Chapter Three Literature Survey

2.4 Factors Affecting Sonic Waves and Dynamic Elastic

Properties
2.4.1 Matrix Minerals effects

In clastic rocks, the mineralogy variance is wide (e.g ., quartz, feldspar,

a

clays, etc.), where the effect of these difference in mineral content on acoustic
[52]
waves propagation in clastic, is larger than in carbonate rocks . Where, this
smaller effect of minerals variance on velocity in carbonate, is partly traced
back to the small difference in velocities between the two major carbonate
minerals; dolomite (6.9 km/s) and calcite (6.5 km/s) [17].

Pan et al (2016)[52], studied the influence of minerals on rocks elastic

properties, they used an approach to eliminate the confining pressure effects
on elastic properties of the rock using the Hoek-Brown criterion, then through
obtaining the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis the mineral compositions,
thereby to establish the relationship between the mineralogy and the estimated
elastic properties through regression analysis. They found there is a piecewise
linear relationship between the mineral compositions with the rock mechanical
properties. They also concluded that the mechanical properties of rocks are
related to the mineral compositions which could form the framework of rocks.
Oppositely, that the mechanical properties of rocks may not be influenced by
the increase of the mineral compositions when the mineral compositions could
not form the framework of rocks. And there is a range for low strength
minerals e.g. clays, 10% below which these minerals will not influence the
mechanical properties of rocks.

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Chapter Three Literature Survey

2.4.2 Rock Density

Gardener at al (1974), studied the P-wave velocity behavior in the upper

layers of Earth (depths less than 25,000 ft.) as The resultant of density and
velocity is required in producing elastic impedance, and bulk modulus, whom
are needed to do the seismic reflection results. They found the P-waves varies
systematically with different factors, one of them as the Data, which inferred
using a set of field and laboratory data of saturated sedimentary rocks from
different sites and depths, show a simple systematic relationship exists
between the velocity and density [18].

Potter and Stewart (1990), concluded an empirical relation between Shear-

waves velocity& density instead of Gardner's formula [53].

Potter (1999), made some important observations by examining the relation

of density, P-wave (Vp ) and S-wave (Vs ) velocity in various clastic-rocks, by
o o o

the use of Gardner formula. He found that the Gardner’s formula m fairly well
o

with measurements, where they have a clear trend line regardless of the
scattering in points. They concluded that Gardner formula is mainly applicable
for deriving Vp, Vs or density, when not available and it has the tendency to
deviate due to the effects of lithology, porosity, and pore fluids [54].

Anselmetti and Eberli (1993), illustrated that in carbonate rocks a crossplot o

of velocity versus density for scattering around a best fit-line where this shows
the effect of some pore-types on elastic properties. They implied that Gardner
formula, where, it is a applicable in all sedimentary rocks, needs an
adjustment, if it applied in carbonate by shifting to high velocity values to
estimate reliable velocity density points [55].

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Chapter Three Literature Survey

Brocher (2005), compiled data on crustal rocks from the laboratory,

wireline logs, VSP (vertical seismic profiling), and field tomography, from
which he found new nonlinear, multivalued, and quantitative empirical
relations among VP, VS, bulk density, and Poisson’s ratio for crustal rocks.
His relation is based on data represented a broad range of lithology, including
clastic and carbonate in addition to igneous rocks. These relationships, show
an abrupt increment of Vs and Vp increase to (3.5 km/s), which leads in to
o o o

larger S-wave velocities in young sedimentary rocks, than what was assumed
generally. He didn’t show the dependence of the relations on pore fluids; it
can be assumed that these represent water-saturated rocks [56].

2.4.3 Porosity effect

As known the velocity of P-waves within a formation is affected by the

matrix of the rock in addition to the saturating fluid within the pores, while the
shear wave velocity will not be affected by fluids. And both shear and
compression velocities will be attenuated as porosity increases, because the
dependency of sonic velocities on porosity is clear: the higher porosity, will
o

cause the velocity to be lower, due to the quantity of attenuating fluids effect
is higher and also due to the higher tortuously of matrix paths within whom
the P-wave should propagate, and the porosity will reduce the rigidity of the
rock and hence shear wave velocity will decrease. And regarding the
mechanical properties it will reduce the rigidity and increases rock
compressibility, consequently the porosity controls the value of bulk and shear
moduli of dry rock [17], [57].

Wyllie et al (1956), studied the porosity influence on velocity within

clusters of glass-spheres, in dry & saturated conditions with water, brine,

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Chapter Three Literature Survey

Organic-liquids and plastics. They found a direct relationship between the

inverse of the compressional velocity and the total porosity for saturated
rocks. This relation is generally accepted as being extensively precise for a
wide spectrum of conditions. The formula is working better in the porous
compacted rocks which are saturated with water, especially in sandstone.
When the gas is present, it may cause the results to erroneous. The Wyllie
time average severed from some limitations such as this formula is based on
an inaccurate physical figure, where assumes that the acoustic velocity is
th

affected only by the rock dry frame and the characteristics of pore fluid. Not
[18] [58]
representative for use in compacted formations and carbonates , . Where,
in carbonate rocks, it is working in many intergranular, interparticle porosity
o

types; where these pores types are analogous to sandstones. While, in

carbonate with vugs rocks, the transit-time is governed by primary inter-
granular, inter-particle porosities, and resulted porosity is tending, in certain
situations, to be undervalued by post depositional porosity (secondary) [59].

Raymer et al. (1980), proposed an empirical transform of compressional

slowness to porosity based on extensive field observations. Despite it is mere
an empirical equation, but it is providing dominant transit-time to porosity
relationship, for a wide range of porosity, it suggests more uniform dry-frame
velocity for a given lithology, where it allows the estimation of porosity in
unconsolidated, of low-velocity sandstones without determining the “lack of
compaction,” or any correction coefficient. The formula can be used for any
fluid that saturating the pores saturating fluid besides brine, when the fluid
velocity and density are known [60].
a

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Chapter Three Literature Survey

2.4.4 Clay Content

Milner (1982), investigated the effect of clay on sonic velocities and found
that as the clays have the tendency to reduce the rock matrix shear, thus the
shear velocity will decrease with an amount higher than the compressional
velocity will do, hence, the lump sum value of resulting Vp/Vs will increase
[61]
.

Han et al (1986), shows that the shear and compressional velocities are
linearly related to clay contents and porosity, and the effects of clay content on
the shear velocity are larger than on the compressional velocity. They found
that, the interaction among clays and formation-water is affecting the elastic
moduli and velocities. The pore-fluids (e.g. brines) as showed by literature it
tends to reduce shear moduli values, at the same time it tends to increase the
bulk modulus of clays that associated in sandstone matrix, thus, the clays
influence shear moduli values greater than bulk moduli. In low consolidation
sands, on the other side, water-saturated clay minerals work to increase the
stiffness of grain-grain contacts. Which results in, increase in the bulk moduli
due to the enhancement in the contacts among grains. in water-saturated clays
[57]
.

2.4.5 Pressure Effect

From laboratory observations, the dependency of velocity on pressure is

o

non-linear. In many cases, waves velocities are increasing as the pressure

increases at low ranges, and the increase will be slight at high pressures. The
velocity is increasing with pressure increase in sedimentary rocks, this traced
back to the enhanced contact between rock grains, which will reduce the
porosity, and the fracture and defects closing as overburden weigh increases
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Chapter Three Literature Survey
with depth. in other word due to change in rock skeleton properties. We
should note that, the velocity isn’t influenced by the absolute value of the
external or internal pressures, rather than the effective pressure, where it is the
difference between external and internal pressures. Because effective pressure
reflects the degree of rock compaction and its bulk modulus, hence, that sonic
velocities depend on compaction. Where the higher compaction of rocks, the
higher sonic velocities are [17].

Wyllie et al. (1958), performed a laboratory study to illustrate the effect of

several factors on velocity, one of them is pressure. They showed that the
velocity increases rapidly as the effective pressure increases, till a nearly
stable, terminal velocity is attained. For zero effective pressure (i.e equal
.

hydrostatic pressure on both matrix and pores saturant), the velocity shows a
constant behavior for water saturated rocks [62].

He and Schmitt (2006), noticed from their experiments, both the

compressional and Shear waves velocities increase strongly at low differential
pressures, after that tending to stabilize at higher pressures. As per Gassmann
formula, the compressional wave velocity increases while Sear wave
velocities faintly decrease because of changes in density changes due to
saturation. However, they observed a remarkable increase of Sear wave with
water saturation at low effective pressures. The authors attributed this bias, of
experimental velocities from the theoretical results, to frequency dispersion
and to micro-cracks whom leading to local fluid-flow. According to these
experiments, it was found that the pore pressure has an opposite influence to
confining pressure on both compression and Shear velocities [63].

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Chapter Three Literature Survey

2.4.6 Pore-Fluids and Saturation Effect

The different pore-fluids (Brine, Hydrocarbons), affect the elastic properties

as a part of the whole “rock” system, this influence is a result of the pore
fluids effects on elastic wave velocities which is different for P- & S- waves.
It was found that P-wave velocities decrease and S-wave velocities increase
with increasing light hydrocarbon in place [64].

King (1966), studied the influence of various pore-fluids (kerosene, gas,

brine, and kerosene, and no mixing), on the P- & S waves velocities. He
observed that, compressional wave velocity increases from as the fluid
changed from gas to kerosene to brine; hence, this increases with fluids
densities increase. While Shear wave velocities show an invert behavior as the
fluids don’t sustain shear resistance; thus, it shows no effect on bulk rock
shear modulus. However, densities increase from gas to kerosene to brine,
which causes S-wave velocities to decrease [64].

2.5 Petrophysical Application of Dynamic Elastic Properties

2.5.1 Lithology

Pickett (1963), showed that Vp /V s can used as tool to identify the

’ a

lithology, which is relatively independent of variations in effective stress

(depth) and porosity, suggesting the Vp/Vs ratio value is (1.9) in limestone,
(1.8) for dolomite, and (1.6 - 1.7) in sandstones. Picket’s velocity cross plot
considers one of earliest on application of mechanical properties in formation
evaluation. Lithology could be predicted quantitatively by the ratio Δts/Δtc, in
mixed lithology (binary mixtures) formations [66].

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Chapter Three Literature Survey
Lorenzetti (1992), used an Artificial-Neural-Network (ANN), in order to
infer formations lithology by utilizing compressional and Shear waves
measurements (Vs and Vp). Where the Vp, Vs, Poisson’s ratio, and depth are
used as input layer [67].

Krief et al (1990), introduced new algorithms derived from mechanical

properties to determine lithology in clean and complex formations, through a
quasi-linear relationship between the squares of the velocities of the
compressional and shear waves which contributes valuable information on the
lithology and the fluid content of the formation [68].

2.5.2 Fluid Content

Pickett velocity cross plot, is considered in logging interpretation as a fluid

identifying tool in exploration well. The application of Vp /V s Xplot for pore-
j f

fluid identification, relies on the fact that S-wave sensitivity to change in the
pore-fluid type is higher than P-wave, thus, Vp /V s combination would be
j f

much more sensitive to the change in pore-fluid, than the single use of either
V p or V s alone. But this method assumes, uniform porosity and same
h t

lithology in the studied formation, which makes it not accurate for complex
lithology. Hamada (2007), tested Field examples to identify different fluid
types (wat r, o l and g s) by the use Vp/Vs method. And he recommended to use
e i a

this method, in logging interpretation as a fluid indicator, despite its limitation

[69]
.

Krief et al, exploited the fact that, the velocity of the P wave is different in
water, oil and gas, in their Vp2-Vs2 cross plot. Even they differentiation
between water and gas is particularly easy [68].

Souder (2002), developed a method for a carbonate in the Middle East

based on Ramam oorthy and M urphy (1998), for predominated pore-fluid
l u

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Chapter Three Literature Survey
identification in a hig porosity carbonate, by using acoustic log and porosity-
h

logs. Both methods are involving the mechanical properties such as fluid bulk
modulus as a qualitative indicator for fluids type [70],[71].

Condessa (1995), Introduced a method of hydrocarbon identification in

fresh-water bearing reservoirs using Poisson’s ratio, but this method depends
on several factors, particularly clay contents which greatly affects processed
Poisson’s Ratio values, what can be misleading on defining reservoirs with
hydrocarbons [72].

2.5.3 Porosity

Porosity estimation is one of the classical applications of sonic log data, e.g.
[15]
Wyllie et al, Raymer et al, and others . These velocity-porosity transforms
are not considered mechanical as much as they are physical. But many studies
are seeking a direct relationship between porosity and mechanical properties,
where The theory of Biot (1941) links the Lamé coefficients to the porosity,
while the theory of Gassmann (1951) gives the relationship between the bulk
[17]
moduli and the porosity . Krief et al, derived expression relation shear
[68]
modulus to porosity in complex formation . Similar relation is derived by
Ramamoorthy et al (1995) [73], where they proposed a technique to determine
tot l porosiy in shaly-sands by using shea modulus and the rock clay volume.
a t r

Kamel et al (1992) [74], introduced a method based on reforming of tim -a erage e v

formula by involving Biot-Gassmann flow coe ficient, where it allows permits

f

to determine the porosi y accurately.

t

2.5.4 Water Saturation

Kamel et al (1992), introduced an algorithm to derive formation parameters

“Archie parameters” (a, m, and n), from the mechanical properties, hence the
water saturation independently from resistivity and porosity logs, which is
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Chapter Three Literature Survey
considered a new interpretation method. the authors tested the validity of their
model against core-samples analyses results of various formations and those
whom resulted from the application of their new method, where it gave very
[74]
close results to the lab measurements . Mitchell (1981), also proposed a
relation between cementation factor (m) and the P-Wave & S-Wave velocities,
he found that, the ratio of wave velocities for “pure” limestone (as given by
Picket) may in fact be a measure of m for many values of different types of
[75]
limestone and not only a means of lithology estimation . Kozlowski et al
(2017), used Gassmann equations, to determine the variations in seismic
velocities, which induced by the pore-fluid saturation, where they explored the
application of Vp /Vs versus Vs cross plot, for quantitative determination of
h k j

[76]
water saturation . Kadhim et al (2016), concluded a relation new approach
relating cementation exponent to dynamic elastic properties [77].

53