UNIT – I

INTRODUCTION

Topics: Introduction to distribution systems, Load modelling and characteristics.

Coincidence factor, contribution factor loss factor - relationship between the load factor
and loss factor. Classification of loads (residential, commercial, agricultural and
Industrial) and their characteristics.

INTRODUCTION TO DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The main function of an electrical power distribution system is to provide power
to individual consumer premises. Distribution of electric power to different consumers
is done with much low voltage level. Distribution of electric power is done by
distribution networks. Distribution networks consist of Distribution substation,
Primary distribution feeder, Distribution Transformer, Distributors, Service mains.
Electric power distribution is the final stage (step) in the delivery of electric
power; it carries electricity from the transmission system to individual consumers.
Distribution substations connect to the transmission system and lower the transmission
voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV with the use of
transformers. Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power
to distribution transformers located near the customer's premises. Distribution
transformers again lower the voltage to the utilization voltage of household appliances
and typically feed several customers through secondary distribution lines at this
voltage. Commercial and residential customers are connected to the secondary
distribution lines through service drops. Customers demanding a much larger amount
of power may be connected directly to the primary distribution level or the
sub-transmission level.
A power system contains all electric equipment necessary for supplying the
consumers with electric energy. This equipment includes generators, transformers
(step - up and step - down), transmission lines, sub-transmission lines, cables and
switchgear as shown in the following single line diagram.

Each system contains generators delivering power at generation voltage level,

say 13.8 kV. By using step - up transformers, the voltage is stepped up to 345 kV and the
power is transmitted through the transmission system. The transmission lines are
followed by 138 kV sub-transmission lines through terminal substations. The sub-
transmission lines end at the zone substations where the voltage is stepped down to
13.8 kV to supply the MV distribution network at different distribution points (DPs) as
primary feeders. Then the electricity is delivered to the consumers by secondary
feeders through local distribution transformers at low voltage (LV).
System planning is essential to assure that the growing demand for electricity
can be satisfied by distribution system additions which are both technically adequate
and reasonably economical.
The distribution system is particularly important to an electrical utility for two
reasons:
(i) Its close proximity to the ultimate customer
(ii) Its high investment cost

LOAD MODELLING & LOAD CHARACTERISTICS

Basic Definitions:

(i) Demand: The demand of an installation or system is the load at the receiving
terminals averaged over a specified interval of time. Here, the load may be given in
kilowatts, kilovars, kilovoltamperes, kiloamperes, or amperes.

(ii)Demand interval: It is the period over which the load is averaged. This selected Δt
period may be 15 min, 30 min, 1 h, or even longer. Of course, there may be situations
where the 15 and 30 min demands are identical.

(iii)Maximum demand: “The maximum demand of an installation or system is the

greatest of all demands which have occurred during the specified period of time”. The
maximum demand statement should also express the demand interval used to measure
it.

(iv)Diversified demand (or coincident demand): It is the demand of the composite

group, as a whole, of somewhat unrelated loads over a specified period of time. Here,
the maximum diversified demand has an importance. It is the maximum sum of the
contributions of the individual demands to the diversified demand over a specific time
interval.

(v) Demand Factor: It is the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the total
connected load of the system.
The demand factor(DF) is

The demand factor is always less than “1” & it is dimensionless.

(vi)Connected load: It is the sum of the continuous ratings of the load consuming
apparatus connected to the system or any part thereof.

(vii)Utilization factor: It is “the ratio of the maximum demand of a system to the rated
capacity of the system”. Therefore, the utilization factor (Fu) is

The utilization factor can also be found for a part of the system.
(viii)Plant factor: It is the ratio of the total actual energy produced or served over a
designated period of time to the energy that would have been produced or served if the
plant (or unit) had operated continuously at maximum rating. It is also known as the
capacity factor or the use factor.

(ix) Load factor: It is “the ratio of the average load over a designated period of time to
the peak load occurring on that period”. Therefore

where T is the time, in days, weeks, months, or years. The longer the period T, the
smaller the resultant factor. It is less than or equal to 1.0.

(x) Diversity factor: It is “the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of
the various subdivisions of a system to the maximum demand of the whole system”.
Therefore, the diversity factor (FD) is
The diversity factor can be equal to or greater than 1.0.
We know,

(xi)Coincidence factor: It is “the ratio of the maximum coincident total demand of a

group of consumers to the sum of the maximum power demands of individual
consumers comprising the group both taken at the same point of supply for the same
time”. Therefore, the coincidence factor (Fc) is

(xii)Load diversity: It is “the difference between the sum of the peaks of two or more
individual loads and the peak of the combined load”. Therefore, the load diversity (LD)
is

(xiii)Contribution factor: The contribution factor of the ith load to the group
maximum demand. It is given in per unit of the individual maximum demand of the ith
load.
Therefore,
(xiv)Loss factor: It is “the ratio of the average power loss to the peak-load power loss
during a specified period of time”. Therefore, the loss factor (FLS) is

The above equation is applicable for the copper losses of the system not for the iron
losses.
LOAD CUVRE & LOAD DURATION CURVES
(I) LOAD CURVE:
In a power system, a load curve or load profile is a chart illustrating the variation
in demand/electrical load over a specific time. Generation companies use this
information to plan how much power they will need to generate at any given time.
A graphical plot showing the variation in demand for energy of the consumers on
a source of supply with respect to time is known as the load curve. If this curve is
plotted over a time period of 24 hours, it is known as daily load curve. If it is plotted for
a week, month, or a year, then it is named as the weekly, monthly or yearly load curve
respectively.
A typical load curve is shown in the following fig.

(II) Load duration curve:

The load duration curve reflects the activity of a population quite accurately with
respect to electrical power consumption over a given period of time.
A load duration curve (LDC) is used in electric power generation to illustrate the
relationship between generating capacity requirements and capacity utilization. A LDC
is similar to a load curve but the demand data is ordered in descending order of
magnitude, rather than chronologically.
A load duration curve illustrates the variation of a certain load in a downward
form such that the greatest load is plotted in the left and the smallest one in the right.
On the time axis, the time duration for which each certain load continues during the day
is given.
There are some facts about the LDC that can be summarized as:
The LDC is an arrangement of all load levels in a descending order of magnitude.
The area under the LDC represents the energy demanded by the system (consumed).
It can be used in economic dispatching, system planning and reliability evaluation.
It is more convenient to deal with than the load curve.
A load duration curve (LDC) is used in electric power generation to illustrate the
relationship between generating capacity requirements and capacity utilization.
EX:

CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS
A load or power requirement (also KVA) of a consumer varies widely. A broad
classification for the loads is
(i) Domestic and residential loads
(ii) Only lighting loads (such as for street lights etc.)
(iii) Commercial loads (shops, business establishments, hospitals)
(iv) Industrial loads
(v) Agricultural loads and other rural loads

(i) Domestic and residential loads :

The important part in the distribution system is domestic and residential loads
as they are highly variable and erotic. These consist of lighting loads, domestic
appliances such as water heaters, washing machines, grinders and mixes, TV and
electronic gadgets etc. The duration of these loads will be few minutes to few hours in a
day. The power factor of these loads in less and may vary between 0.5 to 0.7. In
residential flats and bigger buildings, the diversity between each residence will be less
typically between 1.1 to 1.15. The load factor for domestic loads will be usually 0.5 to
0.6.
The daily load curve (DLC) of a week day of domestic load in terms of peak
real(P) and reactive(Q) loads as shown in the fig.
(ii) Commercial loads:
Commercial load consists of lights, fans, air conditioners, heaters and other
electrical appliances used in commercial establishments such as shops, restaurants and
market places. The DLC of a week day of this type of load in terms of peak load is as
shown in the fig.

(iii)Industrial Loads:
Industrial loads are of greater importance in distribution systems with demand
factor 0.7 to 0.8 and load factor 0.6 to 0.7. For heavy industries demand factor may be
0.9 and load factor 0.7 to 0.8.
Typical power range for various loads:
Cottage and small-scale industries : 3 to 20 kW.
Medium industries (like rice mills, oil mills, workshops, etc.) : 25 to 100 kW
Large industries connected to distribution feeders (33 kV and below) : 100 to 500 kW
The DLC of a week day of this type of load in terms of peak load is as shown in
the fig.

(iv)Water supply and Agricultural Loads:

Most of the panchayats , small and medium municipalities have protected water
system which use pumping stations. They normally operate in off peak time and use
water pumps ranging from 10 h.p to 50 h.p or more, depending on the population and
area.

(v) Agricultural and Irrigation Loads:

Most of the rural irrigation in India depends on ground water pumping or lifting
water from tanks or nearby canals. In most cases design and pump selection is very
poor with efficiencies of the order of 25%. Single phase motors are used (up to 10 h.p.)
for ground water level 15 m in depth or less with discharge of about 20 l/sec while
multi stage submersible pumps with discharge of 800 to 1000 l/m may require motors
of 15 to 20 h.p.

(vi)Sensitive and important Loads:

With computer applications in every area, computer loads and computer
controlled process loads are often non-linear and sensitive. They require close tolerance
limits for voltage and frequency (voltage limit ± 5% and frequency ± 0.5 Hz with
unbalance and wave form distortion less than 3%. This requires special attention while
providing the distribution of electric power.

Relationship between the Load and Loss Factors

In general, the loss factor cannot be determined from the load factor. However,
the limiting values of the relationship can be found. Assume that the primary feeder
shown in Figure is connected to a variable load. The Figure(a) shows an arbitrary and
idealized load curve.
However, it does not represent a daily load curve. Assume that the off-peak loss
is PLS,1 at some off-peak load P1 and that the peak loss is PLS,2 at the peak load P2. The
load factor is
 (a)
From Fig(a),

Sub. Pav in the above equation,

From Fig(a),

Sub. PLS,av in the above equation

 Therefore, the loss factor cannot be determined directly from the load factor. The
reason is that the loss factor is determined from losses as a function of time, which, in
turn, is proportional to the time function of the square load.
However, Buller and Woodrow developed an approximate formula to relate the
loss factor to the load factor as
The following Figure gives three different curves of loss factor as a function of load
factor.
 PROBLEMS
1) A generating station has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum demand of 20
MW; the units generated being 60 x 10°. Calculate i) The demand factor ii) Load factor.
SOL:

2) A generating station supplies the following loads 15000 kW, 12000 kW, 8500
kW, 6000 kW, 450 W. The station has a maximum demand of 22000 kW. The annual
load factor of the station is 48 %. Calculate i) The number of units supplied annually ii)
The diversity factor iii) The demand factor.
SOL:
3) The supply system has following types of loads:

What are connected load of each category if the demand factor for domestic, commercial
and industrial loads are 50, 60 and 80 percent respectively? Find i) Maximum demand
ii) Daily energy consumption iii) Load factor.
SOL:
4) A generating station has the following daily load cycle.

Draw the load curve and find i) Maximum demand ii) Units generated per day iii)
Average load iv) Load factor
SOL:

5) The maximum demand of a power station is 96000 kW and daily load curve is
described as follows:

(i) Determine the load factor of power station.

(ii) What is the load factor of standby equipment rated at 30 MW that takes up all load
in excess of 72 MW ?
SOL:
6) A power station has to supply load as follows :

(i) Draw the load curve.

(ii) Draw load duration curve.
(iii) Calculate the load factor.
SOL:
7) A generating station has a maximum demand of 5000 kW, and the daily load on the
station is as follows:

i) Draw the load curve.

(ii) Draw the load duration curve.
(iii) Load factor.
SOL:
8) The yearly duration curve of a certain plant can be considered as a straight line from
300 MW to 80 MW. Power is supplied with one generating unit of 200 MW capacity and
two units of 100 MW capacities each. Determine :
(i) Installed capacity (ii) Load factor.
(iii) Plant factor (iv) Maximum demand.
(v) Utilization factor.
SOL:
9) A 60 MW power station has an annual peak load of 50 MW. The power station
supplies loads having maximum demands of 20 MW, 17 MW, 10 MW and 9 MW. The
annual load factor is 0.45. Find :
(i) Average load. (ii) Energy supplied per year.
(iii) Diversity factor. (iv) Demand factor.
SOL:
10) The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average loss factor of
its feeders, if the substation services
a. An urban area
b. A rural area
SOL:

11) The daily demands of three consumers are given below :

Time Consumer 1 Consumer 2 Consumer 3
12 midnight to 8 A.M. No load 200 W No load
8 A.M. to 2 P.M. 600 W No load 200 W
2 P.M. to 4 P.M. 200 W 1000 W 1200 W
4 P.M. to 10 P.M. 800 W No load No load
10 P.M. to midnight No load 200 W 200 W
Plot the load curve and find (i) maximum demand of individual consumer (ii) load factor
of individual consumer (iii) diversity factor and (iv) load factor of the station.
SOL:
The Fig. shows the load curve.