emergent cyclical model of adult psychosocial development. It shows, as
Exhibit IV says, that psychosocial systems develop as resultants of the
interaction of a complex of two sets of determining forces: (1) the
environmentosocial forces, the problems of living of the species, group, or
individual - the forces, A, B, C, D, E, F; - A’, N’ etc. and (2) the
organismic determinants, the forces N, O, P, Q, R, S; - N’, O’ etc. plus
X, Y, and Z, the neuropsychological equipment for living of the species,
group, or individual.
Existential problems A, the living problems associated with the
environmentosocial conditions for satisfying or not satisfying the
imperative, periodic, physiological needs, activate the neurological
equipment N. This equipment, the first level neuropsychological
equipment of the first spiral of existence, is structured specifically to
sense and cope with life problems A. So if an adult exists in
environmentosocial conditions A, the psychoneurological system N is
activated within his or her brain. The person’s existential state under this
set of conditions is the AN state. A person in this state is to be known,
comprehended, and managed through the dynamics and principles of
the AN psychosocial system. This person cannot be known,
comprehended, or effectively managed by the principles of any other
existential state, any other level of existence.
168 E-C Model
Exhibit V
The Basic Complex of Emergent Cyclical
Psychosocial Development Theory
E-C Model 169
Table III
Exhibit VI
not pass by this point too quickly. To understand and manage some
biologically mature adults - mild mental retardation, for example - we
must recognize that their personalities will always be a variant on the
AN existential state no matter the conditions for existence in the
environmentosocial world.
If potential exists and if the other conditions are present, then the
AN state changes to the BO system and psychosocial behavior becomes
of another order. The five other conditions are:
1. There must be a resolution of the existential problems of the level
where one is. This is necessary to produce free energy in the
system through which change can be ready to occur.
172 E-C Model
Exhibit VII
Exhibit VIII
178 E-C Model
of the ER system. At this point most behavior is ER, but DQ, CP, BO
and AN behavior are present in decreasing amounts. FS behavior is also
present in amounts about equal to DQ, whereas A’N’ behavior has
barely emerged.
The reason for the heavy lines of the AN and BO and A’N’ and
B’O’ illustrate that movement to the second spiral of existence is not a
complete break from the past. It is only a higher-order move in the
complex spiral of life.
Overall, psychosocial development can indeed be seen as a complex
wave-like phenomenon. But development does not occur in the smooth
and flowing manner suggested by Exhibit VIII. It is more a spurt-like,
plateau-like, more a progressive, steady state, regressive movement in
which certain demarcation points can be identified in the flowing
process. As systems of personality and culture come and go with
changes in psychological time and alterations in psychological space,
four demarcation points can be readily distinguished. This progressive,
steady state, regressive development and the four demarcation points are
shown in Exhibit IX.
The progressive, steady state, regressive path of development is
shown in Exhibit IX by the line diagram of systems AN through B’O’
The four demarcation points are indicated, for each successive level of
existence, by the lower case letters a, b, c, d, and by priming and double
priming them.
Lower case a, a’, a’’, etc., indicate periods of steady state functioning
as represented by the plateaus in Exhibit IX. These periods exist when
coping means are adequate to meet current existential problems. (These
steady state periods, a for system AN, a’ for system BO, etc., are shown
as they represent the existential state of the species, not the individual.
In the individual, in the modern world, the time scale is reversed.)
During a, a’, a’’ periods, ways to cope with the existential problems
produced by the psychological space are adequate.
When points b, b’, b’’ are reached, a change in psychological space
has taken place. The change has produced new problems of existence
and old ways are no longer adequate to the tasks of living. So points b,
b’, b’’ stand out as times of crisis in the developmental process. They
denote times when feelings of cognitive inadequacy arise as one
attempts to solve newly appearing or newly created existential problems
by old coping means. Such attempts produce states of anxiety and rigid
functioning. As the anxiety increases, so does the rigid functioning. This
E-C Model 179
Exhibit IX
180 E-C Model
results in attempts to make older and older coping ways solve the newer
and newer existential problems.105 Thus, at points b, b’, b’’ regression
often takes place. During these times, depending on the amount of
stress induced, fixation may occur. So, this is one place in the
developmental process where pathology is apt to break out.
Functioning of a quite different character, susceptible to different
kinds of pathology, arises at developmental points c, c’, c’’, etc. At these
points, the dissonance created by the inadequacy of existing coping
means has started the production of new chemicals in subsystem X, the
activating system. These new chemical constituents have started the
activation of the next set of neuropsychological equipment. This
produces new ideas for coping which are able to solve the new
existential problems. But these new insights may be blocked from
implementation by the conditions in psychological space. Points c, c’, c’’,
etc., are points at which a subjective state of anger and considerable
labile functioning may occur. So this is another point in the
development process at which fixation is apt to occur and from which
regression to earlier forms of behavior might take place.
If conditions are right, if they provide for one to implement the new
insights into action, then movement takes place to points d, d’, d’’. As
new insights develop and provide new coping means, and as barriers are
removed, the new existential problems are resolved. This results in very
rapid movement and a quantum leap to the next steady state of being,
the next level of existence.
To repeat, Exhibit IX applies, time-wise, to the species and not the
individual. It illustrates, in one aspect, the length of time it took
humankind to develop each new steady state a, a’, a’’ for human
existence. It took a longer period of time for Homo sapiens to move
through the AN state of existence to the BO state than it took for
movement from BO to CP. The leading edge of DQ existence took still
less time to appear than the leading edge of the CP state. But this aspect
of emergent cyclical theory can be viewed better through the diagram of
Exhibit X.
Exhibit X shows a series of increasingly large quasi-concentric
circles. The first, as illustrated, is confined to the lines of the
“normal-sized” head. It represents the AN psychological space, the
space in which all Homo sapiens lived until about 40,000 years ago. At that
time changes in the conditions of human existence, probably climatic,
105 CWG: Emergent cyclical theory sees the developmental process as Mehrabian sees it,
except that he does not identify the systems or the determinants. [See: Mehrabian,
Albert (1968). An Analysis of Personality Theories. Prentice Hall, p. 143-152.]
E-C Model 181
106 This was written in 1977, putting the approximate rise of A’N’ at the end of World
War II and the beginnings of the nuclear age.
E-C Model 183
Exhibit XI
how to come to peace with all that is inside but cannot be expressed
except in the way of the higher power.
The ER system again shifts its focus to the external world and how
to gain control over it so one can acquire that which fulfills “mine own
self interest.” This system pretends that “mine own self interest” is really
the interest of others. This is a characteristic of this expres self system
which is different from the CP expres self system.
At the FS level, return is made to a sacrifice-self theme. But it is a
“sacrifice now to get now” theme, not a “sacrifice now to get later”
theme (DQ). The self, at this level, is a strong part of the total system,
but the focus is again on knowing the inner world. The FS focus is
different from AN and BO systems in which the idea of self had not
emerged to a dominant position. It is also different from the CP external
focus on the world and how to get around it, or the ER external focus
on how to gain control over it. It has the inward focus of the DQ world
but not on how to come to inner peace with the absolutistic
prescriptions of authority. FS thinking seeks an even trade in life: ‘If you
win, I win. If you lose, I lose.’ And central to it is: ‘Whoever wins,
whoever loses, let us not fight about it because that will only rob me of
the time I need to come to know my inner world.’ This dictum is lived
to excess, as are all the dictums of subsistence level systems, and it is
these excesses which lead to the emergence of the A’N’ system, the first
system of the second spiral of existence.
The A’N’ system arises as a result of the excesses of the subsistence
ways of living, as a result of over-denial and over-expression. Over-
denial has led to the rape of self. Over-expression has led to the rape of
others and of the world. This rape of others, the world, and the self has
put sheer existence in jeopardy just as it was when human life began. Six
ways of being - AN, BO, CP, DQ, ER, FS - have worked toward an
epitome for living based on the total expression by the individual. Now,
in the minds of some, this vision of life is perceived to doom Homo
sapiens to go out of existence. So a new basis for living, the interdependence
of all things, emerges as the perception upon which to start human life
all over again. As Mumford says, the sum of all our days is but a new
beginning.107 The totality of this is shown in the two curves of Exhibit
X.
In Exhibit XI, the solid line curve illustrates that as the human
solves the problems A he gains the skills and knowledge through system
N which are necessary to cope with problems A. But it shows that what
107 Paraphrase of Lewis Mumford’s (1956) optimistic remark, “The sum of all man’s days
is just a beginning.” (Transformations of Man. p. 249).
E-C Model 185
Exhibit XII
ways supports this.108 So the dotted line, when in the upper position,
represents domination of conceptual thinking by the functions of the
108 Sperry, Roger W., Gazzaniga, M.S. and Bogen, J.E. (1969). Interhemispheric
relationships: the neocortical commissures; syndromes of hemisphere disconnection.
In Vinken, P. J. and Bruyn G.W. (Eds.), Handbook of Clinical Neurology (p. 273-290).
Amsterdam: North-Holland Publishing Co., 4. Gazzeniga, M. S. (1970) The Bisected
Brain. New York: Appleton. Ornstein, R. (1972). The Psychology of Consciousness. San
Francisco: Freeman Co.
188 E-C Model
109 The source document has not been been found. However, these words were read at
the 1971 Annual Meeting of the Association of Humanistic Psychology from “Levels
of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values,” and appear in that paper wherein
Dr. Graves cites the original date as 1960 rather than 1961.
110 Calhoun (1968, 1973).
E-C Model 191
111 Fromm, Eric (1941). Escape from Freedom. Holt Rinehart and Winston.
112 At this point there is a break in Dr. Graves’s writing, explained on the pages which
follow.
192 E-C Model
E-C Model 193
Exhibit XIV
194 Section II
Section II 195
Section II
Over the years, many people who have adopted the Gravesian point
of view have concentrated on the content of the levels – more as a
typology and categories for differences – rather than focus on the E-C
theory, itself. It was the emergent cyclical levels of existence perspective
and the double helix, described in Section I and defended in Section III,
which are the essence of this work. It is those chapters which are “The
Graves Book.” The next eight chapters are icing applied to his cake,
made from ingredients he left and used with some consistency. They
are, nonetheless, only our best approximation of what he might have
baked. One of the motivations for making this text available is to
suggest that further research and study is needed, how it might be
pursued, and to make the basis of Dr. Graves’s thinking available to
those who choose further to explore human behavior – what it is, and
what it is meant to be.
198 Section II
AN 199
CHAPTER 7
113 In some of his writings, Dr. Graves used a hyphen to separate the letters in the pairs:
A-N, B-O, etc. In other work he did not: AN, BO, CP, etc. The hyphen suggests and
reinforces the link between the double-helix components. He used that in his later
handouts. However, he did not include the hyphen in the 1977 manuscript and this
text will adhere to that style for consistency. Readers should also note that Dr.
Graves made it clear that his descriptions of the AN state were based on library
research and, for obvious reasons, not from written conceptiosn.
200 AN
Examples of AN Existence
In this state of being, the person does not have any awareness of
his- or herself as being different from any other person, as being
different from any other animal, as being different from a log or a tree
or a rock or anything else. It’s just a condition in which the individual is
one with the world; but they will now and then perceive themselves as a
little different. It’s a state which is found rarely in the current world.
The research that came out in the mid 1960s corroborated that this
state of existence does actually live on the surface of the globe at this
particular time, and one finds them in the natural state, in a healthy state,
and in the mature state in the Tasaday of the island of Mindanao in the
Philippine Archipelago.114 The Tasaday are people who have survived
because of their particular conditions of existence - living way back in a
verdant, rain forest, far and away from any other human being. The
forest provides a continuous supply of food and water. There are natural
limestone caves, so it naturally provides shelter from any inclement
weather. They find a cave and they just move in.
People living at the first level of human existence - living the nodal
way that is the way that maintains life and continues for them - don’t
need tools. They just go out in the stream and pick up a crawdad. Food
is there to be gathered, to be plucked, to be picked. They don’t have any
concept of leadership; they don’t have any concept of time; they have no
concept of space other than the immediate little region in which they
live. They live through the automatic equipment of the N neurological
system which is specifically attuned to processing the imperative
physiological needs. These people who are centralized at and have been
living forever at the first level of existence have not gone on to higher
levels of existence because they live in those verdant conditions. There
has been no reason for them to go on.
They are not like other people who operate at lower levels of human
existence who live, for example, in the Kalahari Desert115 where it is
necessary to search continuously for food. People like those who live on
the Kalahari Desert have to find a more adequate way of existence than
those who are like the Tasaday. So they at least begin movement out of
the first level to the second level of existence; but these are only some
examples of people who live at or close to the first level of existence
today.
Sometimes people who once operated at considerably higher levels
have had their conditions of existence worsened. Hence, their higher
level systems were deactivated, turning on again and foreforcing the
lower level systems. An example of this are the Ik, the nomadic African
tribe that was forced out of its natural habitat into a static life in
mountainous country insufficient to provide sustenance to meet even
their periodic physiological needs or to enable these people to solve
their problems of existence.116 They have regressed probably to about
the lowest level of human living that we have today.
It simply indicates, as I see it, that down underneath it all, if the
human being is to survive, he must do whatever he can to survive. The
human being is pretty bright. If it’s necessary to steal the food out of the
baby’s mouth as the Ik does, do it. Now, lets get down to earth here, lets
get down to the level which we were talking about and here, now, the
lowest part of that level. At the first level the person does not
differentiate self from any other animal. An animal gets hungry enough
it will take what it must to live. A human will do the same thing; it’s
another animal; the Ik do that. Those who have written of the Ik - these
are not my words - have described them as the most despicable human
beings on the face of the globe.117 They are simply trying to stay alive as
human beings, and losing the battle.
Karl Jaspers related a regressed case of this kind in his book, General
Psychopathology. A World War I German soldier related the state of mind
to which he was reduced by the conditions for existence in which he
was living. The soldier said:
“We were reduced to having to wait and see. We were in
immediate danger but our minds froze, grew numb, empty
and dead. One gets so tired, so utterly weary. Thoughts
crawl, to think is such a labor and even the smallest
voluntary act becomes painful to perform. Even talking,
having to reply, get ones thoughts together jars on the
nerves, and it felt as sheer relief to doze and not to have to
think of anything or do anything. The numbness may
indeed grow into a dreamlike state, time and space
disappear, reality moves off infinitely far, and while one’s
consciousness obediently registers every detail like a
photographic plate ... feelings waste away and the individual
loses all touch with himself. It is you who sees, hears and
perceives or is it only your shadow?”118
116 Turnbull, Colin M. (1972). Mountain People. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
117 Ibid, Turnbull.
118 Jaspers, Karl (1964). General Psychopathology. University of Chicago Press, p. 368-369.
AN 205
Obviously, in the jargon of the day, this man is not ‘with it.’ He is
not aware of time, space or materiality. There is no reality for him as
many of us know reality. His psychological processes seem to have
disappeared for, as he says, “our minds froze, grew numb, empty and
dead.” Intentional behavior is gone as is shown when he says,
“Thoughts crawl, to think is such a labor and even the smallest
voluntary act becomes painful to perform.” All that operates in this state
is basic reflexological behavior. Even emotions and one’s concept of self
disappear for as he says, “…feelings waste away and the individual loses
all touch with himself.”
Quite obviously this is the AN state in one of its pathological forms.
But do not make an error at this point, for automatic behavior does not
arise only from psychopathological or physiopathological conditions of
existence. This is a normal state of existence, at least in our world today.
This assertion is not one which it pleases me to make, for as you shall
soon see, it need not be a normal state for man’s being because there is
much we could do about it. But for the moment, such regrets are not
germane, for the AN state of existence is the life state of many non-
pathological beings in our world today. So we must know its character if
ever we are to take appropriate steps to lift man from this inhumane,
human state of existence.
How many million adults in this world live at this level we do not
know, but the lady whose case shall now be cited exists, lives, and is
reproducing within the upper reaches of this state of human existence.
First, let us examine the conditions for existence which surround her
being today.
Mrs. G. is the case. (Note: this was a white family.) She and
her family live in one of the many decaying tenement row
houses facing on the pock marked and trash littered pavement
of __ St. The gutted sidewalk in front of the G. home is
cluttered with broken glass that has collected throughout the
litter of battered tin cans and soggy bags of garbage “air mailed”
from the windows above. Worn dips in the steps of a wooden
stoop and a swaying hand-railing lead into a hallway where the
grit and grime underfoot and on a creaking stairway to the
second floor also cling to the rickety banister.
Grease coated walls in the kitchen and the damply dirty top
of an outsized television set, long inoperative, revile the hand.
The odor vaguely sensed but undefined in the hallway and up
the stairs is unmistakable now. It is the smell of urine, dried and
drying in the bare mattresses and in the sagging, stuffing-spilling
206 AN
they have been far from successful in enabling people at this level to
move up to higher levels of existence. In fact, the very psychological
state, the fourth level state, which brought this level into being and its
parent and its offspring, third and fifth level psychology, have almost
assured us that the AN state of behavior will be with us for some time.
As I have said, it is the guilt of fourth level man which causes him
to institute the automatic existence into being as a state of human
affairs. And it is another aspect of fourth level psychology which
contributes to locking people like Mrs. G. into this inhumane AN state
of existence. In the saintly, sacrificial system one of its systemic
peculiarities is that the belief in the sacredness of life is coupled with the
belief that it is wrong to tamper with the established order. Therefore,
saintly sacrificial man, fourth level man, is on the one hand driven to
create those institutional ways which keep marginal humans alive,
though only in a state of psychological non-existence. While on the
other hand, he is disposed not to tamper with that which has been
decided, namely that it is his duty to keep them alive, but wrong to give
more than needed for that. Thus he provides for the sustenance of life,
but not for life’s being or its growth.
Third level man, egoistic man, also contributes to the continuance
of, rather than the emergence from, this state of existence. In his
exploitative way, he wrings from their slum existence all that he can in
the way of exorbitant rents, rigged food prices, poor food, etc. He steals
from these people any chance which they might have, within existing
institutional ways, to extricate themselves from this dungeon of life. But
it is not the obsequious condescension of fourth level man or the
exploitative rapaciousness of egoistic man that is most to blame for the
continuance of this inhumanly condition. The arch criminal is fifth level
man.
From his lofty position of relative worldly success and occupational
superiority, he looks down in sneering condemnation on man at the first
level. “If he had any gumption, he’d take himself in hand and get out of
his conditions,” says materialistic man in haughty condescension. “I did
it. Look at me. I made it up here on my own. If he had anything on the
ball, he would do it too.” This belief of fifth level man that he made it
on his own is one of the prime reasons why many of our poor are left to
wither and die at the first level of existence. That this false belief exists
in the mind of independent, materialistic man is a fact; but never was
any human more deluded than he who professes this unfounded belief.
Fifth level man did not get there on his own. Only his blindness enables
him to think he did. Fifth level man was brought to the materialistic
210 AN
120 Moynihan (1972) p.425: “On February 26 [1970] the committee [House Ways and
Means] decided to report a bill and directed the staff to prepare a formal draft. In a
news conference Mills said he was "going into retreat" to think through his own
position, but added that even if he decided to vote against the measure on the floor,
he would not lead a fight against it. On the other hand he would not be floor
manager.”
121 Schenectady Gazette. Letters to the Editor. March 7, 1970, p. 14. Signed “Name
122 See Theobald (1963), Moynihan (1973) and Pechman and Timpane (1975).
AN 213
Transition
Fortunately for most humans who are living in this state today, the
short-term attack can enable then to emerge out of the AN state. So we
should concentrate our efforts in these directions to get the process of
emergence underway. Then we can turn to their higher level human
problems which come to be, problems which will become apparent to
us as we proceed on through the levels of human existence.
No man will ever be without some reactive values123 because he is
always a physiological organism. When first-level man experiences
change in the conditions of his existence, this challenge to his automatic
state of being may change his focus on life and a new form of existence
may develop. We say ‘may’ because the potential for change must be
present in order for it to occur. Depending on the current conditions of
his existence, reactive values may dominate his existence or they may be
subordinated within emerging higher-level value systems. So long as the
human lives in a completely provident, relatively unthreatened in respect
to the satisfaction of the basic needs kind of world, the human has no
reason to enlarge his or her conceptual space and move beyond this
level of being.
As soon as man solves the problem of physiological existence, as
soon as he can satisfy his imperative needs with a minimum of energy
expenditure, he switches, if challenged, to solving the problem of
survival in the broader sense of the word. He switches from basic
manipulation of his world so as to provide protection from physical,
animal, and human violence. If such happens, a new system begins to
arise as man strives to reassure his state of physiological existence. He
moves to the level of animistic living, the second subsistence level of
behavior.124 Man’s quest is no longer for simple physiological existence.
He seeks now a primordial form of existence which he can control,
not just one of automatic reactivity. He proceeds into a limited sensory-
motor exploration of his world. From this exploration he finds himself
rewarded or punished a la the principles of operant or instrumental
conditioning. The effects of this operant conditioning are interpreted by
a weak and undifferentiated cognitive component in an ego-centric way.
123 Much of Dr. Graves’s early approach was values-based. Thus, the terms “values” and
“value systems” were used to describe what later became a level of psychological
existence. This language was commonplace among many who tried to apply the
Gravesian point of view.
124 “Behavior” is another word extensively used by Graves in his writings and often
Chapter 8
125 At the time of most of his writings, Dr. Graves had only theoretical contact with
mature adult humans at the second level. Like AN, his descriptions of this state were
derived primarily from library research. There were no BO conceptions represented
in his data. Later in life he had experiences that put him more closely in touch with
this level and validated what he had concluded earlier.
216 BO
If the person by the very act of living successfully the first-level way,
then by creating these new problems of existence by the first-level living,
is to stay alive as a human being, there must be activated the second-
level system; and so you have the second milestone on the map of
human existence: the movement of the individual to the second level.
This is variously called the BO State, the Tribalistic State, the
Animistic State, Second Level, and the Second Subsistence Level where
we use different terminology for different purposes. This state first
appeared approximately 40,000 years ago when cataclysmic climatic
conditions changed markedly the source of food, water, shelter, etc., for
humans. If one had the means with which to count, this would probably
be the dominant system on the surface of the globe today.
Now the second level of human existence is quite a different kind of
being. The human’s brain is beginning to awaken and, as it awakens,
many stimuli impinge on his consciousness but are not comprehended.
The second level of human existence or the BO level – the animistic
existential state - is a state produced when the B problems, that is safety
and security and assurance problems, activate the second or the O
neurological system that is specifically attuned to picking up,
transmitting, and dealing with conditions which threaten one’s existence
- satisfaction of the non-imperative, aperiodic, physiological needs such
as needs to avoid pain, cold, heat, etc., and escape harm from various
dangers. The individual at this stage has progressed beyond a bare
physiological existence.
This person, unlike the person at first level who lives very automatic
form of existence and who has a very limited inner life, has a very full
inner life, one which is full of indwelling spirits. The person at this level
thinks animistically. Here he lives in a primeval world of no separation
between subject and object, a world where phenomena possess no clear
contours and things have no particular identity. He thinks in terms of an
indwelling spirit of life in all things, animate or inanimate. Thus, the
adult at this level is full of magical beliefs and superstition. Here one
form of being can be transmuted into another for there is
correspondence between all things. He thinks of the transmutation of
self to other animals to other objects and the transmutation of other
animals and objects to self and in terms of the continuing existence of
disembodied spirits capable of exercising benignant or malignant
influence. Yet he doesn’t see self as one with all other human beings. He
thinks in terms of there being a transmutable spirit in self, in others’
selves, in animals, floods, stones, earthquakes, etc., and uses such to
invoke continuance of what is, to ward-off harm, bring about favor, or
BO 217
control the unexpected. So the tree is alive and the tree has a spirit, and
panther has a spirit and all the other animals have a spirit. “The stone
did it to me.” “The earthquake hurt me.” “Why, mama, did that stick
whack me?” They think that there are answers to those things. They
think spatially in an atomistic, not wholistic, manner; thus, a name for
each bend in a river, but none for the river.
The BO thinks ritualistically, superstitiously, and stereotypically. He
lives by the prescriptions of totems and taboos, thus tries to manage life
by incantation, using such to invoke continuance of what is or to control
the unexpected. He strongly defends a life he does not understand. He
believes that his tribal ways are inherent in the nature of things, thus is
unchanging and unalterable, fixated and tenacious as he resolutely holds
to and perpetuates things “as they are.” At this level, man seeks social
(tribal) stability. He also explains existence in a dichotomous way –
good-bad – with only a dim awareness of a self merged with others. The
individual is subsumed in “tribe.”
They never question their way of existence: “This is the way one
lives - that’s all there is to it. You never raise any questions about it. You
just live this way, the way the tribal elders have taught you to live; never
in any way whatsoever do you change it.” They have a ‘Great Spirit’
poorly defined concept as to why things are the way they are. They have
a moderately increased degree of awareness in comparison to people at
the first level of existence, and so they are aware that things do happen
to them that help them or hurt them, that harm them or do not harm
them, and so they try to propitiate the spirits in various rituals which
they develop to continue to do the things that do them good and to get
the spirits to bring a halt to the things that do them harm. They tend to
fixate and hold tremendously to a totem and taboo way of life and work
forever as if they were entirely restricted in their degrees of freedom by
the particular taboos that are present in the world of which they are a
part.
At the second subsistence level, man’s need is for stability. He seeks
to continue a way of life that he does not understand but strongly
defends. This level of man has just struggled forth from striving to exist
and now has his first established way of life. This way of life is
essentially without ‘awareness,’ thought, or purpose, for it is based on
Pavlovian classical conditioning principles by association without
conscious awareness or intent. This learning without awareness,
elder-dominated by the controller of lore and magic, produces the
fixated, tenaciously-held-to, totem-and-taboo, tribalistic way of life.
218 BO
You see, when people at the first level get hungry, they just wander
out and eat and they drink and they never have to have any set ways of
doing it, because you walk out on this bush over here and eat, and go
down to this stream here and drink, and crawl in that cave over there; so
you don’t have to have any set ways of life. But people at the second
level have experienced loss and deprivation, and they know if they are to
stay alive, to stay safe, and to stay secure, they’ve got to have some way
of doing this, so they develop ritualistic ways full of totems and taboos
which is their way to control by incantation and of assuring themselves
that they are going to continue to have that which is necessary to take
care of their basic needs.
If the person in this world lives the tribalistic way and is successful
in this way of living as have been so many people in Africa (even up to
recent times before the European man went there and started really
disturbing things), they just go on living in that way. Many people on the
surface of the globe today in the Amazon, on Luzon, and the like go on
living in this way because they don’t have to live any other way to stay
alive. I found them in the tobacco hills of Virginia, in the coal-mine
country of West Virginia, in the Arkansas hills, up in Northern Maine,
with some of the French Canadians back in there. And I found them in
Indian tribes in America and Canada.
The prime end value at the second level is safety and the prime
means value is tradition. They are valued because here man’s elders and
their ancestors, though they cannot explain why, seem to have learned
which factors foster man’s existence and which factors threaten his well
being. Thus, man’s thema for existence at this level is “one shall live
according to the ways of one’s elders,” and his values are consonant
with this existential thema. But the schematic forms and values for
existence at the second level are highly varied due to different Pavlovian
conditionings from tribe to tribe, group to group. Each traditional set of
phenomenistic values are tribally centered, concrete, syncretic, labile,
diffuse, and rigid. The tribal member is locked into them and cannot
violate them. At this level a value-attitude may contain several meanings
because of the conditioning principles of generalization and
differentiation. To the more highly developed man, the values may
appear quite illogical. Here circumstances force the individual into a
magical, superstitious, ritualistic way of life wherein he values positively
that which will bring forth his spirit’s favor. He shuns that which
tradition says will raise his spirit’s ire.
These people learn not by the process of habituation but
predominant learning is by classical Pavlovian conditioning, Pavlovian
220 BO
above all, respects and observes the taboos. The manager must accept
the individual’s style of life and accommodate to it. He must adopt the
person’s way of thinking and acting. Then, after being accepted, the
manager can get work done by presenting a model of what is desired
which the person can then imitate. Extreme force is necessary to get a
person to operate contrary to traditional ways, and even then it most
often fails. Subordinates at the BO level must be isolated from anyone
in the work group who will not accept the individual’s way of life, who
scoffs at the taboos, and who wants to be competitive.
But even if these approaches are followed, productive effort is very
limited. Here, again, are employees who do not meet the needs of the
typical U.S. enterprise - not unless the manager has a long-time, slow-to-
accomplish goal in mind. Productive effort is limited in terms of typical
industrial thinking because, in the relatively unawakened mind of the
second level person, the concepts of time, space, quantity, materiality,
and the like are woefully wanting. The close and immediate supervision
required, the limited time span of work that can be expected, and other
necessary accommodations do not provide a formula for productive
effort. The portion of employees at this level in the American work
force is less than a few percent. They find the job experience
tremendously frightening in most situations and actively avoid it if at all
possible. However, when properly managed, employees at this level will
work hard and long. Understanding this level is important to
organizations such as the Peace Corps.
Mismanagement at this level causes the subordinates to flee from
the manager and organization. No attempts at disruption or sabotage
will be made on the mismanaged persons’ part. However, if the manager
or organization attempts to coerce the second level person to a desired
work behavior, the pressured individual is likely to “exorcise” the evil
now so readily apparent.
We come now to a very important point. To a degree, managers can
“negatively motivate” second level people by using (or threatening to
use) sheer naked force; force will work so long as it does not come into
conflict with strong second level taboos. However, it will not work with
first-level people. They do not have enough energy to care about threats.
Here is our first example of the necessity to use different forms of
management with people who are at different levels of existence.
At this level man’s welfare need is for protection from the evil
spirits that can be accomplished only by accommodating to the way of
life laid down by the elders of the tribe-like group. It is the tribal group’s
welfare that is important, and the individual does not count. Here the
222 BO
more lasting insights into the nature of man’s being. Or it can come to
the same capable minds when outsiders disturb the tribe’s way of life.
When such dissonance occurs it does not immediately produce a
movement to a higher state of being. Instead, it tends to produce a
regressive search through older ways before new insights come to be.
This is a crisis phase for any established way of existence and is always
the premonitor of a new state, provided three other conditions come to
exist. The first of these three conditions is insight. The capable minds in
any system must be able to produce new insights or be able to perceive
the significance of different insights brought to the system’s attention
from outside sources. But insight alone does not make for change since,
“full many a flower is born to blush unseen and waste its freshness on
the desert air.”130 So there must also be a removal of barriers to the
implementation of the insight - a matter not easy to achieve for, as can
be seen, a period of confrontation arises. Then, if the insight can be
effectuated through the removal of the barriers, the consolidating factors
come into play enabling the new steady-state of being to be born.
When, at the BO level, readiness for change occurs, it triggers man’s
insight into his existence as an individual being - as a being separate and
distinct from other beings - and from his tribal compatriots, as well. As
he struggles, now intentionally since the operant or instrumental
conditioning systems are opening, his need for survival comes to the
fore.
With this change in consciousness man becomes aware that he is
aligned against predatory animals, a threatening physical universe, other
men who are predatory men, and even the spirits in his physical world -
those who fight back for their established way of existence, or against
him for the new way of existence he is striving to develop. Now he is
not one-with-all, for he is alone, alone struggling for his survival against
the “dragonic” forces of the universe. So he sets out in heroic fashion
through his newly emergent operant conditioning learning system to
build a way of being which will foster his individual survival.
Second-level values bring some order, albeit peculiar, to man in this
undifferentiated cognitive state. They provide positive and negative
landmarks for survival when he lives a regionalized, isolated, relatively
undisturbed existence. But again nature provides no assurances, and
man’s developing cognitive component provides him no peace. As these
values break down, man becomes a savage in the truest sense of the
word. He attacks this world and all its beings as he demands that they be
ordered to his personal needs. The wanton destruction in the awakening
130 Gray, Thomas (1751). “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.”
224 BO
Chapter 9
Theme: Express self, to hell with the consequences, lest one suffer the
torment of unbearable shame.
Alternative Themes: ‘Express self but to hell with others lest one suffer
the torment of unbearable shame’
“Thou shalt express self at all cost rather than suffer the
unbearable shame of loss of face. Thou shalt express self
at all cost in order to be praised as one who will live
unashamed forever in the mouths of men.”
226 CP
within the life style which is possible for him. The authoritarian chooses
to do as he pleases. He spawns, as his raison d’être, the rights of assertive
individualism. These rights become, in time, the absolute rights of kings,
the unassailable prerogatives of management, the inalienable rights of
those who have achieved positions of power, and even the rights of the
lowly hustler to all he can hustle.
This is a world of the aggressive expression of man’s lusts - openly
and unabashedly by the “haves,” more covertly and deviously by the
“have-nots.” But when this system solidifies into a stable feudal way of
life, it creates a new existential problem for both the “have” and the
“have-not.” Each must face that his conniving is not enough, for death
is there before the “have,” and the “have-not” must explain to himself
why it is that he must live his miserable existence. (As we shall see, out
of this mix eventually develops man’s fourth way of existence, the DQ
way of life.)
Thinking at this level is totally self-centered, that is, egocentric in
fashion. It is in terms of controlling or being controlled, in terms of
intentions to assure that self will receive or be deprived, and to insure
that self will always receive. Raw, rugged, self-assertive individualism
comes to the fore. This is the level where “might makes right” thinking
prevails. Every act they perform has as its intention ‘taking care of me’
with intentions to assure that self will receive, and to ensure that self will
always continue to receive.
The individual thinks in terms of struggling to gain one’s own
satisfaction – ‘to hell with others.’ If you are aware that you live, and you
believe in your own separate existence, and that the world is out to get
you, then the only logical way for you to behave is in terms of snaring,
entrapping and acting to avoid being caught while taking advantage of
others. Because they see life in a very person affective way, inwardly
they are a cauldron of strong negative emotional feelings such as shame,
rage, hate, disgust, and grief. One of the most interesting aspects of
human existence which stands out at this third level is that there is no
guilt. The person operating at the third level of human existence, or any
level below that, cannot feel guilt. He has no capacity to feel it.
Whatever guilt is as a feeling in a human being, it has not yet been
activated. So, the human being at the third level can do anything, no
matter what it is, no matter how horrendous, how ornery, how onerous,
and still feel that he is doing right. You have to arrive at the fourth level
of human existence for the capacity to feel guilt to develop. At the third
level, they don’t give a damn about anyone else. They live by the credo:
‘to hell with others; it is I who is important.’ Really, when you look at it,
228 CP
these are not terribly pleasant human beings; but it is a very necessary
stage of survival.
Coexistent in this person is the tendency to revel in hedonistic,
pleasure-seeking pursuits to an orgiastic degree. They show strong
emotional reactivity to the actions of others who are pleasing or not
pleasing to their selfish desires with a generalized ‘you are with me or
against me’ emotional response to others. They just smother you when
you do something that pleases their selfish desires, and in the next
moment they’ll turn on you and pulverize you when you do something
which does not satisfy them.
The person in the egocentric existential state lives a peculiar
two-fold aim in life: to win or, at least, go down in the glory of having
tried and live forever in the mouths and legends of others. As they put it
over and over again, “I may die but by god they’ll remember me. I will
go down in the mouths of men as having been somebody.” Thereby,
they express such with no consideration of others. This spawns an
exploitative form of management since there are no true two-way
interpersonal relations.
People who begin to think in the CP fashion are ones who are, for
the first time in existence, becoming consciously aware of the fact that
they are alive as human beings.
“Now aware of the need to foster his individual survival, there
comes to stage center, in his existence, his need for survival - a
need which cannot dominate man until consciousness of self
emerges as it does at this level. Concomitant with the
emergence of self-awareness and its bedfellow, the need for
survival, is the emergence of the intentional, the operant, the
instrumental learning system. Also, man begins to adjust the
environment to his needs and seeks a primordial form of
existence which he can control for his personal survival, not just
one of automatic reactivity.”133
They know they live. Conscious awareness is a characteristic which
comes into being in the third system of human development. It is not
there prior to that period of time.
133 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Fall 1970, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 131-155.
CP 231
life which we call the Egocentric Way of Living which is centered upon
the power of self.
This Promethean, CP way of life, within the Levels of Existence
point of view, is based on the prerogatives of the haves and the duties of
the have-nots. Ultimately when this way of life, based historically on the
agricultural revolution, is established, life is seen as a continuous process
with survival dependent on a controlled relationship. Fealty and loyalty,
service and noblesse oblige become cornerstones of this way of life.
Assured of their survival, through fief and vassalage, the “haves” set
forth on their power with life based on the right way to behavior as their
might dictates it - as dictated by those who are in power. Ultimately, a
system develops in which each acts out in detail, in the interests of his
own survival, how life is to be lived; but hardly more than ten percent
ever achieve any modicum of power. The remainder are left to submit.
History suggests to us that the few, and there were few in the
beginning, who were able to gain their freedom from survival problems
not only surged almost uncontrollably forward into a new way of being
but also dragged after them, to the survival level, tribal members unable
to free themselves of the burden of stagnating tribalistic existence. And
history suggests that the few became the authoritarians while the many
became those who submitted. The many accept the “might-is-right” of
the few because by such acceptance they are assured survival. This was
so in the past and it is still so today.
Additionally, each successive neurological system in the brain is
activated by a specific set of chemicals, some of which we have fairly
good knowledge of at this stage of development, and some of which we
do not. This is akin to the atomic table of elements of chemistry wherein
scientists laid out a picture of all of the elements that might exist in this
world of ours, and said some had been discovered and some had not.
Once reaching the egocentric existential state, the individual has a
new physiology. This is a new psychological being, a different
psychological being endocrinologically. One of the major differences
between the CP and the DQ systems is the ratio between noradrenaline
and adrenaline in the individual.134 We have pretty good evidence at this
stage of the game that something in the noradrenaline chemical family is
the neurological activating force at the third level. Something in the
adrenaline family is the activating factor at the fourth neurological
system. We can change a person temporarily from behaving in the third
134 Lee, William R., Cowan, Christopher C., & Todorovic, Natasha, (Eds.) (2003). Graves:
Levels of Human Existence. Transcribed lecture by Dr. Graves at the Washington
School of Psychiatry. Santa Barbara: ECLET Publishing.
232 CP
Now, this is the first of the truly expressive systems and it is very
different from that sacrificial type second system that we talked about in
the previous chapter - the power of self to do this or to do that. It’s the
person who believes that being different from other animals, from
inanimate things - that there is something very special about the self,
and so the person develops this very egoistic way of believing and values
anything that contributes to the self, and disparages anything that
doesn’t contribute to the self. If you look at the person at the third level
in terms of his or her typical behavior, the person behaves in a manner
to ensure that the self is not going to be controlled in terms of:
struggling to gain freedom from others; to gain one’s own power; one’s
own satisfaction; and, therefore, he or she ensnares, entraps, outwits,
lives by outwitting others, by avoiding being caught at the time that he
or she is very openly taking advantage of others. He behaves in terms of
stubborn resistiveness to the idea of anything stronger than the self,
anything better than the self, but shows obeisance when overpowered.
What is the psychology of this level? Well, it is a person who is
given to impulsive, uncensored expression of his impulse life. You are
dealing with a person who has a very marked tendency to frequent
manifestations of uncontrolled hostility. This is a person that is full of
the tendency to show concrete assertive negativism – “I’ll do what I
want to. To hell with you. If you want to stop me, stop me, buddy!”
You are dealing with a person who is, at the least, passively resistant to
what you are trying to do, so you’ve got to push him on all the while.
‘Tie him down’ psychologically because he has a very strong tendency to
CP 233
believe that any suggestion you are going to make to him is an attempt
to subjugate him, so you just tie him in here and say: “Now look, yes, I
am going to subjugate you, that’s just what I am trying to do.” You are
trying to get this person to get control over his impulses. That is to
become subjugated. If you don’t lay down the rules, say what is going to
happen, and see to it that it does happen, you are just never going to get
this impulsiveness in this individual controlled.
You are dealing with a person who lives right here, and right now,
and seeks immediate gratification, a person who is always saying:
“What’s in it for me?” If the person seeks immediate gratification, and if
the person, in seeking that immediate gratification, does what you want
the person to do, you’ve got to have somebody there to gratify them
immediately - something there that is in it for him. This is why it is so
important to get as close as you can in training to an individual
relationship.
He thinks in terms of self-centeredness, in terms of controlling or
being controlled, in terms of struggling to gain one’s own satisfaction –
to hell with others. This thinking is raw, impulsive, amoral, and
uninhibited in character. There is no feeling of guilt; but there is a strong
element of shame. There is a driving concept of heroism in this system.
If the dragon is there, one must join battle with it even if one dies in the
struggle, for less would make one less than a person.
This person believes humans exist in three classes: (a) the strong,
far-seeing, anointed ones; (b) the desirous, motivated, but not far-seeing
ones; and (c) the inherently weak and lazy masses who need and prefer
directions. This system takes its form because of the normal distribution
of risk-taking potential and the normal distribution of operant,
intentional learning capacity - the dominant learning mode of the “P”
neurological system. Through the exercise of strong risk-taking
tendencies and superior capacity to learn by operant, instrumental or
intentional learning, some are exceedingly successful, some moderately
so, and many hardly at all.
The CP conditions for existence produce a fearful, insecure world
for all. The power ethic prevails. There is open and unabashed
aggressive expression of individual lusts by the ‘haves,’ more covertly
and deviously by the ‘have-nots.’ It is a world driven by man’s lusts and
is seemingly noteworthy for its lack of a “moral sense.” But this is an
error, for at this level, where man is led to value the ruthless use of
power, unconscionably daring deeds, impulsive action, volatile emotion,
and the greatest of risk, morality is ruthlessness. It is the inhumane eye
for an eye, tooth for a tooth variety, since he values conquest in any
234 CP
form and even war as the epitome of the heroic effort, as the entrance
to immaterial Valhalla.
Driven by the need to maintain his existence, CP man manipulates
his world and egocentrically interprets the reward or punishment
feedback as good or bad for himself, which is his major consideration.
He perceives that many people try but few succeed and, as a result, he
comes to believe that the heroic (e.g., Homeric) deed is the means to his
survival. He values heroism as the means, and the epic hero becomes his
most revered figure. To the hero or victor belong the spoils and the
right to exercise greed, avarice, envy, gluttony, pride (and sloth if not
being heroic), for he has shown through his deeds that the gods or the
fates see him as worthy of survival. Might is right. He who wins has a
right to loot the world to his own ends and those who lose have a right
only to the scraps that a hero may toss their way.
The power ethic reveres he who can tell time what he wills
and mean it, he who shows no fear of the world’s wrath and
assurance of its favor. Right is demonstrated in violent action
- an aspect of this ethic which many see today, but few
understand. In the power ethic, the more daring and
horrendous the act of man, the more it is revered. It does
not matter, within the power ethic, whether a man has plans
for replacement of the system which he attacks. The heroic
thing is to attack the system and if there is nothing present to
be attacked then, if he is truly a hero, he will create a dragon
to be destroyed, for even if he should die in the course of his
attack, he is assured that he will live - live on forever in the
words of men.135
This is not an attractive value system from other frames of
reference, but for all its negative aspects, it is a giant step forward for
man. Some men, in their pursuit of power, do tame the mighty river, do
provide the leisure for beginning intellectual effort, do build cities, do
assign occupational positions that directly improve the personal lot of
some and indirectly spill off to the betterment of the miserable many.
They are very necessary people. They are the ones who, because of their
awareness of themselves, will do anything that is necessary to alter the
world or other people in order to try to stay alive. So, in terms of
progress, they were very important to building ancient aqueducts, to
building the ancient roads that enabled other humans to travel.
135 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Fall 1970, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 131-155.
CP 235
not functionally present in the individual. He can’t learn that way. It isn’t
that they are obstreperous; it is that they cannot learn by punishment.
Neurologically it isn’t possible, and chemicals play a role in that
neurological aspect.
We are trying to base our approach to the problem on the idea that
in some way or another, punishing “them” for that which “they” are
doing will produce the desired results. I really don’t see a solution. I see
this as quite an impasse. When you have people operating at the higher
levels, as the American public is, believing honestly in their own mind
that punishment will sooner or later work if we only find the right one,
you are almost doomed to failure when the reality is the punishment
isn’t going to work, no matter which method you use.
It is theoretically possible to use Skinnerian positive reinforcement
techniques to change behavior, provided that you have the things that
you had with Skinner. If you have a rat in a Skinner box, and can control
that rat’s behavior so that it is narrowed down to be able to do only the
things that he can do in the confines of that rat cage, then the limited
number of anything that he or she can do are so few that you can wait
until in the course of his or her exasperation he does what one wants.
Then you can immediately reward it.
But, even in a prison, you can’t do that. It’s just almost impossible
to set up the conditions whereby: a) you get elicited, or spontaneously
appearing, the good behavior; and b) you are able to reward it
immediately. And you can’t teach in any other way at this level. So, it’s
really very, very hard to conceive of any way in our prison systems that
you can really go about the business of rehabilitating those in the CP
state. Theoretically – yes; practically, it is terribly difficult.
That is because this person, the CP, operates by what we call the
intentional learning system. This is the system which learns by reaching
out to do something, intending to do something, which results in reward
or punishment. This person soon gets the idea that some people in the
world have it - what they intend to do turns out successfully - and other
people don’t have it. So, on the societal level, they order the world
according to ‘might is right,’ into those who have and those who don’t
have - haves and the have-nots. They think that is perfectly right
because the gods must be inspired by one person such that whatever he
did turned out successfully; and they must have displeasure with the
person whose action did not turn out successfully.
In the P dynamic neurological system we find a very different
matter from the BO system. In the P dynamic neurological system new
qualities come into play. The elements of reward and punishment, not
240 CP
This third level spawns the first form of management, the first
organized form of management that you find in human behavior. It is
an exploitative form of management. These people are manageable only
through Skinnerian operant conditioning principles. That is, you can
manage them by manipulating rewards. But you are absolutely hopeless
if you try and manage them by punishment.
To manage an individual centralized in the CP system you need a
person who prefers to confront undesired behavior and just candidly
say: “I won’t have it,” but who will not get into any discussion. The
manager must operate dispassionately and simply say, “I told you not to
do that.” Of course, he starts up again and the manager repeats: “I said
not to do that, I told you not to do it.” The guy starts opening his
mouth; the manager puts his hand right on his mouth, and stops him. “I
am not going to discus this, I just told you not to do it. I just told you
not to do it. Stop it!”
Your manager must be a person who accentuates the positive and
ignores the negative. This person never punishes. The person stops
behavior, but doesn’t punish for its happening. If a person makes an
CP 241
anything else that you must always keep in the back of your mind: these
individuals normally have a history of having reached out earlier to try to
get into our world, and they never got there. They are absolutely, firmly
convinced in their minds that we have the whole world organized to
keep them out. You are fighting that mistrust to a paranoid degree,
constantly. Every person along the line that you bring in to administer
the program - the physician doing the examination, the recruiter, the
person who is going to supervise them at work eventually and on – must
understand how to work with these people. Operant conditioning
requires numerous positive experiences before these people are going to
buy something. Every human being along the line has got to be selected
so that he provides this positive experience or you are going to lose this
guy somewhere in the process. It’s something that can be designed. We
just don’t stop and think about it this way. We don’t use the E-C
framework to think about it and organize the approach properly.
This level of existence is more familiar to American managers than
the previous two. The desired management style is Tough-Paternalistic.
It communicates to the Egocentric subordinate a two-fold message: (1)
that the manager probably could do a better job, and (2) the
subordinate’s capabilities are respected and, therefore, he may do the
job. A subordinate at the Egocentric level knows how to do the job,
shows pride and personal ability in the task (no matter the degree of
skill, education, or knowledge required), and has to feel free to come
and go as desired.
The manager assigns tasks to subordinates at the CP level in this
“tough” manner – providing enough specific detail to define the desired
end results, establish limits to subordinate discretion, and set the
completion date. The manager keeps out of things unless asked. The
manager’s trust is not blindly total, but based on performance. To
blindly trust an Egocentric is to show you are a weak fool, not to be
respected for your toughness, and to be taken advantage of at will – the
subordinate’s will. The manager must estimate how long the managed
needs to prove the stated competence without resulting in successive
risk or cost. At the end of this period, the performance is evaluated. If
the task is right, the Egocentric is competent in that area. If the task is
wrong or poorly done the Tough-Paternalistic style requires the manager
to assign the employee to a task in line with the demonstrated
competence or dismiss the employee if they are of no value to the
organization. The development of increased competence on the part of
the Egocentric employee is done by assigning that person to an
244 CP
Bosses decide how it is to be done, who is to do it, and how to get them
to do it, etc.137
137 Further details on priniples of E-C management, leadership, and education are
available in other publications. See http://www.clarewgraves.com
138 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
Out of this striving, they create man’s fourth subsistence form for
existence from whence emerges his fourth-level value system. Here man
develops a way of life built around his explanation of his ‘have’ and
‘have not’ world as part of an ordered plan. He believes it is meant that
some shall have in life and yet face death, that some shall have less and
that the many shall not have. This shift from the egocentric existential
state is a move to the lasting security level of need. He learns by
avoidant learning. As he moves to this level, he develops a way of life
based on the culminated conviction that there must be a reason for it all,
a reason why the ‘have’ shall have so much in life yet be faced with
death, and a reason why the ‘have not’ has to live his life in a miserable
existence.
Conception of the Transitional CP/dq State
“My conception of the mature personality, as I suspect
are all conceptions, is based on how this world is and the
men we are. Thought there are some who will profess to
disagree with me, if they should really stop to think, they
would agree that there are two facts of life upon which a
conception of mature behaviour must be based One is
men are not born equal, though they are bond dependent
on one another. The other fact is that the strong must use
the weak to fight this world and its other people in order
to survive. Therefore, the mature personality insists that
the world take cognizance of those realities.
To me the mature personality organizes to maintain his
existence and the right way of life taking into consideration
only those he must in order to survive. He sees to it that
he organizes his world so as to improve his chances. He
takes over and assigns roles to those less able to decide
and sees to it they know what their roles are and live by
them. He is meticulously careful to take care of those
lesser ones who can help him so long as they are helpful
but he realizes, because of his superior powers, that they
are more expendable than he in the mundane of lie.
He takes seriously his duties to those who depend on
him but he does not overdo it lest he raise wishes in them
they are not competent to fulfill. He leads theme to do
what is right by outstanding examples in his own life.
CP 247
say what is going to happen, and see to it that it does happen, you are
just never going to get impulsiveness controlled in weaker individuals.
Just note as the individual is moving out of CP into the DQ. Now,
when we are working, we don’t stay with the simple designation of say,
CP, DQ, ER. We have CP, and then the person who is centralized here
– a transitional state - will be shown by upper case CP over lower case
dq - CP/dq - and later by lower case cp over upper case DQ – cp/DQ –
the exiting and entering phases.
In the CP state we had a human being who was unbelievably
egocentric, who was concerned with ‘what’s in it for me.’ We didn’t
allow for a discussion, because in the person’s egocentrism, in the
person’s short attention span, he couldn’t hold himself in long enough
to listen to somebody else. He wouldn’t let somebody else finish a
sentence. The assertion of self was against outside power over him. That
is changing as he completes his transition into DQ.
Conception of the Transitional DQ/cp State
“There is little doubt in my mind as to what makes
mature personality. I learned that at the end of my old
man’s switch and I’m not likely to forget it. The grown-up
learns and particularly he learns nothing comes lest you put
out first. Right is right and wrong is wrong and if you are
going to be mature you better learn it, the sooner the
better. It always has been this way and it will always be
because that is the way it is. My old man learned it from
his and his old man learned it from his father, and my kids
are going to learn it from me because that is the law of the
land.
We were not put on this earth to get something for
nothing. We were not put here to want or to wish for or to
have evil thoughts. We were put here to do right and see
to it that other people do right too. It is our duty to strike
wrong whenever we find it. The mature personality knows
what the rules are and he knows if he violates them he
should get it. Life is a serious business with no place for
frivolousness in it. He knows what he is allowed to wish
for and he knows what is forbidden and he behaves
accordingly. Any mature man has got his duties and he
does them even if he does not want to because it would be
wrong of him not to do so. If he does not the grown-up
CP 249
Chapter 10
develops a way of life based on “Thou shalt suffer the pangs of one’s
existence in this life to prove thyself worthy in later life.” This saintly
form of existence comes from experiencing that living in this world is
not made for ultimate pleasure - a perception based on the previous
endless struggle with unbridled lusts and a threatening universe. Not
only did the people begin to believe that in order for existence to
continue there must be control of one’s impulse life, there also
developed the belief that this control must be absolute, that they must
learn the rules for the control of the impulse life of the individual.
Peace in this world relates to safety and security, and the way to
achieve this is to divine the immutable laws of living and submit to and
obey them and, once having found them, let no change take place. Here
he perceives that certain rules are prescribed for each class of men and
that these rules describe the proper way each class is to behave. The
rules are the price man must pay for his more lasting life, for the peace
which he seeks - the price of no ultimate pleasure while living. What one
must do is obey. What one must obey is the power that knows what it is
all about. “This is the way it always has been; this is the way it is today;
and such is the way it shall always be” is the lesson of life to be learned.
People at the fourth level live by the principle, sacrifice now in order to get
later, and this was, in fact, the theme that I found in all of the
conceptions of mature personality that were expressed by what
ultimately became this category of human behavior.
At this level man accepts his position and his role in life. Inequality
is a fact of life. He believes that the task of living is to strive for
perfection in his assigned role - absolute perfection, regardless of how
high or low his assigned station. He believes that salvation will come
ultimately to the man who, regardless of his original position, lives best
by the rules of life prescribed for him. What one wants, what he desires
is not important. What is important is that he disciplines himself to the
prescription of his world.
Thus the prime value of fourth-level man is self-sacrifice. He who
sacrifices best his wants in the way authority prescribes is most revered.
We can see the same represented in the role of the leader and the led at
the fourth level. Both work to establish a valued, protective, supportive
alliance. The leader values the life that enables him, if necessary, to
sacrifice himself in the protection of the followers. Those who follow
value sacrificing in support of the leader. Both live by different schema
varying from the same thema.
Thinking at this level is absolutistic: one right way and only one
right way to think about anything. All others are wrong. In the
DQ 255
139 A document such as the sixteen maxims in the “Holy Edict” of Emperor K’ang-Hi
which lays down prescriptions for good living and a ruler’s path to serve the people
can be found at: http://www.sacred-texts.com/journals/mon/kang-hi.htm
256 DQ
authority. The latter is usually divine, but it can be the absolute authority
of nature. This point illustrates a significant aspect of the absolutistic
state.
Of all the value systems that exist, the fourth-level system is one of
the most confusing. This central-peripheral problem can be seen in
many other forms. We can see it in the fourth-level value of hierarchical
dominant-submission human relationships. To avoid this confusion one
must keep in mind the thematic and schematic conception of value. The
schematic representations of fourth-level values oft times appear
diametrically opposed. Thus, they appear to be different value systems.
For example, the Moslems and Hindus, often enemies, share the
same thematic value system within this point of view. The holy wars of
the crusades stemmed from the same value system as the non-violence
of Gandhi or Martin Luther King. They are the same because, centrally,
they are alike in that all of them value sacrifice now for achievement of a
better state later. Doctrinaire Catholicism and doctrinaire atheistic
Communism are mortal enemies, yet within this point of view they are
only polar opposite schema varying from the same central sacrificial thema.
Peripherally, the schematic representations are so different that at many
times in history wars have been fought over whose form of sacrificial
values should prevail.
Time, for the fourth system, has stopped. The world is right as it is,
as he now sees it to be, and should not be tampered with. Normally, he
who is living a satisfying fourth-level existence is almost impossible to
change. It would be like trying to change the political beliefs of an
ardent John Birch society member. Why is it that orthodox communism
has the problems that it has - whose communistic way is the right
communistic way? Was it Lenin’s or Stalin’s? Whose communistic way is
the right one? Was it Mao’s? They all believed in absolutism, but it was
absolutism that’s different.
Now, this is at one and the same time one of the strengths and one
of the great weaknesses of the fourth level, or the absolutistic way of
living. If you believe there is only one right way, and if those beliefs out
there with their different details developed in different parts of the
world, and all have their own “one right way,” then clashes will develop
between these differing “one right ways.” If you agree with it, and bow
down to the higher power that defines what behavior is right and what
is wrong within a system, things are just fine. If you vary, then you have
a very, very difficult time with the fight that ensues. So, this is at one and
the same time the most peaceful and the most warlike of all of the
systems that we have.
258 DQ
Now you come to the person who is at peace with the absolutistic
way of life, who feels comfortable there. Let’s take a look at our first
DQ conception.
DQ Conception #1 -
“This assignment was to develop on our won and in
writing, our personal conception of what is the
psychologically mature person in operation. Dr. Graves, I
have found this to be a most difficult task. It is my honest
belief that what is a mature personality is determined by
that power which determines good and evil in the world.
God created man and God has indicated in His Ten
140 CWG: These are written exactly as the person originally submitted them, complete
with spelling mistakes.
DQ 259
relationships - that he is born into position in life and that he should not
question his authorities’ prescriptions. His authority is emphasized
because the particular source of absolute authority varies from person to
person. He believes that the world is full of dangerous forces stemming
from within man’s nature and existing outside his particular group. For
those who are psychologically sophisticated, an interesting thing is
suggested by the psychology of the absolutistic existential state: fourth-
level man may be man as described within orthodox psychoanalytic
circles.
The person at this level believes in the formation of absolute rules
and their necessity for controlling the impulses of mankind. They show
the capacity, which is not present in the previous system, of true
interpersonal relations developing. Here he thinks in terms of others
being taken into account, as people having needs and feelings which are
different from the others; but such feelings are judged as the right
feelings or the wrong feelings. They begin to show the capacity for pity.
They begin to show that they have definite feelings for other people, but
the way they show it is that they give a great deal of attention to the
person if what the other person does is considered to be right because
they assume a right/wrong position in respect to everything. They just
ostracize or shun or shunt aside the person if they consider the
individual to be doing wrong.
Kindness to his kind is valued, and tolerance toward the
unbeknighted is expected. Life is a serious business here. Only
institutionalized pleasure is permitted. He thinks in terms of tenderness,
of giving, of living with - provided one lives by “my” authoritarian ways.
In the long run, giving is always done in terms of giving now or doing
now in order to get later, but only after one has learned the right. He
values his absolutistic moral laws and the words ‘should’ and ‘ought’ are
repeated often. He assumes an “either/or” conception of knowledge.
Rules are black and white, and only the authority that he accepts (for
instance, his church or political party) is proper in its definition of virtue
and sin. His authority defines both. The DQ system has much in
common with the BO system, but now it is man’s higher authority – the
ultimate authority - that sets the rules for life instead of his elders.
DQ 265
So let us, first of all, ask ourselves: if I say that this theory says the
most important factor determining the success of the educational
process is the characteristics of the teacher, then what are the
characteristics that should be in the trainer, or the teacher who is
attempting to teach those in the absolutistic state? This person, first of
all, should have high establishment status. Let me illustrate it to you this
way: in a collegiate setting, your full professor, whether that full
professor is really any good or not, should be teaching the class.
Expertise is not nearly as important in getting a message across as
status. When I am going out among people of this kind and I am going
to be introduced, I get out all of my degrees and everything I’ve done.
When they introduce me they tell the audience that I am on the
National Committee for Marijuana and Drug Abuse, that I am a
consultant to the State Department and to the Health, Education and
Welfare Department, and God forbid, I’ve been a consultant to this
White House, and so on because high status is of the utmost
importance.
If I was setting up a kind of program for these people, I would pick
my trainer who is a consistent minded, direct type of person, not given
to attempts at verbal control. Then, preferably, I would put them into a
residential training setup where they are together day and night and
where the trainer becomes mother and father and everything to them.
Because someone has got to be there in the beginning of this process to
deal with all the fears and all the guilts they have about their inferiority,
about whether or not they’ve got enough on the ball to learn, and all
their guilt for going beyond their parents. This teacher has to be an
incredible father or mother to them. They must provide a basic classical
psychoanalytic education. This education has to be carried on very
much in private just as the psycho-analyst takes the patient into the
sound-proof room and carries on in private and encourages all the fears
and all the feelings that the individual has to come out. The trainer has
to be able to do this sort of thing.
Now, this may not be practical. This means therefore, that you don’t
want to train these people in a short session. It means you might set up
this sort of thing: a three hour training program in which, in essence, for
the first hour the instructor encourages people to go on and to work and
to try to learn that which is difficult. If a trainee begins to doubt, then
turn this over to the other members of the group and say, “Now, you
convince John that he can do it. You people talk with John about that.”
266 DQ
birth control. That’s too hot an idea. In a million years you would stay
away from it. You would just close that person down completely if you
tried to get them to change some of their utmost ideas by hitting at an
idea which is deeply ego involved in the person.
These are the rules for teaching new material or helping them look
at ego-involving issues in different ways: An authority must induce it. An
authority must make a suggestion that is a minor change in the field of
the person’s life and never hit an important ego-involved idea. Close
supervision with a prestigious instructor; it doesn’t matter what the
person’s expertise is, but the person must have prestige in the eyes of the
person or group that you are trying to teach.
You use techniques similar to those you used with CP to teach the
closed DQ. Once the closed DQ has done something wrong, stopping
him from doing it is as far as you go. If you go any further, that system is
tight. That system will blow up on you, and you are going to be in
difficulty. This person has a short attention span because he’s got so
many problems; he hasn’t got any energy left with which to think about
things. So, you’ve got to do the thinking for him.
You have to structure the world for him; at the same time, the
instructor who insists on setting the structure very, very tightly must
have great patience. Not only must the instructor be highly structured,
but also he must prescribe in advance the limits within which any kind of
behavior is provided. For example, if you are doing the simple task of
teaching these people to write, it is for these people that you set up a
structured learning environment with step-by-step instructions. That is,
you have the sheet of paper and the teacher would say: “I want a margin
of an inch and a quarter, inch and a half here. I want so much here. I
want you down this far from the top, and up this far from the bottom.”
By God, if you started elsewhere the teacher would yank it out of your
hand. Well, this is what you’ve got to do. Now, you structure it just like
that, and if the kid starts to write outside of that, you just come up take it
away and say to him start over. The problem you’ll have the first time
you take paper away is he is liable to burst out into tears. He won’t do it
a second time.
One of the first things that I study is the character of the work in
the organization. How do they get the work done? Have they got CP
work in this organization, or DQ work? Or how much CP work do they
have to do, how much DQ? What kind of jobs do they have? That’s the
268 DQ
for that person. Watch them until you see that person in equilibrium and
see to it that you do not vary from that managerial environment for that
person. They need a predictable work setting.
Let me illustrate it in this way: I had a very severe neurotic who was
also one of the best auditors in a bank with which I was consulting. This
woman was so severe that if she had paper on the desk and you just
happened to be walking along and hit that paper and shift it, she would
blow. Now, we’re not going to do anything about that. We don’t know
how to change that kind of closed personality. It’s a serious a problem.
What do you do with this person? We did a very simple thing. We built a
glass cage around her desk so that no one could ever hit her papers. We
just did that simple thing.
Employees in the absolutistic existential state do not respond to
autonomy and participation. When the opportunity for such is extended
to them, they choose autocracy, not democracy - what we would expect
of them? When attempting to get the employee to do something new it
is the authority that must suggest the shift. The authority must accept
that the person will reject the idea in the beginning. The authority must
quietly insist on the person’s considering the idea. The person will
eventually accept it. Then you must consistently supervise the person in
the process of the change.
The important thing is to be able to read whether or not this person
is responding negatively or positively to what you are doing. If you see
that you begin to get negative manifestations, backtrack just as fast as
you can to try to find out what it is that you are doing to mismanage
him. He reveres authority, and he believes the biggest sin that you can
commit in this world is to question authority. But when he has dropped
clues to authority indicating how to behave and authority doesn’t behave
that way, then you’ve got this person in a very serious situation. Now, all
that you have from then on is a build-up of pressure. In any
organization where there are people behaving ineffectively, in at least 85
percent of the cases this is the reason: management is not reading those
people correctly.
Mismanagement at this level is failure to provide firm direction and
structure. Many managers have misinterpreted Theory Y to mean that
the only appropriate style is open, participatory, non-authoritarian,
democratic management (an interpretation McGregor never would have
accepted). This misconstrued Theory Y style of management is the
surest way of mismanaging the saintly level person, a form of
mismanagement so severe that it is guaranteed to produce physically ill
DQ 271
Man tarries long enough here to order his existence so that it will
assure his satisfaction at some later time - a way that, it seems to him,
will remove the pain of both the ‘have’ and the ‘have-not.’ Here he seeks
salvation. The rules are the price man must pay for his more lasting life,
for the peace which he seeks - the price of no ultimate pleasure while
living. After security is achieved through the absolutistic rules, the time
comes when some men question the price. When this happens, the
saintly way of life is doomed to decay, since some men are bound to ask
why they cannot have some pleasure in this life.
This DQ to ER regressive disorganization of fourth-level values is
seen by many people as the ultimate sign of man’s depravity. Fourth-
level man sees the ultimate destruction of all that is good in man as
fifth-level wants begin to impel man to seek a new form of existence
and a new value system. As man casts aside the inhuman, overly denying
aspects of the sacrificial ethic, it is as if a feeling of independence surges
272 DQ
up within him. The saints of the church, Godric143, for example, could
no longer stand their saintliness; and the current better-off Russian has
started to employ the profit motive. Overcoming self’s desires had to
give way to what might be termed an Adlerian ‘Will to Power.’144
But when the absolutistic existential state brings a modicum of
earthly security to those who pursue them, their very success creates a
new fifth-level existential problem for man which appears in the crisis
stages between outmoded DQ values and ER values. Through those
prescribed absolutistic rules, the time comes when some people question
the price of sacrificial values, the price of the saintly existence. Why
must life be only a time of denial? He questions why he was born to live
only to find satisfaction later, or in an afterlife.
He cannot have enjoyment in this life so long as he is at the mercy
of an unknown world, the servant of the universe rather than its master,
so long as he does not express his independence from predetermined
fate. Living by order, as in medieval days, seemed for a period of time to
solve the problems of existence, then the plagues came in and upset
people’s lives regardless of whether they lived by the laws or not. People
were faced with this kind of discrepancy that caused them to have to
begin to think in another way. And so, in order to deal with the fact of
having to explain why, even if they live the way ‘my God,’ ‘my Lord,’
‘my Power,’ ‘my Communist leader’ says, things still didn’t go well. They
had to activate another way of thinking. When this question arises in the
mind of man, the saintly way of life, the sacrificial ethic, is doomed for
decay and readied for discard.
When man casts aside the inhuman aspects of his saintly existence
he is charged with excess energy from security problems now solved as
he sets out to build a life for pleasure here and now. As he perceives
this, man begins again to try to adjust his environment to the self and
begins the tortuous climb to the ER level, on through another period of
transition to another level, now slipping, now falling in the quest for his
goal. Such questioning helps to move man to the fifth subsistence level,
the state of materialistic existence. As the ER values begin to emerge
and the fifth level comes to be, DQ man views them as impious and the
ultimate sign of man’s depravity; the new independence of ER man is
exhilarating to people caught up in the new values.
143 Possibly St. Godric of Finchale (1170), a merchant who became a pious hermit and is
still known as composer of some of the oldest English hymns.
144 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
DQ/ER Transition
want the trainee to learn what? That this person got to those heights
after making all of these mistakes. So the trainee says, “I, too, maybe can
get there. I haven’t tried to step out because I’m afraid of making a
mistake. But if he stepped out (or she stepped out) and got there and
made all of these mistakes, my heavens, I too can get there.” You want
this.
The supervision here should be casual rather than strict. You need a
person who is willing to take a chance with a decision by the trainee to
try to do something which scares the living daylights out of the trainer.
The trainer has got to exude: “I trust you. Go ahead, take your chance.”
A characteristic that is highly definitive here is that this trainer is often
talking about “what a great satisfaction I get out of reaching the shy, the
withdrawn, the isolated.” They speak of those who are left out. The
trainer has got to believe that there are no bad children, no bad students,
no bad learners; they get in trouble because of forces beyond their
control.
Now, this trainer must, as a first step to training this person, put an
input into the individual suggesting: “You ought to be different. You
really ought to try to go just a little bit further.” In other words, letting
the reach exceed the grasp. This teacher has to be the impetus to
change. The teacher has to suggest - has to keep suggesting - that the
person try to better himself. You are trying to upgrade a human being
in essence here, and so you are to keep in mind that it is the teacher that
has higher status and high expertise to the trainee, that must encourage
the person to seek to be better. This teacher then must be very, very
careful to interpersonally and privately work with this individual to get
started. If you have a homogeneous group, you can work very well at
the group level here because, if you get a number of open DQs together,
one of the first things the teacher can do to begin to get them to learn in
the direction in which he wants to go is to have them enter into a group
discussion as to how each of them might think of using what the teacher
might be bringing them to become distinguished.
These people love to learn by discussion. The teacher can use
debate methods. The teacher should always incorporate competition
into the learning. The teacher, in this particular situation, works almost
day and night, so to speak, with the trainees in the beginning of the
experience. You have a person who has learned before the teacher came
into the situation that his way or her way of behaving has already been
determined. You are now trying to get this person to believe in his own
self-destiny rather than in a destiny determined by some divine fate or
circumstances, or something of that nature. You are trying to get this
DQ 275
person to be better than his parents, to aspire to have more then his
parents ever had. And a lot of DQs are going to feel awfully guilty when
you begin to suggest to them that they ought to aspire. So, you have to
have a very close relationship.
To facilitate a transition, the teacher or manager must learn when to
put the group on its own and begin to have them solve their problems
in respect to the subject matter, through their own efforts. In other
words, you go from the first step of the teacher working closely with the
learners through their problems of learning ‘what it is’ and helping them
learn it, to the teacher getting out of the picture, and saying: “Now,
here’s the problem. You help one another handle this,” to the third step:
“Here is the problem. Each one of you work this out yourself.” The
teacher has to withdraw from the situation.
When the teacher gets to the point in this learning situation that he
or she does begin to withdraw, this teacher now has to have a
tremendous capacity to handle feelings in another way, because the kids
will turn on that teacher. The trainees will turn on the teacher, and begin
to be almost irrational in the way they go after the teacher, because they
would have learned by now that whatever the teacher is teaching, is not
as simple as the teacher outlined in the beginning. And the minute they
get here, they are going to get mad because “You led me down a road
here, and you told me there were answers, and now I find out I’ve got to
find the answers that you suggested to me in the first place were there.”
At that point, the teacher begins to move out. The transition, in essence,
has begun.
This value system, like all others, seems not to satisfy man as he
puts it to the test of time. Now you have the person beginning to
independently operate against authority, which is what you were
attempting to do; helping them standing on their own feet, making their
own decisions. Notice these elements in the following conception:
DQ/er Conception (Exiting)
“I shall open my conception with a short statement
which will lay before you the basic facts of what a
conception of mature behaviour should be. The
statement will be about the assignment, that we have
been doing in class and the facts of my conception.
1. This class has been the worst of what I feared I
would run into in college. It has been nothing but
empty-headed theorizing and muddle-headed
hemming and hawing. why we have to spend four
276 DQ
would make this upper case DQ over ER – DQ/er. He still has that
strong DQ element in him and the absolutism is beginning to disappear.
Here, we came out of a protocol that had a lot of shoulds in it, and
there is still certainty. This is why you would still say that this is
predominantly DQ with ER creeping into it. Now, let’s get over a little
bit further to where the ER is stronger than the DQ:
dq/ER Conception (Entering)
“I should like to preface my conception with a few
words about the way this class is being conducted, and
what I have to say is no shit. It is the straight stuff.
I’m a senior in college but I wonder how I got there.
Maybe they did not want to embarrass the old man
because I sure did not go for the crap those professors
dished out the first three years. In fact, of all the time I
have given to school this is the first class that ever acted as
if there was some respect for the people who don’t think
the way profs or teachers do. This is what education ought
to be, not that poll parroting stuff we always get
demanded. You would think no one knows anything
except profs from the way most of them operate. But that
is enough of that! What I believe mature personality is, is
detailed below.
The mature woman can be seen through her analogue,
the mature animal. She does not look for trouble but she is
ever alert to its possibility. She has her antennae at the
ready.
She takes nothing for granted. There’s no certainties in
the world so she organizes her domain so as to control and
amplify her chances for success.
When others interfere with her domain she does not
necessarily react to destroy or seriously harem them but to
get them under control so as to drive them from her
domain, but react with vigor and fury she can if necessary.
She gets away with what she can which will foster her
chances lest she be considered a fool.
She is friendly with whoever are with her but watchfully
so because she knows it is human nature to take people if
you can.
280 DQ
145 4-H is the youth education branch of the Cooperative Extension Service, a program
of the United States Department of Agriculture. Each state and each county has
access to a County Extension office for both youth and adult programs.
282 DQ
consider that the last thing you want to happen is for training to end
here, because you are going to end up with this: It is notorious that
along with moving the person from DQ to ER, the tendency to believe
that “come what may, I must continue to have what I want” temporarily
comes into the individual’s life. It will be more permanent if you don’t
take steps to overcome it. So, they are led into this apparent immoral
behavior. But I can say this with all honesty: I do not consider this
immoral behavior at all, in no way whatsoever. This is normal, natural
ER behavior. Every human being who passes through the ER system
will behave in that manner. That is the norm.
Now, let’s be careful about this. You’ll never get advanced
development without these people. It is the psychology of Richard
Nixon that will make underdeveloped areas developed. You must have
this kind of thinking for it to happen. It is what made, and I say this
carefully, America great. America was built on people who behaved that
way – one’s own self-interest; do whatever you have to in fostering one’s
own self-interest, and spill off a tremendous number of things that
improve the welfare of other human beings. But, if we do not ultimately
train in such a manner that we move people on beyond this, then we get
stalled here. This becomes the norm of living, rather than the means to
the end of solving the problem of undeveloped physical resources.
It takes the ER mind to solve the problem of an undeveloped
physical world. No other mind has ever been able to solve this problem.
But if you leave it there, you ultimately get these very serious social
problems. So is important that you think of the overall business to try to
keep the human being moving.
146 This section is essentially as Dr. Graves wrote it prior to preparing the 1977
manuscript. The exact year of its writing is unknown.
DQ 283
for existence which come to be when the ER, the selfishly independent
system of human behavior, begins to emerge.
This statement will be heretical to some, communistic to others and
anarchistic to many. But let me explain what is meant by the assertion.
This world, as we all know, is full of paradoxes, but of all that exist, the
most paradoxical, it seems to me, is the one which arises when man’s
need for independence begins to emerge. As man starts his transition
from the absolutistic form for existence, the ordered, authoritarian,
submissive way of life, and as man moves through the stage of
independence on into the sociocentric ways for being, five definable and
describable states of existence emerge, one after another, in our ordered
hierarchical way. These five states, each of which has a strong flavor of
selfish independence in them, have brought more that is good to man
and more that is bad for him than all states of existence which preceded
them. No states of existence prior to these five have given man more
power over the physical universe, more verifiable knowledge, or a
greater increase in his material welfare than have they. But no states are
more certain to pave the way for man’s demise than these five unless we
can move, at least the leadership of man, beyond these states where man
believes that the epitome of human living lies somewhere with one or
some of the ER states of existence.
I will grant, as you shall see, that it is the psychology of the
existential states which have a strong element of selfish independence in
them which split the mighty atom, waft away disease, and provide the
means for material abundance for man. But it is these same states, with
the same element of selfish independence in them, which lead man to
exploit this world for his own selfish gain. He does so because he is
temporarily deluded to believe that more is always there to be procured
or to be replaced by something created by man’s scientific ingenuity. If
the leaders of mankind - industrialists, presidents, premiers and
legislators - continue, operationally, to deny the negative aspects of the
ER component; if they continue to assert, verbally and behaviorally, that
any or a combination of the ER states is the sine qua non of human
existence, then mankind is in for dire trouble in the future. Nothing can
be more certain to lead to our destruction or to our reduction to lower
level human states of existence than for us to continue under leadership
wherein this kind of thinking directs human lives.
Thus, as we begin a study of the ER states, I suggest for your
consideration that of all the things the world can ill afford, at this time in
its existence, it is an exacerbation or continuance of “The American
Way of Life,” for “The American Way of Life” is an admixture of those
284 DQ
- and that the boys were selling the soda to purchase a new movie
projector and camera for the school, he looked at me disdainfully and
said: Permission to let me borrow the barrels would be to go against the
rules. A request had to go to the administration, through the
administration, to the dietician, and through her to him. It had to be
done in writing (he spared me how many copies), had to be
countersigned, and had to be done by Wednesday. And, it could not be
done this day even if I went and got the respective countersigned
signatures because the rules said Wednesday.
I explained the emergency, proffered a twenty-dollar bill as collateral
and said if anything happened, I would go to the store, a short distance
away and replace the barrels before the crowd had dispersed. Though I
should have expected what was to come since I was in the process of
writing this book, for a fleeting moment I hoped I was wrong. He lit
into me that it was parents like me, with no respect for authority, who
were causing all those dope problems; who were the irresponsibles
always breaking the rules and leading to the destruction of America.
Then, when he said he was damned sure I was the kind who would be
off playing golf tomorrow (Sunday) instead of going to church as any
rule abiding, authority respecting person would, I gave up the quest.
This righteous, self-assured, condemnatory, pompous, deprecatory
attitude is typical of the early transitional state between nodal DQ
existence and nodal ER being. In this ambivalent existential state we
find the human who is deferential and ingratiating in respect to his
superiors. Yet with subordinates, or those he sees as beneath him, or
outside his authority hierarchy, he is aggressive and autocratic. He hides
his buried angry feelings behind legalities and rules. Rules are rules and
regulations are sacred, simply because his higher authority laid them
down and, after all, his authority’s rule is law.
We have seen a lot of this in recent years, especially directed toward
the college youth. “Those damned college kids are immature. They don’t
know what it’s all about,” the righteous person says. “How long are we
going to put up with their undisciplined behavior?” they ask. If those
kids were mature enough, if there was one ounce of man or woman in
them, they would quit all this foolishness and do what we put them in
school to do. After all, how can a society hold together if you don’t have
“law and order.” (That is, of course, the law and the order of the
righteous who are the establishment of the moment) This is the baseball
manager who forces the player to cut his hair before he enters training
camp. Or, it is the football coach who lines up all the boys in the locker
room and says as he shears them, “If you are going to play for me you
288 DQ
are going to look like football players” - his definition, of course. These
are the people who outwardly express righteous concern for the
“character building” aspects of their sports and then, as they teach the
players to slide with spikes seeking flesh and forearm seeking chin, they
grin in glee. (May I say parenthetically to scotch any wrong ideas, I was a
four-letter man and spent ten years as a coach.) Outwardly, these
righteous ones preach character, but inwardly they take unconscious
pleasure in every head that they pluck, every bone they hear crunch.
Righteous man is the skipper who runs a tight ship, the waitress
who says, haughtily, “No substitutions” when you want the gravy left
off the special of the day. He is the college professor who takes off
points for spelling paedomorphic with an ‘ea’ rather than an ‘ae’ when
he could have said it in a much simpler language in the first place. It is
the dean who requires the student to fulfill what is for that student an
educationally ridiculous requirement when the student has a most valid
educational argument for a substitution. It is the college chaplain who
sees as his major college goal to maintain the virgin penis, or the bridge
player who says, in a friendly game, “But you said seven hearts and you
can’t change to seven diamonds because it is an insufficient bid,” even if
you did make a mistake.
In relation to authority, these righteous ones go so out of their way
to impress their betters that their behavior extends beyond being
deferential to almost being obsequious. In relation to their own lives,
they are budgeted to the last dime and planned for this day, tomorrow,
next week, and next years’ Christmas presents. Home life and work life
and play life as well are systematized and organized. Jobs are organized
by rigid job descriptions. Duties are assigned and responsibility and
authority are meticulously spelled out. Of course, the day’s production
may never get done because the boss isn’t present to say what to do
when some unforeseen occurrence not covered in the manual comes up.
“But,” he says, “I couldn’t do it. I won’t go beyond my job description,
you know.” At play, he takes up golf because the doctor told him he
needed to relax, yet pursues it with such tenacity of purpose that he
drives the casual golfer nuts with his ordered recording of every stroke,
noting of every putt, proper swinging according to his pro approach to
the game.
Righteous man seems to get lost in the minutia of doing. He is so
systematized, so inflexible, so lacking in spontaneity that many people
wonder, how can he be that way? But he himself seldom has a doubt, a
doubt that is, so long as his authority is there to give him advice or
counsel. He is forever seeking the advice of authority, the guidance of
DQ 289
valuable state for man’s being. Man in this state is the perfect human
organism upon whom to practice Frederick Taylor’s ‘scientific
management.’148 In fact, had not Taylor found his ‘little Pennsylvania
Dutchman’ to demonstrate his conception of how to organize work, he
would not have proven his point. Had it not been for others of the
Dutchman’s kind, American production in Taylor’s day could never
have become so eminently successful. This is emphasized so as to bring
out again that each basic existential state is not an abnormal, necessarily
undesirable state of affairs. It is not only a normal state of affairs, for
certain conditions of existence, it is also a very necessary state for man
to be in if certain human progress is to be made.
This form for being was not a detriment to America when its
industry was beginning to burgeon, nor to Japan in its current state. In
fact, those who have been striving to understand (a) the peculiarities in
the Japanese character structure and (b) what there is about it that
enables them to develop so fast industrially would do well to heed and
study these words. But it is a detriment in much of America today. In
fact, its existence is one of the most serious threats to America’s peace
and well-being. And it will one day, not too far away, become a
detriment in Japan or elsewhere in the world where it exists. Dutiful,
obedient, unquestioning, righteous man is to akin to the Judas Cow that
leads others to go, unquestioning, to their slaughter. But he worries me
today, for I fear he may awaken too late from his slumbering in
properness and rightness to extricate himself from the human slaughter
house into which his modern day Frederick Taylors, his all-knowing, not
to be questioned authorities, have led him.
No one knew better the problems that accrue from this part of
“The American Way of Life” than Frederick Taylor, and no one felt
more that eventually it would have to go than the many of his guinea
pigs who successfully operated within this way of being. In later years,
Taylor was most forthright in speaking of the hate his methodology, the
DQ/er management techniques, engendered in those upon whom it was
used. Taylor told us how terrible it was to feel the hostility his methods
engendered in those who followed without question, at least for a while,
his organization for work. He knew well what was coming from those
whose production increased say 180 percent when they truly realized
their return for this increased effort was miniscule in comparison to
what the company took as its share.
148 Taylor, Frederick W. (1911). The Principles of Scientific Management (Chpt. 2). New York:
Harper Bros..
DQ 291
150 See Papandreou, Andreas (1970). New Democracy at Gunpoint: The Greek Front. York:
Doubleday, and Vlachos, Helen. (1970). House Arrest. Boston: Gambit.
DQ 293
151 Probably a reference to Richard Nixon’s Vice President, Spiro T. Agnew who,
beginning in the late 1960s, gave voice to words often prepared by Patrick Buchanan
and William Safire for the administration. Agnew resigned in 1973 amidst a financial
scandal related to his prior service as a Maryland state official. The Watergate affair
followed a year later and led to Nixon’s resignation from the Presidency.
DQ 295
be, not only for America but for mankind in general, if leadership could
operate beyond this lower-level of existential being; but to bring this
about is most difficult for oh-so-many reasons,
First of all, in a free society, the drive of righteous being - his strong
achievement orientation and his ability to avoid allowing doubt to enter
his mind - all mitigate against leaders coming to the fore who are not of
this frame of mind. Secondly, of all the states of human existence by
which man has come to live, hardly any is more difficult to change than
is this state. Thirdly, we must face the facts of human existence, one of
which is that no matter how much we might like that it be different,
there are human beings so constituted that they cannot, within existing
knowledge, be enabled to move beyond this road block to man’s
movement up.
These and other reasons face us today with one of the most serious
of man’s problems, namely, what does one do when he knows those
who believe they are so right are just plain wrong? What does mankind
do when that which he needs in order to exist is not righteous certainty
of what is the way, but tremulous exploration in the direction of that
which has never been?
Righteous man honestly believes that his rules - the rules - must be
followed or chaos will ensue. He does not recognize that the ensuing
chaos he is striving to avoid is that which would arise in himself and not
that which he believes the behavior of other people will produce. This
he cannot and does not see. He simply cannot see aggression in his
words, “Those damned radicals. We ought all be rid of them,” or in his
hand as the righteous father says, “I am doing it for your own good”
while he whales the hide off the kid. This exists, partially, because he
avoids and disdains self-exploration. ‘Why does a right thinking man
have to look inside himself,’ he asks? The fact of the matter is he scoffs
at any such tender-minded introspection. A strong man, a good man, a
right-thinking man knows his rightness; he does not have to probe why.
And of him who does: “Well, I always thought there was something
peculiar about Tom.” “He’s just not a man of his convictions,” says the
righteous, “or he wouldn’t be questioning his stand.”
All in all, the state of righteous existence is a most interesting one to
explore, one which we could examine much more, but now we must
ask, from whence does it come to be, how does it operate under stress
and how best can one manage this system of behavior?
296 DQ
second thought, you’re fired!” Or, “I was going to flunk you anyhow.”
But today, at least in the workday world and in some protected position
like civil service, tenured teaching, or protective labor contracts, the
squeeze play is used. He shapes up as he is told to or he is informed his
performance appraisal will be negative today, next year, and ever after.
This, what Blake and Mouton call 9-1 management,152 works today only
where there is surplus labor or in a societal setting as Japan where the
vast majority of people are in the DQ over ER states.
In fact, the two worlds in America where it can truly be exercised
are in untenured managerial and administrative positions and in schools.
It worked in the past when labor was surplus and unorganized and man
was in a frightened or frightenable state, but it is quite difficult to
implement in many parts of the world today because too many
protections against arbitrary authority have been built into societies. Yet
I have never attended a management or administrative meeting where
some or many have not rued the day of its passing. At these meetings
some have always said, if not in precise words in their meaning, “We
sure could get things done around here if only we could use the tried-
and-true methods of management. There’s nothing wrong here that a
good dose of discipline would not take care of.”
But again, don’t misunderstand me; this is not a bad form of
management. It becomes bad only when it is used in a non-congruent
setting. In fact it is a necessary form of management when the work
force is in the CP state. And it is even a good form of management, if
softened a little, when subordinates are in the righteous state. I mean by
this that when people are in the conditions of the CP state, as we saw
earlier, their psychology is such that only strict authoritarian ways will
get the job done. And I mean that when people are in the DQ over ER
states, benign autocracy is the means to the end of productive results.
But, in either instance, if the recipient of the management or education
or whatever is open and not closed, then this form of management is
relatively short-lived. This is because its very success improves the state
of existence of the recipient and causes him to begin to challenge its
“papa knows best” way of doing things.
Thus managing the person in the righteous state is a matter of what
his state is within the state of righteous being. If, so far as present
knowledge is concerned, the person is unalterably closed within this
state, then it is only fair and decent that this man, that all men in such a
state of existence, be allowed to be. It is proper that they should be
152 Blake, Robert and Mouton, Jane (1964). The Managerial Grid: Key Orientations for
Achieving Production through People. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co..
DQ 303
aids this person must encourage him in every step out of his routine
ways but never remonstrate, humiliate, or punish no matter the resulting
behavior, particularly if it is evidence of freeing himself from authorities’
prescriptions. Then, if this happens, reward him in the beginning but
then intermittently. If he makes mild or serious errors as he makes his
own decisions, work through with him quietly and considerately where
his attempt went wrong and how the desired step can be taken without
recurrence of that error, yet indicating all the while that errors are
expected, that they are wanted, and that if they occur he will be
protected from their consequences. But always, ever always, keep
communicating the expectation that more mistakes will occur before he
will feel secure in another way of life.
To help the person in the righteous state break his rule-bounded
dependency, teeny-weeny steps, not giant steps, is a part of the way.
One does not jump on his rule boundedness as in some reality therapies.
One does not throw him to the wolves of a probing group experience.
One does not toss him early in the process into an intra-psychic
reorganization therapeutic situation. One first establishes a
non-threatening, trustful relationship with the individual in mind. Then
slowly, oh so slowly, backtracking whenever necessary, one picks some
old outmoded rule or prescription which the person is still following,
one which his authority has followed before and has now cast aside.
Then he teases, urges and entices the person toward breaking it. He
carefully and consistently protects the person from any harm or
condemnation that might come to be for violation of the rule. Then
gradually, oh so gradually, one encourages the person to dare a little
more. Careful support and encouragement, ready backing off at the first
sign that threat is being felt, is a procedure not to be broken when
working with the righteous. Any attempt to probe down into the
emotional and motivational dynamics of the state tends not to work
unless the needed trust is previously established by the supportive kind
of relationship described above. Even then, deep probing psychoanalysis
for example, may not work because of the marked capacity of this state
for avoiding significant exploration of its inner forces by surface
intellectualization.
If we do not hew very closely to the rules for managing the
righteous, we can easily precipitate this normal state into more negative
manifestations. But negative manifestations are peculiar in this system.
What we want to avoid is negatively returning to righteous behavior.
What we want to see come is true negativism. We want to see him begin
to fight against authorities’ rules. But we must not hurry him on too fast
DQ 305
lest the negativism settle into that of the catatonic like behavior where
he rigidly shuts down on some or many of his motoric processes. We
want to avoid this active kind of negativism and see arise the vacillatory
kind or the passive kind where he quietly pursues, on his own, the
condemnation of authority.
This peculiar negativism is the most seriously misunderstood of
righteous man’s symptomatic displays, the one so often referred to as
the most serious of all when, within E-C theory, it is the truly healthy
sign. When righteous man quits seeking commendation from the
authority which he has previously revered and followed; when he begins
to be negative, impulsive, erratic, and unpredictable; when he begins to
transfer his hostility onto authority and away from self and no longer
onto subordinates, then this behavior, which authority is bent on
eradicating, means righteous man is growing. He is headed for the next
rung in man’s existential ladder. Would that righteous men could see
that the Black militant, the disturbingly activist student, the insulting
defendant in the courtroom, in the early stages of their negativism, are
striving to grow, not destroy. Would that authority could see that at this
critical point in man’s emergence, a new state of being, the oppositionist
negativistic stage - a higher-level stage, not a breakdown in values - is
striving to become. Would that authority could see that now is the time
to put the person on his own; now is the time to urge him to try to do
and change things himself.
But this righteous man cannot do, for he does not understand E-C
theory nor that growth is the discard of the righteous way of life for a
temporary life of opposition, our next existential state.
306 ER
ER 307
Chapter 11
Theme: Express self for what self desires, but in a fashion calculated not to
bring down the wrath of others.
The ‘Express self for what self desires without shame or guilt’ Conceptions
308 ER
Examples of ER Conceptions
153 CWG: Notice the similarity to the third level, but that the extreme aggressiveness is
not present. It’s still there, almost the same kind of words, but it is a different
inflection in them.
154 CWG: Notice how different this is from the fourth level, where the person is
sees as their own. It places the masses in the position of a pawn in the
power ethic of the few – but its positive side must not be overlooked.
Successful fifth-level men may improve immeasurably the conditions
of human existence. They create wealth, techniques and come by
knowledge for better human living conditions which accrue because man
has now developed materialistic values. Thus, in the frame of reference
of E-C theory, the crass materialistic values of the “The Status Seeker”155
are not something to decry. Instead, they signify the improvement of the
human condition. They are something we should work for lower-level
man to come to have. They are not something we should condemn
when they appear.
You have to look at the ER system and keep in mind that it is a way
of thinking that opens the individual up for becoming what one would
call quite highly successful in this world. It opens the person up for
changing the world, and making it a better world, and conquering the
problems of disease and poverty or appearing to move in the direction
of conquering them. Science was part and parcel of multiplistic thinking.
You couldn’t possibly have any real science, as we know it, in absolutistic
thinking, because science by its very nature is doubting. The allowance
for many ways of thinking and for these many ways of thinking to be
tested out must exist for there to be any kind of science; and this is what
came with the emergence of the fifth level of human existence. So, it
solves the problems of existence that are the fifth-level problems, the
problems of getting the knowledge that is necessary to live not by the
way that God says, not by the way that nature ordains or anything of that
sort, but by the way that knowledge and information says that the
individual should live. So, this accumulation of knowledge and
information tremendously improves the state of human existence.
Many men see the regressive disorganization of fifth-level values as
the ultimate sign of man’s depravity. What Kant saw when the fifth-level
emergence began led him to recoil and try to establish a new fourth-level
scheme. It led Schopenhauer to his pessimistic view of man’s values and
Freud to the postulation of the Death Instinct. Fourth-level man sees, as
did Freud, the ultimate destruction of all that is good in man as fifth-
level wants begin to impel man to seek a new form of existence.
As man casts aside the inhuman aspects of his sacrificial ethic, it is as
if a feeling of power surges through him – a feeling of power derived
from the relative security of the absolutistic, ordered existence. In the
155 Probably a reference to Packard, Vance (1959). The Status Seekers: An Exploration of
Class Behavior in America and the Hidden Barriers That Affect You, Your Community, Your
Future. New York: David McKay Company, Inc.
ER 317
beginning this surge takes what fourth level calls an unethical form. The
Saints of the church could not stand their saintliness and the current
better-off Russian started to employ, clandestinely, the profit motive.
Schopenhauer for one, tried to institutionalize this absolutistic to
multiplistic transitional state; but, his pessimistic, giving up of self,
overcoming selfish desire, form of values was not enough for men of the
Adlerian “Will to Power.” The Saints became more than unsaintly; they
became hedonistic, greedy men. The communist worker demanded his
share, and the communist farmer sought more than the commune. Here
the world and all its things and its entire people become the tools of self
interest. In the multiplistic state man’s focus is on providing a better
material life here on earth, not for later and not in the hereafter. In the
course of using the world to his earthly self-interest he perceives
ultimately that his actions produce some unwanted reactions.
One could propose, with descriptive design, that fifth-level values be
called the Machiavellian system, the ethic of Might is Right. Machiavelli’s
time on earth coincided with western man’s breakout from the dark ages,
a time when occidental man started his tortuous climb from the ordered
state of existence to higher levels of operation. It is perhaps more than
chance that we call this period the Renaissance. It was indeed a rebirth
for many of western man. They were reborn to be human, not just
another cog in a tightly ordered metaphysical scheme. But we cannot rest
by calling fifth-level values the Machiavellian system. At another time, in
other places, the same emergence took place. Hegel schematized it
another way, the American “Robber Baron” another and the Japanese
diet and some Japanese government officials show it still in another
form. Thus they spawn a modification of the power ethic, a state of
existence derived from the individual’s ability to produce at will and
based on what can be called the domestication of power.
One should point out, at this stage, that failure to recognize
Machiavellian principles as an ethic because of the usual restrictive
interpretation of the word ethical may be a major reason why those who
have attempted to find order in ethical systems have not been too
successful. Within the conception of man presented herein, acceptance
of Machiavellian principles as an ethical system, albeit difficult, is
essential to understanding conditions in many organizations today.
He who lives by the power ethic believes that the power to change
rests in the superior talents of the few, those few who are capable of
using force to obtain desired ends. Power is virtue. It is better to act and
fail than to suffer the ignominious shame of not having tried. To be in
the throes of the power ethic, a successful organization can be
318 ER
157 Graves, Clare W. (1966). The Deterioration of Work Standards. Harvard Business
Review. Sept.-Oct., Vol 4, No. 5, p 117-126.
158 Society of American Value Engineers annual conference, 1965.
322 ER
160 See: Burlingame, Roger (1956). Henry Ford: The Greatest Success Story in the History of
Industry. New York: Signet Key Books. See also: Herndon, Booton (1969). Ford: An
Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times. New York: Weybright & Talley.
324 ER
values of the managing and the managed are similar, but this time the
similarity of values is not congruent. The managers feel threatened with
the loss of their power, fixate, and they try to counter the power move
of the managed by over-systematizing that which is but moderately
systematizable and by refining their measures of that which, to date, was
not measurable. And the workers counter with all their new felt power
can do.
This psychology produces an enigmatic situation when both leader
and led are at the [fifth] level, for each believes in his God-given right to
do as he pleases. Each believes that he who wins has the right to set the
rules. Thus, a desire on the part of the leader to set the rules, which
works so well when the [fifth]-level leader has [fourth]-level followers,
now is challenged by a producer’s determination to set the rules. The
game of push and withstand-the-push comes into existence. A long-
continuing war for organizational power begins, typified by periods of
high productivity, resistance to production, and bargaining for the fruits
of production. In fact, production becomes a matter of boom-or-bust. It
booms when there is temporary agreement as to the rules of work: it
busts when the parties tilt for a bigger share of the power pie.
Production can be maintained only by giving to get, provided a
satisfactory device such as an individual incentive system can be
contrived. Quite often, however, contrived systems are short-lived
because the real battle is for power in the organization – for material
gain.”161 He who lives by the power ethic believes that the power to
change rests in the superior talents of the few, those few who are capable
of using force to obtain desired ends.
The employee centralized at the ER state expects compensation as a
result of accomplishment. The job situation should allow for
considerable flexibility and opportunity for individual initiative. The
individual will approach rules and regulations as having no inherent
sanctity to be maneuvered as the situation requires. The management
style for the multiplistic level is bargaining management. The bargaining
can be done between manager and employee in an overt and to-the-
point fashion. The manager requires three essential items to manage
employees whose thinking is in the ER state: A) rewards, B) sanctions,
C) defined boundaries with latitude within the boundaries.
The overt bargaining between manager and managed begins by the
organizational goals and objectives being shown to the employee. The
multiplistic employee expects compensation as a result of
accomplishment. The issue is not what the manager wants done, but
161 Ibid (Graves, 1966).
ER 325
rather what is the payment offered. If the rewards are not attractive,
management must, if continued employment of the individuals is
desired, seek out better rewards. If the rewards are acceptable the
boundaries (policy, resource levels, time, legal constraints, etc.) must be
clearly communicated. The employee is then free to operate unrestrained
within the boundaries. However, the manager must not tolerate their
violation or hesitate to use the sanctions.
Once a bargain has been made the multiplistic employee will work
diligently to attain the goals. There is no need to schedule activities,
order and organize the efforts, and evaluate the changing status of the
program since this person is “managing” all of that. They are self-
managing and prefer not to be controlled. The only supervision required
is to check for boundary violation.
Mismanagement at the materialistic level takes two basic forms. The
first, and most common, is where the rewards are not worth the effort.
This can be brought about by management: violating the terms of the
bargain, engaging in punishment rather than correction, establishing
narrow unrealistic boundaries, and having no worthwhile rewards or
limited rewards. The result will be the departure of the employee from
the organization. However, in departing the person at this level is likely
to “take” some compensation for the trouble caused. The organization
has lost a dynamic, innovative, and hard-working person who, if
properly managed, could greatly contribute. The second form of
mismanagement is in not setting boundaries and in not having or using
the sanctions. The employee in the ER state will soon become the de
facto manager and eventually the in facto manager.
Some managers, too many of them, try to copy what has been
successful in other organizations where the managed begin to operate by
the power ethic. They try to use Participative Managerial techniques, but
the attempt aborts because Directive Managers can never truly allow
participation. Thus they soon induce hate - which is the one thing a
Directive Manager must avoid because hate ultimately consumes the
vitality of any organism or organization in which it arises. If you
mismanaged someone at the ER level, you are going to get a clinging
vine that is the stickiest thing you ever had on your back. They are going
to get on you. They are going to hang on, and you wish to God you
could get that molasses off of your soul.
But other managers meet threat to their power by questioning their
Might-is-Right way and begin their movement to the sixth level of
existence. Movement to the sixth level of human existence occurs when
the ‘have nots’ begin to threaten the power and prerogatives of the
326 ER
‘haves’ and movement begins when the ‘haves’ begin to perceive that
power alone does not please man. Man wants also to be liked, to feel he
is accepted, to belong. Now as the belonging level of need emerges the
sociocratic ethic, the team concept of work, the organization man idea,
the “we must all think alike and all want the same” system of proper
behavior develops.
The ER to FS Transition
So, how do you move the ER to the FS state? You have to have a
two-fold kind of set up for training: a) the person with both the prestige
and the expertise sets up the program, and b) the actual training needs
to be conducted by a peer of extreme competence in whatever it is you
are training, an active training person having low prestige and high
expertise, working for the person who has both. This is the biggest
educational problem I am faced with in my college. I do not directly
teach these people. My best previous students at the undergraduate level
do the effective teaching. I do the organizing.
You must remember what is occurring here as you move from DQ.
As you move from CP you are moving a person who has no respect for
authority to DQ where he goes over the dam in respecting authority,
then to ER where the person begins to negate authority and says: “I can
stand on my own feet and solve problems.” So, if you bring in as the
active training person someone with high prestige who’s going to be an
authority, then this guy is going to buck everything you do. You go into
the classroom with these people with high prestige and high authority,
and that kid is going to sit out there and every time you say something,
he’ll say, “Prove it!” He’s going to come at you and completely disrupt
the operation because he is fighting himself loose from overly
depending upon authority. That, in another sense, is what ER is doing -
fighting to get loose of the shackles of authority. So, you have to have a
non-authority figure as the active person who works with the learner.
But this is the next phase: your trainer who is of low prestige and high
expertise must be available to the learner, but he must not try to move
in.
I do it in this way: I set up the things that are to be done and what’s
to be learned and give that assignment to my surrogate, a previous
student. Then the surrogate takes over and delivers the assignment to
the students. He gets out of the picture, but my surrogate also sees that
the people carry out the basic work. He’s got an office upstairs, and he
says to them: “I will be in that office at certain hours if you ever want to
talk to me about anything that you have been assigned to learn.” From
there on, you stay out of the learning process. This person cannot learn
if his peer or an authority is watching. He must work out the problem
privately and anonymously.
328 ER
The surrogate must wait until the student decides to ask questions.
Neither you nor the surrogate should interfere. If the master teacher
does come in, you’ve lost this fellow; he won’t learn what you are trying
to get across. When he finally comes in for support, he will work the
living tail off of that surrogate. They come to me, once they start to
make contact, and say: “Doc, these kids are killing me! They are coming
to me at night, they are coming to me every hour of the day. I can’t get
them off my back.”
“That’s your job, that’s your job,” I tell them. I won’t see most of
those students until the end of the term. I don’t even evaluate them. The
surrogate knows the rules, and the surrogate evaluates them. I don’t
make the decisions. I only play a role in grading when there is difficulty
between the surrogate and the student; then the student can come to
me.
Most of the time they will say to me at the end of the course: “Well,
for the first time in my educational experience, I had something that was
educational.” And they say: “Doc, I never had a better course in my life;
you’ve got the best course in the world.” I haven’t seen them since the
course started!
The surrogate has to be at FS because he has to be willing to
sacrifice self once they latch onto him. He has to have this tremendous
empathy, and has to want to get along with the students. It will just floor
you to experience the progress that is made under this kind of set up in
contrast to the progress that comes otherwise. Never in your life will
you have an experience that any human being learns so much more than
you thought a human being would.
This person has worked himself away from authority. He wants to
believe, above everything else, that he can stand on his own feet. When
someone sets up an educational program which supports him in the
direction of believing that he is good enough to solve his own
educational problems, and he doesn’t have to go to daddy teacher any
more to do it, he says: “Somebody’s respecting me for the first time in
my life.” And they come to me and say that. They say directly to me:
“Now it’s the first time I ever had a human being really respect me for
the brain that I’ve got.” Out of this they begin to empathize; they begin
to have a feeling. They begin to like the surrogate. They begin to like
me. They cease to be cold human beings. This rapidly generalizes to
others, and the guy moves into FS. But the keys are: the master teacher
organizes; the surrogate assigns; the surrogate makes himself available
and waits until contacted; the student is allowed to carry out the learning
anonymously.
ER 329
One of the things that you run into is the further up the scale you
go, the more you have an overall human being that is freeing up and
being able to move further. So the chances are that fewer and fewer are
going to fail. But this, to me, is a methodological approach which, if you
ever try it out, is just ‘damn close to magic.’ I don’t talk like that very
often, but I tell you, it floors me. I have the administration and other
people in the college come around every once in a while questioning the
grades that these students have received. I always insist that they leave
their work with me, whatever the results are, so when the Dean comes
to me and questions, then I can say: “All right now, you just take a look
at it. What are you going to give that guy?”
They’ll say: “Well, how the hell do you get the quality of work out
of this guy that no one else in the school can?” If you look at the
student’s record, everything else will be riding what I call ‘the probation
fence,’ Ds and Cs. This will be the one A or B on the person’s record,
and it’s genuine. I didn’t give this person anything. All that’s involved in
this is basically paying attention to the psychology of this person, and
seeing to it that the person who actively teaches when asked to teach is a
peer of low prestige but high expertise, and a method which allows the
person to learn anonymously.
Apparently there is an incredible hunger in the ER to learn, but we
knock it out of him because we throw him into an ordinary classroom
setting. He simply cannot take it. We have a lot of experimental
evidence to support this particular thing. We’ve taken ERs and studied
them in many different circumstances to see whether or not they work
better alone, with groups, small groups, or in any other situation. This is
a system-specific thing, and the only group that only learns in an
anonymous situation.
In some manner, for some reason or another, their psychology is of
such an order that they can’t perform in front of other people. They
love to come out in the open once they’ve got something licked. I used
to coach golf, and when I ran into this with a golfer, I found that if the
golfer was having difficulty, the only way to deal with him was to find
himself a place to practice somewhere out on the back of the course and
stay away from him until he’d got his hook or his slice or whatever it
was solved. I’d never say a word to him about anything that he might do
until he had gone out there quietly and by himself. In other words, I
never tried to coach this guy. But if he came to me after he thought he
had figured out why he was slicing, then I could support him. It’s the
type of thing that is system-specific.
330 ER
Now, the problem you have in many training setups is that the
trainer - the educator - wants to be right in there getting the satisfaction
of doing something. Here, the training person is simply an organizer,
that’s all. He’s got to go back and say, “There isn’t anything that I
actively did in interacting with this person that in any way brought about
this person’s learning. I didn’t aid this person to learn.” You’ve got to
learn to get your satisfaction out of the results and not by being in on
the production of the result.
Now, let’s take a look at a conception that shows the movement out
of ER with the entry of some FS - ER/fs. We take another half step up
the ladder and notice some feeling for others is reasserting itself. She
depends on her own competencies and abilities to achieve goals while
the group begins to enter in as an element. She considers conforming to
the reality of the group and recognizing the external importance. The
ER is still predominant in that the abilities and competencies of the
person prevail, and she views the potentials of the rational, objective self
are unlimited. With FS entering there is an increasing awareness of her
own emotions and viewing herself as the accurate appraiser of people
and situations. There is still a denial of the need for others and an
attempt to remain detached but the harsh criticality of pure ER is
softening. Lets look at another example of increasing FS while ER
loosens its hold:
Example #1 – The ER/fs Conception -
“The psychologically mature person is the one who deals
successfully with the environment, the one who has an
unquestioned accurate and objective perception of one’s
environment and others and who is able to handle both
successfully. The mature person takes both the conflicts
and contradictions of life and turns them into experiences
which are to her advantage.
Of course dealing successfully and handling successfully
presupposes a wider range of abilities and competencies
than one might think at first and thus will not be achieved
by many. But it is the true sign of maturity. It means a
superior ability to exercise one’s emotions so that these
volatile features enhance rather than harm one’s ability to
perceive and achieve goals. Indeed, perceiving clearly is
probably the best way to deal with any environment and at
this the mature personality is superior. One might be
tempted to assert that dealing with other humans to fulfill
ER 331
system and the person begins to stop thinking in terms of his own
material success and begins thinking in terms of others again.
But once assured of his material satisfaction, he finds a new spiritual
void in his being. For example, nearly all the people I find interested in
‘consciousness’ - and please don’t misunderstand me here because some
of you might be - are people who have lost their way in the ER to FS
transition.
The cyclic aspect of this theory comes back in again. The need to
belong, to affiliate himself rather than ‘go-it-alone,’ becomes central.
This affiliative need, which is man’s third form of belonging need, now
organizes man’s existence. As it does, the adjustment of the organism-
to-the-environment process becomes dominant again and gives rise to a
new thema for existence: ‘Sacrifice some now so others can have too.’ So, it
creates a whole set of problems, the F problems that come with being
successful in this world.
336 ER
FS 337
Chapter 12
The sixth level, the relativistic existential system, first appeared 80-
90 years ago.162 It arises when the ER way of life solves the problems of
living for many, more than any preceding way of life. Fifth-level values
improve immeasurably man’s conditions for existence. They create
wealth and techniques. They lead to knowledge that improves the
human condition. In the ER existential state man has fulfilled his
material wants. His life is safe and it is relatively assured; but what of
other men? The struggle for individuality, through expression of self and
outer material existence, does not bring the happiness expected. It has
left one alone in the world facing the problems brought by antipathy of
others. This creates the F problems, the problems of coming to peace
with aloneness, with one’s inner self and with others. These problems,
felt by those who profited from ER ways but who also sensed a
widening gulf between the successful ones and those who have not
shared the fruits of multiplistic living, increase markedly the activation
of the right side of the brain - the equipment for subjective, non-linear
thinking. These problems activate the S neurological system – the
system for truly experiencing the inner, subjective feelings of
humankind.
To fourth-level man, fifth-level values are akin to sin; to the sixth
they are the crass materialism of “The Status Seeker.” But in this frame
of reference they are not values to condemn. They are values we should
strive to enable lower-level man to experience, even though they are not
values that will become permanent as the major establishment in
America today seems to believe. Yet they, too, give way because they
create a new existential problem for man. He has learned how to live
with want and how to live to overcome it; but he has not learned how to
live with abundance. He has achieved his status, his material existence at
the expense of being rejected. Now he has a new problem and now he
must seek a new way of life and a new value system. The successful
want to be liked; and the passed-over want in.
This perception begins man’s move to his sixth form of existence,
to the state of the sociocentric being, to a concern with belonging, being
accepted, and not rejected. Man becomes centrally concerned with peace
with his inner self and in the relation of his self to the inner self of
others. The belonging need arises as the adjustment to the environment
component ascends to the dominant position. But this time, the
conforming tendency - the adjustive tendency - is not to external stimuli
or absolutistic authority. It is to the peer group. Man becomes
concerned with knowing the inner side of self and other selves so
162 As of Graves’s writing in 1982, thus the 19th to 20th century transition.
FS 339
appear to be built on shifting dunes of sand. But, the central core is not
changing; it is a very solid thing. While he seems to be uncertain of what
he values, this is more illusion than it is real. It is only the peripheral
aspect which seems shallow, non-serious and fickle. The peripheral
values are only swinging to the left, to the right and back to center. He
values softness over cold rationality, sensitivity in preference to
objectivity, taste over wealth, respectability over power, and personality
more than things. He values interpersonal penetration, interpersonal
communication, committeeism, majority rule, the tender, the subjective,
the non-ordered formal informality, the subjective approach, avoidance
of classification, and the religious attitude, but not religious dogma.
Sixth-level man knows as well as man at any other level what he values,
what is right, and what is wrong for him: it is being with, in with, and
within, the feelings of his valued others.
FS considers the knowledge and he will think about it intellectually,
but the choice, if there are alternatives, will be made on the basis of
feeling. What he actually does may have absolutely nothing to do with
the analysis that he’s made. You’d go: “What the hell is going on here?”
His conclusion doesn’t follow his logic, because the conclusion is based
on feeling and not on his logic. Intellectually, the FS individual considers
many alternatives, but makes choice on the basis of feeling, not on the
basis of information, knowledge or rule. This is important because it
differentiates between FS and A’N’. For the A’N’, conclusions will
follow his logic. It may not be what anyone else has, but he’s got his.
Look for behavior which indicates a chameleon-like character:
“When I feel this way, I do this; when I feel that way I do that.” The
clue word being ‘feel;’ always the word feel. FS values indicate that
people come first, so when control is necessary it must always be
exercised not to hurt people. (Here you will see a difference from the
A’N’, to follow. For the A’N’, if you have to exercise control and the
exercising of it is going to hurt people’s feelings, you regret having to do
it, but you do it. You do it as decently as you can, but you do it.)”
Rather than the centrality of the life being authority as in DQ, hate
and aggression as in the CP, my own self-interest as in the ER, the
centrality of life for FS is people and friends. The individual speaks
earnestly about community, intimacy, shared experiences, and other
responses which show that centrality. They express a need to be “more
connected” and feel alienated when others do not share his or her
unique personal delights. Behaviorally, he shows an inability to commit
self to others beyond one’s group. Watch for the one thing this person
FS 341
is negative about - hurting other people. That’s the only negation you
seem to pick up.
Finally, listen for an unwillingness to change things. They have a
belief that: “Things should be different, but I am not the one to start out
changing these things. If there is change, it’s got to be the group or
something of that sort that brings it about, not me.” He would actively
support the group, not just go along. In other words, you get responses
often which say, “Well, I don’t know it all but, by God, I’ll fight for
what my people, my friends think is right” even though he says he
doesn’t know what’s right.
The important thing, in my point of view, is that the data I have
indicates that the aggressiveness of man as we know it appears in the
third system - it comes in with the CP. And I can show you that there
are chemical changes, even hormonal changes taking place in the body
of man when he is under the influence of the CP system which cause
him to be his most aggressive self, and that this aggressive self remains
relatively strong in the human personality, though it takes on a different
form, in the DQ system and in the ER system. I have not found
aggressiveness in FS personalities. By the time the FS system is
dominant in a personality, crime against the other person - crime against
the other person’s self - is not found. I have not found it in FS
personalities.
Now, I have found crime against the self. I have found them taking
drugs to the point of hurting the self. I have found suicide – aggression
against the self. Suicide, the data says, is rather an odd one. Suicide is
highest in the FS system. The data says that homicide as a behavior of
man disappears as the transition is made into the FS system. This is a
very interesting finding and suggests that if we could possibly work on
the problems of human existence in such a manner as to get the mass of
our people beyond the ER level of existence, then we would not have to
worry about homicide crime anymore; this phenomenon will disappear.
I find that in the BO system the only basic reason for war that exists
is that you have invaded my property. You don’t have any ideological
war. You don’t have war for gain. You don’t have anything of that sort.
The person will fight like the dog fights when you come across whatever
he has laid out as the perimeter of his property line. In the CP system
man fights for the fun of fighting. He is an aggressive ‘bastard’ at that
level of existence; that is his nature and this is what we must understand.
In the DQ system he fights ideologically. In the ER system he fights for
selfish economic gain. In the FS system he begins to question whether
there is any purpose in any of these fights at all.
342 FS
Man - Homo sapiens – came to be about 100,000 years ago. The first
level of existence went for about 60,000 years. Forty thousand years ago,
the leading edge of second-level thinking started to appear. About
10,000 years ago the leading edge of third-level thinking started to
appear. About 4,000-5,000 years ago the leading edge of fourth-level
thinking came into existence. About 600-700 years ago (1300-1400 AD)
the fifth level started to come to be, and about 80 years ago (1900 AD)
the leading edge of the sixth level appeared. In my data, the leading edge
of the seventh level started to appear around 1952 or ‘53.
He has achieved his status, his material existence at the expense of
being rejected. The power ethic dooms itself to decay, with time,
because it creates for man a paradox which he cannot abide. As fifth-
level values result in the improvement of man’s existence, life for him
becomes worth living. But how can life be lived well if one must
constantly fight others for one’s survival? If you have the problem of
explaining to others why you are successful, mollifying others for being
successful, then, in order to do this, you are going to have to think some
way other than the way the person thought in the fifth level. Man sees
the need to get along with other men if the good life is to continue. This
FS 345
perception trips the sixth-level neurology and begins man’s move to his
sixth form of existence, to the state of the sociocentric being, to a
concern with belonging, being accepted, and not rejected. The person
begins to stop thinking in terms of his own material success and begins
the swing back to thinking in terms of others again, sacrificing self-
interest.
When some people see fifth-level values changing into the values of
level six, again, they see decay all around them. In a sense this is true,
because man transforming into sixth-level thinking lays authority aside,
because he rejects strongly non-dignified non-human ways of living.
Sixth-level values are those of “The Lonely Crowd,”163 those of the
chameleon-like “Marketing Character,”164 but they are, within this point
of view, a giant step forward for man.
To many, such as the materialistic establishment and philosophers
like Ayn Rand, the ascendance of these values [relativistic or
sociocentric] signify the breakthrough of man’s most regrettable
weakness, his delicate capacity for tenderness, his subjectiveness, his
concern for others rather than his individuality. When “The
Organization Man”165 tries to fit in rather than take over, those who see
values from an older frame of reference despair of such behavior.
Yet they are higher values because in them we find the many, not
the few, valued, as at the fourth level. They are higher than the fourth
level, for at least man’s opinion, not just extra-human opinion, is
considered. But they are called bad by many, particularly many scientists,
because they value the subjective and relativistic rather than just the
objective and the positivistic. At this level many feel that man has lost
himself, and he has given himself up for social approval. But the E-C
frame of reference says that this conclusion is an error. It says that man
has simply subordinated his self-interest for the time being and that self-
interest will return again in a new and higher form.
When the electrical executives contrived to allow all to live rather
than kill off competition166 as in “Robber Baron”167 days, such was
163 Riesman, David (1950). The Lonely Crowd. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Also, The Lonely Crowd, Revised edition: A Study of the Changing American Character by
David Riesman, Nathan Glazer, Reuel Denney, and Todd Gitlin (2001). Yale Nota
Bene.
164 Fromm, Eric (1955). The Sane Society. New York: Rinehart.
165 Whyte, William H. (1956). The Organization Man. New York: Simon and Schuster.
166 Scandal in the early 1960s involving heavy electrical equipment manufacturers led by
General Electric, Westinghouse, I-T-E and Allis Chalmers who were accused of
conspiring to fix prices on government sales. See: Dennis W. Carlton and Jeffrey M.
346 FS
called bad. It certainly cannot be called the best of man because the
customer was the one who paid the bill. But, one can ask if it is not
better than GE setting out, come what may, to competitively kill
Westinghouse or Allis Chalmers. Similarly, Riesman infers that the
“Other Directed” is not the best of men. Fromm (1955) looks askance
at his “Marketing Character” and the fourth-level absolutist or the fifth-
level individualist condemns the welfare state concept of sixth level man.
But, our point of view asks: “Is it bad to think of him and just not think
of me? Is it bad to aspire that all shall share the fruits of what the
cumulative efforts of man have provided?”
“Yes,” say many, but they say it through the imputation of
malevolence to others. “If you let the other man have, he will get you in
the end,” they say. “If you do not provide for your own old age, then
you should suffer the consequences of your own weak will,” is another
of their condemnations.
Others, operating in the materialistic way, have perceived that
power alone does not please man and become aware of a desire to
belong and be accepted by others, rather than hated or opposed.
After man has achieved basic personal and economic security, and
after he has successfully challenged the established order, he again
changes his psychological spots. (I am writing of long-term changes, of
course – ones that usually require more than a lifetime.) He begins to
become a sociocentric being. He becomes concerned with social, rather
than basic personal or material matters. He now seeks for something
other than survival, safety, order, or material gain. He seeks a congenial
atmosphere, a comfortable work pace, and, as a result, his productive
effort and output deteriorate relative to what they were at the [fourth] or
[fifth] level.168
Sixth-level man objects strongly to authority’s lead or pressure and
professes revulsion against uniformity and homogenization. He follows
the crowd’s or peer’s lead or pressure since emphasis is placed upon
“getting along,” accepting the authority of the group or the majority,
and seeking status from others. Thinking shows an almost radical,
almost compulsive emphasis on seeing everything from a relativistic,
subjective frame of reference as he revolts against notions of quantity
Perloff, Modern Industrial Organization, p. 181-183, and Richard A. Posner, "The Social
Cost of Monopoly and Regulation," Journal of Political Economy, 83:807-827.
167 Josephson, Matthew (1934). The Robber Barons. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co.
Also called “industrial statesmen” by those who suggest a different view of history,
such as Allan Nevins.
168 Ibid (Graves, 1966).
FS 347
Now the sixth-level state is a different one from the fifth. In the
sixth level the person’s struggle for individuality is over. One’s own and
others’ individualities are recognized. When the person begins to think
this way, the person is free from the struggle for life, free of the struggle
for control, free from the struggle for ego definition, free of struggling
to help others, free of the struggle for freedom, free from guilt, free of
348 FS
I get scared to death when they enter the FS system and think that
everyone in this world is nice. If we can get to the point that we solve
the problem of getting up one more level so their eyes are open and they
realize there are all kinds of people in this world who are not nice, we’ll
be better off. This is the problem that I’m faced with. It isn’t the
problem of the drug culture and the like. I sat around the other morning
with a dozen young men graduating this year [1971]. Unless this
economy changes incredibly, they haven’t a ghost of a chance of getting
jobs, paying taxes, having lodging, or getting food by just wandering
around ‘being happy.’
They see the world situationistically. They see it relativistically. In
the relativistic existential state, individuals respond in ways which
indicate ‘others have their way and we have ours, and each to his own; it
is not mine to judge.’ If the central psychology of this system is to avoid
rejection by society and others, then this is what the whole life of the
person revolves around - avoiding rejection by the valued others. They
talk about how important it is to have community; how important it is
for there to be intimacy among people; how important it is that there be
involvement; how important it is that people share experience, but if
you observe them behaviorally they show an amazing inability to
commit themselves to doing for other people. They’re still very much
interested in themselves but they are talking, almost glibly, about the
need to share with others, the need to be with others, the need to get
along with others. One of the things which is most characteristic about
them is - and we see a great deal of this today - their inability to
articulate: “Hey man, yeah man, that’s it. We’re with it boy, we really got
it. You got the feel, man?” What the hell are they talking about? They
cannot express, in an articulate manner, what their feelings are. He
appears to affect a deliberate inarticulation and disdain for precise
language.
You will find responses from both FS and ER which are similar.
They both show negative sensitivity to control by authority. FS is
sensitive to control by the peer group and the situation, whereas ER will
go off alone in his own direction. At the FS sociocentric level, man
becomes centrally a sociocentric being, a being concerned with the
relation of his self to other selves. He becomes concerned with
belonging, with being accepted, with not being rejected, with knowing
the inner side of self and other selves so human harmony can come to
be. When he achieves this he becomes concerned with more than self
350 FS
and other selves. He becomes concerned with self in relation to life and
the whole, the total universe.169
169 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Fall, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 131-155.
FS 351
the ideas of others, is driven very much from within to explore things of
the here and now in a very serious philosophical fashion, exploring in
essence the problems of the here and now in as almost a serious fashion
as the philosophically minded people of the DQ world explored the
problems of God and its meaning, the hereafter, and all of the things
that developed back in those earlier times.
The person gets to this point, and begins to flounder. He tries drugs
as a means to coming up with insights. This is what they are doing with
this whole psychedelic business; they are trying to come up with
something that will pull things together for them. Look at the language
they use: “I want to get it together. I wanna’ get it all together.” So, at
this point they try things such as meditation. They try biofeedback. All
of them are good methods. Unfortunately, they are simply holding
methods; they don’t provide the philosophical framework that enables
people to think differently about the problems. They enable them to
handle their frustrations, and to build up some more knowledge about
themselves and what they are troubled with; but, it is coming up with
some new way of thinking about the problems, whatever they are, that
we are confronted with.
Something is missing. FS man doesn’t have a means to the end of
trying to think about the things his innards tell him he wants to think
about. The basic educational need is in the person. The trainer, the
educating person, has to provide the framework for thinking that the
person lacks. You offer a method, once you get to a point where the
learner has a need to try to understand things in the here and now -
things that have been felt, perceived, but not been quite able to put
together – in a way that would focus in upon the idea that what is
missing is the framework with which to think about the problem. I don’t
care what problem you are dealing with. The problem of the transition
from FS to A’N’ is the problem of coming up with a new way to think
about the problems that the person is trying to solve; that is what this
transition is.
We can’t make the FS to A’N’ transition - and please don’t
misunderstand me here because I am not trying to be egocentric - until
some guy like me comes along with a new way of thinking about
whatever the problems are, because somebody’s got to supply the
framework. This applies to any set of problems. The jump is to a new
framework.
Now, we don’t know at this stage of the game in the psychological
world, as I have said, whether this kind of theoretical point of view is
the answer toward the FS desire to make more sense out of things
FS 353
human. But you have to detail it with them. You have to lay it out
before them. You have to provide those crucial points of dissonance in
which they are brought up sharply to see how great is the need for a
change in their way of thinking. Above all, the methodology is openness,
candidness, honesty and meeting the people with whom you are
working on the level which says: “Look, you too have a brain in you
head.”
New ways of thinking about particular problems enable the
transition from the FS to the A’N’ to take place. I don’t care how fuzzy
that framework is, if you have any kind of framework which you think
may help the person put together things he feels the need to put
together and make sense of, candidly and openly lay it on the line to the
person, and say: “Test it out.”
170 See Blake and Mouton (Managerial Grid), MacGregor (Theory X and Theory Y), and
Lickert (Four-Model Systems). The central idea is that empowered employees will
feel better about their jobs and be more productive. [Extended into financials by
Open Book Management. (Also see: Case, John (1995). Open Book Management. New
York: Harper Collins.]
171 Ibid (Graves, 1966).
356 FS
man seated in his yoga position, we see that what finally disturbs him is
the roof falling in on his head.
This roof can be called the A’ problems – the ecological crisis, the
energy crisis, the population crisis, limits to growth, or any other such
thing which is enough of a disturbance to awaken FS man. Naturally
enough, his first reaction will be that evil technology is taking over and
that all the good feeling and greenery which made the Earth great is in
the process of being wrecked forever. (We remember that attitude from
the days when his father, ER man, had much the same erroneous
notion.) FS man is correct in the sense that his entire way of life, his
level of existence, is indeed breaking down - it must break down in order
to free energy for the jump into the A’N’ state, the first level of being.
This is where the leading edge of man is today.
Using this framework to approach current American society, we
can easily see an efflorescence of personalistic (FS) values in the
popularity of such things as Esalen, yoga, the encounter group, the
humanistic psychology movement, and participatory decision-making in
management. By all these means and many others, personalistic FS man
endeavors to achieve self-harmony and harmony with others. These
individuals do not, of course, see their striving for harmony with the
human element as merely a stage they are going through, but as the
ultimate, the permanent, goal of all life. This short-range vision which
views the current goal as the ultimate goal of life is shared by human
beings at every level of existence for as long as they remain centralized
in that particular level.
Using E-C theory, we see that the so called generation gap of the
recent past was in reality a values gap between the DQ and the ER and
the FS levels of existence. For example, many of the parents of FS youth
subscribed to ER values which emphasize proving one’s worth by
amassing material wealth. To individuals operating at this level, it was
inconceivable that their children might reject competition for
cooperation and seek inner self-knowledge rather than power, position,
and things. Worse yet to the ER parents was the devotion of these
young people to foreigners and minority groups who, according to ER
thinking, deserved their unfortunate condition because they were too
weak or too stupid to fight for something better. Thus, the foreigners
and minorities were characterized as lazy and irresponsible and the
youth who defended them as lily-livered “bleeding hearts.”
In turn, FS youth contributed to the confrontation because their
civil disobedience and passive resistance offended their parents more
than outright violence ever could have. These young people not only
360 FS
challenged Might (and therefore Right), but offered no new Might and
Right to replace that which they mocked. Consequently, they were
rightly (to the ER mentality) called anarchists, and it was widely said that
such permissiveness was wrecking the values which made America great.
Of course, our hindsight now tells us that America was not, in fact,
“wrecked;” and today one can see a great many of the ER parents who
protested against anarchy getting in touch with themselves at Esalen and
advocating theories of participative management.
Another outgrowth of the transition of our society from ER to FS
values was the de-emphasis of technology. Technology was the principal
means by which ER man conquered the world. He did not, like his
ancestor CP man, use force alone; but rather he attempted to
understand the natural laws in order to conquer men and nature.
Because of the close historical association of technology with ER values,
the emerging FS consciousness could not help but view technology as a
weapon of conquest. Thus, along with rejecting conquest, FS man
rejected technology and in its place set up its exact opposite: Nature. In
other words, the exploration of inner man and a return to nature
(including all manner of idealized natural foods) replaced the
exploitation of nature and other human beings in a quest for material
wealth.
Since, at the sixth level, man values participation, the committee or
group decision, and interpersonal relationships rather than going it
alone, many such as Rand and Fromm fear that he has lost his self, that
he has given up personal dignity for social approval. But this, I submit,
is an error. Man has not given up his self; he has simply subordinated it
for the time being. This is not the end of self-respect. It will return, our
system says, only in a newer, higher form. Thus, man shows growth in
placing self at a distance when reflecting on one’s own actions.
Sixth-level values are a great step forward for man. They reflect the
beginning of man’s humanism, the demise of his animalism. As
interpersonal relationships become safe and secure, sixth-level man
comes to perceive that he has played his individuality for the chance of
social acceptance. He finds that sacrificing self to obtain the good will of
others takes from him his individuality. Eventually he finds this is a price
too high to pay. A gnawing urge to be himself begins to work in his
inner world and he begins to strive for his seventh form of human
existence. Thus, man strives on seeking a new value system by which he
can be a more inclusive man.
When he achieves this, he finds he must become concerned with
more than self or other selves, because while he was focusing on the
FS 361
inner self to the exclusion of the external world, his outer world has
gone to pot. So now he turns outward to life and to the whole, the total
universe. As he does so he begins to see the problems of restoring the
balance of life which has been torn asunder by his individualistically
oriented, self-seeking climb up the first ladder of existence.
Rather than these changes continuing to get closer and closer
together as Toffler176 suggests, my own thesis is that there will be an
acceleration up to the time that it produces very horrendous problems.
When it produces problems of such a degree, things are going to have to
slow down tremendously in order to deal with the resulting problems.
The accumulation of unsolved problems is such that it’s actually
going to produce the most dramatic change in human behavior that has
yet occurred in all of man’s history. The human brain is of the order of
ten or eleven or twelve billion cells, on the average [now thought to be
100 billion neurons]. Each of those cells has the capacity for ten
thousand interconnections. That’s rather tremendous. Now, as I said
earlier, Darwin never dealt with that. He never answered why we have
that big brain. All the data I have presented say that in all of mankind’s
history up to this moment, relatively few of the cells have been called
upon. The N cells, the O cells, the P cells, the Q cells, the R cells, the S
cells - they have been called upon to date. But they make up very few of
the total number of cells in the brain. What are the rest doing there?
What about the idea of open-endedness?
We could show that these levels - AN, BO, CP, DQ, ER, FS, A’-N’,
etc. - are distinctly different neurological systems. And I could even go
on to point out the locus of these spatially within the brain. This defense
for the existence of dynamic neurological systems and for qualitative as
well as quantitative differences as to how humans learn when each
system is open and operant cannot be herein expanded, but these data
do suggest that there is substantive evidence for the conception of a
hierarchically arranged dynamic neurological system in the brain.
I have hypothesized that it is the activation in the brain of a
tremendous number of those cells that have been there but doing
nothing, and that they combine with the lower level systems to start
human life all over again. The seventh level of human behavior is
actually the beginning of human life all over again on a new and
different basis. This accounts for why the brain is so big, and why the
problems before us are solvable if we but manage to stay alive.
A seminar participant once said: “I seemingly foresee a fairly chaotic
situation arising. As people in certain parts of the world develop
176 Toffler, Alvin (1970). Future Shock. New York: Random House.
362 FS
leadership whose level of coping becomes higher and higher and they
deal with problems that are greater and greater in different ways, also
advancing technologically at tremendously accelerated ways, whereas
other nations have, uh, operate on lesser coping levels and have
leadership whose coping system is on a lower level, and deal with
problem on a much more aggressive ways. Then we are going to have a
tremendous conflict at some point of things, you think?”
I replied, “May I say we are having a tremendous conflict, not that
‘we are going to have.’ We just haven’t had it in as rough a form as it
could possibly be.”
He continued, “Well, I don’t think that there is enough of a
disparity between leadership in the more advanced or leadership in some
of the lesser advanced areas of the world. Our leadership here, I would
say, is primarily ER, and in the third world nations it is primarily CP.
But I don’t see it is that much as of disparity between the levels of
leadership, as I would see between A’N’ and DQ, or between A’N’ and
CP. So the danger is being kept aside momentarily, but as things begin
to accelerate a little bit more we are going to create greater problems.”
I concluded, “It’s a great, great bomb we are living on. It may go
off. I don’t know that it will, but it can. As I say over and over again,
there is no guarantee in existence. If thus and so occurs, that is, directed
toward the solution of the existential problems that are now facing us,
then things can go well for us in the future. It would take a lengthy
period of time to right them, so we will have a long period when man, if
he arrives leadership-wise at the seventh level nodal version, we’ll be
there. But, we have no guarantees that we’re going to get there.”
You see, as man moves from the sixth level, the level of being with
other men, the sociocentric level, to the seventh level, the level of
freedom to know and to do, the cognitive level of existence, a chasm of
unbelievable depth of meaning is being crossed. The bridge from the
sixth level, the FS level, to the seventh level, the A’N’ level, is the bridge
between getting and giving, taking and contributing, destroying and
constructing. It is the bridge between deficiency or deficit motivation
and growth or abundance motivation. It is the bridge between similarity
to animals and dissimilarity to animals.
By now he has felt many times that he has arrived, but arrived he
has not, nor will his arrival ever come to be. His forms for existence to
date have required of him less than he has to give, his cognitiveness. He
has not arrived because all previous forms of existence, all previous
value systems restricted his most typically human characteristic, his
cognition. But now with six basic existential problems solved, the
FS 363
cognitive realm opens wide and enables the leading edge of man to
capture a glimpse of the future modes of life and values for mankind.
Feeling an expansive sense of freedom, he emerges into the seventh
level or First Being Level.
364 A’N’
A’N’ 365
Chapter 13
Theme: Express self for what self desires, but never at the expense of others
and in a manner that all life, not just my life, will profit.
177 A’N’ was GT in earlier publications. With the conclusion that there are six basic
themes which repeat, a thesis of this book, Dr. Graves began using the primes rather
than the previous GT and HU for the last two systems appearing in his data. While
that was only a hypothesis, as indicated earlier, the editors have chosen to use the
primes since Dr. Graves used them in his later papers. The transition from the sixth
(FS) to the seventh level marked the transition from “subsistence” levels to “being”
levels, the second cycle through the basic themes.
366 A’N’
A’N’ is the first system in the second spiral of existence – the First
Being Level. The seventh state develops when man has resolved the
basic human fears, when man’s need for respect of self, as well as
others, reorganizes and revitalizes his capacities to do and to know. With
this, a marked change in his conception of existence arises. Man has
done previously and he has known previously, but now the purpose of
his doing and his knowing changes radically.
The A’N’ system is triggered by the second set of human survival
problems – the A’ problems of existence. These are the problems of the
threat to organismic life and rape of the world produced by the third,
fourth, fifth, and sixth existential ways. Thus, the A’ problems are
problems such as the need to substitute for depleting natural resources,
overpopulation, difficulties of too much individuality, and the like -
problems which require tremendous change in thinking of human kind
in order to solve them. The A’N’ state develops when man has resolved
the basic human fears, when man’s need for respect of self, as well as
others, reorganizes and revitalizes his capacities to do and to know. The
seventh level of human behavior is actually the beginning of human life
all over again on a new and different basis.
With this, a marked change in his conception of existence arises.
Earlier forms of existence constricted man’s cognition. This
characteristic is now sufficiently awakened to provide him insight into
his future. Now, with his energies free for cognitive activation, man
focuses upon his self and his world.
The picture revealed is not pleasant. Illuminated in devastating detail
is man’s failure to be what he might be and his misuse of his world, to
focus upon the truly salient aspects of life. Triggered by this revelation,
man leaps out in search of a way of life and a system of values which
will enable him to be more than a parasite leeching upon the world and
all its beings. He seeks a foundation for self respect which will have a
firm base in existential reality. He casts aside the need to depend and
seeks, instead, to be and let be - to be not dependent, not independent,
but to be interdependent. He can be, and others can be, too. This firm
basis he creates through his seventh-level value system, a value system
truly rooted in knowledge and reality, not in the delusions brought on by
animal-like needs.
The accumulation of unsolved problems is such that they will
produce the most dramatic change in human behavior that has yet
occurred in all of man’s history. He sees now that he has the problem of
life hereafter - not life now, not life after life, but the restoration of his
world so that life can continue to be. The most serious problem of
A’N’ 367
178 Graves, Clare W. (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Fall 1970, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 131-155.
368 A’N’
no longer just another of nature’s species. And we, in our times, in our
ethical and general behavior, are just approaching this threshold. Would
that we will not be so lacking in understanding, and would that we not
be so hasty in condemnation, that by such misunderstanding and that by
such condemnation we block man, forever, from crossing the line
between animalism and humanism.
Theoretically, he will move on to repeat his six stages to the benefit
of cognitive man (A’N’), and then again to the benefit of compassionate
man (B’O’), and so on. By then, man will, in all probability, have
changed himself and will move infinitely on. The cyclic aspect of human
behavior is not just in the systems cycling as you go from the sacrifice-self
to the express-self to the sacrifice-self, and so on; but there is cyclic aspect in
the overall system. It appears there are six basic systems of human
behavior. When they’re lived through, and if the human being is going
to continue to exist, the human has to begin to think all over again in
some new and different manner.
Despite this, when some people see sixth-level values changing into
the values of level seven, once again, they see decay. In a sense this is
true, because man transforming into seventh-level thinking values the
enjoyment of this life over and above obeisance to authority. He
strongly rejects non-dignified, non-human ways of living. It is seen as
decadent because it values new ways, new structurings for life, not just
the ways of one’s elders. Oddly enough, many see this value system as
decadent because it casts aside most absolutism; because it does not
value self above others, but others having ‘just as much as me;’ and
because it does not value others above self, it values all and self, not just
the selected few.
It is seen as decadent because it sees many means to the same end,
because it readily changes means, and because its ends are in conflict
with those of lower level systems. A’N’ thinking is in terms of the
systemic whole, and thought is about the different wholes in many
different ways. It strives to ascertain which way of thinking or which
combination of ways fits the extant set of conditions. It is seen as
decadent for it values new ways, new structures for life, not just the
ways of one’s elders, because it values others as well as self, because it
values the enjoyment of this life over and above obeisance to authority,
because it values others having just as much as me and because it values
all and self, not just the few selected others, and thinks in terms of
competence, not trappings. It thinks in terms of authority being
centered in the person in terms of his/her capacity to act in this or that
situation. It is not derived from age, status, blood, etc. It is situational. It
A’N’ 369
Overview of System
The cognitive realm opens wide with six basic existential problems
solved. This enables the leading edge of man to capture a glimpse of
future modes of life and values for humankind. Once we are able to
grasp the meaning of passing from the levels of subsistence to the levels
of being, we may be able to explain the difference between what man
has been and what he might come to be. Feeling an expansive sense of
freedom, this human emerges into the Seventh Level or First Being
Level unconcerned with social disapproval or any of the usual fears of
the other levels. The problems of man today may fade away as, from
this new perception, man searches for better, non-violent, and non-
submissive ways of being.
Values here, at the Cognitive Existential State, are very different
values. Seventh-level values come not from selfish interest but from the
recognition of the magnificence of existence and from the desire to see
that it shall continue to be. Because of its prime characteristic,
dissolution of fear and compulsiveness, with marked increases in
conceptual space, other people cannot readily empathize with seventh-
level thinking. To seventh-level man, the prime value is life; thus, he
focuses on the problems that its existence creates. This is why the prime
need is for existence - existence of life, not self. Here, for the first time,
man is able to face existence in all its dimensions, even to the point of
370 A’N’
them and watch how they behaved and how they operated as human
beings in the laboratory of life.
The laboratory in my department enabled me to put people, whom
we now refer to as CPs, DQs, ERs, FSs, and A’N’s into groups. I put
them in situations where they were required to solve problems with
multiple answers. I put a group of DQs in a room and they had an
opportunity to solve problems that had multiple answers. I put a group
of ERs in there, and they had the same opportunity. I put a group of
FSs in there, and they had the same opportunity. And I put a group of
A’N’s in there, and lo and behold, when the results started to come in I
found this most peculiar phenomenon: the A’N’s find unbelievably
more solutions than all the others put together. They found more
solutions than the third plus the fourth plus the fifth plus the sixth. I
found that the quality of their solutions to problems were amazingly
better. Now that’s a rather remarkable finding when you start to think
about it. I found that the average time it took the A’N’ group to arrive at
a solution was amazingly shorter than it took any of the other groups.
Lets go back and look at the data that I am trying to explain. I had
to explain why these people appear to be, in one sense of the word, so
much more intelligent than other human beings. This is an incredibly
different way of thinking. How can anyone be so apparently superior? I
ran into these data and I thought at that point, “The whole damned
study just blew up. All I’ve got here is just another measure of
intelligence.” I thought, “I’m just running into a point where these guys
are finding more answers because they’re simply brighter human
beings.”
So, I went back to test this. I used every known way of assessing the
intelligence of human beings: the judgment of people who are supposed
to know who is brighter or not; I used instruments; I used every
possible way. I found that on the average, people who thought in an A’-
N’ fashion were no brighter than people who thought in a CP fashion. I
found that the only thing that was different was a little bit of the range
of intelligence. The lower end was not present. That is, I didn’t have
mentally retarded A’N’s; but, I had people who operated and behaved in
an A’N’ fashion, if you want to use IQ reference, who had an IQ of less
then 90.
The studies show that correlation between the E-C levels and IQ is
about a .15 relationship. That .15 is accounted for by the fact that you at
least have to be more than mentally retarded to get to the CP level and
beyond. But at the CP and beyond, intelligence - IQ - just doesn’t play a
role in this at all. The question arises: So, what in heaven’s name does
372 A’N’
account for this? Why, if a person is not more intelligent, can he solve
problems better? What makes it possible for them to operate so much
more effectively?
I found that the A’N’s did not behave in a redundant fashion. They
would try a solution to a problem; the evidence would pile up that it
wouldn’t work; they would discard it and go off and try another one.
The people operating at any of the other systems would try a solution to
a problem and you’d come back a half an hour later and there they were
trying to use the same method that failed before. The A’N’ never did
that. When a method didn’t work, that was it. He knew it didn’t work
and he just discarded it as a possibility. He didn’t waste his time.
Why aren’t they redundant? Because they are not afraid that they
might have made a mistake in throwing out an attempted solution. They
don’t have these fears. They know full well that they did not make a
mistake, so they just throw it out. They are not afraid to try a solution
that other people would not try. They go ahead and attempt it.
We are trying to explain something remarkable here: A’N’ man can
solve problems better without being more intelligent. To explain this, I
propose that two things, which were present in the second, the third, the
fourth, the fifth and the sixth level have disappeared in human behavior
when the seventh level comes to be. One of them is compulsiveness -
the person is without compulsion. Ambition is shown, but there is not
ambitiousness. Anger, even hostility, is present, but it is intellectually
used rather than just emotionally displayed. One directs it, rather than
allowing it to direct or drive the A’N’ self. He does not feel that
something has to be done. Let me use one of my favorite terms and see
if you can get a feel for what I mean by it. The phrase that I use to
describe the person who thinks in the seventh level way is: “the person
is one who has ambition but is not ambitious.”
For example, I heard [TV talk show host] Merv Griffin quizzing
somebody about his goals:
What I find best explains the reason people in the A’N’ level behave
so much better, quantitatively and qualitatively, time-wise, etc., is this:
they simply are not afraid. So, I offer this hypothesis for your
consideration: this is the first human being that has lived since man
became aware of himself, as an individual at the CP level, who has no
fear. They are not afraid of not finding food and staying alive (AN).
They are not afraid that they’re not going to have shelter (BO). They are
not afraid of predatory man (CP). They are not afraid of God (DQ).
They are not afraid of not having status or not making it on their own in
this world (ER). They are not afraid of social disapproval or rejection
(FS). People who are not operating at the seventh level find this very
difficult to comprehend. Fear is gone. There is no fear. You ask the
person,
“But, aren’t you afraid that people won’t like you?”
“No,” comes the reply.
“Don’t you want to be liked by people?” you might ask.
“Yes.”
“But don’t you have to be liked by people?”
“No, I don’t give a damn whether they like me or whether
they don’t.”
The seventh level person would say: “If they like me, fine; but I am
not afraid of being not liked. It’s not going to make any difference
whether I’m liked by them or not liked by them.”
Apparently the A’N’ human being has gotten beyond having the
common basic fears of mankind. He doesn’t quake and shiver when the
boss comes in. If the boss comes in and if the boss is off base, then he
says to the boss: “There is the door. Go.” He is not scared of him. He
is not afraid to tell him to go. You’ve got a human being who isn’t
afraid.
Now, we wouldn’t deny, would we, that the fear element has a
chemical factor in it? As we know, the brain hasn’t changed structurally
over the long period of man’s history. But if you and I took all the fears
that we have out of ourselves, and had all of that energy freed to activate
our cognitive processes, look at what we might be able to do. So, if we
move the chemical out of the brain what do you have left? I had to
explain where that brain-power in the A’N’ system came from, and it
seemed to me that it came from this dissolution of fear. That would at
least account for the extreme energization of the A’N’ system and then,
provide one possible explanation why they are so much more competent
in solving problems.
374 A’N’
So, the A’N’ groups find more solutions because they aren’t afraid
to try more solutions. They scoff at standard operating procedure. They
value getting done what they want to do without harming or using
others in the process. In a sense, the individual is on a binge of personal
esteem. He may or may not value what other men do. He really doesn’t
care. Now, that doesn’t mean that they don’t behave with caution in a
dangerous situation, they do. But there is no fear. This type of thinking
still involves anxieties, worries, and concerns, even some fears, but not
in a manner bothersome to the person. No need is felt to overcome
them. They do not intrude. One lives comfortably with them, tries to
deal with them, but does not feel compelled to master them, though still
thinking it would be nice if they were gone. They weren’t stopped by:
‘Well, you shouldn’t,’ or ‘That’s not the right way to think,’ or ‘You’ll get
in trouble if you think that way.’ They found better solutions because,
apparently, there was more brain-power brought to bear upon their
thinking than you had in others.
I found that the solutions to problems that they came up with were
qualitatively of a much higher order. That is what is represented in
Exhibit XII. The space within the two lines illustrates that there are
more psychological degrees of freedom in the A’N’ system than there is
in the space of the others combined. The area is greater than the sum of
all these others, showing something very remarkable happens when the
A’N’ state of mind comes into existence in a human being.
In our problem-solving experiments, those centralized in the
cognitive existential state, those behaving in the A’N’ system, were
significantly different behaviorally from both the FS and ER systems.
This is why the A’N’ system is portrayed as larger than the FS - because
in my data these people were freer overall to behave in accordance with
their own desires than they were in other systems. The A’N’ system is
represented as much larger than any other system because the data
suggested that it be so conceptualized. So, the two prime characteristics
of this system: lack of compulsiveness and absence of fear.
My data say that the ones who think in this way have a remarkable
capacity for solving complex problems that other people can’t get within
a million miles of. This is just the kind of meat he is looking for, and
that’s what he wants to chew every day of his life. My evidence says this
guy thrives on that kind of problem.
A’N’ 375
Exhibit XII
more able to call upon the methods that are appropriate to anyone in
the group. This is what we are lacking in our educational and
organizational world today.
Exhibit VI (repeated)
A’N’ 377
accomplished, the A’N’ again just sits back and says: “All right, go
ahead. Go on, but I’ll pick up the pieces when you get done making a
mess out of it.” During this period of time the A’N’s are just sitting back
on their hind ends waiting for those people to make mistakes. They have
their plans to do something when the time comes. When A’N’
employees are autonomous and properly coupled with jobs that utilize
their competence, one can expect optimum productivity from them.
Man at the cognitive or systemic existential state is a man many of
you know very well but understand very little. He is anathema to most
businessmen. The A’N’ does well any job he takes on within his realm
of competence, but as an employee or fellow worker, he is a pain-in-the-
neck. He won’t live by the rules. He will work when he wants to work,
the way he wants to work, and where he wants to work; and if the boss
or fellow worker does not like it, he does not care. Motivation comes
from within as he seeks a sense of personal competence. They must do
their own managing of their own work and of their own affairs. Their
procedures must be their own, not those that tradition or group
decision-making have established. He rebels against the idea that it is
management’s prerogative to plan and organize work methods without
consulting him and without following his desires. As I said earlier, he
will have no part of standard operating procedure unless, and to the
extent, that it is valid.
Since the Cognitive believes that those with the knowledge should
lead, who is more knowledgeable than the doer? He does not see
himself bound by social convention. He is generally an excellent
producer, both quantitatively and qualitatively, albeit a thorn in the side
of the man who believes in organization and control. When the manager
and managed are both cognitive it spawns a variable management form
wherein managed and managing change according to the fit between
problem and competencies needed to deal with problems. The
appropriate managerial style is clearly facilitative, role reversal, and
acceptance of the competent leadership of the doer. Facilitative
management requires an open relationship between manager and
subordinate. All the information, goals, resources, constraints, etc., are
discussed.
My experience is that fourth- and fifth-level organizations,
particularly, think that seventh-level people are unemployable. For
example, in a fourth-level organization, the boss noted that there was a
problem of morale. He asked his employees what the problem was.
When they failed to reply, he said, “All right. I’m now instructing my
personnel man to take 15 minutes with each of you to find out what this
A’N’ 385
problem is. Line up for appointments.” When he called one of the men
over to make his appointment, a seventh-level person just got up and
left! This man is quietly confident of his capacity to survive, come what
may.
“What happens when [seventh]-level employees are supervised by
managers who do not understand them – fourth-level authoritarian
types, say, or fifth-level social leaders? The fact that the [seventh]-level
employee is demonstrably tops as a producer does not save the day. He
ultimately gets himself fired, squeezed out, or buried where his talent is
lost. Intransigent management insists that he conform to the mold. He
refuses, and, as a result, management loses creative excellence. The
employees who stay are the mediocre ones who are willing to conform.
This can be a particularly serious loss in advanced technology industries,
professional service industries, and others where creative talent plays a
major role (and where, of course, [seventh]-level employees are likely to
be found).”179
One of the problems you have here is that the evidence seems to
indicate that people who operate at lower levels see the values and
beliefs of people at levels higher than theirs as immoral. (When I say
higher I am referring to two systems above and beyond.) Generally, if a
person is operating at a DQ or an ER level and runs into someone who
thinks in an A’N’ fashion, they’ll end up calling him a CP - take him
right down. They have that kind of difficulty. You simply cannot get
away from it.
Cognitive level behavior is threatening to many who manage. The
very thought that the manager is a facilitator or “that work can best be
accomplished by the manager working for the managed, rather than by
the supervised working for the supervisor, is far too “unconventional”
for most bosses to ever accept.”180 Occasionally one of my students will,
at the beginning of the year, come and tell me that he isn’t particularly
interested in Industrial Psychology, and will ask if I will help him to
learn what he does want to learn. If I say no, he’ll sign up for some
other course and study what he wants to know on his own. Then when
he needs my help he will, for instance, ask me to get some information
from the library for him. People look at this a bit askance, but this man,
in effect, is saying, “You’ve had a lot of experience with psychological
literature - I haven’t. It is much more efficient for you to find this
information for me, rather than for me to waste my time going through
ten journals, when you could find the same information in ten minutes.”
The boss, too, must learn that he has to do what the seventh-level
person wants him to do in order to get the job done. He must discard
the idea that the prerogative of the boss is to organize the work and tell
the person how to do it. This is going to be difficult for a lot of people
and organizations to learn and to apply.
Possessing esteem of self, he is not concerned as to the opinion
others have of him. He insists on an atmosphere of trust and respect.
He expects to be truly integrated into the organization just as he is and
resists coercion and restrictions. It is not what others think of him
which counts, it is what he sees himself to be. The way to mismanage at
this level is simply to fail to facilitate. So, to summarize, the Cognitive
subordinate responds to mismanagement in three ways:
1. Stays: working within the organization to change the situation –
the information of the situation indicates change is possible and
probable.
2. Submits: remains in the organization (usually for personal
economic reasons) by doing what is required in the manner
required – the information says the situation must be tolerated.
Change is not likely.
3. Departs: the information indicates that a better situation exists
elsewhere.
For example, when I go to a corporation with plants all over the
country and they say, “Well, if you are going to get anywhere with this
idea you’ve got to demonstrate it somewhere in the company” I find out
where their headquarters is. I say, “Get your map out. Where is the plant
that is the furthest away from every other part of damned organization,
particularly the corporate headquarters?” I’ll find all the A’N’s have gone
out there.
So, if I am asked where to go to look for and to try to find A’N’
people in any broad organizational set up, I would look at one of two
places: a) the place which is psychologically most remote from the
authority of the establishment, meaning that one place the
‘establishment’ cares least about; or b) one that is geographically most
remote. The A’N’s recognize the impossibility of trying to change closed
minds, so they say, “Get away from ‘em!”
Long ‘sacred’ channels of communication seriously hamper the
productivity of A’N’ people who want to be able to decide when they
know; and when they do not know, they are motivated to seek out those
who do. But their motivation becomes negative when they must waste
time going through channels which require them to explain what does
A’N’ 387
When man finally is able to see himself and the world about him
with clear cognition, he finds a picture that is far from pleasant. Visible
in unmistakable clarity and devastating detail is man’s failure to be what
he might and his misuse of his world. This revelation causes him to leap
out in search of a way of life and system of values which will enable him
to be more than a parasite leeching on the world, all its being, other lives
and the future. He seeks self-respect with a firm base in existential
reality.
A’N’ man is developing the future modes of life and values for
mankind. For A’N’ man, the ethic is: “Recognize - truly notice - what
life is and you shall know how to behave.” The proper way to behave is
the way that comes from working within existential reality. His values
now are of a different order from those at previous levels: they arise not
from selfish interest but from the recognition of the magnificence of
existence and a desire to see that it shall continue to be.
A colleague of mine, John Calhoun of the National Institutes of
Mental Health, has studied along this line, though he has studied
population growth and decline rather than the way I’ve studied. Calhoun
says his evidence indicates that for the movement from the seventh level
to the eighth level to fully take place and to have an eighth-level form of
human existence, the seventh-level actions must reduce the population
of mankind as on the Earth at 2020 A.D. by one half.184
That’s an enormous problem. It says that there’s going to have to be
some kind of, to play with words a little bit here, ‘gentle ruthlessness’
come into human governing to see to it that people with a strong
internal desire to reproduce are simply prevented from reproducing, in
order to get us out of this bind that we are in. The Chinese have more
then halved their birth rate in the last generation. Though Mao was
beyond fourth level, the Maoistic thinking185 is trying to deal with
seriousness of the problems of the second, third and fourth level living.
Well, as I say, this is Calhoun’s work and Calhoun speaks of it in a
very simple fashion. Just suppose you could reduce the population by
half, how much of the energy problem would be solved? You’d have
solved quite a bit, at least temporarily. How much of the food problem
would be solved? You’d have solved quite a bit, at least temporarily.
That’s the way Calhoun speaks of it. His emphasis is neither to the
environmental impact nor the psychological. To my way of thinking, he
is simply saying that the environmental and the neurological go hand in
hand, and if you don’t do something about the environmental, if you
don’t do something about the source of the problems, what good does it
do to have the neurological potential to solve problems?
I’m not saying there is sense of doom. I am just saying that there
has to be an unbelievably radical change in our way of thinking for us to
avoid a sense of doom. It is entirely possible within the structuring of
the human brain that the radical way of thinking can take place. And
history says to us that no matter how bad the problems have been, when
the radical change in thinking was needed, it has always taken place. So,
by extrapolation, it’s not pessimistic; it’s optimistic. We are coming to
the point of the greatest psychological revolution we’ve ever known it.
Let us not be misled at this point. This theory says the future can
never be completely predicted because it allows only for the prediction
of the general and not the particular. According to my studies, it would
be exceedingly presumptuous of the human race at this primitive state
of its development, approaching only the first step of the second ladder
of existence, to imagine that the future could be predicted in precise
detail. I say this because my studies indicate that something unique and
unpredictable, something beyond the general form of the next system,
has always emerged to characterize each new level.
The present moment finds our society attempting to negotiate the
most difficult, but at the same time the most exciting, transition the
human race has faced to date. It is not merely a transition to a new level
of existence but the start of a new “movement” in the symphony of
human history. The future offers us, basically, three possibilities:
185 Reference to the interval of Chinese policy guided by Chairman Mao Tse Tung and
his followers prior to 1976.
390 A’N’
would have guessed that what the DQ would have created was the
concept of a monotheistic God. No one would ever have guessed that.
The psychological keynote of a society organized according to A’N’
thinking will be freedom from inner compulsiveness and rigidifying
anxiety. A’N’ man who exists today in ever increasing numbers does not
fear death, nor God, nor his fellow man. Magic and superstition hold no
sway over him. He is not mystically minded, though he lives in the most
mysterious of “mystic” universes.
There is a general aspect and a specific aspect of each system, and
how magnificent. How magnificent it is that we can get a general view
of the future, but we’ll be always be caught in the same problem that
they were caught in with the atomic table of elements in chemistry. They
knew radium would be found. But there was nothing in the knowledge
of chemistry that said when this element of this particular atomic weight
is found that it would be ‘radioactive.’ So, we know that A’N’ man will
create new systems of governmental control. I can’t tell you what the
specifics are. That’s why we are in so much trouble; we are trying to
find the genius somewhere that can come up with the ideas to procreate
these new forms of government needed at the present time. All of us
know the forms we’ve got are not doing the job. We know we need new
and different control systems, and we will create something along that
line.
Because of this different way of thinking, human institutions at the
A’N’ level will become very different from what we have today. For
instance, those processes and institutions which today are centralized
would likely become decentralized, while those which are decentralized
might become centralized. Since A’N’ man performs only necessary
work and then only in the way in which he sees fit, there is bound to be
drastic change not only in the structure of work but also in the amount
of work done, the location in time and space of the work, and the
reasons for which it is carried out. As an industrial psychologist, I have
already noted a dramatic rise in the number of A’N’ individuals
occupying positions which will make them heirs to corporate power.
When their time comes, business will shift toward an A’N’ outlook.
Our institutions of learning will undergo a similar transformation
when the Systemic Existential State becomes prevalent. Today we
endeavor to teach children to be what they are not. That is, we prevent
them from reaching higher into the existential hierarchy by preventing
them from acting out the levels of existence on which they are actually
living. Education in an A’N’ society would encourage all individuals to
A’N’ 393
express their values as fully as possible, thus freeing the natural growth
process from artificial constraints.
There would be no poverty and wealth in such a society, but this
circumstance would not result from altruism or political conviction, but
rather from A’N’ man’s conviction that equal access to a high-quality life
is essential for everyone. Though he recognizes that all men are not
equal, inequality in the necessities of life is to him an unnatural travesty
on all life. The A’N’ individual who had more than enough would not
take pity on the poor nor would he envy a person who had more, but he
would simply be very uncomfortable until both had a necessary amount.
Although there seems to be a lot of seventh-level thinking around
today, I don’t know of any society that is ordered in accordance with
seventh-level thinking. It hasn’t gotten that far. So, we really don’t know
whether or not we are going to get beyond the problems that have been
created by the first six levels of thinking into the being levels of
thinking. That is the second set of six ways of behaving that can develop
over time - if man continues to exist on this earth.
If this thinking seems strange, we must remember that a description
of today’s FS humanity, typified by the Esalen Institute, would have
seemed equally perverse and bizarre to those who were ER men twenty
years ago. Those of us who survive long enough to live in a society
ordered by the A’N’ way of thinking - if such comes about - will find it
perfectly natural.
But as magnificent as this value system may seem to those who can
feel it, it is not, as so many have thought, the ultimate for man. As he
bases his values on what information does for him, he finds in time that
this, too, is a narrowly based system. There is much he can never know
and much no man will ever know. Beyond it lies another value world
that few men have yet to know.
Once man comes to the seventh level of existential emergence he
will be driven by the winds of knowledge and human, not Godly, faith
and the surging waves of confidence on to the B’O’ and still higher
levels of existence. The knowledge and competence acquired at the A’N’
level will bring him to the next level of understanding, the B’O’ level,
from whence he will move, though today we cannot see how. But it will
be on to the delight of tasting more of his emergent self. On this other
side of his self he may become the doer of greater things or lesser
things, but he will be doing human things.
If ever man leaps to this great beyond, there will be no bowing to
suffering, no vassalage, no peonage. There will be no shame in behavior,
for man will know it is human to behave. There will be no pointing of
394 A’N’
Chapter 14
186 Dr. Graves did not attempt to summarize this state as his data was so sparse. The
comments which follow are extremely tentative and represent only a superficial
understanding of the eighth level, one which is still emerging.
187 Fromm (1947).
396 B’O’
then took on yet a new form of thinking.) I saw a lot of evidence of that
in these six people, but I’ve never had enough people to do any
systematic studies of them.
From this I hypothesized that the eighth level existed, and I had to
begin to try to describe it a little bit by the evidence I had for it. What I
found in the eighth level was that one thing above all else stood out, that
these people thought the most stupid question you could possibly ask
yourself was: “Do you know yourself?” These people said: “No one is
ever going to know himself. ‘Know thyself’ is ridiculous. There is no
way that one can ever know the permutations and combination of
eleven billion cells with over ten thousand interconnections. It can’t
possibly be known.”
So this eighth-level thinking appeared, and I simply tried to get an
overall system that would rationalize all of my data. I had to try to
conceive of man’s brain structured so as to support the basis for my
theorization. I had to build the six, upon six, upon six idea: that there
are six basic coping systems we have just about used up; that the first
new set of coping systems is about to take over; that it is made up of the
basic neurological systems of the first level of human existence plus a
mass of previously unused cells in the brain; and that the eighth system
is made up of more unused cells in the brain, plus X and Y, just gives
logical closure to what I am dealing with.
Emergence of B’O’
For those men who have come relatively to satisfy their need to
esteem life, a new existential state, the B’O’ state is just beginning to be.
It emerges when problematic man truly realizes that there is much he will
never know about existence. This insight brings man to the end of his
first ladder value trek because now man learns he must return to his
beginning and travel again, in a higher order form, the road by whence
he has come. A problem-solving existence is not enough. It must
become subordinated within a new form of autistic existence. This I call
the intuitive existence after the eighth-level thema of existence, ‘adjust to
the reality of existence which is that you can only be, you can never really know.’
These eighth-level experientialistic values are only beginning to
emerge in the lives of some men. Two young people living together
without the concern for all our technological trappings and all our
prescriptions for dress and demeanor are not necessarily the rebellious,
slovenly, dogmatic beatniks whose values are basically fifth level. That is
a serious misinterpretation of the behavior at the eighth level. The fact
398 B’O’
that he is not concerned with proper behavior, the fact that he seems
not to live by “the rules” is not angry non-conformity. It is that he
values deeper human things more. It is that he follows his impressions,
not an established order.
The eighth-level values we also call impressionistic. It is at B’O’
where man must learn to fashion a life that honors and respects all the
different levels of human being. Here again he adjusts to the world, to a
world he will never really come to know. He values what he feels he
should, not just what his knowledge tells him he should. Here man
values those “vast realms of consciousness still undreamed of, vast
ranges of experience like the humming of unseen harps we know
nothing of within us.”189 He values wonder, awe, reverence, humility,
fusion, integration, unity, simplicity, the poetic perception of reality -
non-interfering perception versus active controlling perception,
enlarging consciousness, and the ineffable experience.190
Since eighth-level man need not attend so much to the problems of
his existence (for him they have been solved), he values those newer,
deeper things in life which are there to be experienced. He values
escaping “…from the barbed wire entanglement of his own ideas and
his own mechanical devices...”191 He values the “marvellous rich world
of context and sheer fluid beauty and [fearless] face-to-face awareness of
now-naked-life…”192 Perceiving the world as somewhat beyond his ken,
there is a serious, stable cast to the values of eighth-level man.
Cooperation and trust are most seriously valued to the extent that he
will withdraw from relationships that cannot be based on such.
Play, exhibitionism, receiving the plaudits of others, mean little if
anything to man at this level. It is not that he cannot play, nor is it that
he cannot or won’t dominate. It is that he prefers serious endeavor and
cares not to dominate. He does not value adjusting to the world as
authority says it is; nor does he value the imposition of his self upon the
world. What he values is adjusting to the world as he senses it to be.
At the second being level, B’O’, man will be driven by knowledge
and human faith. The knowledge and competence acquired at the A’N’
189 De Sola Pinto, Vivian and Roberts, Warren (Eds). (1920). “Terra Incognita.” The
Complete Poems of D. H. Lawrence (Vols. I and II). New York, New York: The Viking
Press.
190 The reader will note the similarity of the seventh level values to some of the thoughts
of Abraham Maslow. And he will note that this work is a revision and extension of
many of Maslow’s writings.
191 Ibid (De Sola Pinto, Vivian and Roberts, Warren, 1920).
192 Ibid (De Sola Pinto, Vivian and Roberts, Warren, 1920). see D. H. Lawrence
B’O’ 399
level will bring him to the level of understanding, the B’O’ level. His
problems, now that he has put the world back together, will be those of
bringing stabilization to life once again. He will need to learn how to live
so that the balance of nature is not again upset, so that individual man
will not again set off on another self-aggrandizing binge. His values will
be set not by the accumulated wisdom of the elders, as in the BO
system, but by the accumulated knowledge of the knowers. But here
again, as always, this accumulating knowledge will create new problems
and precipitate man to continue up just another step in his existential
staircase.
Personal experience has shown this person that no matter how
much information is available, one can never know or understand all
things. Reality can be experienced, but never known. The B’O’ insists on
an atmosphere of trust and respect to be integrated into the
organization. He resists coercion and restrictions in a quiet, personal
way - never in an exhibitionistic manner. They avoid relations in which
others try to dominate and seek not to dominate others, but can provide
firm direction as required.
means that when Harvey, Hunt and Schroder see the abstract man as
mature, Maslow sees the self-actualized man as mature, Fromm sees the
productive orientation character as mature, Freud sees the genital
character as mature, that they are subject - all of them - to man’s greatest
illusion: the illusion of psychological maturity.
According to my data, as I have said, maturity just cannot be
considered an achievable state, even in theory. Maturity, instead, must
be conceived as a possibly never-ending process, as a continuous
emergence of newer and newer concepts of maturity, rather than as the
theoretically achievable, most perfect state for human existence. The
B’O’ system of personality - the intuitionistic style of living - presents an
amazing challenge to consider when it is studied. The central core of this
style of living is that one shall adjust to the realities of one’s existence
and shall automatically accept the existential realities, called by Fromm
existential dichotomies as they are: ‘Thou shall passively adjust to these and
go on living.’
This central core is amazingly like the central core of system two
(BO) the first psychological system in the sense of man’s adjusting to his
world. It is more like system two than any other system. Yet at the same
time, it is more unlike system two (BO) than any other system. At level
two the organism has to passively adjust. The only way he survives is
through the magnificent adaptability of his Pavlovian type conditioning
reflexes. But at level eight (B’O’) this passive adjustment seems to be
chosen rather than determined. Men operating at this eighth level seem
more able to chose - far less determined - than at lower levels of human
existence.
Thus, if this observation - that level eight psychology is like and
unlike the level two psychology at one and the same time - holds with
further study, if level eight is but a much more complex form of level
two, then a tantalizing question must be asked: Is nine a higher order
three, and is ten a higher order four? Is this which we now think is
man’s nature, the character of his being, but the first ladder? If so, one
can extrapolate that the ninth-level way of thinking will be a higher
order of the egocentric, exploitative form of human behavior. Such
speculation is not only possible but required in the meaning of my data.
B’O’ 401
Conclusion
193 The reader will notice that these management descriptions are similar to those of the
A’N’ and FS systems. We have included as much of Graves’s writing as possible on
this subject since it has been of some debate and focus recently in new age,
transpersonal psychology, and consciousness circles. It is included so that the reader
may come to his/her own conclusions on the basis of the existing (or lack of
existing) evidence, contradictions and emerging patterns of human behavior.
402 B’O’
Section III
CHAPTER 15
Verification
194 Hall, Calvin S. and Gardner, Lindzey (1957). Theories of Personality. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, p. 13-15.
Verification 407
The first thing to test is the very heart of emergent cyclical theory.
As I see it, the heart is the organismic side of the double-helix. If general
and specific support cannot be found for my conception of the
organismic side of the helix, then the whole structure tumbles. This is
because the organismic, not the environmentosocial side, is the
delimiting side of psychosocial development.
The environments of humans, the other side of the helix, vary
enormously. But our best knowledge is that today only one species of
humanity exists, sapiens. We do have in existence many other species of
animals. We have dogs, cats, chickens, chimpanzees, and gorillas. But we
have only one species structured, generally, as is Homo sapiens. Dogs live
in as many environments as do humans, but the neuropsychological
equipment of dogs is basic to dog behavior, it not basic to the behavior
of Homo sapiens. So a crucial test of emergent cyclical theory is: Does the
evidence from studies indicate that the organism Homo sapiens is
structured systemically in the manner conceived in emergent
cyclical-theory? More specifically: Is there substantive evidence to
support the contention that the neuropsychological equipment, the N,
O, P, Q, R, S, N’, O’ plus X, Y and Z is structurally and functionally as
emergent cyclical theory says?
My version of emergent cyclical theory (I say my version because
there may be other versions of which I am not aware) says that the brain
should be conceived as a series of hierarchically and prepotently
organized “dynamic neurological systems”195 or cell assemblies196 or the
like. How else can one account for data like mine which say that one
conceptual form of maturity and one form of existence follows another
in an ordered, hierarchical, prepotent way? I see no other way than to
suggest that the brain of Homo sapiens does in fact consist, in some
structural way, of a hierarchy of prepotently ordered series of
neuropsychological systems. These systems operate in a delimiting
fashion to order the observed conceptions of maturity and forms for
existence. But an assertion of conviction is not enough. One must get
beyond assertion to data. So the question is: Do such data exist?
195 Krech, David (1950). Dynamic Systems as Open Neurological Systems. Psychological
Review, Vol. 57, p. 345-361.
196 Hebb, D. O. (1955). Drives and the Conceptual Nervous System. Psychological Review,
Table IV
Psychological
rd Maintenance Instrumental,
3 Anger and
(Locomotion, Operant, Egocentric
Subsistence Shame
Exploration, Intentional
Investigation)
Aperiodic
physiological
2nd (Safety, pain Classical or
Fear Animistic
Subsistence avoidance, Respondent
stimulation,
activity)
Imperative,
periodic
1st physiological Distress
Habituation Autistic
Subsistence (Hunger, thirst, and delight
sex,
sleep)
the work of Solomon and Brush,197 Olds and Olds, and the Skinnerians
seems definitive.
A fourth system, the avoidant system in learning theory, the system
which responds dominantly to negative reinforcement, is suggested by
the work of Horney, Hernandez-Peon, and particularly by Schacter and
Latane.198 One places it fourth in the hierarchy because of the elegant
work of Schacter and Latane which demonstrates that learning by
negative reinforcement is activated to the dominant position in the
human learning hierarchy only after learning by reward.
Later systems are not as clear, but the fifth could well be the
expectancy system of Rotter and the sixth, the observational system.
Thus there is certainly strong evidence that psychosocial theory should
be erected on a conceptual base built upon hierarchical structures in the
brain.
There is also evidence to suggest that the neuropsychological system
I have designated as Z, the hypothesized elaborating system in the brain,
does exist. It is well documented that after birth countless numbers of
cells in the brain are uncommitted. They are not tied in with any
established functional system. Thus if the N, O, P etc.
neuropsychological systems are basic coping systems, and if data for N’
behavior exists, then N, O, P, connecting with some cells in the
elaborating system, is a good explanation for the tremendous increase in
conceptual space of the A’N’ system over the sum of all previous
systems. But there is more to the nature of dynamic neurological
systems than each having its own core, its own anatomical structures
sensitive to a particular type of stimulation and not sensitive to other
stimulation, and its own learning system.
In keeping with Krech’s (1950) original meaning of dynamic
neurological system, each system gives rise to dominant needs and
emotions. Each has its own unique biochemistry, its own values, its own
way of thinking, but space does not permit full development of these
aspects of emergent cyclical theory. So I shall but briefly touch upon
what research seems to have shown.
Many investigators whose work I shall cite later have produced
results supporting the systemic organization of motives, emotions, and
ways of thinking. There is good evidence that the needs or motives are
ordered per system somewhat as follows:
Associated with the first, the N system, are the needs for
satisfaction of the imperative periodic physiological needs.
These are followed by the O needs, the aperiodic, not
necessarily imperative, physiological needs. These are the needs
for temperature control, pain avoidance, safety, sensory
stimulation, general activity and the like. Next are the P needs,
the needs for locomotion, exploration and investigation. These
needs seem to assume dominance when the third system is
activated and they operate in consort with the intentional,
operant, instrumental or positive reinforcement learning
systems. The fourth level needs, the Q needs, are for order and
meaning. They are followed at the fifth level by the R needs,
the needs for adequacy and competency. Then at the sixth level
the S neurological system, the needs for love, affiliation,
belonging and approval are shown by research to assume the
dominant position.
Research on emotion indicates that only distress and
delight accompany the N system. In the second, the O system,
fear seems to dominate. It is followed in the P system by the
emergence of shame and anger as the dominant emotions.
Guilt becomes dominant at the fourth level, in the Q system.
But data is unclear as to the dominant emotion of the fifth and
sixth levels. Yet there are some limited suggestions that manic
excitement is associated with the fifth, the R system and a
depressive tone with the sixth, the S system. Suicide increases
markedly in the sixth system.
Research on thinking indicates that at the N level, thinking
is autistic in character. At the second level, the O system,
thinking is predominantly animistic. Highly egocentric thinking
is dominant in the P system, which is the third dynamic
neurological system. Associated with the Q system of the
fourth level is absolutistic thinking. Multiplistic thinking, à la
the conception of Perry,199 appears to be dominant in the R,
the fifth level neurological system. The concept of relativism
dominates the thinking of the sixth, the S system. And when
the N’ system is activated in the brain, its way of thinking is
199 Perry, William G. Jr. (1970). Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College
Years: A Scheme. New York; Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
412 Verification
1. Potential.
Emergent-cyclical theory proposes that the first condition necessary
for change from one existential state to another is potential. The next
higher-level neuropsychological system must be present in the brain.
There are many embryological studies which show that arrest of
embryological development does occur. When autopsies are done,
comparison histological studies show that when arrest occurs, systems
which oft times develop later are absent. And the studies previously
cited in this chapter lend credence to the hypothesis of a structural and
functional hierarchy of potential systems in the brain.
3. Feeling of Dissonance
According to my studies, and those of Festinger and his devotees;
Kohlberg, Scharf and Hickey;205 Blasi; Blatt (1969); and others, and as
yet unpublished work of investigators like Fenton,206 Mosher,207
Lasher,208 and Pindeo,209 the evidence indicates that dilemmas or
thought problems, or what Festinger and I call dissonance, is a third
necessary change factor but not a sufficient condition for change.
Dissonance precipitates a crisis but it does not trigger the attempt to
move to the next system. In fact, what it triggers is a regressive search
through past ways of behaving for some old way or ways that can
re-establish the previous steady state wherein existential problems were
solved. This regressive search will end in arrest, regression or develop-
ment for a definite reason. If the old existential problems are X, then no
person in crisis can ever re-establish X. The person cannot do so
because life is now being lived in the conditions X + 1 where 1 is the
new problems of existence created by having lived in the X way.
204 Turnbull, Colin (1972). The Mountain People. Simon and Schuster.
205 Kohlberg, L., Hickey, J. & Scharf, P. (1972). The justice structure of the prison: A
theory and intervention. Prison Journal, 51, p. 3-14. Kohlberg, L. Kauffman, K.,
Scharpf, P. and Hickey, J. (1974) The Just Community Appraoch to Corrections: A Manual.
Cambridge, MA: Moral Education Research Foundation.
206 Fenton, Edwin, Colby, Ann, and Speicher-Dubin, Betsy (1974). “Developing Moral
4. Gaining of Insights
That which stops this regressive search and puts the human in
position to experience the emergence of the next set of
neuropsychological coping equipment is the gradual production, toward
a critical amount, of the chemical constituents which activate the next
set of coping equipment. This activation of previously latent equipment
provides for the development of insight, the fourth factor in the change
process. Data in support of this lies, among others, in the work of
Rensch, Funkenstein, Hess,210 Wolfe,211 Selye, Hokfelt,212 Krech, and
West.213
Of particular significance, herein, is the evidence, which ties into
what I have said about:
1. The existence of hierarchically ordered structural systems.
2. The shift of dominance of the center of brain activation.
3. The appearance of a different biochemical complex.
4. Change of emotional tone concomitant with the shift.
5. The emergence to dominance or the subordination of
previously dominant learning systems when the chemical
complex changes.
When these changes are seen to occur concomitantly with changes
in ways of thinking, judging, valuing and the like, then it does seem that
there is support for the concept of “dynamic neurological systems.”
In the totality of what I have said, this chemical side of the brain
seems to operate somewhat as follows: When dissonance enters the
psychological field of one who seems previously to have the problem of
existence solved, the organism begins slowly to produce the new
chemical complex. This starts the attempt to move to a new level of
existence which can cope with the new existential problems X + 1. If
conditions are right, this process proceeds slowly until it reaches a
critical point. Upon reaching this critical point the jump to a new level
Varying Levels of Age and Intelligence. Journal of Personality. Vol. 31 (1), p. 108-122.
212 Ibid (Hokfelt, 1985).
213 West, G.B.
416 Verification
5. Barriers Overcome
‘The Establishment’ and its way of thinking must be overcome or
move aside if insight is to begin to propel the quantum-like psychosocial
jump. Tomes of support for this lie in essays on the atmosphere needed
for psychotherapeutic change.
If this fifth factor in the change process is provided for, then and
only then does the sixth factor, consolidation, come into action. It is the
last factor in the change process.
216 Hunt, David E. (1966). A Conceptual Systems Change Model and its Application to
Education. In O.J. Harvey (Ed.), Experience, Structure and Adaptability. NY: Springer
Publishing, Inc..
420 Verification
217 Harvey, O.J., Hunt, David E. and Schroder, Arold M. (1961). Conceptual Systems and
Personality Organization. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 27-28.
Verification 421
substantial differences except one between my total data and the data
of the Harvey, Hunt and Schroder group. It is the conceptualization
that differs. The one difference is that my data required breaking the
Harvey, Hunt and Schroder System II into two systems. One is
system ER in my conceptualization. The other is CP which is the
system Sub I that David E. Hunt also said should be in the
hierarchy.
Table V
Harvey, Hunt, and Schroder Characteristics of Systems Listing
of Dimensions Studied Random Data Arranged by Rank Order
Systems
DIMENSION H, H, & S I II III IV
MEASURED Graves DQ ER FS A’N’
Cognitive Complexity 1 2 3 4
Intelligence 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.7
*ii-iii-iv *i-iii *i *iv
Religiousness 4 1 3 2
Authoritarianism 4 3 2 1
Dogmatism 4 3 2 1
*ii *i
Left Opinionation 1 1.5 2 1.5
*ii-iv *i *i
Right Opinionation 4 1 3 1
*iii-iii-iv *i-iv *i-iv *i-ii-iii
Rigidity 4 3 2 1
*ii-iv *i *i
Deference 4 1.5 3 1.5
*ii-iv *i *i
Autonomy 1 3.5 2 3.5
*ii *i-iii-iv *ii *ii
Aggressiveness 2 4 2 2
*ii-iv *i-iii-iv *ii *i-ii
Self-Causality 2 1 3 4
*ii-iii-iv *i-iii-iv *i-ii *i-ii
“Nettler” Anomie 3 1 3 2
*iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Self Concept 2 1 3 4
Verification 425
Table V (cont’d)
*ii-iii-iv *i *i *i
Self Control 4 1.8 2.1 2.1
*ii-iii *i-iii *i-ii
Honesty 4 1 3 2
Creativity – *ii *i-iii *ii
(Desire to be Different) 1 4 2 3
*ii *i-iii *ii
Kindness 3.5 1 3.5 2
*ii-iii-iv *i-iii-iv *i-ii *i-ii
Loyalty 4 1 3 2
*ii *i-iii *ii
Independence 1.5 4 1.5 2
*ii *i-iii-iv *ii *ii
Machiavellianism 2 4 2 2
*iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Cue Utilization 1.7 1.9 2.4 4
Influence on belief of Input- *iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Deviant 3 1.9 4 1
*ii-iv *i *i
Redundancy 4 1.5 3 1.5
*iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Change of Set 2 2 2 4
*iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Relevancy of Questions 1 3 2 4
*iv *iv *iv *iv
Integrating Contradiction 1.7 1.9 2.4 2.4
Attaining New Concept *ii-iv *i *i
Speed 1 3 3 3
*ii-iv *i-iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Denny Doodle- Bug Time 4 2 3 1
*iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
D. Doodlebug Help Sought 4 2 3 1
Arguing Against Belief in *iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Public and Private 1 2 3 4
Arguing Against Belief in *iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Private 1 2 3 4
Arguing Against Belief ‘in
Public 2 1 3 4
Creating Novelty *iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
Appropriateness 1 2 3 4
Maintenance of Belief - Input *iv *iv *iv *i-ii-iii
- Deviant 3 2 1 4
426 Verification
Table VI
Harvey, Hunt, Schroder Data Rearranged
According to Graves’s Conception
Dimension
System
Masured
HH & S I II III IV Nature of
Graves DQ ER FS A’N’ Variation
1. Intelligence 2.3 2.6 2.4 2.7 None
2. Cognitive Quantitative
1 2 3 4
Complexity increasing
Quantitative
3. Dogmatism 4 3 2 1
increasing
*2-3-4 *1-4 *1-4 *1-2-3 Quantitative
4. Rigidity
4 3 2 1 increasing
5. Arguing Against
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Quantitative
Belief
1 2 3 4 increasing
Public/Private
6. Appropriateness
Quantitative
of Solutions 1 2 3 4
increasing
Created
7. Relevancy of *4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Quantitative
Questions 1 2 3 4 increasing
8. Integrating *4 *4 *4 *1-2-3
Contradiction 1.7 1.9 2.4 4 Trend
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Quant and
9. Change of Set System
2 2 2 4
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Specific
10. Cue Utilization
1.7 1.9 2.4 4
*2 *1-3-4 *2 *2 System
11. Aggressiveness
2 4 2 2 Specific
*2-4 *1-3-4 *2 *1-2 System
12. Self Causality
2 1 3 4 Specific
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 System
13. Self Concept
2 1 3 4 Specific
*2-3-4 *1 *1 *1 System
14. Self Control
4 1.8 2.1 2.1 Specific
*2-3-4 *1-3-4 *1-2 *1-2 System
15. “Nettler” Anomie
4 1 3 2 Specific
16. Desire to be *2 *1-3 *2 System
Different 1 4 2 3 Specific
*2 *1-3-4 *2 *2 System
17. Machiavellianism
2 4 2 2 Specific
18. Maintenance of
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 System
Belief Input-
3 2 1 4 Specific
Deviant
19. Attaining New *2-4 *1 *1 System
Concept Speed 1 3 3 3 Specific
20. Arguing Against System
2 1 3 4
Belief in Public Specific
Verification 427
Table VI (cont’d)
*2 *1-3 *2 System
21. Independence
1.5 4 1.5 2 Specific
22. Integrating *4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 System
Contradiction 1.7 1.9 2.4 4 Specific
23. Opinionation –
4 1 3 2 Cyclic
Right
*2-3-4 *1-3-4 *1 *1-2
24. Loyalty Cyclic
4 1 3 2
*2-3-4 *1-3 *1 *1-3
25. Religiousness Cyclic
4 1 3 2
*2-3 *1-3 *1-2
26. Honesty Cyclic
4 1 3 2
*2-4 *1 *1
27. Deference Cyclic
1 1.5 3 1.5
*2-4 *1 *1
28. Redundancy Cyclic
4 1.5 3 1.5
*2 *1-3 *2
29. Kindness Cyclic
3.5 1 3.5 2
*2-4 *1 *1
30. Autonomy Cyclic
1 3.5 2 3.5
*1-3-4 *1-2-4
31. Affiliation Cyclic
3 1 4 2
*2-4 *1-4 *4 *1-2-3
32. Doodlebug Time Cyclic
4 2 3 1
33. Influence on
*4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Probably
Belief Input -
3 2 4 1 Cyclic
Deviant
34. Relevancy of *4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Probably
Questions 1 3 2 4 Cyclic
35. Doodlebug Help *4 *4 *4 *1-2-3 Probably
Sought 4 2 3 1 Cyclic
36. Arguing Against Probably
2 2 4 1
Belief in Private Cyclic
Probably
37. Authoritarianism 4 2 3 1
Cyclic
*2 *1 Probably
38. Opinionation Left
1 1.5 2 1.5 Cyclic
Exhibit XII
This is what must be because the Harvey, Hunt and Schroder data
show the even-numbered systems to be constricting, consolidating
systems, not growth systems. Yet, FS is in position six and is
represented larger than ER because, when the Harvey, Hunt and
Schroder data are ordered as per Table VI, it falls unquestionably
between ER and A’N’ just as my data indicated was its nature and its
position in the hierarchy.
432 Verification
This is, of course, the open system/new process point of view that I
have expressed.
Another confirmation of the emergent cyclical conception has to do
with change factors. Schroder, Driver and Streufert state from the
studies of Brock (1962) and Suedfeld (1964) that:
interchangeably.
436 Verification
Characteristic
Entering/Nodal/ Level of Existential
Number Way of
Exiting Existence State
Thinking
1st
1 NODAL AN Autistic
Subsistence
1 Exiting AN/bo
2 Entering BO/an
2nd
2 NODAL BO Animistic
Subsistence
2 Exiting BO/cp
3 Entering CP/bo
3rd
3 NODAL CP Egocentric
Subsistence
3 Exiting CP/dq
4 Entering DQ/cp
4th
4 NODAL DQ Absolutistic
Subsistence
4 Exiting DQ/er
5 Entering ER/dq
5th
5 NODAL ER Multiplistic
Subsistence
5 Exiting ER/fs
6 Entering FS/er
6th
6 NODAL FS Relativistic
Subsistence
6 Exiting FS/a’n’
7 Entering A’N’/fs
7 Exiting A’N’/b’o’
8 Entering B’O’/a’n’
AN/bo
BO/an
BO
BO/cp
CP/bo
CP Type Sub-I
CP/dq
DQ/cp
Low
Tradition-
DQ Type I Type I integrative
directed
complexity
DQ/er
ER/dq
Moderate/low
ER Type II Type II integrative Inner-directed
complexity
ER/fs
FS/er
FS/a’n’
A’N’/fs
High abstract
A’N’ Type IV Type IV integrative Autonomous
complexity
A’N’/b’o’
B’O’/a’n’
B’O’
442 Verification
AN/bo
BO/an
Archaic Ego
BO Conscious
man omnipotence
BO/cp
CP/bo
Heroic self- Civilized Crisis of ego
CP
assertive man development
CP/dq
DQ/cp
Aesthetic
DQ Type D self- Axial man Satellization
accusing
DQ/er
ER/dq
Humanistic
New world Crisis of
ER Type C self-
man desatellization
sufficient
ER/fs
FS/er
Leptoid
World
FS Type B post- Desatellization
culture235
individual
FS/a’n’
A’N’/fs
A’N’ Type A
A’N’/b’o’
B’O’/a’n’
B’O’
235 Dr. Graves omits Mumford’s Post-historic Man. See Mumford (1956).
Verification 443
AN/bo
BO/an
BO Level 2
BO/cp
CP/bo
CP
1
CP/dq Punishment Level 3
& obedience
2 Naive
Level 3
DQ/cp instrumental
(conformist)
hedonism
3 Good boy
DQ Level 1
morality
4 Law and
DQ/er order 1 Duality
morality
2 Multiplistic
ER/dq Level 4
prelegitimate
5 Morality of
ER democratic 3 Multiplistic Level 2
contract
4 Multiplistic
ER/fs
relativism
5 Relativism
FS/er
competing
6 Morality of
FS individual Level 5 6 Relativistic Level 3
principles
7 Initial
FS/a’n’
commitment
8
Implications
A’N’/fs
of
commitment
9
A’N’ Level 6 Level 4
Commitment
A’N’/b’o’
B’O’/a’n’
B’O’
444 Verification
AN/bo
BO/an
1 Sapient
BO Level 1 Epsilon Symbiotic
Revolution
BO/cp
CP/bo
2 Living
CP Level 2 Delta Agricultural Impulsive
Revolution
Impulsive self-
CP/dq
protective
Conformist
DQ/cp malignant
fixated
3 Authoritarian
DQ Level 3 Gamma Religious Conformist
Revolution
4 Holistic
Conformist
DQ/er Artistic
conscientious
Revolution
ER/dq
5 Scientific
ER Level 4 Beta Exploitive
Revolution
ER/fs Individualistic
FS/er
6
Communication
FS Level 4.5
Electronic
Revolution
FS/a’n’
A’N’/fs
7
Compassionate
A’N’ Level 5 Alpha Autonomous
Systems
Revolution
A’N’/b’o’
B’O’/a’n’
B’O’
Verification 445
BO Symbiosis
BO/cp
CP/bo
< Autonomy vs.
CP Anomy Amoral
Shame & Doubt >
CP/dq Heteronomy
DQ/cp
DQ Conformity Socionomy
< Initiative vs.
DQ/er
Guilt >
Irrational
ER/dq
Conscientious
ER Autonomy
< Industry vs. Rational
ER/fs Autonomy
Inferiority > Altruistic
FS/er
< Identity vs.
FS
Role Difference >
FS/a’n’
A’N’/fs
< Intimacy vs.
A’N’
Isolation >
< Generality vs.
A’N’/b’o’
Self-absorption >
< Integrity vs.
B’O’/a’n’ despair >
[not included by
Graves]
B’O’
446 Verification
AN/bo
BO/an
BO
BO/cp
CP/bo
CP/dq 9-1
DQ/cp
Power
DQ Studious
dependent
DQ/er
ER/dq
Rational Equality
ER 5-5
Economic seeking
ER/fs
FS/er
Value
FS Social 1-9
oriented
FS/a’n’
A’N’/fs
Self-
A’N’ Theory Y 9-9
Actualizing
A’N/b’o’
B’O’/a’n’
B’O’
236 Stein, Morris. “C” system descriptive phrase - exact source not located.
448 Verification
These are the same key characteristics I found in the emergent cyclical
system CP.
Similarly, Stein’s type “D” has much in it that I call DQ thinking.
Type “C” is remarkably close to what I see as the ER orientation. Type
“B” is again quite similar to the emergent cyclical FS system. Type “A”
is close to what I have seen as the A’N’ system, and Type “E” is similar
to B’O’. Stein’s work is particularly supportive of the descriptive aspects
of the emergent cyclical systems CP, DQ, ER, FS and A’N’.
But there are other aspects of Stein’s work that are important. One
is that I never heard of Stein until after basic E-C theory was conceived.
Another is that he used subjects who were chemists. As third is that his
methodology was very different from mine. And fourth, his work
derived from H.A. Murray’s theory of personality, not from a stage
theoretical person. These facts are quite important so far as theory
validation is concerned. They are so important that I checked each of
the contributors 4 through 25. What I found was that:
• many in the list of Table VII who have spawned systems
conceptions of personality somewhat similar to E-C theory
had no knowledge of, or intercourse with, one another
before they spawned their conceptions;
• most of them spawned their conceptions from data
collected through widely varying methodologies;
• their sources were as disparate as: Heard (history); Calhoun
(rats and mice); Kohlberg (children from different cultures);
and Graves (adults 18-61); and
• the bases of their work ranged from well-developed
theories to no theory at all.
other than mine. Their data were historical and cultural changes that
have taken place over time.
Both profess that the data of history support the evolutionary
awakening of man’s behavioral and mental capacities. Each describes
five nodal systems. Heard’s are Co-conscious Man (BO), Heroic
Self-assertive man (CP), Aesthetic Self -accusing man (DQ), Humanic
Self-sufficient man (ER), and Leptoid Post-individual man (FS).
Mumford’s five are: Archaic (BO) man, Civilized (CP) man, Axial (DQ)
man, New World (ER) man and World Culture (FS) man.
Neither includes AN man but this is understandable since this kind
of human behavior (the behavior of the Tasaday) was not known to
exist at the time they wrote their conceptions. Both of them see
development as a phenomenon which will continue its systematic
growth in the future. But Mumford accepts that development is
open-ended while Heard takes the more traditional Utopian position.
Heard, along with Mumford, professes that the data of history
support the evolutionary awakening of mental and behavioral capacities.
He does so when he says:
“…growth is in the nature of the minds of man.
Consciousness evolves just as does the brain structure the
consciousness precipitates.”237
Or when he says:
“Man can hope to change himself constructively because there
is a power of unexpended growth in him. He does grow in
consciousness, learn from experience, and make sense of an
increasing area of consciousness.”238
The meaning in Mumford’s words is seen to be quite similar, for he says:
“In carrying man’s self-transformation to this further stage,
world culture may bring about a fresh release of spiritual
energy that will unveil new potentialities no more visible in the
human self today than radium was in the physical world a
century ago, though always present...”239
And then, as he continues, he supports the open-endedness of the E-C
conception. Mumford says:
237 Heard, Gerald (1963). The Five Ages of Man. New York; The Julian Press, p. 27.
238 Ibid (Heard, 12).
239 Mumford, Lewis (1956). The Transformations of Man. NY: Harper Torchbooks, Harper
“Even on its lowest terms, world culture will weld the nations
and the tribes together in a more meaningful network of
relations and purposes. But uniform man is himself no
terminal point. For who can set the bounds to man’s
emergence or to his power of surpassing his provisional
achievements? So far we have found no limits to the
imagination, nor yet to the sources on which it may draw.
Every goal man reaches provides a new starting point, and, the
sum of all man’s days is just a beginning.”240
On this point Heard does not agree with the E-C point of view or
that of Mumford. He says in his section On the Further Direction of
Psychophysical Evolution:
“in brief, the really possible Utopia would be this world
experienced by a psychophysique at full aperture.”241
But it is Heard who supports directly the wave-like spiral of systems, for
he says:
“... man’s history has followed an oscillatory spiral as he
alternates between the exploration of his environment (and the
expansion of his power in it) and investigation of his subjective
being (and attempt to achieve peace with it) but the spiral has
accelerated greatly in the speed of its ascent.”242
Then he says:
“Man’s story is specifically the winning of an increasing
awareness, purpose, intuition and objective. In short, man’s
history is the record of how he has gained in the intensification
of consciousness, of self-understanding. It is a psychological
story. For the spiral evolution of the psyche is the theme of the
human venture. It is the clue to man’s varied and successive
behaviors, to the interpretation of his activities. It is the key to
the explanation of his conflicts, his constructs, his orders and
revolts, his catastrophes and recoveries, his breakdown and
resumptions.”243
The more indirect words of Mumford which support this point are:
“At all these stages in the development of the self, only a small
part of man’s potentialities were consciously represented in
image or idea. Fortunately, the repressed or neglected aspects,
even in primitive society, were not effectively excluded from
living experiences. However well fortified the inner world,
some of the outer world is constantly breaking through,
making demands that must be met, offering suggestions that,
even if unheeded, produce a certain effect. So, too, however
heavy the crust formed by external nature, by human
institutions and habits, the pressure from the inner world
would produce cracks and fissures, and even from time to time
explosively erupt.”244
Charlotte Buhler, writing on the change in the concept of
homeostasis, also verifies the two component cyclic aspects of this
conception when she says:
“The main revision of thought lies in the recognition that
homeostasis, or else the basic tendencies of the organism need
to be redefined so as to cover the tendency to change besides
the tendency toward maintenance. Both are seen as being equally
primary tendencies.” 245
Another point confirmed by Heard is that man’s personality and
culture are far more than movement from more simple to more
complex ways of satisfying physiological needs through condition. In
respect to this his words are:
“… nor can man be understood, and his story explained by
saying he is an accident of economy, that all his culture has
risen from physiological necessities. It is true that his art and
his science have aided his physical survival, but only because
his curiosity has forced him to pursue knowledge of his
environment. Human history, if we are to understand it, is
psychological history. Man’s works and his instruments are the
silt lines of his mind’s currents, the tide marks of his
consciousness.”246
247 Ausubel, David P. (1952). Ego Development and the Personality Disorders: A Developmental
Approach to Psychopathology. New York: Grune & Stratton, p. 44.
248 Schein, Edgar H. (1978). Career Dynamics: Matching Individual and Organizational Needs.
Redding, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Company. Also (1971) The Individual, the
Organization and the Career: A Conceptual Scheme. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science,
No 7.
Verification 453
Howe (column 24) is listed as one of the first if not the earliest
persons to lay out systems of development in descriptive form. Drews249
(column 25) is listed because of her Stanford Research Institute
summary of the hierarchical systems position.
But now it is time to return to my testing of emergent cyclical
theory through the works of other conceptualizers. And I shall do so by
picking up with Kohlberg’s work (column 9 in the list).
Kohlberg’s studies of moral development are quite important as a
test of the E-C conception. This is because E-C theory says there is
nothing approaching morality, as we commonly think of it, until the
nodal CP system appears. If this position is not supported, then the
emergent cyclical conception is in trouble. But Kohlberg’s conception,
Type 1, finds no concept of duty or morality except in terms of concrete
rules enforced by restraining outer power. He says also that his Type 1,
the punishment and obedience orientation, shows little concern for
others beyond avoiding taboos. What the Type I values is power and if
you have it, you set the rules for others and are not bound by them
yourself.
As I see them, Kohlberg’s Types 2, 3 and 4 confirm the exiting,
entering and nodal aspects of E-C theory. I see his Type 2 as the CP/dq
exiting third level subsystem. I see his Type 3 as the cp/DQ subsystem,
the entering version of the DQ system. His Type 4, which conforms to
avoid authority’s censure and its resulting feeling of guilt, as Kohlberg
describes it, is the nodal DQ system in operation. Type 5 appears to me
as dq/ER morality, and in Table VII you find a gap until the FS system
slot. This is not surprising to me because I have found the ER entering
subsystem dq/ER particularly antithetical to conventional morality. The
nodal and exiting ER subsystems are the same, but respectively less so.
E-C theory says that moral development should not return in full
blossom until the FS system. And I read Kohlberg’s description of
system 6 as the FS system.
Furthermore, E-C theory says Kohlberg’s system for classification
should become blurred, run out or be in need of supplementation
beyond his level 6. His classification scheme has no satisfactory way for
dealing with a second spiral of existence operating on a new and
fundamentally different basis for living. That this is true is supported by
the recent attempt of Kohlberg to handle his problem by beginning to
250 Editor’s Note: Kohlberg retracted this claim following the writing of this book and
Graves’s death. In Kohlberg, Lawrence (1983). Moral Stages: A Current Formulation and
a Response to Critics. S.Karger, Basel (Switzerland), he writes: “We no longer claim that
our empirical work has succeeded in defining the nature of a sixth and highest stage
of moral judgment. The existence and nature of such a stage is, at this moment, a
matter of theoretical and philosophic speculation.” (p. 9) Kohlberg, et al., explain the
reason for this further when they, “point out that the case materials from which we
constructed our theoretical definition of a sixth stage came from the writings of a
small elite sample; elite in the sense of its formal philosophic training and in the sense
of its ability for and commitment to moral leadership … While both philosophical
and psychological considerations lead us to continue to hypothesize and look for a
sixth moral stage, our longitudinal data have not provided us with material necessary
to (a) verify our hypothesis or (b) construct a detailed scoring manual description
which would allow reliable identification of a sixth stage. Until 1972, our
conceptualization and test manual definition of Stage 6 was based on our 1958 cross-
sectional and ideal-typical method for stage scoring [Kohlberg, 1958]. This method
classified as Stage 6 high school and college responses which are now scored as Stage
5, Stage 4, and occasionally even as Stage 3 in the Standardized Issue Scoring Manual
[Colby et al., 1983a]. The material that was formerly scored as Stage 6 is now scored
as substage B at one of these lower stages (60) … In the absence of clearer empirical
confirmation of a sixth stage of moral judgment, we are led to suspend claiming that
our research provides support for a number of psychological and philosophic claims
which Kohlberg [1971] made in his article From Is to Ought.” In Colby, Anne and
Lawrence Kohlberg (1987). The Measurement of Moral Judgment. Cambridge University
Press, p. 60 & 63.
Verification 455
3 (cons)” are CP/dq. Their Level 3 conformists are cp/DQ and their
Level 4 is dq/ER. I find this confirming rather than disconfirming
because of what is said about pathology in Exhibit IX (p. 179) In it,
emergent cyclical theory says delinquent behavior is most apt to arise
from subsystems which function c, c’ or c” (gamma) etc. The behavior
we call delinquency is not apt to spring from b, b’, b” (beta) etc.
functioning.
The mode of functioning next most apt to produce delinquency
according to the E-C conceptions is b” (exiting CP beta) functioning.
This is so because of the composition of the components of the three
subsystems Level 3 (cons) CP/dq; Level 3 conformist cp/DQ and Level
4 DQ/er. Both the CP and ER components have strong non-
conforming tendencies, with the CP tendency stronger than the ER.
That is, both have strong “focus on the external world and attempt to
change it.”
So CP/dq and cp/DQ should be delinquency-prone systems. The
b” should be next in line because it is a system in which there is a very
strong conforming tendency but a weaker but very brash non-
conforming tendency. The DQ/cp, though dominantly conforming, has
in it a significant amount of the most aggressive kind of thinking found
in any system. The b” delinquency should be of a different character
than in CP/dq or the cp/DQ subsystems. It should be compulsive
delinquency breaking through impulsively and oft times horrendously,
now and then, when the strong DQ component is temporarily
overwhelmed, when the superego breaks down and the id shoots
through.
Conversely, Sullivan, Grant and Grant’s Level 5 should be a nodal
system relatively free of aggressive delinquency. Relative to the E-C
framework their description of Level 5 seems to be the nodal FS
existential state in which I have found crimes against property and other
persons almost to disappear. This confirms the E-C conception because
FS psychological space has reduced raw aggressive tendencies to a minor
part of the total system. But there is a kind of “delinquency” which is
prevalent in the FS state that is rarely found in the systems beyond FS. It
is “delinquency” against the self: dope, suicide and the like.
Sullivan, Grant and Grant’s Level 6 seems quite close to emergent
cyclical A’N’. Their Level 7 is either the nodal B’O’ system or one with
strong B’O’ components in it. Sullivan, Grant and Grant also confirm
much of what has been said about the change process and the need to
establish congruency in order to effectively manage. So, overall one can
456 Verification
conclude that far more in the work of Sullivan, Grant and Grant
confirms the E-C position than disconfirms it.
But I should not leave Sullivan, Grant and Grant without using their
work to put the total E-C framework to the test. To remove myself
from this test and thus avoid contaminating it, I offer the words of
Loevinger as she describes her view of what development is all about
according to Sullivan, Grant and Grant. Loevinger’s words are:
“Development proceeds in the direction of increasing
involvement with others, increasing perceptual and cognitive
discrimination, increasingly accurate perception, and more
effective operation. At each of the successive development
levels, they describe a core problem, the characteristics of
children [adults] fixated at that stage, typical anxieties and
potentialities for delinquency.”251
E-C theory agrees with all of this with one slight exception. My data
do not entirely agree with “development proceeds in the direction of
increasing involvement with others.” My data say this statement applies
to the development of Subsistence Level, even-numbered BO, DQ and
FS systems, not systems CP and ER. Also my data indicate that Being
Level systems stray slightly from Loevinger’s words about this
developmental dimension.
The conception of William Perry (column 11) does not include the
first three behavior systems identified by other investigators. But this is
not a criticism. His sample, Harvard college students, would not be
expected to behave in the AN, BO, or CP fashion. As a conception, and
as I see it, Perry’s framework tends more to confirm the subsystem
aspect of the ER point of view than any other conception listed in Table
VII. Beginning with Perry’s Position I (DQ), his framework follows step
by step each nodal, exiting, and entering subsystem until it runs out just
before what would be the E-C nodal A’N’ system. But this should not
be passed by because it is a disconfirmation. Perry says his Position 9
logically rounds out his framework. I would say only the addition of a
Position 10 would accomplish this.
251 Loevinger, Jane (1976). Ego Development. San Francisco, Jossey Bass, p. 105-106.
Verification 457
But all in all, as I read Perry’s work, and those who have written
from it, like Anthony Athos, I find remarkable cross-confirmation of the
philosophy, nature and content between Perry’s system and my own.
oneself and view the activity around one’s self, including one’s own activity, with
some perspective,” (p. 23) which implies objectivity and the rationality of ER. At the
same time, Isaacs reports that the “Beta struggle is with the internal.” He emphasizes
empathy, sympathy and tender feelings in Beta (Table 5, p. 35) and “relating through
empathic capacity” (p. 24), descriptors consistent with FS; whereas Graves’s ER
system is described as having disdain for empathy and emotion. Isaacs’s particular
focus is on affect, the degree of, and ability to, interrelate with others, feelings for
others and the quality of interacting. Isaacs points out (2005) that his approach,
Relatability, is both like and unlike Graves’s work, and that he doubts the direct
correlation of the two despite some similarities. Instead, he views E-C theory and
Relatability as complements.
256 Editor’s Note: Isaacs sees movement towards the Alpha, with its increased
The last conception I shall use to test the E-C point of view is that
of Jane Loevinger. Her work is, to date, the classic review of the stage
developmental explanation of behavior. But before I begin the test, a
few clarifying remarks are required.
Beyond doubt I find Loevinger’s work more pregnant with
significant meaning than others, with the possible exception of the
totality of the Harvey, Hunt, Schroder, Driver, Streufert, et al. group.
Yet I am hampered in testing the stage aspect of E-C theory through her
work. Unfortunately, I do not find the ordering of her stages entirely
clear; nor do I understand the verbal labels and the descriptions of her
stages and levels as well as I would like. Thus the comparison I show in
257 Calhoun, John (1968). “Space and the Strategy of Life.” Unpublished paper presented
at the American Association for the Advancement of Science 135th Annual Meeting,
Dallas TX. (1970) “Levels of Existence re Gravesian Philosophy: Random Notes by
John B. Calhoun for evening seminar discussion.” (1971) “RxEvolution, Tribalism,
and the Cheshire Cat: Three Paths from Now.” unpublished paper, NIMH: Unit for
Research on Behavioral Systems, Laboratory of Psychology. URBSDOC No. 167.
Verification 461
TABLE VIII
STEP
LOEVINGER’S STEP OR STEP/TRANSITION/
ACCORDING
STEPS STAGE LEVEL
TO E-C
1 Presocial or autistic AN
2 Symbiotic an/BO
3 Impulsive CP/bo
4 Self-protective CP
Conformist,
5 cp/DQ
malignant, fixated
6 Conformist DQ
Self-aware or
7 conscientious DQ/er
conformist
8 Conscientious ER
9 Individualistic ER/fs
10 Autonomous FS/a’n’
11 Integrated ? A’N’/bo ?
462 Verification
From this comparison, and as I see it, Loevinger’s work confirms some
aspect, stage-wise or transitional wise, of 10 of the 22 states and sub
states of E-C theory. Loevinger seems to agree that, in my language, all
the existential states I have posited are developmentally present in either
stage or transitional form. She seems to agree that AN, CP, DQ, and ER
are nodal stages. We seem to agree as to the nature of the progression
but not entirely as to her identification of the nodal stages beyond the
four noted. We also do not agree as to the exiting and entering sub-
stages. But these, it seems to me, are minor disagreements to be worked
out by further research. In other words, I see much in Loevinger’s ten
developmental demarcation points which confirms E-C theory.
However, I have shown very skimpy evidence that she confirms the
existence of an FS state. There are also some salient differences between
the terminology she appends to the ten steps in her scale and the
meaning I have depicted of some of the nodal existential states of E-C
theory. We agree that states AN, CP, DQ, and ER seem to exist. We
don’t see them entirely the same way.
There is, in fact, so much in Loevinger’s work that confirms the
emergent cyclical point of view that I shall only sample, from here on, to
show some of the regions of agreement. Loevinger agrees that a stage
developmental point of view has remarkable facility for subsuming, in
one framework, many other theories and much psychological
knowledge. For example, she cites, as I do, that Bentham’s pleasure-pain
principle258 is ‘Self-protective’ (ER psychology) and that Skinner’s
hedonism and schedules of reinforcement is the same. She sees
Thorndike’s work as ‘Conformistic’ (DQ psychology) attempts to seek
for reward and avoid punishment. Both of us see Sullivan’s ‘avoidance
of anxiety by seeking self esteem as distinct from esteem in the eyes of
others’259 the same way. Both of us see the ‘Conscientious’ in her
system, DQ/er in mine, as transitional. Each of us sees Adlerian theory
as crossing two stages: social interest and self-interest. However, she
sees self-interest as ‘Self-Protective’ (CP psychology) where I see the ER
version of self-interest. Both of us see Freud as a mastering system and
Kohlberg’s and Adler’s later work seeking for unity and coherence.
258 Bentham, Jeremy (1962). In John Bowring (Ed.), The Works of Jeremy Bentham.
London: 1838-1843; reprinted New York, 1962.
259 see Sullivan, H.S., in Loevinger, Jane (1976). Ego Development. San Francisco; Jossey
Bass, p. 419. The actual words in Loevinger are, “The avoidance of anxiety was the
predominant motive in formation and maintenance of the self-esteem.”
Verification 463
263 LaBier, Douglas, C. W. Graves, and W.C. Huntley (1965). Personality Structure and
Perceptual Readiness: An investigation of their Relationship to Hypothesized Levels of Human
Existence. Unpublished paper, Union College.
Verification 465
Table IX
MEAN RECOGNITION TIME TO WORDS REPRESENTING EXISTENTIAL STATE
DQ, ER, FS & A’N’, AND MEAN RECOGNITION TO ALL WORDS OF
HYPOTHESIZED DQ, ER, FS & A’N’ SUBJECTS
TABLE X
MEAN RECOGNITION TIME OF 12 INDIVIDUALS (3 AT EACH LEVEL)
HYPOTHESIZED DQ, ER, FS & A’N’ SUBJECTS TO WORDS REPRESENTING
STATES DQ, ER, FS & A’N’
Hypothesized Subject
States
Level #
4 5 6 7
Hypothesized 1 .010 .022 .032 .058
Level 4 or 2 .280 .340 .420 .480
DQ Subjects 3 .042 .064 .089 .132
Hypothesized 1 .156 .042 .060 .144
Level 5 or 2 .880 .680 .920 .900
ER Subjects 3 .076 .054 .064 .066
Hypothesized 1 .156 .082 .076 .130
Level 6 or 2 .168 .144 .098 .138
FS Subjects 3 .022 .016 .010 .014
Hypothesized 1 .250 .122 .082 .046
Level 7 or 2 .052 .034 .024 .014
A’N’ Subjects 3 .038 .040 .040 .030
Thus, for most subjects, the time required for recognition of the
words for the states on either side of the subject’s hypothesized state
undergoes a constant increase. From there, one may speculate that these
data represent the role of selective perception for areas which have
varying degrees of value or meaning for the subject. This supports the
progressive subordination aspect of the E-C conception. That is, if each
different stage of existence follows an ever-emergent or unfolding
pattern and eventually becomes subordinated to newer emerging
systems, then certain aspects or portions of both later and earlier
appearing states of existence will be present within the individual. So, if
the relative times of recognition can serve as a basis for speculation,
then it appears that tendencies toward the behavior of states both below
and above one’s own undergo a decrease with each succeeding state.
One area of observation open to view but not quantifiable which
confirms the nodal, open, arrested, closed and transitional aspects of the
E-C point of view can be seen through visual inspection of the line
graphs of Exhibits XV, XVI, XVII, and XVIII.
Verification 469
Exhibit XV
Hypothesized DQ Subjects – Set A
MEAN TIME OF
RECOGNITION
Subject 1 .010
.035
.060
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 2 .250
.400
.500
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 3 .040
.080
.100
.135
4 5 6 7 Levels
470 Verification
Exhibit XVI
Hypothesized ER Subjects – Set B
MEAN TIME OF
RECOGNITION
.040
Subject 1
.100
.160
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 2 .650
.800
.950
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 3
.050
.065
.080
4 5 6 7 Levels
Verification 471
Exhibit XVII
Hypothesized FS Subjects – Set C
MEAN TIME OF
RECOGNITION
Subject 1 .075
.115
.165
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 2 .015
.135
.175
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 3 .010
.015
.020
.025
4 5 6 7 Levels
472 Verification
Exhibit XVIII
Hypothesized A’N’ Subjects – Set D
MEAN TIME OF
RECOGNITION
Subject 1
.045
.125
.205
.265
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 2
.010
.030
.060
4 5 6 7 Levels
Subject 3
.025
.035
.045
4 5 6 7 Levels
Verification 473
CHAPTER 16
Exhibit XIX
man as his emergence reveals, more and more, the nature of his self to
us.
One thing we seem to see is that man’s basic need is very simple. It
is to exist, not to succumb; and to exist in whatever specification of the
general form he can with emerging potential at his disposal, in the
circumstances he is in. We cannot say that man is striving to become his
total human self as he moves from one level to another. We cannot say
that he is attempting to totally self-actualize. What we can say is that at
each level he is striving to be what he can be there, and at each level he
believes that what he should be is what he has emerged to be to date.
He is striving to be what he can be within the general form of existence,
the thema for living, that is open to him at his level of emergence in the
conditions of existence he is in.
But, why is he so striving thus? Because he must, that’s why.
Because if he does not find a specific way of being within his general
possibilities, he will cease to exist. And if this be circular reasoning, then
so be it; for who am I to argue with what my data say? There is no
deeper meaning in all of man’s behavior than that he behaves according
to the dictates of his nature and experience. Man does not strive to
become; he does not strive toward some ultimate goal. He strives no
more than to be what he can be in the realities of his existence. He
strives only to exist.
One of the realities of existence, according to this conception of
man’s personality, is that his brain consists of hierarchically ordered
systems which can be inactive, partially active, subordinately or
supraordinately active. Therefore, when some systems are inactive or
subordinated, man must, in order to be, develop a mode of existence
which will enable him to live even though a part of his brain is not
activated or is subordinated. If a particular system is supraordering, then
the reality of his existence is that he must develop styles of living which
are consonant with it being the dominating system. If he does not do
this, then he will be in dire trouble so far as his existence is concerned.
The fact that man, as the conditions for his existence change, moves
through systematic behavioral forms, is neither purposeful nor
remarkable, nor divinely planned nor ordered. It is only that being
human-like and not dog-like, man displays human ways of behaving and
not dog ways. The levels of which we speak are, therefore, but the
common hierarchically ordered general ways of behaving that humans
have for adjusting to their existential realities.
Levels of human existence come to be when human beings,
possessed of certain human potential, live in a world of certain
482 Broader Meaning
levels and that the prime goal of any societies’ governing figures should
be to promote human movement up the levels of human existence.
In this conception, man’s personality, if normally progressing, will
change in shape, not just in size, from one level to another. The
personality, as the conditions of existence change, constantly forms
levels of integration which are both quantitatively and qualitatively
different from the totality out of which they have evolved. An adult
personality is thus like an itinerant traveler on a journey to where he
does not know. Like the traveling man, personality tarries now and then
to feel out where it is and to see if it has arrived. But, the personality
finds to its dismay that to be where it is is not where it wants to be. As it
becomes comfortable where it is, it finds the self disturbed by the
boredom and problems created by its stay. It finds the self dissatisfied
with the existence that has induced the halt. So ultimately, the open
personality travels on, knowing only where it has been, and that where it
has been is not where it was seeking to be. And blindly on this open
personality travels, often forgetting where it has been as it begins to
glimpse the next stop on the journey.
Each way-stage of adult man’s psychology has, stylistically, its way
and time integrating the whole. It is characterized by a period of
preparation, a period of achievement of relative equilibrium, and a
period of disintegration as preparation takes place for movement to a
higher stage. To understand a personality we must comprehend the
totality of his system. This totality is a totality in the sense of the
momentary total state of the organism. It is the organization around
which the psychological man is centralized in the levels of human
existence now. This totality of the moment, that is an adult man’s
personality, operates by the minimaxing principle of Von Neuman.266 At
any moment in time, the whole may be dominated by minimizing the
growth or change tendency and by maximizing the conservation
tendency. At another moment in time it will be the maximizing of
growth that rules while the conservative tendency is minimized. This is
one way the cyclic aspect of personality can be seen.
To work with this totality one must understand what W. Ross
Ashby means when he writes of “The Law of Requisite Variety.”267 This
law states that any controlling device must have an order of complexity
at least similar to that of the system with which it deals. If it does not
266 Von Neuman, John and Morgenstern, Oskar (1947). Theory of Games and Economic
Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
267 Ashby, Walter R. (1958). Requisite Variety and its Implications for the Control of
have an order of complexity similar to that with which it deals then the
control means will be ineffective. Thus the totality of the system dictates
the controls that should be applied to it. But as the system, adult
personality or culture changes, as according to this conception, in its
saccadic, regressive-progressive, step-like, quantum-like manner, and
becomes a different totality, then the question of proper controls
changes also. This, of course, has marked implications for
psychotherapy, education, management, and government.
A central aspect of this conception is that man is more a
problem-solving organism than a pleasure-seeking being. The solution
of man’s existential problems at a level produces dissonance, triggers
insights, and opens up a new way of behaving, indicating that Beyond the
Pleasure Principle, as Freud wrote of it,268 is not a destructive tendency in
man but a change tendency, a growth tendency. This organism, man,
behaves by the principles of pleasure, the principle of conservation only
secondarily to the change - the growth principle. This is why this
conception has taken the double-goal form into which it has been cast, a
form of thinking about human behavior and Freud’s dualism which sees
dualism in a different light than has been seen previously. For example,
one authority who has written in this vein is William Gray who says:
“I would add that the goal of our species is even more one
of continuously attempting to increase our effectiveness in
problem solving, in discovery, and in being curious. To have
such a goal would mean that the human species behaves in
accordance with the goal of growth. I would, however, think
that a principle of conservation does enter the picture for
humans in the form that has been classically described as the
instinct for self-preservation. In terms that are more consonant
with general systems theory I would like to state this principle
as one of conservation of safety acting as a modifier of the
more basic drive to grow continually in ability to increase
information negentropization.
Essentially what one wishes is the maximization of increase
in ability to negentropize information effectively, and
minimization of the danger of such processes going beyond
the existing set of limitations in the degree of change than can
be tolerated in essential variables. One must add that the sets
of parameters describing the most desirable “mix” in such a
mini-maxing system are not to be considered fixed for all
268 Freud, Sigmund (1942). Beyond the Pleasure Principle. London: Hogarth Press.
Broader Meaning 485
269 Gray, William. Source not located in Dr. Gray’s writings or papers.
270 Ibid, Gray.
271 Ibid, Gray.
486 Broader Meaning
12. There are general and specific factors which propel the
organism from one stage to another.
13. The formation of systematic concepts for living at a level
is the product of common problems, common mental
devices for approach to problems, and the human desire
for closure.
14. As man solves the problems of existence at a level,
dissonance is created; new brain systems, if present, are
activated; and, when activated, change his perceptions so
as to cause him to see new problems of existence.
15. Systems are separated by a chemical-type switching
means such that, for a long time, higher systems appear
not to order experience, thus providing the illusion that
a system is the form that human existence should take on.
16. The whole is the actual state of the total, developing,
interrelated system at a given time.
17. To make possible an increase in order, that is,
movement up the hierarchy, a supply of energy is
necessary.
18. The necessary supply of energy for increase in order
comes from a resolution of existential problems at a
level.
19. If certain movement toward a new level has passed a
critical point, displacement into a negative environment
is no longer able to stop it.
20. One cannot see the possibility of higher levels until he
has reached the degree of control over current problem
that makes other possibilities possible.
21. The organism constantly seeks conditions for existence
in which it can perform to its emerged best with optimal
comfort.
22. The organism strives toward behavior within a level
which has a feeling of comfort, ease, fitness, adequacy,
and properness.
23. What is seen as the nature of man at a given time
depends upon a wealth of specific psychological time-
determined, psychological space-determined events.
24. Man is so programmed that each time he discovers a
new and different way of living he will act as if this is the
discovery and he will act if it is the last discovery that
will be made.
488 Broader Meaning
25. Human nature does not exist in the tissues of the human
being. It comes to exist in the bio-chemical-social-
environmental field.
26. Levels of existence are created by man’s functioning - if
it is man’s physiological needs that are functioning as
figure, while others are ground, he will create a
schematic form of existence specified for thematic
physiological functioning.
27. The lower does not disappear; it is integrated into and
subordinated to the higher.
28. In general, levels tend not to persist as lasting structures.
It is the principle of levels as a process that persists.
29. The adult human tends to develop from a state of
automatic reactivity, through controlled reactivity to
active, spontaneous behavior, to??
30. The adult tends to develop from a state of few
behavioral possibilities, through stages of limited
behavioral possibilities, to states of many behavioral
possibilities, to??
31. The adult tends to develop from behaving in order to
get, through stages of different kinds of getting, to
behaving in order to be, to??
32. The adult consciousness tends to develop from a no
time-space-cause stage, through a limited time-space-
cause state, to an extended time-space-cause state, to??
33. The adult human tends to develop from not knowing, to
magical knowing, to egocentric knowing, to absolute
knowing, to experimentalistic knowing, to relativistic
knowing, to systemic knowing, to??
34. The adult tends to develop from being at the mercy of
the world, to believing he is subordinate to the power of
the world, to believing he is in control, to believing he
must cooperate with the world, to??
are doing when we try to mold the ‘properly moral’ person. We would
see that what we normally call ‘the breakdown of morality’ is one of two
things. On the one hand, moral and ethical breakdown would be seen as
the turbulent behavior of man as he strives to discard an old, once
appropriate system of values, and strives to find a new system of values
more appropriate to his changed conditions of existence. On the other
hand, moral breakdown might be what a person centralized at a one
level of existence sees in the value system of one at a higher or lower
level of existence.
If we see psychological maturity as a step-like process having no
ultimate end, then we would reconsider our approach to the problems
of psychopathology. We would not seek a general set of principles
which would differentiate the operation of the pathological person from
he who is the psychologically mature human being. We would look,
instead, for the kinds of pathology which are typical to a particular stage
in the maturing process. We would look for the system-specific
principles of treatment which move the pathological person to the open
form of his stage of maturity, and then for the principles that would
enable him to move to the next existential state if he is capable of such.
But if he is not capable of movement, we would look for a way to
dignify his existence where he is. At the same time we would seek to
prevent his taking on a pathological form in the next level of maturity.
From this point of view, we would not argue whether behavioristic
therapy is better than psychoanalytic therapies or either better than
Rogerian therapy. We would ask: ‘For what system of behavior is what
therapy appropriate? For what way-stages along the existential staircase
do we not yet have appropriate therapy?’
The same would hold for labor-management relations and for the
human problems of business and governmental organizations. We
would not continue seeking that magical Theory Y, participative, or 9.9
form of management applicable to all men at work. We would be
seeking for ways to organize work when one form of management can
be congruent with a heterogeneous work force. We would begin to ask:
‘How can we best utilize the qualities a man has in his existential state?’
rather than ‘How can we change him to fit the level preferred by the
organization?’ On a philosophical level, we would ask whether it is the
function of an industrial organization to manage mainly for economic
gain or more for human growth? And probably we will ask: ‘In the long
run, is economic viability possible only when we manage for human
growth?’
Broader Meaning 491
273 President's Commission on National Goals [Eisenhower]. (1960). Goals for Americans.
New York: American Assembly, Columbia University.
274 Hummel, Dean L. and Bonham Jr., S.J. (1968). Pupil Personnel Services In The Schools.
can become other than what it is now, and thus move up the hierarchy
of political organization?’ We would not ask: ‘How can we convince Red
China to become less hostile and more democratic?’ We would ask:
‘What can we learn about the existential position and existential
problems of Russia and China which will help us develop different,
though congruent, approaches to the Chinese and Russian situation?’
On the domestic side, think of how we might reevaluate the
problem of poverty from within the conceptual change. If those who are
poverty stricken are at several different levels of existence, and thus
operate by widely varying psychological principles, not only from
poverty-stricken to poverty-stricken, but in contrast to the non-poverty-
stricken, would not our approach to poverty change? The new
approaches would, by and large, be very different from what they have
been. For example, we would not try to teach or aid the poverty-stricken
to live by principles of maturity of those much higher in the hierarchy.
Rather, we would ascertain the level of operation of the particular
poverty stricken person, or poverty-stricken group, and would apply
those principles which would enable movement from the kind of
psychological being he is, from the level of maturity he has achieved, to
the next level he can become.
For example, let us look at three of our welfare problems: providing
food, providing adequate medical services, and providing housing. We
are not truly aware that our past welfare practices have really been
successful and thus, in being successful have, as this theory says, created
new and monstrous problems for us. Our provision of food and other
necessities, and our attempts to provide medical services have worked
very well for many, but they have not achieved our desired goals.
Instead of enabling many people to become self-sufficient - our goal -
we seem to have arrested their development and made them more
dependent. Instead of improving their health, we seem, too often, to
find the means we have provided are not utilized as we envisioned they
would be. But these problems we might well correct if we should see,
from within the levels of existence point of view, why we went astray
and what we need to do to get on a better track.
Principle 4 says earlier-appearing, that is, lower-level systems, are
more automatic, more mechanistic. Principle 12 says there are general
and specific factors which propel the organism from one stage to
another. Principles 17 and 16 say certain problems, not other problems,
must be solved in order for movement to take place; and principle 6 says
systems can congeal into closed states under certain conditions.
Attendance to these principles and the broader aspects of them suggests
Broader Meaning 495
previous welfare practices have both met and violated the character of
lower level systems, and thus promoted change - but toward closure not
openness!
We have in principle, though not properly in operation, a sound
system for moving man through the first two existential states. We have
a totally inadequate system for moving man through the third to the
fourth level of existence, and we will never get the hard work, self
disciplined DQ to ER ethic emerging until we develop a proper CP to
DQ welfare system.
If one understands the mechanical, concrete immediate character of
lower level behavior and the necessary factors for promoting readiness
for change, he would not practice our basically sound, lowest-level
welfare principles as we have practiced them. Many welfare recipients
operate within lower-level systems where change can be promoted only
by knowing well the psychology of such systems. These systems operate
on the principles of immediacy. They are systems wherein time and
space concepts are very limited. They are systems which change when
classical and operant conditioning principles are applied to them. But
our past practices have not heeded these characteristics of lower-level
systems very well, particularly the development of a CP welfare system
built around operant conditioning procedures.
We have provided food or access to food so that the recipient gets a
lot at one time, or has to exercise his means to food through his own
planning efforts. Both violate his psychology and according to
conditioning principles fixate his behavior rather than change it. To
establish readiness for change by solving the food problem, the food has
to come to the lower-level person everyday, regularly over an extended
period of time. It can neither come in a first-of-the-month windfall nor
can his own day-to-day planning satisfactorily distribute it to himself.
Here, our problem is not providing food in both the proper amount and
nutritional quality. The problem is how to develop a continuous
distribution system.
The medical service problem is quite similar. The lower-level system
must be tuned up to move up to higher levels. It must become
physiologically sound. But lower-level people, having limited awareness,
lack of available energy and the like, limited concepts of time, space and
cause, simply are not psychologically prone to go to and procure the
services available. It is not even enough to provide facilities in their
immediate neighborhood because their psychology locks them into their
past way of living so they cannot, so to speak, get out of their home and
go across the street for service. Here, the levels of existence point of
496 Broader Meaning
view says we need medical and paramedical teams which move, by way
of mobile basic medical laboratories, directly to and then into their
homes if ever we are to establish a state of readiness to move lower-level
people. And then there is the problem of adequate housing for our
poorer people. Nowhere is the level of existence point of view more
violated than in this region, except in the total absence of a welfare
design for people centralized at the third level of existence.
We are generally for human growth and development, but we don’t
know how to bring it about. If we knew, we would never attempt to
provide better housing for second or third level poverty stricken by
destroying existing housing, no matter how bad, before housing is built.
Humans whose behavior is centralized at the second or third level do
not have the postponement capacity necessary to wait for future reward.
The means to the end of satisfying lower level people’s desire for better
housing must not, according to this conception, be based on a promise
of things to come. We must, instead, according to this thinking, reverse
our process. If we are to meet the lower-level psychology of many poor
people, we must not tear down existing houses that are really not
habitable or rehabilitatable. We must, instead, survey our cities for
empty lots, and empty, but reconstructable buildings and we must build
on them and restructure them.
This we must do because lower-level people live in a world of
immediacy. Immediacy is a prime need at these lower levels. If we do
this then we can move families to their new homes rather than displace
them. But this is not enough for transferring lower-level people to better
housing conditions. Another aspect of lower-level psychology is to be
psychologically locked into one’s territory. Therefore, any urban renewal
or university expansion which cuts into lower-level space will be
strongly reacted to by those whose existence is precarious. Obviously
these two lower-level characteristics seriously complicate urban renewal
planning. We simply must think our way around such problems if we are
to renovate our cities in terms of lower-level psychology rather than
contrary to it. If we do not heed this information, we can expect more
hostility and more resistance to other non-attending, though well-
intentioned, urban renewal, poor housing, and replacement plans. And,
if we do not develop a third level, CP welfare system, we are lost.
Now let us take education as a means to our goal. Here, whether in
the university or the lower grades, levels of existence principles say we
constantly violate the means to the end of a society where all are
educated by what is best for them in our schools, at all grade levels; we
have students who need and parents who desire different kinds of
Broader Meaning 497
278Seltzer, Louis B. (1951). “Can’t We Tell Right From Wrong.” Editorial, Cleveland
Press.
Broader Meaning 499
Still a third system which some like Herman Kahn279 would chose
to maximize is the fifth level, ER, positivistic, mechanistic, objectivistic
System where 19th century physical science concepts rule supreme and
corrupt the world of man. Little more need be said of this type of plan
because Lewis B. Mumford280 levels a more devastating criticism upon
this form of planning than this author could ever write.
The other basic form of planning - planning for the mature society -
is just as erroneous from the levels of existence point of view. It simply
should not be thought about. It simply cannot be conceived of in a
system of thought which sees man’s behavior to ever evolve rather than
to approach its apex.
Future planning must be pluralistic for a long time to come, and
possibly forever. This is so because at no time in the foreseeable, or
intermediate, future can one conceive of all people at one level, and
because it is very difficult to conceive that a process which is ever-
evolving will ever get all people to the same position on the existential
staircase. Above all else, future planning must take into account that
there is not A consciousness revolution taking place in the world.
Instead, there are five fully developed revolutions in full process and
two others operating to a lesser degree.
Nowhere is our planning more in error than where people are
planning as if the only revolution taking place today is the emergence of
Consciousness III. Book upon book, article upon article have been
written about this revolution in man’s consciousness and what to do
about it, but nowhere in our annals is there greater evidence of liberal-
minded ethnocentrism running rampant. These liberals seem to see only
the ER to FS revolution, or else contaminate their thinking by mistaking
the DQ to ER revolution as the same as the revolution toward
Consciousness III. As a result, these mistaken ones will never truly
understand, nor effectively meet, the antipathy between the ‘hardhats’
for the ‘hippies’ or the ‘curse upon both of your houses’ by the Black
power movement.
Of the first revolution, we know very little. What it is like and what
it portends, in adult human development, was, until recently, buried in
the history of man. In fact, the existence of it was only a theoretical
hypothesis when the levels of existence point of view first took its
current form. But fortunately for those like me who drew the hypothesis
that this level of existence had to exist, even though scholars like
Mumford and Heard said it did not, the Tasaday have given at least
281 Mead, Margaret (1970). The Mountain Arapesh II: Arts and Supernaturalism. Garden City,
NY: Natural History Press, p. 491. This book was published with 2 other volumes,
The Mountain Arapesh and The Mountain Arapesh III: Stream of Events in Alitoa. The
books were originally published in Antropological Papers of the American Museum of
Natural History, volume 36, 37, parts 3, 1938, 1940.
282 Du Bois, Cora Alice with Kardiner, Abram and Oberholzer, Emil (1944). The People of
society what it is today, are no longer the values by which man should
live today? And what can give more purpose to existence than the
never-ending quest for that new set of values which will be consonant
with each new set of existential conditions? What can make life more
zestful than to ever have to reach for values and new purposes; to
always have our reach in life exceeding our grasp?
If there is a never-ending tendency, beyond the pleasure principle,
and if we have, in general, provided a map to this ever-changing process,
then we have helped provide everlasting significance to the lives of all
generations of mankind. And we move toward making systematic sense
of the words in D. H. Lawrence’s “Terra Incognita” wherein he says:
1. That the human being, though but one biological organism, has developed,
to date, seven fixated exiting, eight open nodal, and seven entering states
plus mixed states. These are progressively developing
psychosocial systems because Homo sapiens is an almost
infinite psychological being which changes systematically as
the world changes in the course of living.
3. That the biopsychosocial development of the mature human arises from the
interaction of a double-helix complex of two sets of determining forces,
the environmentosocial determinants (the Existential
Problems of Living) and the neuropsychological equipment
of the organism (the Neuropsychological Equipment for
Living). Each system develops from the interaction of these
284 The two presentation handouts from which this synopsis is derived were
prepared by Chris Cowan for Dr. Graves and under his direction for use in
seminars and conferences in 1981 and 1982. Parts of these documents are also
embedded in the text in Section II of The Never Ending Quest.
506 Appendix
5. That when the human is centralized in one state of existence he or she has
a psychology which is particular to that state. His or her feelings,
motivations, ethics and values, biochemistry, degree of
neurological activation, learning system, belief systems,
conception of mental health, ideas as to what mental illness is
and how it should be treated, conceptions of and preferences
for management, education, economics and political theory
and practice are all appropriate to that state. A person may
show the behavior of a level in a predominantly positive or
negative manner.
Appendix 507
8. That each system has a general theme for existence which typifies it,
such that each central theme for existence is particularizable
into almost an infinite number of ways for peripheral
expression. Adult psychosocial life is a developing, emergent
process which can be likened to a symphony built on six basic
themes which repeat, in higher order form, every set of six.
The first six tell the story of adult psychosocial development
in a world of naturalistic abundance. The second order
systems tell the story of how psychosocial development will
take place in a world of naturalistic scarcity.
In human existence, our species begins by stating in the
simplest way those themes which will occupy us through
history with almost infinite variations. These themes for living
(AN, BO, CP, etc.) change as the human solves current
problems of existence and, in their solution, creates new
problems of existence. Every seventh system shows a degree
of change in excess of the sum of all six previous changes.
10. That at this point in our history, the societally effective leading edge of
humanity, in the technologically advanced nations, is currently finishing
the initial statement of the sixth (FS) state of existence (modern
Japan); and the United States (though temporarily stalled in a
regressive phase) is beginning again with the first theme in a
new and more sophisticated form of survivalistic living, the
seventh, the A’N’ existential level. That is, some humans have
reached the point of finishing the first and most primitive
spiral of existence, the one concerned with basic survival, with
the development of individual independence, and with the
ways of existence to foster it. But, at this time, human life is
beginning to experience threats to existence created by the
cumulative effect of the first six ways of being, namely, the
creation of a whole new set of survival problems. Thus, some
humans have started to think about and some of them are
well into thinking according to the ways of a second spiral of
existence, the being level systems. These humans have truly
started to think of the interdependence of existence rather
than an individualized independent existence. Thus we see
that the six themes for existence may constantly repeat if
humanity continues to exist and in existing constantly solves
and constantly creates new problems of existence. Such a
stately succession of themes and movements is the general
pattern of the levels of existence.
509
Aronoff, Joel (1967). Psychological Needs and Cultural Systems: A Case Study.
Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
Ashby, Walter Ross (1956). An Introduction to Cybernetics. London: Chapman &
Hall.
______ (1960). Design for a Brain. (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
______ (1958). Requisite Variety and its Implications for the Control of
Complex Systems. Cybernetica, 1 (2).
Athos, Anthony (1968). Behavior in Organizations, a Multidemensional View. New
York: Prentice Hall.
Ausubel, David P. (1952). Ego Development and the Personality Disorders: A
Developmental Approach to PsychoPathology. Grune & Stratton.
______ (1968). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston
Baltes, Paul B. and Warner K. Shaie (1973). Life-Span Developmental
Psychology. Personality and Socialization. NewYork: Academic Press.
Bandura, Albert (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt,
Rinehart & Winston.
______ (1997). Self Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.
Bandura, A. and Walters, R. H. Social Learning and Personality Development. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963.
Bard. P. & Rioch, D. (1937). A Study of Four Cats Deprived of Neocortex and
Additional Portions of the Forebrain. John Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, 60,
p. 73-147.
Barker, Roger G. (1957). Structure of the Stream of Behavior. Proceedings of the
Fifteenth International Congress of Psychology, Brussels, Amsterdam. North
Holland Publishing, p. 155-156.
Barron, Frank (1954). Personal soundness in university graduate students.
Publications in Personality Assessment and Research. No. 1. Berkeley:
University of California Press.
______ (1963). Creativity and Psychological Health. Princeton: D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc. .
Bartlett, Frederic C. (1932). Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social
Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bavelas, Alex (1948). “Mathematical model for group structures.” Applied
Anthropology, p. 7.
______ (1950). Communication Patterns in Task-Oriented Groups. Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America 22, p. 725-730. [Professor of Psychology,
founder of the Group Networks Laboratory at MIT in 1948, pioneer
in group communications and social networks at MIT.]
______ (1950). Bavelas et al. Human communications systems. Quarterly Progress
Report, Research Laboratory of Electronics, M I T, July, p. 81-86.
______ (1952). In H. von Foerster (Ed.), Communication patterns in problem-
solving groups. Cybernetics - circular, causal and feedback mechanisms in
biological and social systems. Transactions of the eighth conference. New York:
Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation.
Bibliography 511
______ (1965). The Search for Authenticity. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
______ (1967). Challenges of Humanistic Psychology. New York: Psychology.
Psychological Service Associates, Los Angeles: McGraw-Hill Book
Company.
Buhler, Charlotte (1930). The First Year of Life. New York: Day.
______ (1933). Der Menschliche Lebenslauf Als Psychologisches Problem (The Course of
Human Life as a Psychological Problem). Leipzig: S. Hirzel, (2nd ed.,
Gottingoen: Hogrefe, 1959).
______ (1959). Theoretical observations about life’s basic tendencies. American
Journal of Psychotherapy. 1959, 13:3, 561-581
______ (1962). Values in Psychotherapy. New York: Free Press.
______ (1964).The Human Course of Life in Its Goal Aspects. Journal of
Humanistic Psychology. Spring 1964. p. 1-18.
______ (1968). The course of Human Life as a Psychological Problem. Human
Development, 11 (3), p. 184-200.
______ (1968). The Course of Human Life: A Study of Goals in the Humanistic
Perspective. Charlotte Buhler and Fred Massarik, (eds.) New York:
Springer Pub. Co..
______ (1972). Introduction to Humanistic Psychology. Bellmont, California:
Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc..
Bull, Norman J. (1969). Moral Judgement from Childhood to Adolecence. Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
Burlingame, Roger (1956). Henry Ford: The Greatest Success Story in the History of
Industry. New York: Signet Key Books.
Butler, R. A. (1954). Incentive Conditions Which Influence Visual Exploration.
Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. 48, p. 19-23.
Calhoun, John B. (1962). Population Density and Social Pathology. Scientific
American. February, p. 139; (See: Environment and Population: Problems of
Adaptation. New York: Praeger Scientific, 1983).
______ (1963). The Ecology and Sociology of the Norway Rat. Public Health Service
Publication No. 1008 U.S. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare,
Public Health Service.
______ (1968). Space and the Strategy of Life. Unpublished paper presented at
the American Association for the Advancement of Science 135th
Annual Meeting, Dallas, TX.
______ (1969). Promotion of Man. Unpublished Paper. URBSDOC 146,
Bethesda, MD.
______ (1970). Levels of Existence re Gravesian Philosophy: Random Notes
by John B. Calhoun for evening seminar discussion.
______ (1971). Rx Evolution, Tribalism, and the Cheshire Cat: Three Paths
from Now. Unpublished paper. URBSDOC 167. Bethesda, MD: Unit
for Research on Behavioral Systems, Laboratory of Psychology,
NIMH.
514 Bibliography
______ (1973). Relationships between the EPI scales and the EPPS and PRF
scales. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 40, 27-32.
Elkind, David (1971). Cognitive Growth Cycles in Mental Development.
Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska
Press.
______ (1975). Recent Research on Cognitive Development in Adolescence. In
Dragastin, S.E., and Elder, G. H., Jr. Adolescence in the Life Cycle:
Psychological Change and the Social Context. New York: Halsted Press.
Elkind, David and Flavell, John H. (Eds.) (1969). Studies in Cognitive Development:
Essays in Honour of Jean Piaget. New York: Oxford University Press.
Engen, T., Lipsitt, L. P., Lewis, P., and Kaye, H. (1963). Olfactory responses
and adaptation in the human neonate. Journal of Comparative and
Physiological Psychology. Vol. 56, p. 73-77.
Engen, T and Levy, N. (1956). Constant-Sum Judgments of Facial Expressions.
Journal of Experimental Psychology. Vol. 51, p. 396-398.
Erikson, Erik Homburger (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton.
______ (1959). Identity and the Life Cycle: selected papers. Psychological Issues,
Monograph No. 1. New York: International University Press.
(see “Growth and Crises of the Healthy Personality.”)
______ (1964). Insight and Responsibility. New York: Norton.
______ (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: Norton.
Eysenck, Hans J. (1947). Dimensions of Personality. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul.
______ (1952). The Scientific Study of Personality. London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul.
______ (1953). The Structure of Human Personality. London: Methuen.
______ (1959). Learning Theory and Behavior Therapy. Journal of Mental Science,
105: 61 75.
______ (1963). Eysenck Personality Inventory.
______ (1967). The Dynamics of Anxiety and Hysteria: An experimental
application of modern learning theory to psychiatry, (3rd imp. 1st-
1957).
______ (1967). The Biological Basis of Personality. Springfield: C. C. Thomas.
______ (1970). Readings in Extraversion-Introversion: Theoretical and Methodological
Issues. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Eysenck, Hans J. and Rachman, S. (1965). The Causes and Cures of Neurosis: An
Introduction to Modern Behaviour Therapy based on Learning Theory and the
Principles of Conditioning. San Diego: R. R. Knapp, Educational and
Industrial Training Service.
Fenton, Edwin, Colby, Ann, and Speicher-Dubin, Betsy (1974). “Developing
Moral Dilemmas for Social Studies Classes.” Mimeogaphed.
Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University, Center for Moral Education
(cited in Mosher, Ralph (1980). Moral Education: A First Generation of
Research and Development. New York: Praeger. p. 223)
Festinger, Leon (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human
Relations. 7:117-40.
Bibliography 517
Fromm, Eric (1941). Escape from Freedom. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
______ (1947). Man for Himself: An Inquiry into the Psychology of Ethics. New York:
Rinehart.
______ (1955). The Sane Society. New York: Rinehart & Co.
______ (1959). Values, Psychology and Human Existence. In A. E. Maslow
(Ed.), New Knowledge in Human Values. New York: Harper.
______ (1960). The Fear of Freedom. London: Routledge.
Funkenstein, D.H. (1955). The physiology of fear and anger. Scientific American,
74:192-193.
Funkenstein, D.H., King, S.H. and Drolette, Margaret E. (1953). The
Experimental Evocation of Stress. Presented 18 March 1953, to the
Symposium on Stress, AMSGS, WRAMC, Washington, D. C. From
the Dept. of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, the Dept. of Social
Relations, Harvard University, and the Dept. of Biostatistics, Harvard
School of Public Health.
______ (1957). Mastery of Stress. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gastaut, H. (1958). Conditioned reflexes and behavior. In G. E. W.
Wolstenholme & C. M. O’Conner (Eds.), Symposium on the neurological
basis of behavior. Boston: Little, Brown.
Gaustaut, H., & Roger, A. (1966). Les mecanismes de I'activité nerveuse
supérieure envisagds au niveau des graades structures fonctionnelles
du cerveau. In H. H. Jasper & G. D. Smirnov (Eds.), The Moscow
colloquium on electroencephalography of higher nervous activity. Montreal: EEG
Journal.
Gloor, P. (1960). The Amygdala. In J. Field (Ed.). Handbook of Physiology. Sect. I,
Neurophysiology. Vol II.. Washington, D. C.: American Physiological
Society.
Goethe (see von Goethe)
Goldstein, Kurt (1939). The Organsim: A Holistic Approach to Biology Derived from
Pathological Data in Man. New York: American Book Co.
______ (1940). Human Nature (in the Light of Psychopathology). Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press.
Goldstein, Kurt and Scheerer, M. (1941). Abstract and Concrete Behavior - An
Experimental Study With Special Tests. Psychological Monographs. Vol.
53, No. 2, p. 110-130.
Goldstein, Kurt and Scheerer, M. (1947). Goldstein-Scheerer Test of Abstract
and Concrete Thinking.
Gough, H. G. (1961) The Adjective Check List. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
Gough, H. G., & Sanford, R.N. (1952). Rigidity as a Psychological Variable.
Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Institute of
Personality Assessment and Research.
Gray, Thomas (1751). “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard.” London.
Gray, William (1977). General System Precursor Formation Theory. Cambridge, MA:
Aristocrat.
Bibliography 519
Gray, William, Duhl, Frederick J. and Rizzo, Nicholas D. (Eds.). (1969). General
Systems Theory and Psychiatry. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company.
Gray, William and Rizzo, Nicholas D. (Eds.). (1973). Unity Through Diversity: A
Festschrift for Ludwig van Bertalanffy. New York: Gordon and Breach.
Graves, Clare W. (1959). An emergent theory of ethical behavior based upon an
epigenetic model. Unpublished paper, Schenectady, NY.
______ (1961). On the Theory of Ethical Behavior. Paper presented at the First
Unitarian Society of Schenectady, NY.
______ (1962, November). Implications to Management of Systems-Ethical
Theory. Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Values Conference.
Schenectady, NY: Value Analysis, Inc.
______ (1964). Levels of Human Existence and their Relation to Value
Analysis and Engineering. Proceedings of the 5th Annual Values
Conference. Schenectady, NY: Value Analysis, Inc.
______ (1965, February). Value systems and their relation to managerial
controls and organizational viability. Paper presented at the College of
Management Philosophy, The Institute of Management Sciences, San
Francisco, CA.
______ (1966). Deterioration of Work Standards. Harvard Business Review,
Boston, MA: Sept.-Oct., Vol. 44, No. 5, p 117-126.
______ (1967). On the Theory of Value. Paper presented at the National
Institutes of Mental Health, Washington, DC.
______ (1969, March). Motivation-wise, executives are reluctant dragons.
Keynote address presented at the Institute on Motivation and
Productivity of the Public Personnel Association, The Hudson-
Mohawk Training Directors Society, The Industrial Training Council,
and The Capital District Personnel Association, Albany, NY.
______ (1970). Levels of Existence: An Open System Theory of Values. Journal
of Humanistic Psychology, Fall, Vol. 10, No. 2, p. 131-155.
______ (1970, May). Personal dimensions of student disaffection. Paper
presented at the 175th anniversary celebration of the founding of
Union College, Schenectady, NY.
______ (1970, May). The Levels of Existence and their relation to welfare
problems. Paper presented at the Annual Conference Meeting,
Virginia State Department of Welfare and Distribution, Roanoke, VA.
______ (1971, March). Levels of Existence related to learning systems. Paper
presented at the Ninth Annual Conference of the National Society for
Programming Instruction, Rochester, NY.
______ (1971, October). A Systems Conception of Personality: Remarks by
Clare W. Graves on his Levels of Existence Theory. Presented at the
Washington School of Psychiatry, Washington, DC. Transcription and
handout compiled in Lee, William R., Cowan, Christopher C. and
Todorovic, Natasha (Eds.) (2003). Graves: Levels of Human Existence.
Santa Barbara, CA: ECLET Publishing.
520 Bibliography
______ (1971, November). How Should Whom Lead Who to Do What? Paper
presented at the YMCA Management Forum of 1971-1972,
Downtown Branch YMCA, St. Louis, MO.
______ (1971). Untitled Presentation. Annual Meeting of The Association of
Humanistic Psychology.
______ (1973, March). Let Us Bring Humanistic and General Psychology
Together: A Research Project Needing to Become. Paper presented at
National Institutes of Mental Health, Washington, DC.
______ (1973, October). Seminar Notes. Presentation at the Quetico Centre,
Ontario, Canada.
______ (1974). Human Nature Prepares for a Momentous Leap. The Futurist.
April, 1974, p. 72-87.
______ (1974). Seminar recordings, Quetico Centre, Canada, June, 1974.
______ (1978). Notes for “Up the Existential Staircase: A seminar on the
Development, Nature, Meaning and Management of The Levels of
Existence, Emergent, Cyclical, Double Helix Model of Adult Human
Psychosocial Coping Systems.” Unpublished paper.
______ (1978). Levels of Complexity. Paper presented at North Texas State
University, Denton, TX.
______ (1980). Seminar at the National Values Center in Dallas, TX,
December 1980. (audio tape)
______ (1981, May). Summary Statement: The Emergent, Cyclical, Double-
Helix Model Of The Adult Human Biopsychosocial Systems. Paper
presented to the World Future Society, Boston, MA.
______ (1982). Seminar handout. Unpublished paper.
______ (2001). ECLET: Emergent Cyclical Levels of Existence Theory: A Workshop
with Dr. Clare W. Graves [Audio tape]. Santa Barbara, CA: ECLET
Publishing. (1974)
______ (2001). Reflections [Audio tape]. Santa Barbara, CA: ECLET Publishing.
(1980)
______ (2001). The Psychological Map [Audio tape]. Santa Barbara, CA: ECLET
Publishing. (1980)
Graves, Clare W., Huntley, W. C., and LaBier, Douglas (1965). “Personality
Structure and Perceptual Readiness: An Investigation of their
Relationship to Hypothesized Levels of Human Existence.”
Unpublished paper, Union College. Unpublished paper.
Graves, Clare W., Madden, Helen T., and Madden, Lynn P. (1970). The
Congruent Management Strategy. Unpublished paper based on an
industrial study.
Guyton, A. C. (1961). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Hall, Calvin and Lindsey, Gardner (1957). Theories of Personality. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Hampshire, Sir Stuart (1959). Thought and Action. New York: Viking.
Harlow, H. F. and Zimmermann, R. R. (1959). Affectional Responses in the
Infant Monkey. Science, Vol. 130, p. 421-432.
Bibliography 521
Hartmann, Heinz (1958). Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation. New York:
International Universities Press.
______ (1964). Essays on Ego Psychology: Selected Problems in Psychoanalytic Theory.
New York: International Universities Press.
Harvey, O. J. (Ed.) (1966). Experience, Structure and Adaptability. New York:
Springer Publishing Co..
Harvey, O.J., Hunt, David and Schroder, Harold M. (1961). Conceptual Systems
and Personality Organization. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Havighurst, Robert (1948). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David
McKay Co..
Hawkins, Robert P., Peterson, R. F., Schweid, E. and Bijou, S W. (1966).
Behavior therapy in the home: amelioration of problem parent-child
relations with the parent in a therapeutic role. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology, 4:99-107.
______ (1972). It’s time we taught the young how to be good parents (and
don’t you wish we’d started a long time ago?). Psychology Today, 11:28-
40.
______ Cone, John D. & Hawkins, Robert P. (1977). Behavioral Assessment: New
Directions in Clinical Psychology. New York: Brunner/Mazel Publishers.
Haymuy, T. P. (1961). The Role of the Cerebral Cortex in the Learning of an
Instrumental Conditioned Response. In A. Fessard, R. W. Gerard, &
J. Konorski (Eds.), Brain Mechanisms and Learning. Springfield, Illinois:
Thomas.
Heard, Gerald (1941). Man the Master. New York: Harper and Brothers.
______ (1963). The Five Ages of Man. New York: The Julian Press, Inc..
Hebb, Donald O. (1949). The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory.
New York: Wiley.
______ (1955). Drives and the CNS (central nervous system) Psychological Review,
62, 243-254
______ (1958). A Textbook of Psychology. Philadelphia: Saunders.
______ (1937). The innate organization of visual activity: I. Perception of
figures by rats reared in total darkness. Journal of Genetic Psychology,
51:101-126.
______ (1966). A Textbook of Psychology. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Heider, Fritz (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Hernandez-Peon, R. and Brust-Carmona, H. (1961). The Functional Role of
Sub-cortical Structure in Habituation and Conditioning. In Fessard,
A., Garard, R. W., and Konorski, J., (Eds.). Brain Mechanisms and
Learning. Springfield: Thomas.
______ (1966). In R.W. Russel (Ed.). Frontiers in physiological psychology. New
York: Academic Press.
Herndon, Booton (1969). Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their
Times. New York: Weybright & Talley
Herzberg, Frederick I. (1959). The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley.
522 Bibliography
______ (1955 and 1966). Work and the Nature of Man. Cleveland: World
Publishing Cleveland.
Hess, E. H. (1959). Imprinting. Science, 130, p. 133-141.
______ (1972). Pupilometrics. In N. S. Greenfield and R. A. Stembach (Eds.)
Handbook of Psychophysiology. New York: Holt, Richard & Winston, p.
491- 531.
Hess, R. D. and Shipman, V. C. (1965). Early Experience and the Socialization
of Cognitive Mode - Children. Child Development. Published by the
University of Chicago Press for the Society for Research in Child
Development, Inc., 36, p. 859-886.
______ (1967). Cognitive elements in maternal behavior. In J. P. Hill (Ed.),
Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology (Vol. 1). Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press.
Hess, W. R. (1936). Le sommeil. C. r. Soc. Biol. Paris 1931, 107, 1333 and ____
Hypothalamus und die Zentren des autonomen Nervensystems:
Physiologie, Arch. f. Psychiatrie, 1936, 103, 548. Cited in Ransom, S.
W. and Magoun, H. W. The hypothalamus Ergbn. Physiol., 1939 41, 56-
163
Hess, E. H. (1965). Attitude and pupil size. Scientific American, 212 46-54.
Hess, E H and Polt, J M (1964). Pupil size in relation to mental activity during
simple problem solving. Science, 143 p. 1190-1192. Cited in Ransom,
S. W. and Magoun, H. W. The hypothalamus Ergbn. Physiol., 1939 41,
56-163
Hinde, R. A. (1962). Sensitive Periods and the Development of Behavior. In S.
A. Barnett (Ed.) Lessons from Animal Behavior for the Clinician. London:
National Spastics Society Study Group and Heinemann Medical
Books, Ltd..
Hokfelt, Bernt (1951). Noradrenaline and adrenaline in mammalian tissues;
distribution under normal and pathological conditions with special
reference to the endocrine system. Stockholm: Zetterlund and
Thelander. (In Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, v. 25, Supplement 92)
______ (1971). Catechol Conent of the mammalian (including human)
suprarenal from foetal to adult stages. Scandinavian Physiological
Congress, Abstracts of Communications. Acta Physiologica Scandinavia,
v. 25, Supp 89, p. 41-43.
Hoover, President Herbert. 1951 speech at the Iowa Centennial Foundation.
Horney, Karen (1939). New Ways in Psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton &
Co. Inc..
______ (1950). Neurosis and Human Growth. New York: W. W. Norton &
Company.
Howe, M. J. A. (1970). Introduction to Human Memory. New York, Harper & Row,
Publishers, Inc..
______ (1970). Repeated presentation and recall of meaningful prose. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 61: 214-19.
______ (1975). Learning in Infants and Young Children. London: McMillan.
Bibliography 523
______ (1969). Psychology and Religion: West and East. Collected Works, 11.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
______ (1970). Aion. Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self. Collected
Works, 9, 11. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
______ (1970). Mysterium Coniunctionis. Collected Works, 14. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
______ (1971). Psychological Types. Collected Works, 6. Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press.
______ (1972). The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. (20 vols. ed. by H. Read, M.
Fordham, G. Adler, NY, 1953. Translated by Richard Francis
Carrington Hull. Bollingen Series XX. Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Jung, R. and Hassler R. (1960). The Extrapyramidal Motor System. In J. Field,
(Ed.), Handbook of Physiology, Section I: Neurophysyiology, Vol 2,
Washington D.C., American Physiological Society, p. 863-927.
______ (1960). The extrapyramidal motor system. In J. Field, (Ed.), Handbook of
Physiology. p. 863-927. In J. Field, Magoun, H. W. and Hall, V. E.
(Eds.) Section I: Neurophysiology Vol. II Baltimore, MD: Williams &
Wilkins, p. 781-1439.
Kahn, Herman (1960). On Thermonuclear War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Kahn, Herman and Wiener, Anthony J. (1967). The Year 2000: A Framework for Speculation
on the Next Thirty-Three Years. New York: MacMillan Co..
Katz, Joseph in Baltes, Paul B. and Schaie, Warner, et al. (1973). Life-Span
Developmental Psychology: Personality and Socialization. New York:
Academic Press.
Keats, John (1818). Letter to John Hamilton Reynolds from Keats, May 3,
1818. In Rollins, Heyder Edward (Ed.) (1958). The letters of John Keats.
Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kendler, Howard (1968). Basic Psychology. 2nd ed. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts.
Kleitman, N. and Engelmann, T. G. (1953). Sleep Characteristics of Infants.
Journal of Applied Physiology, Vol. 6, p. 266-282.
Klir G. J. (1969). An Approach to General Systems Theory. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company.
Kluckhohn, Clyde and Murray, Henry A. (Eds.) (1948). Personality in nature,
society, and culture. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Klukhohn, Clyde (1951). Values and Value-Orientations in the Theory of
Action. In T. Parsons (Ed.) Toward a General Theory of Action.
Cambridge.
Kluckhohn, Clyde. (1962). In Richard Kluckhohn, (Ed.), Culture and Behavior.
New York: Free Press.
Koch, Sigmund (1954). In W. K. Estes, S. Koch, K. MacCorquodale, P. E.
Meehl, C. G. Mueller, Jr., William N. Schoenfeld, & William S.
Verplanck (Eds.), Modern Learning Theory: A Critical Analysis of Five
Examples. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Bibliography 525
Loevinger, Jane and Ruth Wessler (1970). Measuring Ego Development. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Looft, William (1973). Personality and Socialization. In Paul B. Baltes and
Warner Schaie, et al. Life-Span Developmental Psychology. Academic Press,
p. 47-52.
Lowenstein, Rudolph M. (1953). Drives, Affects, Behavior. New York:
International University Press, Inc..
Lowenstein, Rudolph et. al. (1966). Psychoanalysis: A General Psychology Essays in
Honor of Heinz Hartmann. New York: International University
Publishers.
Lyons, Joseph. (1963). Psychology and the Measure of Man. New York: Free Press of
Glencoe, Crowell-Collier Publ. Co.
Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince. Chapter 17.
Maddi, Salvatore (1972). Personality Theories: Comparative Analysis. Homewood:
Dorsey.
______ (1967). The Existential Neurosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 72:311-
25.
Mahabharata. (1953). The Ramayana and the Mahabharata. Translated by Romesh
C. Dutt. London: J. M. Dent & Sons.
Maier, Norman R. F. and Schneirla, T. C. (1949). Mechanisms in Conditioning.
Psychological Review, Vol. 49, p. 117-134.
Maier, Norman R. F., Solem, Allen R., and Maier, Ayesha (1964). Supervisory &
Executive Development. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
______ (1963). Problem-Solving Discussions and Conferences. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
______ (1967). Assets and liabilities in group problem solving: The need for an
integrative function. Psychological Review, Vol. 74, No. 4, p. 239-249.
______ (1970). Problem Solving and Creativity in Individuals and Groups. Belmont,
CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
Malinowski, Bronislaw (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays.
Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
______ (1960). Freedom & Civilization. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press.
______ (1954). Magic, Science & Religion. New York: Doubleday Anchor Book.
______ (1961). The Dynamics of Culture Change. New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press.
Manchu Dynasty (1904). See “The Holy Edict of K'Ang-Hi” translated by Paul
Carus, with (Daisetz) Teitaro Suzuki. The Monist: A Quarterly Magazine
Devoted to the Philosophy of Science. Volume XIV. Chicago: The Open
Court Publishing Company.
Mao, Chairman (1958) Introducing a Co-operative. [and initiating the Great
Leap Forward leading to the Cultural Revolution] April 15, 1958 in
Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung. Vol. IV. 1965 Peking: Foreign Language
Press.
Maskin, Myer (1960). Adaptation of Psychoanalytic Techniques to Specific
Disorders. In Jules Masserman (Ed.) Science and Psychoanalysis Vol, III.
528 Bibliography
Whyte, William H. (1956). The Organization Man. New York: Simon and
Schuster.
White, Robert. W. (1959). Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of
Competence. Psychological Review, No. 66, p. 297-333.
______ (1963). The Study of Lives: Essays on Personality in Honor of Henry A.
Murray. New York: Atherton Press, p. 280-303.
Wicker, Tom (1975). A Time to Die. New York: Quadrangle Books.
Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann (1965). The Blue and Brown Books (Preliminary
Studies for the Philosophical Investigations). New York: Harper, 1965.
______ (1966). The Philosophical Investigations: A Collection of Critical Essays.
George Pitcher (Ed.), Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Witkin, H. A., Lewis, H. B., Hertzman, M. K., Machover, P., Meissner, Bretnall,
and Wapner, W. (1954). Personality through Perception. New York:
Harper.
Witkin, H. A. (1962). Psychological Differentiation: Studies in Development. New York:
Wiley.
Wolfe, R. (1963). The Role of Conceptual Systems in Cognitive Functioning at
Varying Levels of Age and Intelligence. Journal of Personality, 31 (1), p.
108-122.
Wolff, Werner (1943). The Expression of Personality: Experimental Depth Psychology.
New York: Harper & Bros.
______ (1950). Values and Personality. New York: Grune and Stratton.
Woolf, Leonard (1931 and 1940). After the Deluge: A Study of Communal Psychology.
(2 vols) New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Wriston, Henry M., et al. (1960). Goals for Americans: The Report of the President’s
Commission on National Goals. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
542
543
INDEX
A
AN, 199 167, 182, 184, 428, 449, 454, environment to the organism, 201,
456, 457, 458, 461, 480 285, 378
concept of space and time, 201 organism to the environment, 214
CP and, 209 more effective, 476
DQ guilt, 208 Adler, Alfred, 144, 146, 272, 317, 462
ER relationship with, 209 see will to power
examples, 202 Adorno, T. W., 124
management of, 211-212 adrenaline, 245 see noradrenaline
motivation, 200 adult
pre-cultural, 55 behavioral system, 1, 120
transition from, 213 educational problems, 4, 6, 39
A’N’, 365, 184, 421, 428, 433, 448, mature, 42, 171 see behavior and
455, 456, 459, 465, 509 conceptions and mature and
A' problems of existence, 359 personality and psychological
as seen from DQ or ER, 385 personality, 488
change, 189 psychological development
readiness for, 388 15 key points, 129
character of a society, 392 vertical orientation, 488
compulsiveness, 377 see affect, 227, 293 see emotions
compulsiveness deliberate inarticulation, 348
contextual knowledge, 377 Africa, 204, 219
feelings, 340 age, 34, 35, 36, 346, 367, 452
formulation of the theory, 370 see research, subjects
intellectual doubt, 137 aggression, 68, 92, 98, 123, 233, 312,
learning, institutions of, 392 362, 419, 448, 455, 500
less fear, 373 CP, 227, 241, 249, 341
management, 375, 382-388 DQ, 284, 287, 292, 295
mismanagement, 385, 386 FS against self, 341
motivation, 382, 386 DQ/cp, 455
overview, 368 disappearance, 125
systemic thinking, 380 express self, not at expense, 96
transition, A’N’ to B’O’, 389 subordinated in higher levels, 378
values A’N’, 368, 369, 370, 380, aggressiveness, 122, 124, 125, 312,
383, 388, 390-391 424, 426, 430, 480
absolutism, 62, 65, 68, 69, 76, 87, 78, appearance of, 341
108, 110, 130, 147,184, 254, 263, 309, CP, DQ, and ER, 378
310, 314, 316, 317, 320, 338, 409, 435, homo homini lupus view, 22
436 Ahammer, Inge M., 34, 37
absolutistic existential state see DQ Allport, Gordon, 417
acceptance, 79, 231, 346 Alor people, 500
prescriptions of authority, 261 Amazon, BO living in, 219
Adams, D.K., 320 ambiguity (DQ), 278, 280, 298, 303
adjustment, 285 and (ER), 332
544 Index
change conditions resolution (continued) readiness, 35, 157, 222, 291, 495
DQ, 432 see change, rediness in BO, CP, etc.
ER, 321-323, 324 social, 170
FS, 353, 354-355 step-like, quantum-like, 484, 485
A’N’, 383, 386 systems, 188
particular to the level, 492 tendency, 481-482
support for six-elements view, values, 31, 334, 370, 402
413 China, 12, 17, 494
conditions for existence, 104, 207, Red Guards, 12
479, 480 Christian, 253, 262
conditions of existence, 29, 30, ethics, 261
155, 181, 213, 319, 464, 482, 490 form of existence, 255
cultural, 449 Roman attack on early, 253
difficult to stop once started, 492 class, 254, 256, 258, 310
direction of, 100, 106, 113, 156 class-ordered life, 268
environmental, 170 CP sorting, 233, 244
change or adjust to, 184-185, middle, 492, 501
447 closed, 136, 270, 302, 303, 465, 468,
excess energy required, 222, 492 473, 476-478, 488, 494 see open and
four demarcation points in: a, b, c, arrested and systems
d, (also alpha, beta, gamma, behavior, 477
delta), 178 closed system, 29, 30, 149, 303,
fixation, 180 465, 486, 509
intellectual climate, 150 minds, 386
instigators for sub-types, 100 unalterable, 269, 302
external authority, 100, 102, DQ, 267, 269
105, 109, 270, 278 ER, 472
information, 102, 377 cognition, human characteristic, 362
need to know principles, 489 cognitive, 129, 351 see psychology
own actions, 81, 321-322 activation, 366
peer pressure, 101 awareness of the self, 148 see
long term, 346 awareness and self
managing, 384 brain substance, 202
organismic-environment complex, capacities, 162, 237
151 complexity, 129
personality, 477, 483, 484 dissonance, 296
point of reference, 189, 378 see change, conditions, six
principles of, 489 employee, 383
process of, 107, 170, 270, 438, inadequacy, 178
455, 482 level of existence, 362, 367
progressive or regressive, 99, 114, man, 223, 224, 367, 368
148, 160, 178, 484, 506 processes, 373
psychology, 29 see psychology realm, 363, 369
regress, 107, 113, 178, 180, 185 state, undifferentiated, 223
see regressive structure, 284
AN to, 202 communism see cultural systems
DQ to ER ‘regressive’ competition, 57, 274, 310, 318, 319
disorganization, 271 cooperation more valued than, 339,
societal, 390 354, 359
responsibility for, 19 fixing in electrical industry, 345
non-competitive, 344, 382
548 Index
ER, 307, 184, 309, 421, 428, 435, 447, emergence, 1, 2, 29, 141, 159, 185, 223,
449, 453, 456, 459, 462, 465, 501 319, 397, 417, 476, 480, 506
AN and, 209 behavior, 141 see behavior
change, 321 higher levels of, 148
readiness for change, 326 ends, 497
closed, 472 growth, 160
examples, 310 levels of, 30
nodal ER conception, 311 man's nature, 480
example #1, ER/fs conception, organism, 500
330 psychosocial systems, 5
example #2, FS/er conception, process, 465, 508
332 stages, 7, 20
five states of existence, 283 emergent cyclical (theory of adult
interpersonal relations, 314, 334 biopsychosocial systems
learning, 319 development)
management, 315, 320-326, 357 34 principles of E-C theory, 486
mismanagement, 325-326 adult personality and cultural
motivation, 320 institutions, 175
self-motivated, 430 basics of, 167, 168
transition ER to FS, 327, 334, 341, compared to stage conceptualizers,
360, 472 418, 439
values ER, 272, 309, 310, 311, compared with other theories, 440-
314, 315, 316, 317, 326, 334, 446
338, 344, 359, 360 conception 2, 29, 33, 56, 160, 167,
education, 13, 29, 482, 507 405
see learning and AN, BO, CP, etc. double-helix model see double-
A’N’ society in, 392 helix
broader meaning for, 496 formulation of, 370
experience, 328 model, 159, 163
forms appropriate to levels, 497 or unfolding pattern, 468
in the person for FS, 352 points in the process of life, 166
methods, 375 psychological life space of, 163
move to more complex levels, 497 spurt and plateau, 188
subsidized, 64 support from general psychology,
success, 391 407
Edwards Preference Inventory, 124 theory, 166, 506
egalitarian, 351 adult of, 51, 196, 417
ego, 68, 70, 442 formulation of, 369
definition, 347 personality and cultural
development, 461, 463 institutions, 33
see Loevinger wave-like manifestation, 113, 176,
ego-less (in A’N’), 379 435, 506
encroachment, 314, 319 spurt-like, plateau-like, 178
involved, 267 successive equilibrations, 477
superego, 455 formulation of, 370
egocentric, 22, 60, 78, 225, 248, 258 movement, 113
see CP emotion, 29, 70, 87, 103, 412, 502, 508
egoistic, 209 AN, 208
elaborating system, 162, 165, 173, 410 A’N’, 372
see Z affection, 87
Elkind, David, x, 31, 416 affective, 293
552 Index
M condition or process, 38
personality
Machiavelli, Niccolo, 23, 317, 425, 426, criteria for, 41, 155
430, 480 views of, 399
principles, 317, 324 state, 39
Maddi, Salvatore R., 21 May, Rollo, 141
magic, 217, 218, 222, 353, 392, 502 McClelland, David, 281
Mahabarata, 126 McGregor, Douglas, 244, 270, 353,
Maier, Norman, 115 446, 452
majority rule, 503 Mead, Margaret, 500
Makaha, Hawaii, 134 meaning of the E-C concept, 491
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 14 medical service problem (for lower
man see Homo sapiens levels), 495
supremacy of, 502 meditation, 352, 358
problem-solving organism, 484 Mehrabian, Albert, 180
management, 3, 6, 29, 196, 490, 507 Menzies, R., 220
see AN, BO, CP, etc. methodology, 47, 406, 448
adult behavior of, 33 see research and data
congruent with levels, 30 change data, 105
participative, 325, 354-355, 356, observations, 370
360, 490 research design, 44
revised through E-C theory, 490 summary, 91
managerial means, 33 Millon, Theodore, 25
Manchu dynasty, 255 Mills, Wilbur, 210
Mao Tse Tung [Zedong], 12, 17, 255, Mindanao, Phillippines, 28, 127, 169,
257, 389 203
Marketing Character, 345-346 see Mittelman, James H, 13
Fromm model, 37, 142, 149, 159, 160, 174
Maslow, Abraham, 5, 6, 24, 25, 26, 49, see emergent cyclical and personality
140, 145, 147, 149, 396, 398, 400, 452 building, 147
ability, 25 ten basic criteria for model of
belonging system, 334, 498 mature personality, 155
doubts about hierarchy, 147 morality, 52, 62, 318, 443, 453, 498
self-actualizing person, 148, 399, conventionality, 453
400, 452 CP, 233, 247
Maslowian, 27 E-C theory, 453
conception of personality, 399 ER, 315
hierarchy, 27, 147, 464 immoral behavior, 31, 351
position, 27 Kohlberg, 453
terminology, 147 meanings of breakdown, 490
theory tested by Aronoff, 463 problems of, 6
thinking, 418 Morgan, C.T., 408
materialism, 23, 334, 339, 492 Moslems, 257
see ER and conceptions motivation, 109, 409, 463, 507 see
mature see behavior needs
assumptions about, 148 apppropriate to state, 29, 507
behavior, 16 deficiency and abundance, 128,
conforming and non-conforming 347, 358, 362
concepts of, 149 Mowrer, O. Hobart, 146, 256, 266
life for tomorrow, 17 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 212
ways of, 11
Index 559
typology: E-C not a typological theory, managed and manager’s, 269, 323-
173 324
mature, 29
means, 255, 381
U never-ending quest for new, 504
Uganda, 13, 414 phenomenistic, 219
Ullman, L.P., 17 pluralism, 370
ultimate psychological or cultural state, reactive, 213
155 return to religiousness, 339
unethical behavior, 489 see immoral sacrificial, 256, 257, 272, 308, 318
Union Carbide, 387 Scott’s, 122, 125
United States Steel, 387 secular, 310
Utopian, 17, 49, 154, 172, 449, 474 traditionalistic, 218
valuing others, 147
verbal interaction, capacity for, 273
V verifiability, 405, 406
Value Analysis, 321, 356 tests of, 439
value system, 253, 271, 275, 318, 338, verticality, 488
360, 368 see behavior and express self Viet Nam, 378, 491
and sacrifice self violence, 3, 59, 213, 229, 291, 292, 359
A’N’ (7th level), 366, 367, 380, 393 non-violence, 357
BO (2nd level), 214 vitalism, 153, 154, 159
B’O’ (8th level), 401 von Bertalanffy, Ludwig, 14, 417, 432,
CP, 234, 245, 249 485
DQ (4th level), 246, 252, 257 von Goethe, Johann Wolfgang, 476
moral breakdown, 490 von Neuman, John, 483
sacrificial, 255 von Neuman, John and Morgenstern,
value systems, 78, 280, 310, 362, 489 Oskar, 483
higher level, 213
incongruent, 358 W
transitional state, 402
values, 2, 6, 19, 29, 30, 31, 238, 410, Wallace, Alfred Russel, 37, 174
490, 501, 503 see AN, BO, CP, etc. Walters, R.H., 17
and change war, 13, 234, 291, 315
absolutistic sacrificial, 256 for organizational power, 324
as value systems, 213 reasons for, 341
bodily-based, 21 stress of, 202
breakdown, 29, 223-224, 305, 345, World War I German soldier, 204
360, 368, 401 Watson, John, 17
casting aside old, 20, 308 wave-like, 113, 176, 177, 178, 186, 188,
change, 31, 339-340, 345, 354, 368, 428, 435, 447, 450, 506, 508
370, 401 see emergent-cyclical conception and
commonality over differential psychosocial development, complex
classification, 339 variation, 129
dissimilar but congruent for ways of being, 128
viability, 323 welfare, 205, 211, 242, 494, 495
from one's own experience, 78 facilitating movement through
future, 363, 369, 391 existential states, 495
‘generation gap,’ 359 housing, 496
individualistic, 503 human welfare as a goal, 491
570 Index
Werner, Heinz, 6
West Virginia, 219
West, G.B., 412, 415
what versus how a person thinks, 135
White, Leslie, 14
Whyte, Lancelot, 417
Whyte, William H., 345
will to power, 311, 317, 318 see Adler
and Nietzsche
win, 228, 298, 319
-lose, 184, 294, 301
circumvent rules to, 315
winning not everything, 503
Witkin, H.A., 27
Wolfe, R., 412, 415
X
X - activating system, 162, 165, 167,
172, 174, 180, 185, 397, 407, 412
see Coping Systems
Y
Y - supporting system, 162, 165, 167,
174, 366, 367, 397, 407, 412
see Coping Systems
Y system and A'N', 367
Z
Z - elaborating system, 162, 165, 167,
173, 174, 406, 397, 410
see Coping System