STRESS-STRAIN CURVES

STRESS-STRAIN CURVE FOR CONCRETE

Figure 1 shows a typical stress–strain curve for a concrete cylinder under uniaxial
compression. Note that the stress–strain behaviour is never truly linear and that the maximum
compressive stress at failure is approximately 0.8 × characteristic cube strength (i.e. 0.8fcu).
However, the actual behavior is rather complicated to model mathematically and, therefore,
BS 8110 uses the modified stress–strain curve shown in Fig. 2 for design. This assumes that
the peak stress is only 0.67 (rather than 0.8) times the characteristic strength and hence the
design stress for concrete is given by

.....................(1)

In other words, the failure stress assumed in design is approximately 0.45/0.8 = 56 per cent of
the actual stress at failure when near perfect specimens are tested.

FIG 1 :Actual stress–strain curve for concrete in compression.

FIG 2: Design stress–strain curve for concrete in compression (Fig. 2.1, BS 8110).
STRESS–STRAIN CURVE FOR STEEL REINFORCEMENT

A typical tensile stress–strain curve for steel reinforcement is shown in Fig. 3. It can be
divided into two regions: (i) an elastic region where strain is proportional to stress and (ii) a
plastic region where small increases in stress produce large increases in strain. The change
from elastic to plastic behavior occurs at the yield stress and is significant since it defines the
characteristic strength of reinforcement ( fy). Once again, the actual material behavior is
rather complicated to model mathematically and therefore BS 8110 modifies it to the form
shown in Fig. 4 which also includes the idealized stress–strain relationship for reinforcement
in compression. The maximum design stress for reinforcement in tension and compression is
given by

..................(2)

Fig. 3 Actual stress–strain curve for reinforcement

FIG 4. Design stress–strain curve for reinforcement (Fig. 2.2, BS 8110).

DURABILITY AND FIRE RESISTANCE

Over recent years, much effort has been directed towards improving the durability
requirements, particularly with regard to the protection of steel reinforcement in concrete
from corrosion caused by carbonation and chloride attack. The other main mechanisms of
concrete deterioration which are addressed in BS 8500-1 are freeze/thaw attack, sulphate
attack and alkali/silica reaction. In general, the durability of concrete structures is largely
achieved by imposing limits on:

1. the minimum strength class of concrete;

2. the minimum cover to reinforcement;
3. the minimum cement content;
4. the maximum water/cement ratio;
5. the cement type or combination;
6. the maximum allowable surface crack width.

Nominal cover

Nominal cover is the design depth of concrete cover to all steel reinforcement, including
links. It is the dimension used in design and indicated on the drawings. The actual cover to all
reinforcement should never be less than the nominal cover minus 5 mm. ( (BS 8110, section
3.3.1.1 ).
It should;
protect the steel against corrosion (see 3.3.3); protect the steel against fire (see 3.3.6); and
allow for surface treatments such as bush hammering.

BS 8110,section 3.3.1.2 Bar size

The nominal cover to all steel should be such that the resulting cover to a main bar should not
be less than the size of the main bar or, where bars are in pairs or bundles, the size of a single
bar of cross-sectional area equal to the sum of their cross-sectional areas. At the same time the
nominal cover to any links should be preserved.
BS 8110, section 3.3.1.3 Nominal maximum size of aggregate
Nominal covers should be not less than the nominal maximum size of the aggregate. The
nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate should not normally be greater than one-quarter
of the minimum thickness of the concrete section or element.
For most work, 20 mm aggregate is suitable. Larger sizes should be permitted where there are
no restrictions to the flow of concrete into sections. In thin sections or elements with closely
spaced reinforcement, consideration should be given to the use of 14 mm or 10 mm nominal
maximum size.
BS 8110, section 3.3.1.4 Concrete cast against uneven surfaces
In such cases the specified nominal cover should generally be increased beyond the values
given in Table 3.3 to ensure that an adequate minimum cover will be obtained. For this
reason, the nominal cover specified where concrete is cast directly against the earth should
generally be not less than 75 mm. Where concrete is cast against an adequate blinding, a
nominal cover of less than 40 mm (excluding blinding)
should not generally be specified.
3.3.2 Ends of straight bars
Cover is not required to the end of a straight bar in a floor or roof unit where its end is not
exposed to the weather or to condensation.
Requirements for cover

Nominal cover to all reinforcement (including links) to meet durability

requirements (Bs8110 Table 3.3)

Nominal cover to all reinforcement to meet specified periods of fire resistance (based on
Table 3.4, BS 8110)
 BEAMS
Beams in reinforced concrete structures can be defined according to:
1. cross-section
2. position of reinforcement
3. support conditions.

Some common beam sections are shown in Fig.5 below Beams reinforced with tension steel
only are referred to as singly reinforced. Beams reinforced with tension and compression steel
are termed doubly reinforced. Inclusion of compression steel will increase the moment
capacity of the beam and hence allow more slender sections to be used. Thus, doubly
reinforced beams are used in preference to singly reinforced beams when there is some
restriction on the construction depth of the section.

FIG5 :Beam sections: (a) singly reinforced; (b) doubly reinforced; (c) T-section; (d) L-
section.

Under certain conditions, T and L beams are more economical than rectangular beams since
some of the concrete below the dotted line (neutral axis), which serves only to contain the
tension steel, is removed resulting in a reduced unit weight of beam. Furthermore, beams may
be simply supported at their ends or continuous, as illustrated in Fig.6 below.

Fig 6 Support conditions: (a) simply supported;(b) continuous.

Figure below illustrates some of the notation used in beam design. Here b is the width of the
beam, h the overall depth of section, d the effective depth of tension reinforcement, d' the
depth of compression reinforcement, As the area of tension reinforcement and As′ the area of
compression reinforcement.
Fig 7 Notation

SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM DESIGN

All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear. In addition, excessive deflection of
beams must be avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance of the structure may become
impaired. Bending and shear are ultimate states while deflection is a serviceability state.
Generally, structural design of concrete beams primarily involves consideration of the
following aspects which are discussed next:
1. bending
2. shear
3. deflection.

Bending (clause 3.4.4.4, BS 8110)

Consider the case of a simply supported, singly reinforced, rectangular beam subject to a
uniformly distributed load as shown in Figs below
Fig 8: Stress and strain distributions at section A-A: (a) section; (b) strains; (c) triangular
(low strain);(d) rectangular parabolic (large strain); (e) equivalent rectangular.

Assuming that plane sections remain plane, the strain distribution will be triangular (Fig8. b).
The stress distribution in the concrete above the neutral axis is initially triangular (Fig8. c),
for low values of strain, because stress and strain are directly proportional . The stress in the
concrete below the neutral axis is zero, however, since it is assumed that the concrete is
cracked, being unable to resist any tensile stress. All the tensile stresses in the member are
assumed to be resisted by the steel reinforcement and this is reflected in a peak in the tensile
stress at the level of the reinforcement.
As the intensity of loading on the beam increases, the mid-span moment increases and the
distribution of stresses changes from that shown in Fig. c to d. The stress in the reinforcement
increases linearly with strain up to the yield point. Thereafter it remains at a constant value
(Fig. 4). However, as the strain in the concrete increases, the stress distribution is assumed to
follow the parabolic form of the stress–strain relationship for concrete under compression
(Fig. 2)
The actual stress distribution at a given section and the mode of failure of the beam will
depend upon whether the section is (1) under-reinforced or (2) over-reinforced. If the section
is over reinforced the steel does not yield and the failure mechanism will be crushing of the
concrete due to its compressive capacity being exceeded. Steel is expensive and, therefore,
over-reinforcing will lead to uneconomical design. Furthermore, with this type of failure there
may be no external warning signs; just sudden, catastrophic collapse.

If the section is under-reinforced, the steel yield and failure will again occur due to crushing
of the concrete. However, the beam will show considerable deflection which will be
accompanied by severe cracking and spalling from the tension face thus providing ample
warning signs of failure. Moreover, this form of design is more economical since a greater
proportion of the steel strength is utilised. Therefore, it is normal practice to design
sections which are under-reinforced rather than over-reinforced

In an under-reinforced section, since the reinforcement will have yielded, the tensile force in
the steel (Fst) at the ultimate limit state can be readily calculated using the following:
 Fst = design stress × area

 
= … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)


where
fy = yield stress
As = area of reinforcement
γms = factor of safety for reinforcement (= 1.15)

However, it is not an easy matter to calculate the compressive force in the concrete because of
the complicated pattern of stresses in the concrete. To simplify the situation, BS 8110 replaces
the rectangular–parabolic stress distribution with an equivalent rectangular stress distribution
(Fig. 8e). And it is the rectangular stress distribution which is used in order to develop the
design formulae for rectangular beams given in clause 3.4.4.4 of BS 8110. Specifically, the
code gives formulae for the following design parameters which are derived below:

1. ultimate moment of resistance

2. area of tension reinforcement
3. lever arm.

(i) Ultimate moment of resistance, Mu. Consider the singly reinforced beam shown
in Fig..9.

Fig 9: Ultimate moment of resistance for singly reinforced section.

The loading on the beam gives rise to an ultimate design moment (M) at mid-span. The
resulting curvature of the beam produces a compression force in the concrete (Fcc) and a
tensile force in the reinforcement (Fst). Since there is no resultant axial force on the beam, the
force in the concrete must equal the force in the reinforcement:

 =  … … … … . . (4)

These two forces are separated by a distance z, the moment of which forms a couple (Mu)
which opposes the design moment. For structural stability Mu ≥ M where
 Mu = Fccz = Fstz............(5)

From the stress block shown in Fig. 3.9(c)

 =  ×  … … … … … … . . (6)

0.67
= 0.9 … … … … … … . . (7)


0.9
=− … … … … … … … … … . . (8)
2

In order to ensure that the section is under reinforced, BS 8110 limits the depth of the neutral
axis (x) to a maximum of 0.5d, where d is the effective depth (Fig. 9(b)). Hence

x ≤ 0.5d ..............................(9)

By combining equations Eqn (5) - (9) and putting γmc = 1.5 (Table 2.1) it can be shown that
the ultimate moment of resistance is given by:

Mu = 0.156fcubd2 ..................(10)

Note that Mu depends only on the properties of the concrete and not the steel reinforcement.
Provided that the design moment does not exceed Mu (i.e. M ≤ Mu), a beam whose section is
singly reinforced will be sufficient to resist the design moment. The following section derives
the equation necessary to calculate the area of reinforcement needed for such a case.

(ii) Area of tension reinforcement, As. At the limiting condition Mu = M, equation 5

becomes

M = Fst·z...........................11

 
# =  … … … (12) (from equation 3)


Rearranging and putting γms = 1.15 (Table 2.1)gives

As =
#
 = … … … … … … (13)
0.95 

Solution of this equation requires an expression for z which can either be obtained graphically
or by calculation.

iii) Lever arm, z. At the limiting condition Mu = M, equation 5 becomes

 0.67
# = F((  = 0.9 ()* +,- 7)


(putting γmc = 1.5)

= 0.4 

( − )
= 0.4 2 ()* ,- 8)
0.9
8
=  ( − )
9

Dividing both sides by fcubd2 gives

# 8  
= / 0 /1 − 0
  . 9  

# 
1212-3 4 = - 512-3 6 = 327
 . 

0 = 8 . − 6 + 94/8

This is a quadratic and can be solved to give


6 = = 0.5 + ;(0.25 − 4/0.9)

This equation is used to draw the lever arm curve in design charts and is usually expressed in
the following form

 =  /0.5 + ;(0.25 − 4/0.9)0 … … … … … … . (14)

Once z has been determined, the area of tension reinforcement, As, can be calculated using
equation 13. In clause 3.4.4.1 of BS 8110 it is noted that z should not exceed 0.95d in order to
give a reasonable concrete area in compression. Moreover it should be remembered that
equation 13 can only be used to determine As provided that M ≤Mu or K ≤ K′ where

# #
4= - 4 ′
=
 .  .

To summarise, design for bending requires the calculation of the maximum design moment
(M) and corresponding ultimate moment of resistance of the section (Mu). Provided M ≤ Mu
or K ≤ K′, only tension reinforcement is needed and the area of steel can be calculated using
equation 13 via equation 14. Where M > Mu the designer has the option to either increase the
section sizes (i.e. M ≤ Mu) or design as a doubly reinforced section.
Example

A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span carries characteristic dead (including self-
weight of beam), gk, and imposed, qk, loads of 12 kNm−1 and 8 kNm−1 respectively
(Fig.below). The beam dimensions are breadth, b, 275 mm and effective depth, d, 450 mm.
Assuming the following material strengths, calculate the area of reinforcement required.

fcu = 30 Nmm−2
fy = 500 Nmm

Ultimate load (w) = 1.4gk + 1.6qk

= 1.4 × 12 + 1.6 × 8 = 29.6 kNm−1

=> . 29.6 × 7.
<23- *)*- (#) = = = 181.3 ?@*
8 8

A>2* *)*- ) 2-B (# ) = 0.156 .

= 0.156 × 30 × 275 × 450. × 10CD = 260.6 ?@*

Since Mu > M design as a singly reinforced beam.

# 181.3 × 10CD
4= = = 0.1085
 . 30 × 275 × 450.

 =  /0.5 + ;(0.25 − 4/0.9)0

 = 450 /0.5 + ;(0.25 − 0.1085/0.9)0 = 386.8**

386.8** ≤ 0.95 (= 427.5**) FG

# 181.3 × 10D
 = = = 987**.
0.95  0.95 × 500 × 386.8

For detailing purposes this area of steel has to be transposed into a certain number of bars of a
given diameter. This is usually achieved using steel area tables similar to that shown in Table
below. Thus it can be seen that four 20 mm diameter bars have a total cross-sectional area of
1260 mm2 and would therefore be suitable. Hence provide 4H20. (N.B. H refers to high yield
steel bars (fy = 500 Nmm−2); R refers to mild steel bars (fy = 250 Nmm−2)
Cross-sectional areas of groups of bars (mm2)

Shear (clause 3.4.5, BS 8110)

The shear in a reinforced concrete beam without shear reinforcement is carried by a
combination of three main components. These are

(i) concrete in the compression zone

(ii) dowelling action of tensile reinforcement
(iii) aggregate interlock .across flexural cracks.

The actual behavior is complex, and difficult to analyse theoretically, but by applying the
results from many experimental investigations, reasonable simplified procedures for analysis
and design have been developed.

The behavior of reinforced concrete beams at failure in shear is distinctly different from their
behavior in flexure. They fail abruptly without sufficient advanced warning, and the diagonal
cracks that develop are considerably wider than flexural cracks.

Shear failure may arise in several ways, but the two principal failure mechanisms are shown
in Fig. 10.With reference to Fig. 10.(a), as the loading increases, an inclined crack rapidly
develops between the edge of the support and the load point, resulting in splitting of the beam
into two pieces. This is normally termed diagonal tension failure and can be prevented by
providing shear reinforcement.
Fig 10

The second failure mode, termed diagonal compression failure (Fig. 10.(b)), occurs under the
action of large shear forces acting near the support, resulting in crushing of the concrete. This
type of failure is avoided by limiting the maximum shear stress to 5 N/mm2 or 0.8 (fcu)0.5 ,
whichever is the lesser.

The design shear stress,ν, at any cross-section can be calculated from:

H
7= … … … . (15)

where
V design shear force due to ultimate loads
b breadth of section
d effective depth of section

In order to determine whether shear reinforcement is required, it is necessary to calculate the shear
resistance, or using BS 8110 terminology the design concrete shear stress, at critical sections along
the beam. The design concrete shear stress, νc,

The design concrete shear stress can be determined using Table 3.8 (Bs 8110).

For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm2, the values in this table may be
multiplied by ( fcu/25)1/3 .The value of fcu should not be taken as greater than 40.
The values are in terms of the percentage area of longitudinal tension reinforcement
(100As/bd ) and effective depth of the section (d).

Generally, where the design shear stress exceeds the design concrete shear stress, shear
reinforcement will be needed. This is normally done by providing

1. vertical shear reinforcement commonly referred to as ‘links’

2. a combination of vertical and inclined (or bentup) bars as shown below.

Fig11

(i) Shear resistance of links

Consider a reinforced concrete beam with links uniformly spaced at a distance Sv, under the
action of a shear force V. The resulting failure plane is assumed to be inclined approximately
45° to the horizontal as shown in Fig. 12.

Fig 12

The number of links intersecting the potential crack is equal to d/Sv and it follows therefore
that the shear resistance of these links, Vlink, is given by
Vlink = number of links × total cross-sectional area of links × design stress

= (d/sv) × Asv × 0.95fyv........................................(16)

The shear resistance of concrete, Vconc, can be calculated from

 7
H = … … … … … … (17)


The design shear force due to ultimate loads, V, must be less than the sum of the shear
resistance of the concrete (Vconc) plus the shear resistance of the links (Vlink), otherwise
failure of the beam may arise. Hence

H ≤ H8I + HJKIL


H ≤ 7  + M P 95O
NO
Dividing both sides by bd gives
1
H/ ≤ 7 + M P 0.95O
NO

1
7 ≤ 7 + M P 0.95O
NO
Rearranging gives
O (7 − 7 )
= … … … … … . . (18)
NO 0.95O

Where( 7 − 7 ) is less than 0.4N/mm2 then links should be provided according to

O 0.4
= … … … … … … . . (19)
NO 0.95O

Equations 18 and 19 provide a basis for calculating the minimum area and
spacing of links.

Shear reinforcement should be provided in beams according to the criteria given

in Table 3.7 BS 8110.

Thus where the design shear stress is less than half the design concrete shear
stress (i.e. υ < 0.5υc),no shear reinforcement will be necessary although, in
practice, it is normal to provide nominal links in all beams of structural
importance.
Where
0.5υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) nominal links based on equation 19 should be provided.
Where υ > υc + 0.4, design links based on equation 3.15 should be provided.

spacing of links in the direction of the span should not exceed 0.75d. This will
ensure that at least one link crosses the potential crack.

Example Design of shear reinforcement for a beam (BS 8110)

Design the shear reinforcement for the beam shown in the Fig. below using high
yield steel (fy = 460 Nmm−2) links for the following load cases:

(i) qk = 0
(ii) qk = 10 kNm−1
(iii) qk = 29 kNm−1

DESIGN CONCRETE SHEAR STRESS, υc

100 100 ∗ 1960

= = 1.10
 325 ∗ 547

From Table 3.11, υc = 0.65 Nmm−2 (see below)

 (i) qk = 0

Design shear stress (υ)

Total ultimate load, W, is

= = >>(1.4g S + >>1.6qS )span >>= (1.4 × >>10 + >>1.6 >>× 0)6 = >>84 kN

Since beam is symmetrically loaded

RA = RB = W/2 = 42 kN

Ultimate shear force (V) = 42 kN and design shear stress, υ, is

H 42 × 10[
7= = = 0.24@/**.
 325 ∗ 547
Diameter and spacing of links

By inspection
υ < 0.5υc

i.e. 0.24 Nmm2 < 0.32 Nmm2. Hence from Table 3.7 Bs 8110, shear reinforcement may not be
necessary.

(ii) qk = 10 kNm−1
Design shear stress (υ)
( )

Total ultimate load, W, is

W = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span = (1.4 × 10 + 1.6 × 10)6 = 180 kN
Since beam is symmetrically loaded
RA = RB = W/2 = 90 kN
Ultimate shear force (V ) = 90 kN and design shear stress, υ, is
 H 90 × 10[
7= = = 0.51@/**.
 325 × 547

Diameter and spacing of links

By inspection
υc /2 < υ < (υc + 0.4)
i.e. 0.32 < 0.51< 1.05. Hence from Table 3.7 Bs 8110, provide nominal links for
whole length of beam according to

O 0.4 0.4 × 325

= = = 0.27
NO 0.95O 0.95 × 500

This value has to be translated into a certain bar size and spacing of links and is
usually achieved using shear reinforcement tables similar to Table 3.13. The
spacing of links should not exceed 0.75d = 0.75 × 547 = 410 mm.
From Table 3.13 it can be seen that 8 mm diameter links spaced at 300 mm
centres provide a Asv/Sv ratio of 0.335 and would therefore be suitable. Hence
provide H8 links at 300 mm centres for whole length of beam

Deflection (clause 3.4.6, BS 8110)

In addition to checking that failure of the member does not arise due to the
ultimate limit states of bending and shear, the designer must ensure that the
deflections under working loads do not adversely affect either the efficiency or
appearance of the structure. BS 8110 describes the following criteria for ensuring
the proper performance of rectangular beams:

1. Final deflection should not exceed span/250.

2. Deflection after construction of finishes and partitions should not exceed
span/500 or 20 mm, whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m. However, it is
rather difficult to make accurate predictions of the deflections that may arise in
concrete members principally because the member may be cracked under
working loads and the degree of restraint at the supports is uncertain. Therefore,
BS 8110 uses an approximate method based on permissible ratios of the
span/effective depth. Before discussing this method in detail it is worth clarifying
what is meant by the effective span of a beam.
 (i) Effective span (clause 3.4.1.2, BS 8110)..
All calculations relating to beam design should be based on the effective
span of the beam. For a simply supported beam this should be taken as
the lesser of
(1) the distance between centres of bearings, A, or (2) the clear distance
between supports, D, plus the effective depth, d, of the beam (Fig. 3.25).
For a continuous beam the effective span should normally be taken as
the distance between the centres of supports.

(ii) Span/effective depth ratio.

Generally, the deflection criteria in (1) and (2) above will be satisfied
provided that the span/effective depth ratio of the beam does not exceed
the appropriate limiting values given in Table 3.9. The span/effective
depth ratio given in the table apply to spans up to 10 m long. Where the
span exceeds 10 m, these ratios should be multiplied by 10/span (except
for cantilevers).
The basic ratios may be further modified by factors taken from Tables 3.10 and
3.11, depending upon the amount of compression and tension reinforcement
respectively.