REDUCE

User’s Manual
Free Version

Anthony C. Hearn and Rainer Schöpf

https://reduce-algebra.sourceforge.io/

September 21, 2019

Copyright 2004–2019
c Anthony C. Hearn, Rainer Schöpf and contributors to the
Reduce project. All rights reserved.

Reproduction of this manual is allowed, provided that the source of the material is
clearly acknowledged, and the copyright notice is retained.
Contents

Abstract 27

1 Introductory Information 31

2 Structure of Programs 35
2.1 The REDUCE Standard Character Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.2 Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.3 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5 Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6 Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.7 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3 Expressions 45
3.1 Scalar Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.2 Integer Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Boolean Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4 Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5 Proper Statements as Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4 Lists 51
4.1 Operations on Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.1 LIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.2 FIRST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1
2 CONTENTS

4.1.3 SECOND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.4 THIRD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.5 REST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.6 . (Cons) Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.7 APPEND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.8 REVERSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.9 List Arguments of Other Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.10 Caveats and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5 Statements 55
5.1 Assignment Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1.1 Set and Unset Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.2 Group Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.3 Conditional Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5.4 FOR Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.5 WHILE . . . DO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 REPEAT . . . UNTIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.7 Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.7.1 Compound Statements with GO TO . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.7.2 Labels and GO TO Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.7.3 RETURN Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6 Commands and Declarations 67

6.1 Array Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2 Mode Handling Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.3 END . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.4 BYE Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.5 SHOWTIME Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.6 DEFINE Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

7 Built-in Prefix Operators 71

7.1 Numerical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
CONTENTS 3

7.1.1 ABS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.1.2 CEILING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.1.3 CONJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
7.1.4 FACTORIAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.5 FIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.6 FLOOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.7 IMPART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.1.8 MAX/MIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.1.9 NEXTPRIME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.1.10 RANDOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.1.11 RANDOM_NEW_SEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.1.12 REPART . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.1.13 ROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.1.14 SIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.2 Mathematical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7.3 Bernoulli Numbers and Euler Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.4 Fibonacci Numbers and Fibonacci Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.5 Motzkin numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6 CHANGEVAR operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.6.1 CHANGEVAR example: The 2-dim. Laplace Equation . . . 83
7.6.2 Another CHANGEVAR example: An Euler Equation . . . . 83
7.7 CONTINUED_FRACTION Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
7.8 DF Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
7.8.1 Switches influencing differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.8.2 Adding Differentiation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.9 INT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.9.1 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.9.2 Advanced Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.9.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.10 LENGTH Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4 CONTENTS

7.11 MAP Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

7.12 MKID Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.13 The Pochhammer Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.14 PF Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.15 SELECT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.16 SOLVE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.16.1 Handling of Undetermined Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.16.2 Solutions of Equations Involving Cubics and Quartics . . 98
7.16.3 Other Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.16.4 Parameters and Variable Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.17 Even and Odd Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.18 Linear Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.19 Non-Commuting Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.20 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.21 Declaring New Prefix Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7.22 Declaring New Infix Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.23 Creating/Removing Variable Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

8 Display and Structuring of Expressions 109

8.1 Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.2 The Expression Workspace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.3 Output of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.3.1 LINELENGTH Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.3.2 Output Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.3.3 Output Control Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.3.4 WRITE Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.3.5 Suppression of Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3.6 FORTRAN Style Output Of Expressions . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3.7 Saving Expressions for Later Use as Input . . . . . . . . . 121
8.3.8 Displaying Expression Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.4 Changing the Internal Order of Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
CONTENTS 5

8.5 Obtaining Parts of Algebraic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

8.5.1 COEFF Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.5.2 COEFFN Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.5.3 PART Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.5.4 Substituting for Parts of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

9 Polynomials and Rationals 129

9.1 Controlling the Expansion of Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.2 Factorization of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.3 Cancellation of Common Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.3.1 Determining the GCD of Two Polynomials . . . . . . . . 133
9.4 Working with Least Common Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.5 Controlling Use of Common Denominators . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9.6 divide and mod / remainder Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.7 Polynomial Pseudo-Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.8 RESULTANT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.9 DECOMPOSE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.10 INTERPOL operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.11 Obtaining Parts of Polynomials and Rationals . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.11.1 DEG Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.11.2 DEN Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.11.3 LCOF Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.11.4 LPOWER Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.11.5 LTERM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.11.6 MAINVAR Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.11.7 NUM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.11.8 REDUCT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.11.9 TOTALDEG Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.12 Polynomial Coefficient Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.12.1 Rational Coefficients in Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.12.2 Real Coefficients in Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6 CONTENTS

9.12.3 Modular Number Coefficients in Polynomials . . . . . . . 147

9.12.4 Complex Number Coefficients in Polynomials . . . . . . 147
9.13 ROOT_VAL Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

10 Assigning and Testing Algebraic Properties 149

10.1 REALVALUED Declaration and Check . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.2 SELFCONJUGATE Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.3 Declaring Expressions Positive or Negative . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

11 Substitution Commands 153

11.1 SUB Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
11.2 LET Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
11.2.1 FOR ALL . . . LET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.2.2 FOR ALL . . . SUCH THAT . . . LET . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.2.3 Removing Assignments and Substitution Rules . . . . . . 157
11.2.4 Overlapping LET Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
11.2.5 Substitutions for General Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 159
11.3 Rule Lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.4 Asymptotic Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

12 File Handling Commands 169

12.1 IN Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
12.2 OUT Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
12.3 SHUT Command . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
12.4 REDUCE startup file . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

13 Commands for Interactive Use 173

13.1 Referencing Previous Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
13.2 Interactive Editing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
13.3 Interactive File Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

14 Matrix Calculations 177

14.1 MAT Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
CONTENTS 7

14.2 Matrix Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

14.3 Matrix Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
14.4 Operators with Matrix Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.4.1 DET Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
14.4.2 MATEIGEN Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
14.4.3 TP Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.4.4 Trace Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.4.5 Matrix Cofactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.4.6 NULLSPACE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
14.4.7 RANK Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
14.5 Matrix Assignments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
14.6 Evaluating Matrix Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

15 Procedures 185
15.1 Procedure Heading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
15.2 Procedure Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
15.3 Matrix-valued Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
15.4 Using LET Inside Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
15.5 LET Rules as Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
15.6 REMEMBER Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

16 User Contributed Packages 193

16.1 ALGINT: Integration of square roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
16.2 APPLYSYM: Infinitesimal symmetries of differential equations . 195
16.2.1 Introduction and overview of the symmetry method . . . . 195
16.2.2 Applying symmetries with APPLYSYM . . . . . . . . . . 201
16.2.3 Solving quasilinear PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
16.2.4 Transformation of DEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
16.3 ARNUM: An algebraic number package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8 CONTENTS

16.4 ASSERT: Dynamic Verification of Assertions on Function Types . 224

16.4.1 Loading and Using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
16.4.2 Type Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
16.4.3 Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16.4.4 Dynamic Checking of Assertions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
16.4.5 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
16.4.6 Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
16.4.7 Possible Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
16.5 ASSIST: Useful utilities for various applications . . . . . . . . . . 230
16.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
16.5.2 Survey of the Available New Facilities . . . . . . . . . . 230
16.5.3 Control of Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
16.5.4 Manipulation of the List Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
16.5.5 The Bag Structure and its Associated Functions . . . . . 238
16.5.6 Sets and their Manipulation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 240
16.5.7 General Purpose Utility Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
16.5.8 Properties and Flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
16.5.9 Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
16.5.10 Handling of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
16.5.11 Handling of Transcendental Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 253
16.5.12 Handling of n–dimensional Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.5.13 Handling of Grassmann Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
16.5.14 Handling of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
16.6 AVECTOR: A vector algebra and calculus package . . . . . . . . 260
16.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
16.6.2 Vector declaration and initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
16.6.3 Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
16.6.4 Vector calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
16.6.5 Volume and Line Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
16.6.6 Defining new functions and procedures . . . . . . . . . . 266
CONTENTS 9

16.6.7 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

16.7 BIBASIS: A Package for Calculating Boolean Involutive Bases . . 267
16.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
16.7.2 Boolean Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
16.7.3 Pommaret Involutive Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
16.7.4 BIBASIS Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
16.7.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
16.8 BOOLEAN: A package for boolean algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
16.8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
16.8.2 Entering boolean expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
16.8.3 Normal forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
16.8.4 Evaluation of a boolean expression . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
16.9 CALI: A package for computational commutative algebra . . . . . 278
16.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
16.9.2 The Computational Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
16.9.3 Basic Data Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
16.9.4 About the Algorithms Implemented in CALI . . . . . . . 300
16.9.5 A Short Description of Procedures Available in Algebraic
Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
16.9.6 The CALI Module Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
16.10CAMAL: Calculations in celestial mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
16.10.2 How CAMAL Worked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
16.10.3 Towards a CAMAL Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
16.10.4 Integration with REDUCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
16.10.5 The Simple Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
16.10.6 A Medium-Sized Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
16.10.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
10 CONTENTS

16.11CANTENS: A Package for Manipulations and Simplifications of

Indexed Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
16.11.2 Handling of space(s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
16.11.3 Generic tensors and their manipulation . . . . . . . . . . 348
16.11.4 Specific tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
16.11.5 The simplification function CANONICAL . . . . . . . . . 378
16.12CDE: A package for integrability of PDEs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
16.12.1 Introduction: why CDE? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
16.12.2 Jet space of even and odd variables, and total derivatives . 398
16.12.3 Differential equations in even and odd variables . . . . . . 402
16.12.4 Calculus of variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
16.12.5 C-differential operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
16.12.6 C-differential operators as superfunctions . . . . . . . . . 407
16.12.7 The Schouten bracket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
16.12.8 Computing linearization and its adjoint . . . . . . . . . . 409
16.12.9 Higher symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
16.12.10Setting up the jet space and the differential equation. . . . 413
16.12.11Solving the problem via dimensional analysis. . . . . . . 413
16.12.12Solving the problem using CRACK . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
16.12.13Local conservation laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
16.12.14Local Hamiltonian operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
16.12.15Korteweg–de Vries equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
16.12.16Boussinesq equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
16.12.17Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
16.12.18Examples of Schouten bracket of local Hamiltonian operators425
16.12.19Bi-Hamiltonian structure of the KdV equation . . . . . . . 426
16.12.20Bi-Hamiltonian structure of the WDVV equation . . . . . 427
16.12.21Schouten bracket of multidimensional operators . . . . . . 431
16.12.22Non-local operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
CONTENTS 11

16.12.23Non-local Hamiltonian operators for the Korteweg–de Vries

equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
16.12.24Non-local recursion operator for the Korteweg–de Vries
equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
16.12.25Non-local Hamiltonian-recursion operators for Plebanski
equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
16.12.26Appendix: old versions of CDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
16.13CDIFF: A package for computations in geometry of Differential
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
16.13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
16.13.2 Computing with CDIFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
16.14CGB: Computing Comprehensive Gröbner Bases . . . . . . . . . 467
16.14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.14.2 Using the REDLOG Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
16.14.3 Term Ordering Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
16.14.4 CGB: Comprehensive Gröbner Basis . . . . . . . . . . . 468
16.14.5 GSYS: Gröbner System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
16.14.6 GSYS2CGB: Gröbner System to CGB . . . . . . . . . . 470
16.14.7 Switch CGBREAL: Computing over the Real Numbers . . 470
16.14.8 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
16.15COMPACT: Package for compacting expressions . . . . . . . . . 472
16.16CRACK: Solving overdetermined systems of PDEs or ODEs . . . 473
16.17CVIT: Fast calculation of Dirac gamma matrix traces . . . . . . . 474
16.18DEFINT: A definite integration interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
16.18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
16.18.2 Integration between zero and infinity . . . . . . . . . . . 483
16.18.3 Integration over other ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
16.18.4 Using the definite integration package . . . . . . . . . . . 485
16.18.5 Integral Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
12 CONTENTS

16.18.6 Additional Meijer G-function Definitions . . . . . . . . . 489

16.18.7 The print_conditions function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
16.18.8 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
16.18.9 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
16.19DESIR: Differential linear homogeneous equation solutions in the
neighborhood of irregular and regular singular points . . . . . . . 493
16.19.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
16.19.2 FORMS OF SOLUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
16.19.3 INTERACTIVE USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
16.19.4 DIRECT USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
16.19.5 USEFUL FUNCTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
16.19.6 LIMITATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
16.20DFPART: Derivatives of generic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
16.20.1 Generic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
16.20.2 Partial Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
16.20.3 Substitutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
16.21DUMMY: Canonical form of expressions with dummy variables . 505
16.21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
16.21.2 Dummy variables and dummy summations . . . . . . . . 506
16.21.3 The Operators and their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
16.21.4 The Function CANONICAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
16.21.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
16.22EXCALC: A differential geometry package . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
16.22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
16.22.2 Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
16.22.3 Exterior Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
16.22.4 Partial Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
16.22.5 Exterior Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
16.22.6 Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
16.22.7 Lie Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
CONTENTS 13

16.22.8 Hodge-* Duality Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519

16.22.9 Variational Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
16.22.10Handling of Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
16.22.11Metric Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
16.22.12Riemannian Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
16.22.13Killing Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
16.22.14Ordering and Structuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
16.22.15Summary of Operators and Commands . . . . . . . . . . 532
16.22.16Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
16.23FIDE: Finite difference method for partial differential equations . 544
16.23.1 Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
16.23.2 EXPRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
16.23.3 IIMET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
16.23.4 APPROX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
16.23.5 CHARPOL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
16.23.6 HURWP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
16.23.7 LINBAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
16.24FPS: Automatic calculation of formal power series . . . . . . . . 572
16.24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
16.24.2 REDUCE operator FPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
16.24.3 REDUCE operator SimpleDE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
16.24.4 Problems in the current version . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
16.25GCREF: A Graph Cross Referencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
16.25.1 Basic Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
16.25.2 Shell Script "gcref" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
16.25.3 Redering with yED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
16.26GENTRAN: A code generation package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
16.27GNUPLOT: Display of functions and surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . 579
16.27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
14 CONTENTS

16.27.2 Command plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

16.27.3 Paper output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
16.27.4 Mesh generation for implicit curves . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
16.27.5 Mesh generation for surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
16.27.6 G NU P LOT operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
16.27.7 Saving G NU P LOT command sequences . . . . . . . . . . 584
16.27.8 Direct Call of G NU P LOT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
16.27.9 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
16.28GROEBNER: A Gröbner basis package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
16.28.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
16.28.2 Loading of the Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
16.28.3 The Basic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
16.28.4 Ideal Decomposition & Equation System Solving . . . . . 613
16.28.5 Calculations “by Hand” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
16.29GUARDIAN: Guarded Expressions in Practice . . . . . . . . . . 622
16.29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
16.29.2 An outline of our method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
16.29.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
16.29.4 Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
16.29.5 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
16.30IDEALS: Arithmetic for polynomial ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
16.30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
16.30.2 Initialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
16.30.3 Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
16.30.4 Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
16.30.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
16.31INEQ: Support for solving inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
16.32INVBASE: A package for computing involutive bases . . . . . . . 644
CONTENTS 15

16.32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644

16.32.2 The Basic Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
16.33LALR: A parser generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
16.33.1 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
16.33.2 An example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
16.34LAPLACE: Laplace transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
16.35LIE: Functions for the classification of real n-dimensional Lie al-
gebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
16.36LIMITS: A package for finding limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
16.36.1 Normal entry points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
16.36.2 Direction-dependent limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
16.37LINALG: Linear algebra package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
16.37.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
16.37.2 Getting started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
16.37.3 What’s available . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
16.37.4 Fast Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
16.37.5 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
16.38LISTVECOPS: Vector operations on lists . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686
16.39LPDO: Linear Partial Differential Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
16.39.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
16.39.2 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
16.39.3 Shapes of F-elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
16.39.4 Commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
16.40MODSR: Modular solve and roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
16.41MRVLIMIT: A new exp-log limits package . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
16.41.1 The Exp-Log Limits package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
16.41.2 The Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
16.41.3 The tracing facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
16 CONTENTS

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
16.42NCPOLY: Non–commutative polynomial ideals . . . . . . . . . . 706
16.42.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
16.42.2 Setup, Cleanup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 706
16.42.3 Left and right ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
16.42.4 Gröbner bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 708
16.42.5 Left or right polynomial division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
16.42.6 Left or right polynomial reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
16.42.7 Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710
16.42.8 Output of expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
16.43NORMFORM: Computation of matrix normal forms . . . . . . . 713
16.43.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
16.43.2 Smith normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
16.43.3 smithex_int . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
16.43.4 frobenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
16.43.5 ratjordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
16.43.6 jordansymbolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
16.43.7 jordan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
16.43.8 Algebraic extensions: Using the ARNUM package . . . . . 721
16.43.9 Modular arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
16.44NUMERIC: Solving numerical problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
16.44.1 Syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
16.44.2 Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
16.44.3 Roots of Functions/ Solutions of Equations . . . . . . . . 726
16.44.4 Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
16.44.5 Ordinary Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
16.44.6 Bounds of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
16.44.7 Chebyshev Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
16.44.8 General Curve Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
CONTENTS 17

16.44.9 Function Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

16.45ODESOLVE: Ordinary differential equations solver . . . . . . . . 735
16.45.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
16.45.2 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
16.45.3 User interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
16.45.4 Output syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
16.45.5 Solution techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
16.45.6 Extension interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748
16.45.7 Change log . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
16.45.8 Planned developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
16.46ORTHOVEC: Manipulation of scalars and vectors . . . . . . . . . 754
16.46.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
16.46.2 Initialisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
16.46.3 Input-Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755
16.46.4 Algebraic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756
16.46.5 Differential Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
16.46.6 Integral Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
16.46.7 Test Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
16.47PHYSOP: Operator calculus in quantum theory . . . . . . . . . . 764
16.47.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
16.47.2 The NONCOM2 Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
16.47.3 The PHYSOP package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765
16.47.4 Known problems in the current release of PHYSOP . . . . 773
16.47.5 Final remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
16.47.6 Appendix: List of error and warning messages . . . . . . 774
16.48PM: A REDUCE pattern matcher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 776
16.48.1 M(exp,temp) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
16.48.2 temp _= logical_exp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
18 CONTENTS

16.48.3 S(exp,{temp1 -> sub1, temp2 -> sub2, . . . }, rept, depth) . 779
16.48.4 temp :- exp and temp ::- exp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
16.48.5 Arep({rep1,rep2,. . . }) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
16.48.6 Drep({rep1,rep2,..}) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
16.48.7 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781
16.49QHULL: Compute the complex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
16.50QSUM: Indefinite and Definite Summation of q-hypergeometric
Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
16.50.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
16.50.2 Elementary q-Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 784
16.50.3 q-Gosper Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
16.50.4 q-Zeilberger Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
16.50.5 REDUCE operator QGOSPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
16.50.6 REDUCE operator QSUMRECURSION . . . . . . . . . . 789
16.50.7 Simplification Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794
16.50.8 Global Variables and Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
16.50.9 Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
16.51RANDPOLY: A random polynomial generator . . . . . . . . . . . 799
16.51.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
16.51.2 Basic use of randpoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
16.51.3 Advanced use of randpoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 801
16.51.4 Subsidiary functions: rand, proc, random . . . . . . . . . 802
16.51.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
16.51.6 Appendix: Algorithmic background . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
16.52RATAPRX: Rational Approximations Package for REDUCE . . . 809
16.52.1 Periodic Decimal Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
16.52.2 Continued Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
16.52.3 Padé Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
CONTENTS 19

16.53RATINT: Integrate Rational Functions using the Minimal Alge-

braic Extension to the Constant Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
16.53.1 Rational Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
16.53.2 The Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
16.53.3 The log_sum operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
16.53.4 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
16.53.5 Hermite’s method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
16.53.6 Tracing the ratint program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
16.53.7 Bugs, suggestions and comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
16.54REACTEQN: Support for chemical reaction equation systems . . 835
16.55REDLOG: Extend REDUCE to a computer logic system . . . . . 840
16.56RESET: Code to reset REDUCE to its initial state . . . . . . . . . 840
16.57RESIDUE: A residue package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
16.58RLFI: REDUCE LATEX formula interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
16.58.1 APPENDIX: Summary and syntax . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
16.59ROOTS: A REDUCE root finding package . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
16.59.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
16.59.2 Root Finding Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
16.59.3 Top Level Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
16.59.4 Switches Used in Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
16.59.5 Internal and Output Use of Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
16.59.6 Root Package Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856
16.59.7 Operational Parameters and Parameter Setting. . . . . . . 857
16.59.8 Avoiding truncation of polynomials on input . . . . . . . 858
16.60RSOLVE: Rational/integer polynomial solvers . . . . . . . . . . . 859
16.60.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
16.60.2 The user interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
16.60.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
16.60.4 Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 861
20 CONTENTS

16.61RTRACE: Tracing in REDUCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862

16.61.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
16.61.2 RTrace versus RDebug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
16.61.3 Procedure tracing: RTR, UNRTR . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
16.61.4 Assignment tracing: RTRST, UNRTRST . . . . . . . . . 865
16.61.5 Tracing active rules: TRRL, UNTRRL . . . . . . . . . . 867
16.61.6 Tracing inactive rules: TRRLID, UNTRRLID . . . . . . . 868
16.61.7 Output control: RTROUT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
16.62SCOPE: REDUCE source code optimization package . . . . . . . 870
16.63SETS: A basic set theory package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
16.63.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
16.63.2 Infix operator precedence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
16.63.3 Explicit set representation and mkset . . . . . . . . . . . 872
16.63.4 Union and intersection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
16.63.5 Symbolic set expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
16.63.6 Set difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
16.63.7 Predicates on sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
16.63.8 Possible future developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
16.64SPARSE: Sparse Matrix Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
16.64.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
16.64.2 Sparse Matrix Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
16.64.3 Sparse Matrix Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
16.64.4 Operators with Sparse Matrix Arguments . . . . . . . . . 881
16.64.5 The Linear Algebra Package for Sparse Matrices . . . . . 883
16.64.6 Available Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
16.64.7 Fast Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
16.64.8 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
16.65SPDE: Finding symmetry groups of PDE’s . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
16.65.1 Description of the System Functions and Variables . . . . 907
CONTENTS 21

16.65.2 How to Use the Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910

16.65.3 Test File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
16.66SPECFN: Package for special functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
16.66.1 Simplification and Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
16.66.2 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
16.66.3 Bernoulli Numbers and Euler Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 922
16.66.4 Fibonacci Numbers and Fibonacci Polynomials . . . . . . 923
16.66.5 Stirling Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
16.66.6 The Γ Function, and Related Functions . . . . . . . . . . 923
16.66.7 Bessel Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
16.66.8 Hypergeometric and Other Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 926
16.66.9 Integral Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
16.66.10Airy Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
16.66.11Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
16.66.12Spherical and Solid Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
16.66.13Jacobi’s Elliptic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
16.66.14Elliptic Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
16.66.15Elliptic Theta Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
16.66.16Lambert’s W function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
16.66.173j symbols and Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients . . . . . . . 936
16.66.186j symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
16.66.19Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
16.66.20Table of Operators and Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
16.67SPECFN2: Package for special special functions . . . . . . . . . 940
16.67.1 REDUCE operator HYPERGEOMETRIC . . . . . . . . . 941
16.67.2 Extending the HYPERGEOMETRIC operator . . . . . . 942
16.67.3 REDUCE operator meijerg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
16.68SSTOOLS: Computations with supersymmetric algebraic and dif-
ferential expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
22 CONTENTS

16.68.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
16.69SUM: A package for series summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
16.70SYMMETRY: Operations on symmetric matrices . . . . . . . . . 948
16.70.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
16.70.2 Operators for linear representations . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
16.70.3 Display Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
16.70.4 Storing a new group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
16.71TAYLOR: Manipulation of Taylor series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
16.71.1 Basic Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
16.71.2 Caveats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
16.71.3 Warning messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
16.71.4 Error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
16.71.5 Comparison to other packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960
16.72TPS: A extendible power series package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
16.72.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
16.72.2 PS Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962
16.72.3 PSEXPLIM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
16.72.4 PSPRINTORDER Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
16.72.5 PSORDLIM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
16.72.6 PSTERM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
16.72.7 PSORDER Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
16.72.8 PSSETORDER Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
16.72.9 PSDEPVAR Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
16.72.10PSEXPANSIONPT operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
16.72.11PSFUNCTION Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
16.72.12PSCHANGEVAR Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
16.72.13PSREVERSE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
16.72.14PSCOMPOSE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
CONTENTS 23

16.72.15PSSUM Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969

16.72.16PSTAYLOR Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
16.72.17PSCOPY Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
16.72.18PSTRUNCATE Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
16.72.19Arithmetic Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
16.72.20Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
16.72.21Restrictions and Known Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
16.73TRI: TeX REDUCE interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
16.74TRIGD: Trigonometrical Functions with Degree Arguments . . . 975
16.74.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
16.74.2 Simplification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
16.74.3 Numerical Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
16.74.4 Bugs, Restrictions and Planned Extensions . . . . . . . . 981
16.75TRIGINT: Weierstrass substitution in REDUCE . . . . . . . . . . 983
16.75.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
16.75.2 Statement of the Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
16.75.3 REDUCE implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
16.75.4 Definite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
16.75.5 Tracing the trigint function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
16.75.6 Bugs, comments, suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
16.76TRIGSIMP: Simplification and factorization of trigonometric and
hyperbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
16.76.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
16.76.2 Simplifying trigonometric expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 988
16.76.3 Factorizing trigonometric expressions . . . . . . . . . . . 992
16.76.4 GCDs of trigonometric expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
16.76.5 Further Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
16.77TURTLE: Turtle Graphics Interface for REDUCE . . . . . . . . . 998
16.77.1 Turtle Graphics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
24 CONTENTS

16.77.2 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998

16.77.3 Turtle Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
16.77.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1004
16.77.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1010
16.78WU: Wu algorithm for polynomial systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 1012
16.79XCOLOR: Color factor in some field theories . . . . . . . . . . . 1014
16.80XIDEAL: Gröbner Bases for exterior algebra . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
16.80.1 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1016
16.80.2 Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1017
16.80.3 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018
16.80.4 Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
16.80.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023
16.81ZEILBERG: Indefinite and definite summation . . . . . . . . . . 1024
16.81.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
16.81.2 Gosper Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1024
16.81.3 Zeilberger Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025
16.81.4 REDUCE operator GOSPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1026
16.81.5 REDUCE operator EXTENDED_GOSPER . . . . . . . . . 1029
16.81.6 REDUCE operator SUMRECURSION . . . . . . . . . . . 1029
16.81.7 REDUCE operator EXTENDED_SUMRECURSION . . . . 1032
16.81.8 REDUCE operator HYPERRECURSION . . . . . . . . . . 1033
16.81.9 REDUCE operator HYPERSUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
16.81.10REDUCE operator SUMTOHYPER . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
16.81.11Simplification Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
16.81.12Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
16.81.13Global Variables and Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1041
16.81.14Messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1043
16.82ZTRANS: Z-transform package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
CONTENTS 25

16.82.1 Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045

16.82.2 Inverse Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
16.82.3 Input for the Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
16.82.4 Input for the Inverse Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
16.82.5 Application of the Z-Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
16.82.6 EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1047
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1053

17 Symbolic Mode 1055

17.1 Symbolic Infix Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
17.2 Symbolic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
17.3 Quoted Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
17.4 Lambda Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1057
17.5 Symbolic Assignment Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1058
17.6 FOR EACH Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
17.7 Symbolic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
17.8 Standard Lisp Equivalent of Reduce Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
17.9 Communicating with Algebraic Mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060
17.9.1 Passing Algebraic Mode Values to Symbolic Mode . . . . 1061
17.9.2 Passing Symbolic Mode Values to Algebraic Mode . . . . 1064
17.9.3 Complete Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1064
17.9.4 Defining Procedures for Intermode Communication . . . . 1065
17.10Rlisp ’88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066
17.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1066

18 Calculations in High Energy Physics 1067

18.1 High Energy Physics Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
18.1.1 . (Cons) Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1067
18.1.2 G Operator for Gamma Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1068
18.1.3 EPS Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
18.2 Vector Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1069
26 CONTENTS

18.3 Additional Expression Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070

18.3.1 Vector Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
18.3.2 Dirac Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1070
18.4 Trace Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
18.5 Mass Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071
18.6 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1072
18.7 Extensions to More Than Four Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073

19 REDUCE and Rlisp Utilities 1075

19.1 The Standard Lisp Compiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
19.2 Fast Loading Code Generation Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076
19.3 The Standard Lisp Cross Reference Program . . . . . . . . . . . . 1077
19.3.1 Restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
19.3.2 Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
19.3.3 Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
19.4 Prettyprinting REDUCE Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078
19.5 Prettyprinting Standard Lisp S-Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . 1079

20 Maintaining REDUCE 1081

A Reserved Identifiers 1085

B Changes since Version 3.8 1091

Abstract

This document provides the user with a description of the algebraic programming
system REDUCE. The capabilities of this system include:

1. expansion and ordering of polynomials and rational functions,

2. substitutions and pattern matching in a wide variety of forms,

3. automatic and user controlled simplification of expressions,

4. calculations with symbolic matrices,

5. arbitrary precision integer and real arithmetic,

6. facilities for defining new functions and extending program syntax,

7. analytic differentiation and integration,

8. factorization of polynomials,

9. facilities for the solution of a variety of algebraic equations,

10. facilities for the output of expressions in a variety of formats,

11. facilities for generating numerical programs from symbolic input,

12. Dirac matrix calculations of interest to high energy physicists.

27
28 CONTENTS
Acknowledgment

The production of this version of the manual has been the result of the contribu-
tions of a large number of individuals who have taken the time and effort to suggest
improvements to previous versions, and to draft new sections. Particular thanks
are due to Gerry Rayna, who provided a draft rewrite of most of the first half of
the manual. Other people who have made significant contributions have included
John Fitch, Martin Griss, Stan Kameny, Jed Marti, Herbert Melenk, Don Morri-
son, Arthur Norman, Eberhard Schrüfer, Larry Seward and Walter Tietze. Finally,
Richard Hitt produced a TEX version of the REDUCE 3.3 manual, which has been
a useful guide for the production of the LATEX version of this manual.

29
30 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introductory Information

REDUCE is a system for carrying out algebraic operations accurately, no matter

how complicated the expressions become. It can manipulate polynomials in a va-
riety of forms, both expanding and factoring them, and extract various parts of
them as required. REDUCE can also do differentiation and integration, but we
shall only show trivial examples of this in this introduction. Other topics not con-
sidered include the use of arrays, the definition of procedures and operators, the
specific routines for high energy physics calculations, the use of files to eliminate
repetitious typing and for saving results, and the editing of the input text.
Also not considered in any detail in this introduction are the many options that
are available for varying computational procedures, output forms, number systems
used, and so on.
REDUCE is designed to be an interactive system, so that the user can input an al-
gebraic expression and see its value before moving on to the next calculation. For
those systems that do not support interactive use, or for those calculations, espe-
cially long ones, for which a standard script can be defined, REDUCE can also be
used in batch mode. In this case, a sequence of commands can be given to RE-
DUCE and results obtained without any user interaction during the computation.
In this introduction, we shall limit ourselves to the interactive use of REDUCE,
since this illustrates most completely the capabilities of the system. When RE-
DUCE is called, it begins by printing a banner message like:

Reduce (Free CSL version), 25-Oct-14 ...

where the version number and the system release date will change from time to
time. It proceeds to execute the commands in user’s startup (reducerc) file, if
such a file is present, then prompts the user for input by:

1:

31
32 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

You can now type a REDUCE statement, terminated by a semicolon to indicate the
end of the expression, for example:

(x+y+z)^2;

This expression would normally be followed by another character (a Return on

an ASCII keyboard) to “wake up” the system, which would then input the expres-
sion, evaluate it, and return the result:

2 2 2
X + 2*X*Y + 2*X*Z + Y + 2*Y*Z + Z

Let us review this simple example to learn a little more about the way that RE-
DUCE works. First, we note that REDUCE deals with variables, and constants
like other computer languages, but that in evaluating the former, a variable can
stand for itself. Expression evaluation normally follows the rules of high school
algebra, so the only surprise in the above example might be that the expression was
expanded. REDUCE normally expands expressions where possible, collecting like
terms and ordering the variables in a specific manner. However, expansion, order-
ing of variables, format of output and so on is under control of the user, and various
declarations are available to manipulate these.
Another characteristic of the above example is the use of lower case on input and
upper case on output. In fact, input may be in either mode, but output is usually in
lower case. To make the difference between input and output more distinct in this
manual, all expressions intended for input will be shown in lower case and output
in upper case. However, for stylistic reasons, we represent all single identifiers in
the text in upper case.
Finally, the numerical prompt can be used to reference the result in a later compu-
tation.
As a further illustration of the system features, the user should try:

for i:= 1:40 product i;

The result in this case is the value of 40!,

815915283247897734345611269596115894272000000000

You can also get the same result by saying

factorial 40;

Since we want exact results in algebraic calculations, it is essential that integer

arithmetic be performed to arbitrary precision, as in the above example. Further-
 33

more, the FOR statement in the above is illustrative of a whole range of combining
forms that REDUCE supports for the convenience of the user.
Among the many options in REDUCE is the use of other number systems, such as
multiple precision floating point with any specified number of digits — of use if
roundoff in, say, the 100th digit is all that can be tolerated.
In many cases, it is necessary to use the results of one calculation in succeeding
calculations. One way to do this is via an assignment for a variable, such as

u := (x+y+z)^2;

If we now use U in later calculations, the value of the right-hand side of the above
will be used.
The results of a given calculation are also saved in the variable WS (for WorkSpace),
so this can be used in the next calculation for further processing.
For example, the expression

df(ws,x);

following the previous evaluation will calculate the derivative of (x+y+z)^2 with
respect to X. Alternatively,

int(ws,y);

would calculate the integral of the same expression with respect to y.

REDUCE is also capable of handling symbolic matrices. For example,

matrix m(2,2);

declares m to be a two by two matrix, and

m := mat((a,b),(c,d));

gives its elements values. Expressions that include M and make algebraic sense
may now be evaluated, such as 1/m to give the inverse, 2*m - u*m^2 to give us
another matrix and det(m) to give us the determinant of M.
REDUCE has a wide range of substitution capabilities. The system knows about
elementary functions, but does not automatically invoke many of their well-known
properties. For example, products of trigonometrical functions are not converted
automatically into multiple angle expressions, but if the user wants this, he can say,
for example:

(sin(a+b)+cos(a+b))*(sin(a-b)-cos(a-b))
34 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTORY INFORMATION

where cos(~x)*cos(~y) = (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2,

cos(~x)*sin(~y) = (sin(x+y)-sin(x-y))/2,
sin(~x)*sin(~y) = (cos(x-y)-cos(x+y))/2;

where the tilde in front of the variables X and Y indicates that the rules apply for
all values of those variables. The result of this calculation is

-(COS(2*A) + SIN(2*B))

See also the user-contributed packages ASSIST (chapter 16.5), CAMAL (chap-
ter 16.10) and TRIGSIMP (chapter 16.76).
Another very commonly used capability of the system, and an illustration of one of
the many output modes of REDUCE, is the ability to output results in a FORTRAN
compatible form. Such results can then be used in a FORTRAN based numerical
calculation. This is particularly useful as a way of generating algebraic formulas
to be used as the basis of extensive numerical calculations.
For example, the statements

on fort;
df(log(x)*(sin(x)+cos(x))/sqrt(x),x,2);

will result in the output

ANS=(-4.*LOG(X)*COS(X)*X**2-4.*LOG(X)*COS(X)*X+3.*
. LOG(X)*COS(X)-4.*LOG(X)*SIN(X)*X**2+4.*LOG(X)*
. SIN(X)*X+3.*LOG(X)*SIN(X)+8.*COS(X)*X-8.*COS(X)-8.
. *SIN(X)*X-8.*SIN(X))/(4.*SQRT(X)*X**2)

These algebraic manipulations illustrate the algebraic mode of REDUCE. RE-

DUCE is based on Standard Lisp. A symbolic mode is also available for executing
Lisp statements. These statements follow the syntax of Lisp, e.g.

symbolic car ’(a);

Communication between the two modes is possible.

With this simple introduction, you are now in a position to study the material in the
full REDUCE manual in order to learn just how extensive the range of facilities
really is. If further tutorial material is desired, the seven REDUCE Interactive
Lessons by David R. Stoutemyer are recommended. These are normally distributed
with the system.
Chapter 2

Structure of Programs

A REDUCE program consists of a set of functional commands which are evaluated

sequentially by the computer. These commands are built up from declarations,
statements and expressions. Such entities are composed of sequences of numbers,
variables, operators, strings, reserved words and delimiters (such as commas and
parentheses), which in turn are sequences of basic characters.

2.1 The REDUCE Standard Character Set

The basic characters which are used to build REDUCE symbols are the following:

1. The 26 letters a through z

2. The 10 decimal digits 0 through 9

3. The special characters _ ! " $ % ’ ( ) * + , - . / : ; <

> = { } hblanki

With the exception of strings and characters preceded by an exclamation mark, the
case of characters is ignored: depending of the underlying LISP they will all be
converted internally into lower case or upper case: ALPHA, Alpha and alpha
represent the same symbol. Most implementations allow you to switch this con-
version off. The operating instructions for a particular implementation should be
consulted on this point. For portability, we shall limit ourselves to the standard
character set in this exposition.

35
36 CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS

2.2 Numbers

There are several different types of numbers available in REDUCE. Integers consist
of a signed or unsigned sequence of decimal digits written without a decimal point,
for example:

-2, 5396, +32

In principle, there is no practical limit on the number of digits permitted as exact

arithmetic is used in most implementations. (You should however check the spe-
cific instructions for your particular system implementation to make sure that this
is true.) For example, if you ask for the value of 22000 you get it displayed as a
number of 603 decimal digits, taking up several lines of output on an interactive
display. It should be borne in mind of course that computations with such long
numbers can be quite slow.
Numbers that aren’t integers are usually represented as the quotient of two integers,
in lowest terms: that is, as rational numbers.
In essentially all versions of REDUCE it is also possible (but not always desirable!)
to ask REDUCE to work with floating point approximations to numbers again, to
any precision. Such numbers are called real. They can be input in two ways:

1. as a signed or unsigned sequence of any number of decimal digits with an

embedded or trailing decimal point.

2. as in 1. followed by a decimal exponent which is written as the letter E

followed by a signed or unsigned integer.

e.g. 32. +32.0 0.32E2 and 320.E-1 are all representations of 32.
The declaration SCIENTIFIC_NOTATION controls the output format of float-
ing point numbers. At the default settings, any number with five or less dig-
its before the decimal point is printed in a fixed-point notation, e.g., 12345.6.
Numbers with more than five digits are printed in scientific notation, e.g.,
1.234567E+5. Similarly, by default, any number with eleven or more zeros
after the decimal point is printed in scientific notation. To change these defaults,
SCIENTIFIC_NOTATION can be used in one of two ways.
SCIENTIFIC_NOTATION m;
where m is a positive integer, sets the printing format so that a number with more
than m digits before the decimal point, or m or more zeros after the decimal point,
is printed in scientific notation.
SCIENTIFIC_NOTATION{m,n},
with m and n both positive integers, sets the format so that a number with more
2.3. IDENTIFIERS 37

than m digits before the decimal point, or n or more zeros after the decimal point
is printed in scientific notation.
CAUTION: The unsigned part of any number may not begin with a decimal point,
as this causes confusion with the CONS (.) operator, i.e., NOT ALLOWED ARE:
.5 -.23 +.12; use 0.5 -0.23 +0.12 instead.

2.3 Identifiers

Identifiers in REDUCE consist of one or more alphanumeric characters (i.e. alpha-

betic letters or decimal digits) the first of which must be alphabetic. The maximum
number of characters allowed is implementation dependent, although twenty-four
is permitted in most implementations. In addition, the underscore character (_) is
considered a letter if it is within an identifier. For example,

a az p1 q23p a_very_long_variable

are all identifiers, whereas

_a

is not.
A sequence of alphanumeric characters in which the first is a digit is interpreted as
a product. For example, 2ab3c is interpreted as 2*ab3c. There is one exception
to this: If the first letter after a digit is E, the system will try to interpret that part of
the sequence as a real number, which may fail in some cases. For example, 2E12
is the real number 2.0 ∗ 1012 , 2e3c is 2000.0*C, and 2ebc gives an error.
Special characters, such as -, *, and blank, may be used in identifiers too, even as
the first character, but each must be preceded by an exclamation mark in input. For
example:

light!-years d!*!*n good! morning

!$sign !5goldrings

CAUTION: Many system identifiers have such special characters in their names
(especially * and =). If the user accidentally picks the name of one of them for his
own purposes it may have catastrophic consequences for his REDUCE run. Users
are therefore advised to avoid such names.
Identifiers are used as variables, labels and to name arrays, operators and proce-
dures.
38 CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS

Restrictions

The reserved words listed in section (A may not be used as identifiers. No spaces
may appear within an identifier, and an identifier may not extend over a line of text.

2.4 Variables

Every variable is named by an identifier, and is given a specific type. The type is
of no concern to the ordinary user. Most variables are allowed to have the default
type, called scalar. These can receive, as values, the representation of any ordinary
algebraic expression. In the absence of such a value, they stand for themselves.

Reserved Variables

Several variables in REDUCE have particular properties which should not be

changed by the user. These variables include:

CATALAN Catalan’s constant, defined as

∞
X (−1)n
.
(2n + 1)2
n=0

E Intended to represent the base of the natural logarithms. log(e),

if it occurs in an expression, is automatically replaced by 1. If
ROUNDED is on, E is replaced by the value of E to the current degree
of floating point precision.

EULER_GAMMA Euler’s constant, also available as −ψ(1).

√
1+ 5
GOLDEN_RATIO The number 2 .

I Intended to represent the square

root of −1. i^2 is replaced by −1, and appropriately for higher
powers of I. This applies only to the symbol I used on the top level,
not as a formal parameter in a procedure, a local variable, nor in the
context for i:= ....

INFINITY Intended to represent ∞

in limit and power series calculations for example, as well as in def-
inite integration. Note however that the current system does not do
proper arithmetic on ∞. For example, infinity + infinity
is 2*infinity.
2.5. STRINGS 39

KHINCHIN Khinchin’s constant, defined as

∞  log2 n
Y 1
1+ .
n(n + 2)
n=1

NEGATIVE Used in the Roots package.

NIL In REDUCE (algebraic mode only) taken as a synonym for zero.

Therefore NIL cannot be used as a variable.

PI Intended to represent the circular constant. With ROUNDED on, it

is replaced by the value of π to the current degree of floating point
precision.

POSITIVE Used in the Roots package.

T Must not be used as a formal parameter or local variable in proce-

dures, since conflict arises with the symbolic mode meaning of T as
true.

Other reserved variables, such as LOW_POW, described in other sections, are listed
in Appendix A.
Using these reserved variables inappropriately will lead to errors.
There are also internal variables used by REDUCE that have similar restrictions.
These usually have an asterisk in their names, so it is unlikely a casual user would
use one. An example of such a variable is K!* used in the asymptotic command
package.
Certain words are reserved in REDUCE. They may only be used in the manner
intended. A list of these is given in the section “Reserved Identifiers”. There are,
of course, an impossibly large number of such names to keep in mind. The reader
may therefore want to make himself a copy of the list, deleting the names he doesn’t
think he is likely to use by mistake.

2.5 Strings

Strings are used in WRITE statements, in other output statements (such as error
messages), and to name files. A string consists of any number of characters en-
closed in double quotes. For example:

"A String".
40 CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS

Lower case characters within a string are not converted to upper case.
The string "" represents the empty string. A double quote may be included in a
string by preceding it by another double quote. Thus "a""b" is the string a"b,
and """" is the string consisting of the single character ".

2.6 Comments

Text can be included in program listings for the convenience of human readers, in
such a way that REDUCE pays no attention to it. There are two ways to do this:

1. Everything from the word COMMENT to the next statement terminator, nor-
mally ; or $, is ignored. Such comments can be placed anywhere a blank
could properly appear. (Note that END and >> are not treated as COMMENT
delimiters!)
2. Everything from the symbol % to the end of the line on which it appears is
ignored. Such comments can be placed as the last part of any line. Statement
terminators have no special meaning in such comments. Remember to put
a semicolon before the % if the earlier part of the line is intended to be so
terminated. Remember also to begin each line of a multi-line % comment
with a % sign.

2.7 Operators

Operators in REDUCE are specified by name and type. There are two types, in-
fix and prefix. Operators can be purely abstract, just symbols with no properties;
they can have values assigned (using := or simple LET declarations) for specific
arguments; they can have properties declared for some collection of arguments
(using more general LET declarations); or they can be fully defined (usually by a
procedure declaration).
Infix operators have a definite precedence with respect to one another, and normally
occur between their arguments. For example:

a + b - c (spaces optional)
x<y and y=z (spaces required where shown)

Spaces can be freely inserted between operators and variables or operators and
operators. They are required only where operator names are spelled out with let-
ters (such as the AND in the example) and must be unambiguously separated from
another such or from a variable (like Y). Wherever one space can be used, so can
any larger number.
2.7. OPERATORS 41

Prefix operators occur to the left of their arguments, which are written as a list
enclosed in parentheses and separated by commas, as with normal mathematical
functions, e.g.,

cos(u)
df(x^2,x)
q(v+w)

Unmatched parentheses, incorrect groupings of infix operators and the like, natu-
rally lead to syntax errors. The parentheses can be omitted (replaced by a space
following the operator name) if the operator is unary and the argument is a single
symbol or begins with a prefix operator name:

cos y means cos(y)

cos (-y) – parentheses necessary
log cos y means log(cos(y))
log cos (a+b) means log(cos(a+b))

but

cos a*b means (cos a)*b

cos -y is erroneous (treated as a variable
“cos” minus the variable y)

A unary prefix operator has a precedence higher than any infix operator, including
unary infix operators. In other words, REDUCE will always interpret cos y +
3 as (cos y) + 3 rather than as cos(y + 3).
Infix operators may also be used in a prefix format on input, e.g., +(a,b,c). On
output, however, such expressions will always be printed in infix form (i.e., a +
b + c for this example).
A number of prefix operators are built into the system with predefined properties.
Users may also add new operators and define their rules for simplification. The
built in operators are described in another section.

Built-In Infix Operators

The following infix operators are built into the system. They are all defined inter-
nally as procedures.

hinfix operatori −→ where | := | or | and | member | memq |

= | neq | eq | >= | > | <= | < |
+ | - | * | / | ^ | ** | .
42 CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS

These operators may be further divided into the following subclasses:

hassignment operatori −→ :=
hlogical operatori −→ or | and | member | memq
hrelational operatori −→ = | neq | eq | >= | > | <= | <
hsubstitution operatori −→ where
harithmetic operatori −→ + | - | * | / | ^ | **
hconstruction operatori −→ .

MEMQ and EQ are not used in the algebraic mode of REDUCE. They are explained
in the section on symbolic mode. WHERE is described in the section on substitu-
tions.
In previous versions of REDUCE, not was also defined as an infix operator. In the
present version it is a regular prefix operator, and interchangeable with null.
For compatibility with the intermediate language used by REDUCE, each special
character infix operator has an alternative alphanumeric identifier associated with
it. These identifiers may be used interchangeably with the corresponding special
character names on input. This correspondence is as follows:

:= setq (the assignment operator)

= equal
>= geq
> greaterp
<= leq
< lessp
+ plus
- difference (if unary, minus)
* times
/ quotient (if unary, recip)
^ or ** expt (raising to a power)
. cons

Note: NEQ is used to mean not equal. There is no special symbol provided for it.
The above operators are binary, except NOT which is unary and + and * which
are nary (i.e., taking an arbitrary number of arguments). In addition, - and / may
be used as unary operators, e.g., /2 means the same as 1/2. Any other operator is
parsed as a binary operator using a left association rule. Thus a/b/c is interpreted
as (a/b)/c. There are two exceptions to this rule: := and . are right associa-
tive. Example: a:=b:=c is interpreted as a:=(b:=c). Unlike ALGOL and
PASCAL, ^ is left associative. In other words, a^b^c is interpreted as (a^b)^c.
The operators <, <=, >, >= can only be used for making comparisons between
numbers. No meaning is currently assigned to this kind of comparison between
general expressions.
2.7. OPERATORS 43

Parentheses may be used to specify the order of combination. If parentheses are

omitted then this order is by the ordering of the precedence list defined by the
right-hand side of the hinfix operatori table at the beginning of this section, from
lowest to highest. In other words, WHERE has the lowest precedence, and . (the
dot operator) the highest.
44 CHAPTER 2. STRUCTURE OF PROGRAMS
Chapter 3

Expressions

REDUCE expressions may be of several types and consist of sequences of num-

bers, variables, operators, left and right parentheses and commas. The most com-
mon types are as follows:

3.1 Scalar Expressions

Using the arithmetic operations + - * / ^ (power) and parentheses, scalar

expressions are composed from numbers, ordinary “scalar” variables (identifiers),
array names with subscripts, operator or procedure names with arguments and
statement expressions.
Examples:

x
x^3 - 2*y/(2*z^2 - df(x,z))
(p^2 + m^2)^(1/2)*log (y/m)
a(5) + b(i,q)

The symbol ** may be used as an alternative to the caret symbol (^) for forming
powers, particularly in those systems that do not support a caret symbol.
Statement expressions, usually in parentheses, can also form part of a scalar ex-
pression, as in the example

w + (c:=x+y) + z .

When the algebraic value of an expression is needed, REDUCE determines it, start-
ing with the algebraic values of the parts, roughly as follows:
Variables and operator symbols with an argument list have the algebraic values

45
46 CHAPTER 3. EXPRESSIONS

they were last assigned, or if never assigned stand for themselves. However, array
elements have the algebraic values they were last assigned, or, if never assigned,
are taken to be 0.
Procedures are evaluated with the values of their actual parameters.
In evaluating expressions, the standard rules of algebra are applied. Unfortunately,
this algebraic evaluation of an expression is not as unambiguous as is numerical
evaluation. This process is generally referred to as “simplification” in the sense that
the evaluation usually but not always produces a simplified form for the expression.
There are many options available to the user for carrying out such simplification.
If the user doesn’t specify any method, the default method is used. The default
evaluation of an expression involves expansion of the expression and collection
of like terms, ordering of the terms, evaluation of derivatives and other functions
and substitution for any expressions which have values assigned or declared (see
assignments and LET statements). In many cases, this is all that the user needs.
The declarations by which the user can exercise some control over the way in which
the evaluation is performed are explained in other sections. For example, if a real
(floating point) number is encountered during evaluation, the system will normally
convert it into a ratio of two integers. If the user wants to use real arithmetic,
he can effect this by the command on rounded;. Other modes for coefficient
arithmetic are described elsewhere.
If an illegal action occurs during evaluation (such as division by zero) or functions
are called with the wrong number of arguments, and so on, an appropriate error
message is generated.

3.2 Integer Expressions

These are expressions which, because of the values of the constants and variables
in them, evaluate to whole numbers.
Examples:

2, 37 * 999, (x + 3)^2 - x^2 - 6*x

are obviously integer expressions.

j + k - 2 * j^2

is an integer expression when J and K have values that are integers, or if not integers
are such that “the variables and fractions cancel out”, as in

k - 7/3 - j + 2/3 + 2*j^2.

3.3. BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS 47

3.3 Boolean Expressions

A boolean expression returns a truth value. In the algebraic mode of REDUCE,

boolean expressions have the syntactical form:

hexpressionihrelational operatorihexpressioni

or

hboolean operatori(hargumentsi)

or

hboolean expressionihlogical operatorihboolean expressioni.

Parentheses can also be used to control the precedence of expressions.

In addition to the logical and relational operators defined earlier as infix operators,
the following boolean operators are also defined:

EVENP(U) determines if the number U is even or not;

FIXP(U) determines if the expression U is integer or not;

FREEOF(U,V) determines if the expression U does not contain the kernel

V anywhere in its structure;

NUMBERP(U) determines if U is a number or not;

ORDP(U,V) determines if U is ordered ahead of V by some canonical

ordering (based on the expression structure and an internal
ordering of identifiers);

PRIMEP(U) true if U is a prime object, i.e., any object other than 0 and
plus or minus 1 which is only exactly divisible by itself or
a unit.

Examples:

j<1
x>0 or x=-2
numberp x
fixp x and evenp x
numberp x and x neq 0
48 CHAPTER 3. EXPRESSIONS

Boolean expressions can only appear directly within IF, FOR, WHILE, and UNTIL
statements, as described in other sections. Such expressions cannot be used in place
of ordinary algebraic expressions, or assigned to a variable.
NB: For those familiar with symbolic mode, the meaning of some of these oper-
ators is different in that mode. For example, NUMBERP is true only for integers and
reals in symbolic mode.
When two or more boolean expressions are combined with AND, they are evaluated
one by one until a false expression is found. The rest are not evaluated. Thus

numberp x and numberp y and x>y

does not attempt to make the x>y comparison unless X and Y are both verified to
be numbers.
Similarly, evaluation of a sequence of boolean expressions connected by OR stops
as soon as a true expression is found.
NB: In a boolean expression, and in a place where a boolean expression is expected,
the algebraic value 0 is interpreted as false, while all other algebraic values are
converted to true. So in algebraic mode a procedure can be written for direct usage
in boolean expressions, returning say 1 or 0 as its value as in

procedure polynomialp(u,x);
if den(u)=1 and deg(u,x)>=1 then 1 else 0;

One can then use this in a boolean construct, such as

if polynomialp(q,z) and not polynomialp(q,y) then ...

In addition, any procedure that does not have a defined return value (for example,
a block without a RETURN statement in it) has the boolean value false.

3.4 Equations

Equations are a particular type of expression with the syntax

hexpressioni=hexpressioni.

In addition to their role as boolean expressions, they can also be used as arguments
to several operators (e.g., SOLVE), and can be returned as values.
Under normal circumstances, the right-hand-side of the equation is evaluated but
not the left-hand-side. This also applies to any substitutions made by the SUB
3.5. PROPER STATEMENTS AS EXPRESSIONS 49

operator. If both sides are to be evaluated, the switch EVALLHSEQP should be

turned on.
To facilitate the handling of equations, two selectors, LHS and RHS, which re-
turn the left- and right-hand sides of an equation respectively, are provided. For
example,

lhs(a+b=c) -> a+b

and
rhs(a+b=c) -> c.

3.5 Proper Statements as Expressions

Several kinds of proper statements deliver an algebraic or numerical result of some

kind, which can in turn be used as an expression or part of an expression. For
example, an assignment statement itself has a value, namely the value assigned. So

2 * (x := a+b)

is equal to 2*(a+b), as well as having the “side-effect” of assigning the value

a+b to X. In context,

y := 2 * (x := a+b);

sets X to a+b and Y to 2*(a+b).

The sections on the various proper statement types indicate which of these state-
ments are also useful as expressions.
50 CHAPTER 3. EXPRESSIONS
Chapter 4

Lists

A list is an object consisting of a sequence of other objects (including lists them-

selves), separated by commas and surrounded by braces. Examples of lists are:

{a,b,c}

{1,a-b,c=d}

{{a},{{b,c},d},e}.

The empty list is represented as

{}.

4.1 Operations on Lists

Several operators in the system return their results as lists, and a user can create
new lists using braces and commas. Alternatively, one can use the operator LIST
to construct a list. An important class of operations on lists are MAP and SELECT
operations. For details, please refer to the chapters on MAP, SELECT and the FOR
command. See also the documentation on the ASSIST (chapter 16.5) package.
To facilitate the use of lists, a number of operators are also available for manip-
ulating them. PART(hlisti,n) for example will return the nth element of a
list. LENGTH will return the length of a list. Several operators are also defined
uniquely for lists. For those familiar with them, these operators in fact mirror the
operations defined for Lisp lists. These operators are as follows:

51
52 CHAPTER 4. LISTS

4.1.1 LIST

The operator LIST is an alternative to the usage of curly brackets. LIST accepts an
arbitrary number of arguments and returns a list of its arguments. This operator is
useful in cases where operators have to be passed as arguments. E.g.,

list(a,list(list(b,c),d),e); -> {{a},{{b,c},d},e}

4.1.2 FIRST

This operator returns the first member of a list. An error occurs if the argument is
not a list, or the list is empty.

4.1.3 SECOND

SECOND returns the second member of a list. An error occurs if the argument is
not a list or has no second element.

4.1.4 THIRD

This operator returns the third member of a list. An error occurs if the argument is
not a list or has no third element.

4.1.5 REST

REST returns its argument with the first element removed. An error occurs if the
argument is not a list, or is empty.

4.1.6 . (Cons) Operator

This operator adds (“conses”) an expression to the front of a list. For example:

a . {b,c} -> {a,b,c}.

4.1.7 APPEND

This operator appends its first argument to its second to form a new list. Examples:

append({a,b},{c,d}) -> {a,b,c,d}

append({{a,b}},{c,d}) -> {{a,b},c,d}.
4.1. OPERATIONS ON LISTS 53

4.1.8 REVERSE

The operator REVERSE returns its argument with the elements in the reverse or-
der. It only applies to the top level list, not any lower level lists that may occur.
Examples are:

reverse({a,b,c}) -> {c,b,a}

reverse({{a,b,c},d}) -> {d,{a,b,c}}.

4.1.9 List Arguments of Other Operators

If an operator other than those specifically defined for lists is given a single argu-
ment that is a list, then the result of this operation will be a list in which that
operator is applied to each element of the list. For example, the result of evaluating
log{a,b,c} is the expression {LOG(A),LOG(B),LOG(C)}.
There are two ways to inhibit this operator distribution. Firstly, the switch
LISTARGS, if on, will globally inhibit such distribution. Secondly, one can in-
hibit this distribution for a specific operator by the declaration LISTARGP. For
example, with the declaration listargp log, log{a,b,c} would evaluate to
LOG({A,B,C}).
If an operator has more than one argument, no such distribution occurs.

4.1.10 Caveats and Examples

Some of the natural list operations such as member or delete are available only
after loading the package ASSIST (chapter 16.5).
Please note that a non-list as second argument to CONS (a "dotted pair" in LISP
terms) is not allowed and causes an "invalid as list" error.

a := 17 . 4;

***** 17 4 invalid as list

Also, the initialization of a scalar variable is not the empty list – one has to set list
type variables explicitly, as in the following example:

load_package assist;

procedure lotto (n,m);

begin scalar list_1_n, luckies, hit;
list_1_n := {};
54 CHAPTER 4. LISTS

luckies := {};
for k:=1:n do list_1_n := k . list_1_n;
for k:=1:m do
<< hit := part(list_1_n,random(n-k+1) + 1);
list_1_n := delete(hit,list_1_n);
luckies := hit . luckies >>;
return luckies;
end;
% In Germany, try lotto (49,6);

Another example: Find all coefficients of a multivariate polynomial with respect to

a list of variables:

procedure allcoeffs(q,lis);
% q : polynomial, lis: list of vars
allcoeffs1 (list q,lis);

procedure allcoeffs1(q,lis);
if lis={} then q else
allcoeffs1(foreach qq in q join coeff(qq,first lis),
rest lis);
Chapter 5

Statements

A statement is any combination of reserved words and expressions, and has the
syntax

hstatementi −→ hexpressioni | hproper statementi

A REDUCE program consists of a series of commands which are statements fol-

lowed by a terminator:

hterminatori −→ ; | $

The division of the program into lines is arbitrary. Several statements can be on
one line, or one statement can be freely broken onto several lines. If the program
is run interactively, statements ending with ; or $ are not processed until an end-of-
line character is encountered. This character can vary from system to system, but
is normally the Return key on an ASCII terminal. Specific systems may also use
additional keys as statement terminators.
If a statement is a proper statement, the appropriate action takes place.
Depending on the nature of the proper statement some result or response may or
may not be printed out, and the response may or may not depend on the terminator
used.
If a statement is an expression, it is evaluated. If the terminator is a semicolon, the
result is printed. If the terminator is a dollar sign, the result is not printed. Because
it is not usually possible to know in advance how large an expression will be, no
explicit format statements are offered to the user. However, a variety of output
declarations are available so that the output can be produced in different forms.
These output declarations are explained in Section 8.3.3.
The following sub-sections describe the types of proper statements in REDUCE.

55
56 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS

5.1 Assignment Statements

These statements have the syntax

hassignment statementi −→ hexpressioni:=hexpressioni

The hexpressioni on the left side is normally the name of a variable, an operator
symbol with its list of arguments filled in, or an array name with the proper number
of integer subscript values within the array bounds. For example:

a1 := b + c
h(l,m) := x-2*y (where h is an operator)
k(3,5) := x-2*y (where k is a 2-dim. array)

More general assignments such as a+b := c are also allowed. The effect of these
is explained in Section 11.2.5.
An assignment statement causes the expression on the right-hand-side to be evalu-
ated. If the left-hand-side is a variable, the value of the right-hand-side is assigned
to that unevaluated variable. If the left-hand-side is an operator or array expression,
the arguments of that operator or array are evaluated, but no other simplification
done. The evaluated right-hand-side is then assigned to the resulting expression.
For example, if a is a single-dimensional array, a(1+1) := b assigns the value
b to the array element a(2).
If a semicolon is used as the terminator when an assignment is issued as a command
(i.e. not as a part of a group statement or procedure or other similar construct), the
left-hand side symbol of the assignment statement is printed out, followed by a
“:=”, followed by the value of the expression on the right.
It is also possible to write a multiple assignment statement:

hexpressioni:= . . . :=hexpressioni:=hexpressioni

In this form, each hexpressioni but the last is set to the value of the last hexpressioni.
If a semicolon is used as a terminator, each expression except the last is printed
followed by a “:=” ending with the value of the last expression.

5.1.1 Set and Unset Statements

In some cases, it is desirable to perform an assignment in which both the left- and
right-hand sides of an assignment are evaluated. In this case, the SET statement
can be used with the syntax:

SET(hexpressioni,hexpressioni);
5.2. GROUP STATEMENTS 57

For example, the statements

j := 23;
set(mkid(a,j),x);

assigns the value X to A23.

To remove a value from such a variable, the UNSET statement can be used with the
syntax:

UNSET(hexpressioni);

For example, the statement

j := 23;
unset(mkid(a,j));

clears the value of A23.

5.2 Group Statements

The group statement is a construct used where REDUCE expects a single state-
ment, but a series of actions needs to be performed. It is formed by enclosing one
or more statements (of any kind) between the symbols << and >>, separated by
semicolons or dollar signs – it doesn’t matter which. The statements are executed
one after another.
Examples will be given in the sections on IF and other types of statements in which
the << . . . >> construct is useful.
If the last statement in the enclosed group has a value, then that is also the value
of the group statement. Care must be taken not to have a semicolon or dollar sign
after the last grouped statement, if the value of the group is relevant: such an extra
terminator causes the group to have the value NIL or zero.

5.3 Conditional Statements

The conditional statement has the following syntax:

hconditional statementi −→ IF hboolean expressioni THEN hstatementi

[ELSE hstatementi]

The boolean expression is evaluated. If this is true, the first hstatementi is executed.
If it is false, the second is.
58 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS

Examples:

if x=5 then a:=b+c else d:=e+f

if x=5 and numberp y

then <<ff:=q1; a:=b+c>>
else <<ff:=q2; d:=e+f>>

Note the use of the group statement.

Conditional statements associate to the right; i.e.,

IF <a> THEN <b> ELSE IF <c> THEN <d> ELSE <e>

is equivalent to:

IF <a> THEN <b> ELSE (IF <c> THEN <d> ELSE <e>)

In addition, the construction

IF <a> THEN IF <b> THEN <c> ELSE <d>

parses as

IF <a> THEN (IF <b> THEN <c> ELSE <d>).

If the value of the conditional statement is of primary interest, it is often called a

conditional expression instead. Its value is the value of whichever statement was
executed. (If the executed statement has no value, the conditional expression has
no value or the value 0, depending on how it is used.)
Examples:

a:=if x<5 then 123 else 456;

b:=u + v^(if numberp z then 10*z else 1) + w;

If the value is of no concern, the ELSE clause may be omitted if no action is

required in the false case.

if x=5 then a:=b+c;

Note: As explained in Section 3.3, if a scalar or numerical expression is used in

place of the boolean expression – for example, a variable is written there – the true
alternative is followed unless the expression has the value 0.
5.4. FOR STATEMENTS 59

5.4 FOR Statements

The FOR statement is used to define a variety of program loops. Its general syntax
is as follows:
 
hnumberi
 
STEP UNTIL
hvari := hnumberi hnumberi

 

: 
FOR   hactioni hexprni
IN
EACH hvari hlisti

 

 
ON

where

hactioni −→ do | product | sum | collect | join.

The assignment form of the FOR statement defines an iteration over the indicated
numerical range. If expressions that do not evaluate to numbers are used in the
designated places, an error will result.
The FOR EACH form of the FOR statement is designed to iterate down a list.
Again, an error will occur if a list is not used.
The action DO means that hexprni is simply evaluated and no value kept; the state-
ment returning 0 in this case (or no value at the top level). COLLECT means that
the results of evaluating hexprni each time are linked together to make a list, and
JOIN means that the values of hexprni are themselves lists that are joined to make
one list (similar to CONC in Lisp). Finally, PRODUCT and SUM form the respective
combined value out of the values of hexprni.
In all cases, hexprni is evaluated algebraically within the scope of the current value
of hvari. If hactioni is DO, then nothing else happens. In other cases, hactioni is
a binary operator that causes a result to be built up and returned by FOR. In those
cases, the loop is initialized to a default value (0 for SUM, 1 for PRODUCT, and an
empty list for the other actions). The test for the end condition is made before any
action is taken. As in Pascal, if the variable is out of range in the assignment case,
or the hlisti is empty in the FOR EACH case, hexprni is not evaluated at all.
Examples:

1. If A, B have been declared to be arrays, the following stores 52 through 102

in A(5) through A(10), and at the same time stores the cubes in the B
array:

for i := 5 step 1 until 10 do

<<a(i):=i^2; b(i):=i^3>>

2. As a convenience, the common construction

step 1 until
60 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS

may be abbreviated to a colon. Thus, instead of the above we could write:

for i := 5:10 do <<a(i):=i^2; b(i):=i^3>>

3. The following sets C to the sum of the squares of 1,3,5,7,9; and D to the
expression x*(x+1)*(x+2)*(x+3)*(x+4):

c := for j:=1 step 2 until 9 sum j^2;

d := for k:=0 step 1 until 4 product (x+k);

4. The following forms a list of the squares of the elements of the list
{a,b,c}:

for each x in {a,b,c} collect x^2;

5. The following forms a list of the listed squares of the elements of the list
{a,b,c} (i.e., {{A^2},{B^2},{C^2}}):

for each x in {a,b,c} collect {x^2};

6. The following also forms a list of the squares of the elements of the list
{a,b,c}, since the JOIN operation joins the individual lists into one list:

for each x in {a,b,c} join {x^2};

The control variable used in the FOR statement is actually a new variable, not
related to the variable of the same name outside the FOR statement. In other words,
executing a statement for i:= . . . doesn’t change the system’s assumption that
i2 = −1. Furthermore, in algebraic mode, the value of the control variable is
substituted in hexprni only if it occurs explicitly in that expression. It will not
replace a variable of the same name in the value of that expression. For example:

b := a; for a := 1:2 do write b;

prints A twice, not 1 followed by 2.

5.5 WHILE . . . DO

The FOR . . . DO feature allows easy coding of a repeated operation in which the
number of repetitions is known in advance. If the criterion for repetition is more
complicated, WHILE . . . DO can often be used. Its syntax is:

WHILE hboolean expressioni DO hstatementi

5.6. REPEAT . . . UNTIL 61

The WHILE . . . DO controls the single statement following DO. If several state-
ments are to be repeated, as is almost always the case, they must be grouped using
the << . . . >> or BEGIN . . . END as in the example below.
The WHILE condition is tested each time before the action following the DO is
attempted. If the condition is false to begin with, the action is not performed at all.
Make sure that what is to be tested has an appropriate value initially.
Example:
Suppose we want to add up a series of terms, generated one by one, until we reach
a term which is less than 1/1000 in value. For our simple example, let us suppose
the first term equals 1 and each term is obtained from the one before by taking one
third of it and adding one third its square. We would write:

ex:=0; term:=1;
while num(term - 1/1000) >= 0 do
<<ex := ex+term; term:=(term + term^2)/3>>;
ex;

As long as TERM is greater than or equal to (>=) 1/1000 it will be added to EX and
the next TERM calculated. As soon as TERM becomes less than 1/1000 the WHILE
test fails and the TERM will not be added.

5.6 REPEAT . . . UNTIL

REPEAT . . . UNTIL is very similar in purpose to WHILE . . . DO. Its syntax is:

REPEAT hstatementi UNTIL hboolean expressioni

(PASCAL users note: Only a single statement – usually a group statement – is

allowed between the REPEAT and the UNTIL.)
There are two essential differences:

1. The test is performed after the controlled statement (or group of statements)
is executed, so the controlled statement is always executed at least once.

2. The test is a test for when to stop rather than when to continue, so its “polar-
ity” is the opposite of that in WHILE . . . DO.
62 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS

As an example, we rewrite the example from the WHILE ...DO section:

ex:=0; term:=1;
repeat <<ex := ex+term; term := (term + term^2)/3>>
until num(term - 1/1000) < 0;
ex;

In this case, the answer will be the same as before, because in neither case is a term
added to EX which is less than 1/1000.

5.7 Compound Statements

Often the desired process can best (or only) be described as a series of steps to be
carried out one after the other. In many cases, this can be achieved by use of the
group statement. However, each step often provides some intermediate result, until
at the end we have the final result wanted. Alternatively, iterations on the steps are
needed that are not possible with constructs such as WHILE or REPEAT statements.
In such cases the steps of the process must be enclosed between the words BEGIN
and END forming what is technically called a block or compound statement. Such a
compound statement can in fact be used wherever a group statement appears. The
converse is not true: BEGIN ...END can be used in ways that << . . . >> cannot.
If intermediate results must be formed, local variables must be provided in which
to store them. Local means that their values are deleted as soon as the block’s
operations are complete, and there is no conflict with variables outside the block
that happen to have the same name. Local variables are created by a SCALAR
declaration immediately after the BEGIN:

scalar a,b,c,z;

If more convenient, several SCALAR declarations can be given one after another:

scalar a,b,c;
scalar z;

In place of SCALAR one can also use the declarations INTEGER or REAL. In the
present version of REDUCE variables declared INTEGER are expected to have
only integer values, and are initialized to 0. REAL variables on the other hand are
currently treated as algebraic mode SCALARs.
CAUTION: INTEGER, REAL and SCALAR declarations can only be given imme-
diately after a BEGIN. An error will result if they are used after other statements
in a block (including ARRAY and OPERATOR declarations, which are global in
scope), or outside the top-most block (e.g., at the top level). All variables declared
5.7. COMPOUND STATEMENTS 63

SCALAR are automatically initialized to zero in algebraic mode (NIL in symbolic

mode).
Any symbols not declared as local variables in a block refer to the variables of
the same name in the current calling environment. In particular, if they are not so
declared at a higher level (e.g., in a surrounding block or as parameters in a calling
procedure), their values can be permanently changed.
Following the SCALAR declaration(s), if any, write the statements to be executed,
one after the other, separated by delimiters (e.g., ; or $) (it doesn’t matter which).
However, from a stylistic point of view, ; is preferred.
The last statement in the body, just before END, need not have a terminator (since
the BEGIN . . . END are in a sense brackets confining the block statements). The
last statement must also be the command RETURN followed by the variable or
expression whose value is to be the value returned by the procedure. If the RETURN
is omitted (or nothing is written after the word RETURN) the procedure will have
no value or the value zero, depending on how it is used (and NIL in symbolic
mode). Remember to put a terminator after the END.
Example:
Given a previously assigned integer value for N, the following block will compute
the Legendre polynomial of degree N in the variable X:

begin scalar seed,deriv,top,fact;

seed:=1/(y^2 - 2*x*y +1)^(1/2);
deriv:=df(seed,y,n);
top:=sub(y=0,deriv);
fact:=for i:=1:n product i;
return top/fact
end;

5.7.1 Compound Statements with GO TO

It is possible to have more complicated structures inside the BEGIN . . . END brack-
ets than indicated in the previous example. That the individual lines of the program
need not be assignment statements, but could be almost any other kind of state-
ment or command, needs no explanation. For example, conditional statements,
and WHILE and REPEAT constructions, have an obvious role in defining more
intricate blocks.
If these structured constructs don’t suffice, it is possible to use labels and GO TOs
within a compound statement, and also to use RETURN in places within the block
other than just before the END. The following subsections discuss these matters in
detail. For many readers the following example, presenting one possible definition
64 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS

of a process to calculate the factorial of N for preassigned N will suffice:

Example:

begin scalar m;
m:=1;
l: if n=0 then return m;
m:=m*n;
n:=n-1;
go to l
end;

5.7.2 Labels and GO TO Statements

Within a BEGIN ...END compound statement it is possible to label statements,

and transfer to them out of sequence using GO TO statements. Only statements on
the top level inside compound statements can be labeled, not ones inside subsidiary
constructions like << . . . >>, IF . . . THEN . . . , WHILE . . . DO . . . , etc.
Labels and GO TO statements have the syntax:

hgo to statementi −→ GO TO hlabeli | GOTO hlabeli

hlabeli −→ hidentifieri
hlabeled statementi −→ hlabeli:hstatementi

Note that statement names cannot be used as labels.

While GO TO is an unconditional transfer, it is frequently used in conditional state-
ments such as

if x>5 then go to abcd;

giving the effect of a conditional transfer.

Transfers using GO TOs can only occur within the block in which the GO TO is
used. In other words, you cannot transfer from an inner block to an outer block us-
ing a GO TO. However, if a group statement occurs within a compound statement,
it is possible to jump out of that group statement to a point within the compound
statement using a GO TO.

5.7.3 RETURN Statements

The value corresponding to a BEGIN . . . END compound statement, such as a

procedure body, is normally 0 (NIL in symbolic mode). By executing a RETURN
statement in the compound statement a different value can be returned. After a
5.7. COMPOUND STATEMENTS 65

RETURN statement is executed, no further statements within the compound state-

ment are executed.
Examples:

return x+y;
return m;
return;

Note that parentheses are not required around the x+y, although they are permitted.
The last example is equivalent to return 0 or return nil, depending on
whether the block is used as part of an expression or not.
Since RETURN actually moves up only one block level, in a sense the casual user
is not expected to understand, we tabulate some cautions concerning its use.

1. RETURN can be used on the top level inside the compound statement, i.e. as
one of the statements bracketed together by the BEGIN . . . END

2. RETURN can be used within a top level << . . . >> construction within the
compound statement. In this case, the RETURN transfers control out of both
the group statement and the compound statement.

3. RETURN can be used within an IF . . . THEN . . . ELSE . . . on the top level

within the compound statement.

NOTE: At present, there is no construct provided to permit early termination of

a FOR, WHILE, or REPEAT statement. In particular, the use of RETURN in such
cases results in a syntax error. For example,

begin scalar y;
y := for i:=0:99 do if a(i)=x then return b(i);
...

will lead to an error.

66 CHAPTER 5. STATEMENTS
Chapter 6

Commands and Declarations

A command is an order to the system to do something. Some commands cause

visible results (such as calling for input or output); others, usually called declara-
tions, set options, define properties of variables, or define procedures. Commands
are formally defined as a statement followed by a terminator

hcommandi −→ hstatementihterminatori
hterminatori −→ ; | $

Some REDUCE commands and declarations are described in the following sub-
sections.

6.1 Array Declarations

Array declarations in REDUCE are similar to FORTRAN dimension statements.

For example:

array a(10),b(2,3,4);

Array indices each range from 0 to the value declared. An element of an array is
referred to in standard FORTRAN notation, e.g. A(2).
We can also use an expression for defining an array bound, provided the value of
the expression is a positive integer. For example, if X has the value 10 and Y the
value 7 then array c(5*x+y) is the same as array c(57).
If an array is referenced by an index outside its range, an error occurs. If the array
is to be one-dimensional, and the bound a number or a variable (not a more general
expression) the parentheses may be omitted:

array a 10, c 57;

67
68 CHAPTER 6. COMMANDS AND DECLARATIONS

The operator LENGTH applied to an array name returns a list of its dimensions.
All array elements are initialized to 0 at declaration time. In other words, an array
element has an instant evaluation property and cannot stand for itself. If this is
required, then an operator should be used instead.
Array declarations can appear anywhere in a program. Once a symbol is declared
to name an array, it can not also be used as a variable, or to name an operator or
a procedure. It can however be re-declared to be an array, and its size may be
changed at that time. An array name can also continue to be used as a parameter in
a procedure, or a local variable in a compound statement, although this use is not
recommended, since it can lead to user confusion over the type of the variable.
Arrays once declared are global in scope, and so can then be referenced anywhere
in the program. In other words, unlike arrays in most other languages, a declara-
tion within a block (or a procedure) does not limit the scope of the array to that
block, nor does the array go away on exiting the block (use CLEAR instead for this
purpose).

6.2 Mode Handling Declarations

The ON and OFF declarations are available to the user for controlling various sys-
tem options. Each option is represented by a switch name. ON and OFF take a list
of switch names as argument and turn them on and off respectively, e.g.,

on time;

causes the system to print a message after each command giving the elapsed CPU
time since the last command, or since TIME was last turned off, or the session be-
gan. Another useful switch with interactive use is DEMO, which causes the system
to pause after each command in a file (with the exception of comments) until a
Return is typed on the terminal. This enables a user to set up a demonstration
file and step through it command by command.
As with most declarations, arguments to ON and OFF may be strung together sep-
arated by commas. For example,

off time,demo;

will turn off both the time messages and the demonstration switch.
We note here that while most ON and OFF commands are obeyed almost instanta-
neously, some trigger time-consuming actions such as reading in necessary mod-
ules from secondary storage.
A diagnostic message is printed if ON or OFF are used with a switch that is not
6.3. END 69

known to the system. For example, if you misspell DEMO and type

on demq;

you will get the message

***** DEMQ not defined as switch.

6.3 END

The identifier END has two separate uses.

1) Its use in a BEGIN . . . END bracket has been discussed in connection with
compound statements.
2) Files to be read using IN should end with an extra END; command. The reason
for this is explained in the section on the IN command. This use of END does not
allow an immediately preceding END (such as the END of a procedure definition),
so we advise using ;END; there.

6.4 BYE Command

The command BYE; (or alternatively QUIT;) stops the execution of REDUCE,
closes all open output files, and returns you to the calling program (usually the
operating system). Your REDUCE session is normally destroyed.

6.5 SHOWTIME Command

SHOWTIME; prints the elapsed time since the last call of this command or, on its
first call, since the current REDUCE session began. The time is normally given
in milliseconds and gives the time as measured by a system clock. The operations
covered by this measure are system dependent.

6.6 DEFINE Command

The command DEFINE allows a user to supply a new name for any identifier or
replace it by any well-formed expression. Its argument is a list of expressions of
the form
70 CHAPTER 6. COMMANDS AND DECLARATIONS

hidentifieri = hnumberi | hidentifieri | hoperatori |

hreserved wordi | hexpressioni

Example:

define be==,x=y+z;

means that BE will be interpreted as an equal sign, and X as the expression y+z
from then on. This renaming is done at parse time, and therefore takes precedence
over any other replacement declared for the same identifier. It stays in effect until
the end of the REDUCE run.
The identifiers ALGEBRAIC and SYMBOLIC have properties which prevent
DEFINE from being used on them. To define ALG to be a synonym for
ALGEBRAIC, use the more complicated construction

put(’alg,’newnam,’algebraic);
Chapter 7

Built-in Prefix Operators

In the following subsections are descriptions of the most useful prefix operators
built into REDUCE that are not defined in other sections (such as substitution
operators). Some are fully defined internally as procedures; others are more nearly
abstract operators, with only some of their properties known to the system.
In many cases, an operator is described by a prototypical header line as follows.
Each formal parameter is given a name and followed by its allowed type. The
names of classes referred to in the definition are printed in lower case, and param-
eter names in upper case. If a parameter type is not commonly used, it may be
a specific set enclosed in brackets { . . . }. Operators that accept formal param-
eter lists of arbitrary length have the parameter and type class enclosed in square
brackets indicating that zero or more occurrences of that argument are permitted.
Optional parameters and their type classes are enclosed in angle brackets.

7.1 Numerical Operators

REDUCE includes a number of functions that are analogs of those found in most
numerical systems. With numerical arguments, such functions return the expected
result. However, they may also be called with non-numerical arguments. In such
cases, except where noted, the system attempts to simplify the expression as far as
it can. In such cases, a residual expression involving the original operator usually
remains. These operators are as follows:

7.1.1 ABS

ABS returns the absolute value of its single argument, if that argument has a nu-
merical value. A non-numerical argument is returned as an absolute value, with an

71
72 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

overall numerical coefficient taken outside the absolute value operator. For exam-
ple:

abs(-3/4) -> 3/4

abs(2a) -> 2*ABS(A)
abs(i) -> 1
abs(-x) -> ABS(X)

7.1.2 CEILING

This operator returns the ceiling (i.e., the least integer greater than the given argu-
ment) if its single argument has a numerical value. A non-numerical argument is
returned as an expression in the original operator. For example:

ceiling(-5/4) -> -1
ceiling(-a) -> CEILING(-A)

7.1.3 CONJ

This returns the complex conjugate of an expression, if that argument has a nu-
merical value. By default the complex conjugate of a non-numerical argument is
returned as an expression in the operators REPART and IMPART. For example:

conj(1+i) -> 1-I

conj(a+i*b) -> REPART(A) - REPART(B)*I
- IMPART(A)*I - IMPART(B)

However, if rules have been previously defined for the complex conjugate(s) of one
or more non-numerical terms appearing in the argument, these rules are applied and
the expansion in terms of the operators REPART and IMPART is suppressed.
For example:

realvalued a,b;
conj(a+i*b) -> a-b*i
let conj z => z!*, conj c => c!*;
conj(a+b*z*z!*+z*c!*) -> a+b*z*z* + c*z*
conj atan z -> atan(z*)

Note that in defining the rule conj z => z!*, the rule conj z!* => z
is (in effect) automatically defined. Note also that the standard elementary
functions and their inverses (where appropriate) are automatically defined to be
SELFCONJUGATE so that conj(f(z)) => f(conj(z)).
7.1. NUMERICAL OPERATORS 73

7.1.4 FACTORIAL

If the single argument of FACTORIAL evaluates to a non-negative integer, its fac-

torial is returned. Otherwise an expression involving FACTORIAL is returned. For
example:

factorial(5) -> 120

factorial(a) -> FACTORIAL(A)

7.1.5 FIX

This operator returns the fixed value (i.e., the integer part of the given argument) if
its single argument has a numerical value. A non-numerical argument is returned
as an expression in the original operator. For example:

fix(-5/4) -> -1
fix(a) -> FIX(A)

7.1.6 FLOOR

This operator returns the floor (i.e., the greatest integer less than the given argu-
ment) if its single argument has a numerical value. A non-numerical argument is
returned as an expression in the original operator. For example:

floor(-5/4) -> -2
floor(a) -> FLOOR(A)

7.1.7 IMPART

This operator returns the imaginary part of an expression, if that argument has an
numerical value. A non-numerical argument is returned as an expression in the
operators REPART and IMPART. For example:

impart(1+i) -> 1
impart(sin(3+4*i)) -> cos(3)*sinh(4)
impart(log(2+i)) -> atan(1/2)
impart(asin(1+i)) -> acosh(sqrt(5)+2)/2
impart(a+i*b) -> impart(a) + repart(b)
74 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

7.1.8 MAX/MIN

MAX and MIN can take an arbitrary number of expressions as their arguments.
If all arguments evaluate to numerical values, the maximum or minimum of the
argument list is returned. If any argument is non-numeric, an appropriately reduced
expression is returned. For example:

max(2,-3,4,5) -> 5
min(2,-2) -> -2.
max(a,2,3) -> MAX(A,3)
min(x) -> X

MAX or MIN of an empty list returns 0.

7.1.9 NEXTPRIME

NEXTPRIME returns the next prime greater than its integer argument, using a prob-
abilistic algorithm. A type error occurs if the value of the argument is not an inte-
ger. For example:

nextprime(5) -> 7
nextprime(-2) -> 2
nextprime(-7) -> -5
nextprime 1000000 -> 1000003

whereas nextprime(a) gives a type error.

7.1.10 RANDOM

random(n) returns a random number r in the range 0 ≤ r < n. A type error

occurs if the value of the argument is not a positive integer in algebraic mode, or
positive number in symbolic mode. For example:

random(5) -> 3
random(1000) -> 191

whereas random(a) gives a type error.

7.1.11 RANDOM_NEW_SEED

random_new_seed(n) reseeds the random number generator to a sequence

determined by the integer argument n. It can be used to ensure that a repeat-
7.1. NUMERICAL OPERATORS 75

able pseudo-random sequence will be delivered regardless of any previous use of

RANDOM, or can be called early in a run with an argument derived from something
variable (such as the time of day) to arrange that different runs of a REDUCE pro-
gram will use different random sequences. When a fresh copy of REDUCE is first
created it is as if random_new_seed(1) has been obeyed.
A type error occurs if the value of the argument is not a positive integer.

7.1.12 REPART

This returns the real part of an expression, if that argument has an numerical value.
A non-numerical argument is returned as an expression in the operators REPART
and IMPART. For example:

repart(1+i) -> 1
repart(sin(3+4*i)) -> cosh(4)*sin(3)
repart(log(2+i)) -> log(5)/2
repart(asin(1+i)) -> acos(sqrt(5)-2)/2
repart(a+i*b) -> - impart(b) + repart(a)

7.1.13 ROUND

This operator returns the rounded value (i.e, the nearest integer) of its single argu-
ment if that argument has a numerical value. A non-numeric argument is returned
as an expression in the original operator. For example:

round(-5/4) -> -1
round(a) -> ROUND(A)

7.1.14 SIGN

SIGN tries to evaluate the sign of its argument. If this is possible SIGN returns
one of 1, 0 or -1. Otherwise, the result is the original form or a simplified variant.
For example:

sign(-5) -> -1
sign(-a^2*b) -> -SIGN(B)

Note that even powers of formal expressions are assumed to be positive only as
long as the switch COMPLEX is off.
76 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

7.2 Mathematical Functions

REDUCE knows that the following represent mathematical functions that can take
arbitrary scalar expressions as their argument(s):

ACOS ACOSH ACOT ACOTH ACSC ACSCH ASEC ASECH ASIN

ASINH ATAN ATANH ATAN2 BETA CI COS COSH COT COTH CSC
CSCH DILOG EI EXP GAMMA HYPOT IBETA IGAMMA LOG
LOGB LOG10 SEC SECH SI SIN SINH SQRT TAN TANH
AIRY_AI AIRY_AIPRIME AIRY_BI AIRY_BIPRIME
BESSELI BESSELJ BESSELK BESSELY
HANKEL1 HANKEL2 KUMMERM KUMMERU LOMMEL1 LOMMEL2
STRUVEH STRUVEL WHITTAKERM WHITTAKERU
POLYGAMMA PSI ZETA
SOLIDHARMONICY SPHERICALHARMONICY

where LOG is the natural logarithm, and LOGB has two arguments of which the
second is the logarithmic base.
The derivatives of all these functions are also known to the system.
REDUCE knows various elementary identities and properties of these functions.
For example:

cos(-x) = cos(x) sin(-x) = - sin (x)

cos(n*pi) = (-1)^n sin(n*pi) = 0
log(e) = 1 e^(i*pi/2) = i
log(1) = 0 e^(i*pi) = -1
log(e^x) = x e^(3*i*pi/2) = -i

Beside these identities, there are a lot of simplifications for elementary funct-
ions defined in the REDUCE system as rulelists. In order to view these, the
SHOWRULES operator can be used, e.g.

SHOWRULES tan;

{tan(~n*arbint(~i)*pi + ~~x) => tan(x) when fixp(n),

tan(~x) => trigquot(sin(x),cos(x)) when knowledge_about(sin,x,tan),

~x + ~~k*pi x k
tan(-------------) => - cot(--- + i*pi*impart(---)) when abs(repart(
~~d d d
7.2. MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS 77

~~w + ~~k*pi w k k
tan(--------------) => tan(--- + (--- - fix(repart(---)))*pi)
~~d d d d

k
when ((ratnump(rp) and abs(rp)>=1) where rp => repart(---)),
d

tan(atan(~x)) => x,

2
df(tan(~x),~x) => 1 + tan(x) }

For further simplification, especially of expressions involving trigonometric funct-

ions, see the TRIGSIMP package (chapter 16.76) documentation.
Functions not listed above may be defined in the special functions package
SPECFN.
The user can add further rules for the reduction of expressions involving these
operators by using the LET command.
In many cases it is desirable to expand product arguments of logarithms, or collect
a sum of logarithms into a single logarithm. Since these are inverse operations, it
is not possible to provide rules for doing both at the same time and preserve the
REDUCE concept of idempotent evaluation. As an alternative, REDUCE provides
two switches EXPANDLOGS and COMBINELOGS to carry out these operations.
Both are off by default, and are subject to the value of the switch PRECISE. This
switch is on by default and prevents modifications that may be false in a complex
domain. Thus to expand LOG(3*Y) into a sum of logs, one can say

ON EXPANDLOGS; LOG(3*Y);

whereas to expand LOG(X*Y) into a sum of logs, one needs to say

OFF PRECISE; ON EXPANDLOGS; LOG(X*Y);

To combine this sum into a single log:

OFF PRECISE; ON COMBINELOGS; LOG(X) + LOG(Y);

These switches affect the logarithmic functions LOG10 (base 10) and LOGB (ar-
bitrary base) as well.
At the present time, it is possible to have both switches on at once, which could
78 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

lead to infinite recursion. However, an expression is switched from one form to the
other in this case. Users should not rely on this behavior, since it may change in
the next release.
The current version of REDUCE does a poor job of simplifying surds. In particular,
expressions involving the product of variables raised to non-integer powers do not
usually have their powers combined internally, even though they are printed as if
those powers were combined. For example, the expression

x^(1/3)*x^(1/6);

will print as

SQRT(X)

but will have an internal form containing the two exponentiated terms. If you
now subtract sqrt(x) from this expression, you will not get zero. Instead, the
confusing form

SQRT(X) - SQRT(X)

will result. To combine such exponentiated terms, the switch COMBINEEXPT

should be turned on.
The square root function can be input using the name SQRT, or the power opera-
tion ^(1/2). On output, unsimplified square roots are normally represented by
the operator SQRT rather than a fractional power. With the default system switch
settings, the argument of a square root is first simplified, and any divisors of the
expression that are perfect squares taken outside the square root argument. The
remaining expression is left under the square root. Thus the expression

sqrt(-8a^2*b)

becomes

2*a*sqrt(-2*b).

Note that such simplifications can cause trouble if A is eventually given a value
that is a negative number. If it is important that the positive property of the square
root and higher even roots always be preserved, the switch PRECISE should be
set on (the default value). This causes any non-numerical factors taken out of surds
to be represented by their absolute value form. With PRECISE on then, the above
example would become
7.2. MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS 79

2*abs(a)*sqrt(-2*b).
√
However, this is incorrect in the complex domain, where the x2 is not identical
to |x|. To avoid the above simplification, the switch PRECISE_COMPLEX should
be set on (default is off). For example:

on precise_complex; sqrt(-8a^2*b);

yields the output

2
2*sqrt( - 2*a *b)

The statement that REDUCE knows very little about these functions applies only
in the mathematically exact off rounded mode. If ROUNDED is on, any of the
functions

ACOS ACOSH ACOT ACOTH ACSC ACSCH ASEC ASECH ASIN

ASINH ATAN ATANH ATAN2 COS COSH COT COTH CSC CSCH
EXP HYPOT IBETA IGAMMA LN LOG LOGB LOG10 PSI SEC
SECH SIN SINH SQRT TAN TANH

when given a numerical argument has its value calculated to the current degree of
floating point precision. In addition, real (non-integer valued) powers of numbers
will also be evaluated.
If the COMPLEX switch is turned on in addition to ROUNDED, these funct-
ions will also calculate a real or complex result, again to the current degree of
floating point precision, if given complex arguments. For example, with on
rounded,complex;

2.3^(5.6i) -> -0.0480793490914 - 0.998843519372*I

cos(2+3i) -> -4.18962569097 - 9.10922789376*I

For log and the inverse trig. and hyperbolic functions which are multi-valued,
the principal value is returned. The branch cuts chosen (except for acot) are now
those recommended by W. Kahan (Branch Cuts for Complex Elementary Funct-
ions, or Much Ado About Nothing’s Sign Bit, in The State of the Art in Numerical
Analysis, A. Iserles, M.J.D. Powell Eds., Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1987).
The exception for acot is necessary as elsewhere in Reduce acot(−z) is taken to
be π − acot(z) rather than − acot(z). The branch cuts are:
80 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

log: {r | r ∈ R ∧ r < 0}
asin, acos: {r | r ∈ R ∧ (r > 1 ∨ r < −1)}
acsc, asec: {r | r ∈ R ∧ r 6= 0 ∧ r > −1 ∧ r < 1}
atan, acot: {r ∗ i | r ∈ R ∧ (r > 1 ∨ r < −1)}
asinh: {r ∗ i | r ∈ R ∧ (r ≥ 1 ∨ r ≤ −1)}
acsch: {r ∗ i | r ∈ R ∧ r 6= 0 ∧ r ≥ −1 ∧ r ≤ 1}
acosh: {r | r ∈ R ∧ r < 1}
asech: {r | r ∈ R ∧ (r > 1 ∨ r < 0)}
atanh: {r | r ∈ R ∧ (r > 1 ∨ r < −1)}
acoth: {r | r ∈ R ∧ r > −1 ∧ r < 1}

7.3 Bernoulli Numbers and Euler Numbers

The unary operator Bernoulli provides notation and computation for Bernoulli
numbers. Bernoulli(n) evaluates to the nth Bernoulli number; all of the odd
Bernoulli numbers, except Bernoulli(1), are zero.
The algorithms are based upon those by Herbert Wilf, presented by Sandra
Fillebrown.[1]. If the ROUNDED switch is off, the algorithms are exactly those;
if it is on, some further rounding may be done to prevent computation of redundant
digits. Hence, these functions are particularly fast when used to approximate the
Bernoulli numbers in rounded mode.
Euler numbers are computed by the unary operator Euler, which return the nth Eu-
ler number. The computation is derived directly from Pascal’s triangle of binomial
coefficients.

7.4 Fibonacci Numbers and Fibonacci Polynomials

The unary operator Fibonacci provides notation and computation for Fibonacci
numbers. Fibonacci(n) evaluates to the nth Fibonacci number. If n is a posi-
tive or negative integer, it will be evaluated following the definition:
F0 = 0; F1 = 1; Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2
Fibonacci Polynomials are computed by the binary operator FibonacciP. Fibonac-
ciP(n,x) returns the nth Fibonaccip polynomial in the variable x. If n is a positive
or negative integer, it will be evaluated following the definition:
F0 (x) = 0; F1 (x) = 1; Fn (x) = xFn−1 (x) + Fn−2 (x)
7.5. MOTZKIN NUMBERS 81

7.5 Motzkin numbers

A Motzkin number Mn (named after Theodore Motzkin) is the number of different

ways of drawing non-intersecting chords on a circle between n points. For a non-
negative integer n, the operator Motzkin(n) returns the nth Motzkin number,
according to the recursion formula
2n + 3 3n
M0 = 1 ; M1 = 1 ; Mn+1 = Mn + Mn−1 .
n+3 n+3

7.6 CHANGEVAR operator

Author: G. Üçoluk.
The operator CHANGEVAR does a variable transformation in a set of differential
equations. Syntax:

changevar(hdepvarsi, hnewvarsi, heqlisti, hdiffeqi)

hdiffeqi is either a single differential equation or a list of differential equat-

ions, hdepvarsi are the dependent variables to be substituted, hnewvarsi are the
new depend variables, and heqlisti is a list of equations of the form hdepvari =
hexpressioni where hexpressioni is some function in the new dependent variables.
The three lists hdepvarsi, hnewvarsi, and heqlisti must be of the same length. If
there is only one variable to be substituted, then it can be given instead of the
list. The same applies to the list of differential equations, i.e., the following two
commands are equivalent

changevar(u,y,x=e^y,df(u(x),x) - log(x));

changevar({u},{y},{x=e^y},{df(u(x),x) - log(x)});

except for one difference: the first command returns the transformed differential
equation, the second one a list with a single element.
The switch DISPJACOBIAN governs the display the entries of the inverse Jaco-
bian, it is OFF per default.
The mathematics behind the change of independent variable(s) in differential
equations is quite straightforward. It is basically the application of the chain rule.
If the dependent variable of the differential equation is F , the independent vari-
ables are xi and the new independent variables are ui (where i=1...n) then the first
derivatives are:
∂F ∂F ∂uj
=
∂xi ∂uj ∂xi
82 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

We assumed Einstein’s summation convention. Here the problem is to calculate

the ∂uj /∂xi terms if the change of variables is given by

xi = fi (u1 , . . . , un )

The first thought might be solving the above given equations for uj and then dif-
ferentiating them with respect to xi , then again making use of the equations above,
substituting new variables for the old ones in the calculated derivatives. This is
not always a preferable way to proceed. Mainly because the functions fi may not
always be easily invertible. Another approach that makes use of the Jacobian is
better. Consider the above given equations which relate the old variables to the
new ones. Let us differentiate them:
∂xj ∂fj
=
∂xi ∂xi
∂fj ∂uk
δij =
∂uk ∂xi

The first derivative is nothing but the (j, k) th entry of the Jacobian matrix.
So if we speak in matrix language

1=J·D

where we defined the Jacobian

4 ∂fi
Jij =
∂uj

and the matrix of the derivatives we wanted to obtain as

4 ∂ui
Dij = .
∂xj

If the Jacobian has a non-vanishing determinant then it is invertible and we are able
to write from the matrix equation above:

D = J−1

so finally we have what we want

∂ui
= J−1 ij
 
∂xj

The higher derivatives are obtained by the successive application of the chain rule
and using the definitions of the old variables in terms of the new ones. It can be
easily verified that the only derivatives that are needed to be calculated are the first
order ones which are obtained above.
7.6. CHANGEVAR OPERATOR 83

7.6.1 CHANGEVAR example: The 2-dim. Laplace Equation

The 2-dimensional Laplace equation in cartesian coordinates is:

∂2u ∂2u
+ 2 =0
∂x2 ∂y
Now assume we want to obtain the polar coordinate form of Laplace equation. The
change of variables is:

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ

The solution using CHANGEVAR is as follows

changevar({u},{r,theta},{x=r*cos theta,y=r*sin theta},

{df(u(x,y),x,2)+df(u(x,y),y,2)} );

Here we could omit the curly braces in the first and last arguments (because those
lists have only one member) and the curly braces in the third argument (because
they are optional), but you cannot leave off the curly braces in the second argument.
So one could equivalently write

changevar(u,{r,theta},x=r*cos theta,y=r*sin theta,

df(u(x,y),x,2)+df(u(x,y),y,2) );

If you have tried out the above example, you will notice that the denominator con-
tains a cos2 θ + sin2 θ which is actually equal to 1. This has of course nothing to
do with CHANGEVAR. One has to be overcome these pattern matching problems
by the conventional methods REDUCE provides (a rule, for example, will fix it).
Secondly you will notice that your u(x,y) operator has changed to u(r,theta)
in the result. Nothing magical about this. That is just what we do with pencil and
paper. u(r,theta) represents the the transformed dependent variable.

7.6.2 Another CHANGEVAR example: An Euler Equation

Consider a differential equation which is of Euler type, for instance:

x3 y 000 − 3x2 y 00 + 6xy 0 − 6y = 0

where prime denotes differentiation with respect to x. As is well known, Euler

type of equations are solved by a change of variable:

x = eu

So our call to CHANGEVAR reads as follows:

84 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

changevar(y, u, x=e**u, x**3*df(y(x),x,3)-

3*x**2*df(y(x),x,2)+6*x*df(y(x),x)-6*y(x));

and returns the result

df(y(u),u,3) - 6*df(y(u),u,2) + 11*df(y(u),u) - 6*y(u)

7.7 CONTINUED_FRACTION Operator

The operator CONTINUED_FRACTION generates the continued fraction expan-

sion of a rational number argument. For irrational or rounded arguments, it ap-
proximates the real number as a rational number to the current system precision
and generates the continued fraction expansion. Currently the operator CF is a
complete synonym for CONTINUED_FRACTION although this may change in fu-
ture updates of the package RATAPRX.
The operator CONTINUED_FRACTION accepts one, two or three arguments: the
number to be expanded; an optional maximum size permitted for the denominator
of the convergent and an optional number of continuents to be generated:

continued_fraction(hnumi)
continued_fraction(hnumi,hsizei)
continued_fraction(hnumi,hsizei,hnumtermsi)

The result is the special operator contfrac with three arguments: the original
number to be expanded hnumi, secondly the rational number approximation (the
final convergent) and thirdly a list of continuents of the continued fraction (iė. a
list of pairs of partial numerators and denominators)

{t0, {1, t1}, {1, t2}, .... }

which represents the same value according to the definition

t0 +1/(t1 + 1/(t2 + ...)).

Note that, although with the current algorithm all the partial numerators have the
value 1, they are stored in the list of continuents. This is for compatibility with
the output of other continued fractions functions cfrac and cf_euler. This
facilitates pretty-printing and the implementation of various equivalence transfor-
mations all of which are documented in the continued fraction subsection of the
RATAPRX manual (Section 16.51).
Precision: the second optional parameter hsizei is an upper bound for the absolute
value of the denominator of the convergent.
7.7. CONTINUED_FRACTION OPERATOR 85

Number of terms: the third optional parameter hnumtermsi is the maximum num-
ber of terms (continuents) to be generated.
If both optional parameters omitted, the expansion performed is exact for rational
number arguments and for irrational or rounded arguments it is up to the current
system precision. If both optional parameters are given the expansion is halted
when the desired precision is reached or when the specified maximum number of
terms have been generated whichever is the sooner. If the size parameter is zero, its
value is ignored. Thus to obtain a continued fraction expansion to, for example, 10
terms one would specify the hsizei parameter to be 0 and the hnumtermsi parameter
to be 10.
Note that the operator contfrac is not normally seen as the output is pretty-
printed, unless the number of continuents generated is larger than 12.
Examples:

continued_fraction(6/11);

6 1
{----,exact,---------------}
11 1
1 + ---------
1
1 + ---
5

continued_fraction(pi,1000);

355 1
{pi,-----,3 + ----------------}
113 1
7 + ----------
1
15 + ---
1

continued_fraction(pi,0,6);

104348 1
{pi,--------,3 + ------------------------------}
33215 1
7 + ------------------------
1
15 + -----------------
1
86 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

1 + -----------
1
292 + ---
1

continued_fraction(pi,1000,3);

333 1
{pi,-----,3 + ----------}
106 1
7 + ----
15

continued_fraction(pi,1000,6);

355 1
{pi,-----,3 + ----------------}
113 1
7 + ----------
1
15 + ---
1

continued_fraction e;

{e,

13580623
----------,
4996032

{2, {1,1}, {1,2}, {1,1}, {1,1}, {1,4}, {1,1}, {1,1}, {1,6},

{1,1}, {1,1}, {1,8}, {1,1}, {1,1}, {1,10}, {1,1}, {1,1}, {1,12}}}

7.8 DF Operator

The operator DF is used to represent partial differentiation with respect to one or

more variables. It is used with the syntax:

DF(hEXPRN:algebraici[, hVAR:kerneli <, hNUM:integeri >]) : algebraic.

The first argument is the expression to be differentiated. The remaining arguments

specify the differentiation variables and the number of times they are applied.
7.8. DF OPERATOR 87

The number NUM may be omitted if it is 1. For example,

df(y,x) = ∂y/∂x
df(y,x,2) = ∂ 2 y/∂x2
df(y,x1,2,x2,x3,2) = ∂ 5 y/∂x21 ∂x2 ∂x23 .

The evaluation of df(y,x) proceeds as follows: first, the values of Y and X are
found. Let us assume that X has no assigned value, so its value is X. Each term
or other part of the value of Y that contains the variable X is differentiated by the
standard rules. If Z is another variable, not X itself, then its derivative with respect
to X is taken to be 0, unless Z has previously been declared to DEPEND on X, in
which case the derivative is reported as the symbol df(z,x).

7.8.1 Switches influencing differentiation

Consider df(u,x,y,z), assuming u depends on each of x,y,z in some way.

If none of x,y,z is equal to u then the order of differentiation is commuted into a
canonical form, unless the switch NOCOMMUTEDF is turned on (default is off). If at
least one of x,y,z is equal to u then the order of differentiation is not fully com-
muted and the derivative is not simplified to zero, unless the switch COMMUTEDF
is turned on. It is off by default.
If COMMUTEDF is off and the switch SIMPNONCOMDF is on then simplify as fol-
lows:

DF(U,X,U) -> DF(U,X,2) / DF(U,X)

DF(U,X,N,U) -> DF(U,X,N+1) / DF(U,X)

provided U depends only on the one variable X. This simplification removes the
non-commutative aspect of the derivative.
If the switch EXPANDDF is turned on then REDUCE uses the chain rule to expand
symbolic derivatives of indirectly dependent variables provided the result is unam-
biguous, i.e. provided there is no direct dependence. It is off by default. Thus, for
example, given
88 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

DEPEND F,U,V; DEPEND {U,V},X;

ON EXPANDDF;
DF(F,X) -> DF(F,U)*DF(U,X) + DF(F,V)*DF(V,X)

whereas after

DEPEND F,X;

DF(F,X) does not expand at all (since the result would be ambiguous and the
algorithm would loop).
Turning on the switch ALLOWDFINT allows “differentiation under the integral
sign”, i.e.

DF(INT(Y, X), V) -> INT(DF(Y, V), X)

if this results in a simplification. If the switch DFINT is also turned on then this
happens regardless of whether the result simplifies. Both switches are off by de-
fault.

7.8.2 Adding Differentiation Rules

The LET statement can be used to introduce rules for differentiation of user-defined
operators. Its general form is

FOR ALL hvar1i, . . . ,hvarni

LET DF(hoperatorihvarlisti,hvarii)=hexpressioni

where

hvarlisti −→ (hvar1i, . . . , hvarni),

and hvar1i,. . . ,hvarni are the dummy variable arguments of hoperatori.

An analogous form applies to infix operators.
Examples:

for all x let df(tan x,x)= 1 + tan(x)^2;

(This is how the tan differentiation rule appears in the REDUCE source.)

for all x,y let df(f(x,y),x)=2*f(x,y),

df(f(x,y),y)=x*f(x,y);
7.9. INT OPERATOR 89

Notice that all dummy arguments of the relevant operator must be declared arbi-
trary by the FOR ALL command, and that rules may be supplied for operators with
any number of arguments. If no differentiation rule appears for an argument in an
operator, the differentiation routines will return as result an expression in terms
of DF. For example, if the rule for the differentiation with respect to the second
argument of F is not supplied, the evaluation of df(f(x,z),z) would leave this
expression unchanged. (No DEPEND declaration is needed here, since f(x,z)
obviously “depends on” Z.)
Once such a rule has been defined for a given operator, any future differentiation
rules for that operator must be defined with the same number of arguments for that
operator, otherwise we get the error message

Incompatible DF rule argument length for <operator>

7.9 INT Operator

INT is an operator in REDUCE for indefinite integration using a combination of

the Risch-Norman algorithm and pattern matching. It is used with the syntax:

INT(hEXPRN:algebraici,hVAR:kerneli) : algebraic.

This will return correctly the indefinite integral for expressions comprising poly-
nomials, log functions, exponential functions and tan and atan. The arbitrary con-
stant is not represented. If the integral cannot be done in closed terms, it returns a
formal integral for the answer in one of two ways:

1. It returns the input, INT(...,...) unchanged.

2. It returns an expression involving INTs of some other functions (sometimes

more complicated than the original one, unfortunately).

Rational functions can be integrated when the denominator is factorizable by the

program. In addition it will attempt to integrate expressions involving error funct-
ions, dilogarithms and other trigonometric expressions. In these cases it might not
always succeed in finding the solution, even if one exists.
Examples:

int(log(x),x) -> X*(LOG(X) - 1),

int(e^x,x) -> E**X.

The program checks that the second argument is a variable and gives an error if it
is not.
90 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

Note: If the int operator is called with 4 arguments, REDUCE will implicitly call
the definite integration package (DEFINT) and this package will interpret the third
and fourth arguments as the lower and upper limit of integration, respectively. For
details, consult the documentation on the D EFINT package.

7.9.1 Options

The switch TRINT when on will trace the operation of the algorithm. It produces
a great deal of output in a somewhat illegible form, and is not of much interest to
the general user. It is normally off.
The switch TRINTSUBST when on will trace the heuristic attempts to solve the
integral by substitution. It is normally off.
If the switch FAILHARD is on the algorithm will terminate with an error if the
integral cannot be done in closed terms, rather than return a formal integration
form. FAILHARD is normally off.
The switch NOLNR suppresses the use of the linear properties of integration in
cases when the integral cannot be found in closed terms. It is normally off.
The switch NOINTSUBST disables the heuristic attempts to solve the integral by
substitution. It is normally off.

7.9.2 Advanced Use

If a function appears in the integrand that is not one of the functions EXP, ERF,
TAN, ATAN, LOG, DILOG then the algorithm will make an attempt to inte-
grate the argument if it can, differentiate it and reach a known function. However
the answer cannot be guaranteed in this case. If a function is known to be alge-
braically independent of this set it can be flagged transcendental by

flag(’(trilog),’transcendental);

in which case this function will be added to the permitted field descriptors for a
genuine decision procedure. If this is done the user is responsible for the mathe-
matical correctness of his actions.
The standard version does not deal with algebraic extensions. Thus integration
of expressions involving square roots and other like things can lead to trouble. A
contributed package that supports integration of functions involving square roots is
available, however (ALGINT, chapter 16.1). In addition there is a definite integra-
tion package, DEFINT( chapter 16.18).
7.10. LENGTH OPERATOR 91

7.9.3 References

A. C. Norman & P. M. A. Moore, “Implementing the New Risch Algorithm”,

Proc. 4th International Symposium on Advanced Comp. Methods in Theor. Phys.,
CNRS, Marseilles, 1977.
S. J. Harrington, “A New Symbolic Integration System in Reduce”, Comp. Journ.
22 (1979) 2.
A. C. Norman & J. H. Davenport, “Symbolic Integration — The Dust Settles?”,
Proc. EUROSAM 79, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 72, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin Heidelberg New York (1979) 398-407.

7.10 LENGTH Operator

LENGTH is a generic operator for finding the length of various objects in the sys-
tem. The meaning depends on the type of the object. In particular, the length
of an algebraic expression is the number of additive top-level terms its expanded
representation.
Examples:

length(a+b) -> 2
length(2) -> 1.

Other objects that support a length operator include arrays, lists and matrices. The
explicit meaning in these cases is included in the description of these objects.

7.11 MAP Operator

The MAP operator applies a uniform evaluation pattern to all members of a com-
posite structure: a matrix, a list, or the arguments of an operator expression. The
evaluation pattern can be a unary procedure, an operator, or an algebraic expression
with one free variable.
It is used with the syntax:

MAP(FNC:function,OBJ:object)

Here OBJ is a list, a matrix or an operator expression. FNC can be one of the
following:

1. the name of an operator with a single argument: the operator is evaluated

once with each element of OBJ as its single argument;
92 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

2. an algebraic expression with exactly one free variable, i.e. a variable pre-
ceded by the tilde symbol. The expression is evaluated for each element of
OBJ, with the element substituted for the free variable;
3. a replacement rule of the form var => rep where var is a variable (a
kernel without a subscript) and rep is an expression that contains var. The
replacement expression rep is evaluated for each element of OBJ with the
element substituted for var. The variable var may be optionally preceded
by a tilde.

The rule form for FNC is needed when more than one free variable occurs.
Examples:

map(abs,{1,-2,a,-a}) -> {1,2,ABS(A),ABS(A)}

map(int(~w,x), mat((x^2,x^5),(x^4,x^5))) ->

[ 3 6 ]
[ x x ]
[---- ----]
[ 3 6 ]
[ ]
[ 5 6 ]
[ x x ]
[---- ----]
[ 5 6 ]

map(~w*6, x^2/3 = y^3/2 -1) -> 2*X^2=3*(Y^3-2)

You can use MAP in nested expressions. However, you cannot apply MAP to a
non-composite object, e.g. an identifier or a number.

7.12 MKID Operator

In many applications, it is useful to create a set of identifiers for naming objects in

a consistent manner. In most cases, it is sufficient to create such names from two
components. The operator MKID is provided for this purpose. Its syntax is:

MKID(U:id,V:id|non-negative integer):id

for example

mkid(a,3) -> A3
mkid(apple,s) -> APPLES
7.13. THE POCHHAMMER NOTATION 93

while mkid(a+b,2) gives an error.

The SET statement can be used to give a value to the identifiers created by MKID,
for example

set(mkid(a,3),3);

will give A3 the value 2. Similarly, the UNSET statement can be used to remove
the value from these identifiers, for example

unset(mkid(a,3));

7.13 The Pochhammer Notation

The Pochhammer notation (a)k (also called Pochhammer’s symbol) is supported

by the binary operator POCHHAMMER(A,K). For a non-negative integer k, it is
defined as (http://dlmf.nist.gov/5.2.iii)

(a)0 = 1,
(a)k = a(a + 1)(a + 2) · · · (a + k − 1).

For a 6= 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , this is equivalent to

Γ(a + k)
(a)k =
Γ(a)

With ROUNDED off, this expression is evaluated numerically if a and k are both
integral, and otherwise may be simplified where appropriate. The simplification
rules are based upon algorithms supplied by Wolfram Koepf.

7.14 PF Operator

PF(hexpi,hvari) transforms the expression hexpi into a list of partial fractions

with respect to the main variable, hvari. PF does a complete partial fraction decom-
position, and as the algorithms used are fairly unsophisticated (factorization and the
extended Euclidean algorithm), the code may be unacceptably slow in complicated
cases.
94 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

Example: Given 2/((x+1)^2*(x+2)) in the workspace, pf(ws,x); gives

the result

2 - 2 2
{-------,-------,--------------} .
X + 2 X + 1 2
X + 2*X + 1

If you want the denominators in factored form, use off exp;. Thus, with
2/((x+1)^2*(x+2)) in the workspace, the commands off exp; pf(ws,x);
give the result

2 - 2 2
{-------,-------,----------} .
X + 2 X + 1 2
(X + 1)

To recombine the terms, FOR EACH . . . SUM can be used. So with the above list
in the workspace, for each j in ws sum j; returns the result

2
------------------
2
(X + 2)*(X + 1)

Alternatively, one can use the operations on lists to extract any desired term.

7.15 SELECT Operator

The SELECT operator extracts from a list, or from the arguments of an n–ary
operator, elements corresponding to a boolean predicate. It is used with the syntax:

SELECT(hFNC:functioni, hLST:listi)

FNC can be one of the following forms:

1. the name of an operator with a single argument: the operator is evaluated

once on each element of LST;

2. an algebraic expression with exactly one free variable, i.e. a variable pre-
ceded by the tilde symbol. The expression is evaluated for each element of
hLSTi, with the element substituted for the free variable;
7.15. SELECT OPERATOR 95

3. a replacement rule of the form hvari => hrepi where hvari is a variable (a
kernel without subscript) and hrepi is an expression that contains hvari. hrepi
is evaluated for each element of LST with the element substituted for hvari.
hvari may be optionally preceded by a tilde.

The rule form for FNC is needed when more than one free variable occurs.
The result of evaluating FNC is interpreted as a boolean value corresponding to the
conventions of REDUCE. These values are composed with the leading operator of
the input expression.
Examples:

select( ~w>0 , {1,-1,2,-3,3}) -> {1,2,3}

select(evenp deg(~w,y),part((x+y)^5,0):=list)
-> {X^5 ,10*X^3*Y^2 ,5*X*Y^4}
select(evenp deg(~w,x),2x^2+3x^3+4x^4) -> 4X^4 + 2X^2
96 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

7.16 SOLVE Operator

SOLVE is an operator for solving one or more simultaneous algebraic equations.

It is used with the syntax:

SOLVE(hEXPRN:algebraici[, hVAR:kerneli | , hVARLIST:list of kernelsi]) : list.

EXPRN is of the form hexpressioni or { hexpression1i,hexpression2i, . . . }. Each

expression is an algebraic equation, or is the difference of the two sides of the
equation. The second argument is either a kernel or a list of kernels representing
the unknowns in the system. This argument may be omitted if the number of
distinct, non-constant, top-level kernels equals the number of unknowns, in which
case these kernels are presumed to be the unknowns.
For one equation, SOLVE recursively uses factorization and decomposition, to-
gether with the known inverses of LOG, SIN, COS, ^, ACOS, ASIN, and linear,
quadratic, cubic, quartic, or binomial factors. Solutions of equations built with
exponentials or logarithms are often expressed in terms of Lambert’s W function.
This function is (partially) implemented in the special functions package.
Linear equations are solved by the multi-step elimination method due to Bareiss,
unless the switch CRAMER is on, in which case Cramer’s method is used. The
Bareiss method is usually more efficient unless the system is large and dense.
Non-linear equations are solved using the Groebner basis package (chapter 16.28).
Users should note that this can be quite a time consuming process.
Examples:

solve(log(sin(x+3))^5 = 8,x);
solve(a*log(sin(x+3))^5 - b, sin(x+3));
solve({a*x+y=3,y=-2},{x,y});

SOLVE returns a list of solutions. If there is one unknown, each solution is an

equation for the unknown. If a complete solution was found, the unknown will
appear by itself on the left-hand side of the equation. On the other hand, if the
solve package could not find a solution, the “solution” will be an equation for the
unknown in terms of the operator ROOT_OF. If there are several unknowns, each
solution will be a list of equations for the unknowns. For example,

solve(x^2=1,x); -> {X=-1,X=1}

solve(x^7-x^6+x^2=1,x)
6
-> {X=ROOT_OF(X_ + X_ + 1,X_,TAG_1),X=1}
7.16. SOLVE OPERATOR 97

solve({x+3y=7,y-x=1},{x,y}) -> {{X=1,Y=2}}.

The TAG argument is used to uniquely identify those particular solutions. Solution
multiplicities are stored in the global variable ROOT_MULTIPLICITIES rather
than the solution list. The value of this variable is a list of the multiplicities of the
solutions for the last call of SOLVE. For example,

solve(x^2=2x-1,x); root_multiplicities;

gives the results

{X=1}

{2}

If you want the multiplicities explicitly displayed, the switch MULTIPLICITIES

can be turned on. For example

on multiplicities; solve(x^2=2x-1,x);

yields the result

{X=1,X=1}

7.16.1 Handling of Undetermined Solutions

When SOLVE cannot find a solution to an equation, it normally returns an equation

for the relevant indeterminates in terms of the operator ROOT_OF. For example, the
expression

solve(cos(x) + log(x),x);

returns the result

{X=ROOT_OF(COS(X_) + LOG(X_),X_,TAG_1)} .

An expression with a top-level ROOT_OF operator is implicitly a list with an un-

known number of elements (since we don’t always know how many solutions an
equation has). If a substitution is made into such an expression, closed form solu-
tions can emerge. If this occurs, the ROOT_OF construct is replaced by an operator
ONE_OF. At this point it is of course possible to transform the result of the original
SOLVE operator expression into a standard SOLVE solution. To effect this, the
operator EXPAND_CASES can be used.
98 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

The following example shows the use of these facilities:

solve(-a*x^3+a*x^2+x^4-x^3-4*x^2+4,x);
2 3
{X=ROOT_OF(A*X_ - X_ + 4*X_ + 4,X_,TAG_2),X=1}

sub(a=-1,ws);

{X=ONE_OF({2,-1,-2},TAG_2),X=1}

expand_cases ws;

{X=2,X=-1,X=-2,X=1}

7.16.2 Solutions of Equations Involving Cubics and Quartics

Since roots of cubics and quartics can often be very messy, a switch FULLROOTS
is available, that, when off (the default), will prevent the production of a result in
closed form. The ROOT_OF construct will be used in this case instead.
In constructing the solutions of cubics and quartics, trigonometrical forms are used
where appropriate. This option is under the control of a switch TRIGFORM, which
is normally on.
The following example illustrates the use of these facilities:

let xx = solve(x^3+x+1,x);

xx;
3
{X=ROOT_OF(X_ + X_ + 1,X_)}

on fullroots;

xx;

- SQRT(31)*I
ATAN(---------------)
3*SQRT(3)
{X=(I*(SQRT(3)*SIN(-----------------------)
3
7.16. SOLVE OPERATOR 99

- SQRT(31)*I
ATAN(---------------)
3*SQRT(3)
- COS(-----------------------)))/SQRT(3),
3

- SQRT(31)*I
ATAN(---------------)
3*SQRT(3)
X=( - I*(SQRT(3)*SIN(-----------------------)
3

- SQRT(31)*I
ATAN(---------------)
3*SQRT(3)
+ COS(-----------------------)))/SQRT(
3

3),

- SQRT(31)*I
ATAN(---------------)
3*SQRT(3)
2*COS(-----------------------)*I
3
X=----------------------------------}
SQRT(3)

off trigform;

xx;
2/3
{X=( - (SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) *SQRT(3)*I

2/3 2/3
- (SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) - 2 *SQRT(3)*I

2/3 1/3 1/3

+ 2 )/(2*(SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) *6

1/6
*3 ),

2/3
100 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

X=((SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) *SQRT(3)*I

2/3 2/3
- (SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) + 2 *SQRT(3)*I

2/3 1/3 1/3

+ 2 )/(2*(SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) *6

1/6
*3 ),

2/3 2/3
(SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) - 2
X=-------------------------------------}
1/3 1/3 1/6
(SQRT(31) - 3*SQRT(3)) *6 *3

7.16.3 Other Options

If SOLVESINGULAR is on (the default setting), degenerate systems such as

x+y=0, 2x+2y=0 will be solved by introducing appropriate arbitrary constants.
The consistent singular equation 0=0 or equations involving functions with multi-
ple inverses may introduce unique new indeterminant kernels ARBCOMPLEX(j),
or ARBINT(j), (j=1,2,...), representing arbitrary complex or integer numbers re-
spectively. To automatically select the principal branches, do off allbranch;
. ALLBRANCH To avoid the introduction of new indeterminant kernels do OFF
ARBVARS – then no equations are generated for the free variables and their original
names are used to express the solution forms. To suppress solutions of consistent
singular equations do OFF SOLVESINGULAR.
To incorporate additional inverse functions do, for example:

put(’sinh,’inverse,’asinh);
put(’asinh,’inverse,’sinh);

together with any desired simplification rules such as

for all x let sinh(asinh(x))=x, asinh(sinh(x))=x;

For completeness, functions with non-unique inverses should be treated as ^, SIN,

and COS are in the SOLVE module source.
Arguments of ASIN and ACOS are not checked to ensure that the absolute value
of the real part does not exceed 1; and arguments of LOG are not checked to ensure
7.16. SOLVE OPERATOR 101

that the absolute value of the imaginary part does not exceed π; but checks (perhaps
involving user response for non-numerical arguments) could be introduced using
LET statements for these operators.

7.16.4 Parameters and Variable Dependency

The proper design of a variable sequence supplied as a second argument to SOLVE

is important for the structure of the solution of an equation system. Any unknown
in the system not in this list is considered totally free. E.g. the call

solve({x=2*z,z=2*y},{z});

produces an empty list as a result because there is no function z = z(x, y) which

fulfills both equations for arbitrary x and y values. In such a case the share variable
REQUIREMENTS displays a set of restrictions for the parameters of the system:

requirements;

{x - 4*y}

The non-existence of a formal solution is caused by a contradiction which disap-

pears only if the parameters of the initial system are set such that all members of
the requirements list take the value zero. For a linear system the set is complete:
a solution of the requirements list makes the initial system solvable. E.g. in the
above case a substitution x = 4y makes the equation set consistent. For a non-
linear system only one inconsistency is detected. If such a system has more than
one inconsistency, you must reduce them one after the other. 1 The set shows you
also the dependency among the parameters: here one of x and y is free and a formal
solution of the system can be computed by adding it to the variable list of solve.
The requirement set is not unique – there may be other such sets.
A system with parameters may have a formal solution, e.g.

solve({x=a*z+1,0=b*z-y},{z,x});

y a*y + b
{{z=---,x=---------}}
b b

which is not valid for all possible values of the parameters. The variable
1
The difference between linear and non–linear inconsistent systems is based on the algorithms
which produce this information as a side effect when attempting to find a formal solution; example:
solve({x = a, x = b, y = c, y = d}, {x, y} gives a set {a − b, c − d} while solve({x2 = a, x2 =
b, y 2 = c, y 2 = d}, {x, y} leads to {a − b}.
102 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

ASSUMPTIONS contains then a list of restrictions: the solutions are valid only
as long as none of these expressions vanishes. Any zero of one of them represents
a special case that is not covered by the formal solution. In the above case the value
is

assumptions;

{b}

which excludes formally the case b = 0; obviously this special parameter value
makes the system singular. The set of assumptions is complete for both, linear and
non–linear systems.
SOLVE rearranges the variable sequence to reduce the (expected) computing time.
This behavior is controlled by the switch VAROPT, which is on by default. If it is
turned off, the supplied variable sequence is used or the system kernel ordering is
taken if the variable list is omitted. The effect is demonstrated by an example:

s:= {y^3+3x=0,x^2+y^2=1};

solve(s,{y,x});

6 2
{{y=root_of(y_ + 9*y_ - 9,y_),

3
- y
x=-------}}
3

off varopt; solve(s,{y,x});

6 4 2
{{x=root_of(x_ - 3*x_ + 12*x_ - 1,x_),

4 2
x*( - x + 2*x - 10)
y=-----------------------}}
3

In the first case, solve forms the solution as a set of pairs (yi , x(yi )) because the
degree of x is higher – such a rearrangement makes the internal computation of the
Gröbner basis generally faster. For the second case the explicitly given variable
7.17. EVEN AND ODD OPERATORS 103

sequence is used such that the solution has now the form (xi , y(xi )). Controlling
the variable sequence is especially important if the system has one or more free
variables. As an alternative to turning off varopt, a partial dependency among
the variables can be declared using the depend statement: solve then rearranges
the variable sequence but keeps any variable ahead of those on which it depends.

on varopt;
s:={a^3+b,b^2+c}$
solve(s,{a,b,c});

3 6
{{a=arbcomplex(1),b= - a ,c= - a }}

depend a,c; depend b,c; solve(s,{a,b,c});

{{c=arbcomplex(2),

6
a=root_of(a_ + c,a_),

3
b= - a }}

Here solve is forced to put c after a and after b, but there is no obstacle to inter-
changing a and b.

7.17 Even and Odd Operators

An operator can be declared to be even or odd in its first argument by the declara-
tions EVEN and ODD respectively. Expressions involving an operator declared in
this manner are transformed if the first argument contains a minus sign. Any other
arguments are not affected. In addition, if say F is declared odd, then f(0) is
replaced by zero unless F is also declared non zero by the declaration NONZERO.
For example, the declarations

even f1; odd f2;

mean that

f1(-a) -> F1(A)

f2(-a) -> -F2(A)
f1(-a,-b) -> F1(A,-B)
f2(0) -> 0.
104 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

To inhibit the last transformation, say nonzero f2;.

7.18 Linear Operators

An operator can be declared to be linear in its first argument over powers of its
second argument. If an operator F is so declared, F of any sum is broken up into
sums of Fs, and any factors that are not powers of the variable are taken outside.
This means that F must have (at least) two arguments. In addition, the second
argument must be an identifier (or more generally a kernel), not an expression.
Example:
If F were declared linear, then

5
f(a*x^5+b*x+c,x) -> F(X ,X)*A + F(X,X)*B + F(1,X)*C

More precisely, not only will the variable and its powers remain within the scope
of the F operator, but so will any variable and its powers that had been declared
to DEPEND on the prescribed variable; and so would any expression that contains
that variable or a dependent variable on any level, e.g. cos(sin(x)).
To declare operators F and G to be linear operators, use:

linear f,g;

The analysis is done of the first argument with respect to the second; any other
arguments are ignored. It uses the following rules of evaluation:

f(0) -> 0
f(-y,x) -> -F(Y,X)
f(y+z,x) -> F(Y,X)+F(Z,X)
f(y*z,x) -> Z*F(Y,X) if Z does not depend on X
f(y/z,x) -> F(Y,X)/Z if Z does not depend on X

To summarize, Y “depends” on the indeterminate X in the above if either of the

following hold:

1. Y is an expression that contains X at any level as a variable, e.g.: cos(sin(x))

2. Any variable in the expression Y has been declared dependent on X by use
of the declaration DEPEND.

The use of such linear operators can be seen in the paper Fox, J.A. and A. C. Hearn,
“Analytic Computation of Some Integrals in Fourth Order Quantum Electrodynam-
ics” Journ. Comp. Phys. 14 (1974) 301-317, which contains a complete listing of
7.19. NON-COMMUTING OPERATORS 105

a program for definite integration of some expressions that arise in fourth order
quantum electrodynamics.

7.19 Non-Commuting Operators

An operator can be declared to be non-commutative under multiplication by the

declaration NONCOM.
Example:
After the declaration

noncom u,v;

the expressions u(x)*u(y)-u(y)*u(x) and u(x)*v(y)-v(y)*u(x) will

remain unchanged on simplification, and in particular will not simplify to zero.
Note that it is the operator (U and V in the above example) and not the variable that
has the non-commutative property.
The LET statement may be used to introduce rules of evaluation for such operators.
In particular, the boolean operator ORDP is useful for introducing an ordering on
such expressions.
Example:
The rule

for all x,y such that x neq y and ordp(x,y)

let u(x)*u(y)= u(y)*u(x)+comm(x,y);

would introduce the commutator of u(x) and u(y) for all X and Y. Note that
since ordp(x,x) is true, the equality check is necessary in the degenerate case
to avoid a circular loop in the rule.

7.20 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Operators

An operator can be declared to be symmetric with respect to its arguments by the

declaration SYMMETRIC. For example

symmetric u,v;

means that any expression involving the top level operators U or V will have its
arguments reordered to conform to the internal order used by REDUCE. The user
can change this order for kernels by the command KORDER.
106 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

For example, u(x,v(1,2)) would become u(v(2,1),x), since numbers are

ordered in decreasing order, and expressions are ordered in decreasing order of
complexity.
Similarly the declaration ANTISYMMETRIC declares an operator antisymmetric.
For example,

antisymmetric l,m;

means that any expression involving the top level operators L or M will have its
arguments reordered to conform to the internal order of the system, and the sign
of the expression changed if there are an odd number of argument interchanges
necessary to bring about the new order.
For example, l(x,m(1,2)) would become -l(-m(2,1),x) since one inter-
change occurs with each operator. An expression like l(x,x) would also be
replaced by 0.

7.21 Declaring New Prefix Operators

The user may add new prefix operators to the system by using the declaration
OPERATOR. For example:

operator h,g1,arctan;

adds the prefix operators H, G1 and ARCTAN to the system.

This allows symbols like h(w), h(x,y,z), g1(p+q), arctan(u/v) to
be used in expressions, but no meaning or properties of the operator are implied.
The same operator symbol can be used equally well as a 0-, 1-, 2-, 3-, etc.-place
operator.
To give a meaning to an operator symbol, or express some of its properties, LET
statements can be used, or the operator can be given a definition as a procedure.
If the user forgets to declare an identifier as an operator, the system will prompt the
user to do so in interactive mode, or do it automatically in non-interactive mode.
A diagnostic message will also be printed if an identifier is declared OPERATOR
more than once.
Operators once declared are global in scope, and so can then be referenced any-
where in the program. In other words, a declaration within a block (or a procedure)
does not limit the scope of the operator to that block, nor does the operator go away
on exiting the block (use CLEAR instead for this purpose).
7.22. DECLARING NEW INFIX OPERATORS 107

7.22 Declaring New Infix Operators

Users can add new infix operators by using the declarations INFIX and PRECEDENCE.
For example,

infix mm;
precedence mm,-;

The declaration infix mm; would allow one to use the symbol MM as an infix
operator:

a mm b instead of mm(a,b).

The declaration precedence mm,-; says that MM should be inserted into the
infix operator precedence list just after the − operator. This gives it higher prece-
dence than − and lower precedence than * . Thus

a - b mm c - d means a - (b mm c) - d,

while

a * b mm c * d means (a * b) mm (c * d).

Both infix and prefix operators have no transformation properties unless LET state-
ments or procedure declarations are used to assign a meaning.
We should note here that infix operators so defined are always binary:

a mm b mm c means (a mm b) mm c.

7.23 Creating/Removing Variable Dependency

There are several facilities in REDUCE, such as the differentiation operator and
the linear operator facility, that can utilize knowledge of the dependency between
various variables, or kernels. Such dependency may be expressed by the command
DEPEND. This takes an arbitrary number of arguments and sets up a dependency
of the first argument on the remaining arguments. For example,

depend x,y,z;

says that X is dependent on both Y and Z.

depend z,cos(x),y;
108 CHAPTER 7. BUILT-IN PREFIX OPERATORS

says that Z is dependent on COS(X) and Y.

Dependencies introduced by DEPEND can be removed by NODEPEND. The argu-
ments of this are the same as for DEPEND. For example, given the above depen-
dencies,

nodepend z,cos(x);

says that Z is no longer dependent on COS(X), although it remains dependent on

Y.
As a convenience, one or more dependent variables can be specified together in a
list for both the DEPEND and NODEPEND commands, i.e.
(no)depend {y1 , y2 , . . .}, x1 , x2 , . . .
is equivalent to
(no)depend y1 , x1 , x2 , . . .; (no)depend y2 , x1 , x2 , . . .; . . .
Both commands also accept a sequence of “dependence sequences”, where the
beginning of each new dependence sequence is indicated by a list of one or more
dependent variables. For example,

depend {x,y,z},u,v,{theta},time;

is equivalent to

depend x,u,v;
depend y,u,v;
depend z,u,v;
depend theta,time;
Chapter 8

Display and Structuring of

Expressions

In this section, we consider a variety of commands and operators that permit the
user to obtain various parts of algebraic expressions and also display their structure
in a variety of forms. Also presented are some additional concepts in the REDUCE
design that help the user gain a better understanding of the structure of the system.

8.1 Kernels

REDUCE is designed so that each operator in the system has an evaluation (or
simplification) function associated with it that transforms the expression into an
internal canonical form. This form, which bears little resemblance to the original
expression, is described in detail in Hearn, A. C., “REDUCE 2: A System and Lan-
guage for Algebraic Manipulation,” Proc. of the Second Symposium on Symbolic
and Algebraic Manipulation, ACM, New York (1971) 128-133.
The evaluation function may transform its arguments in one of two alternative
ways. First, it may convert the expression into other operators in the system, leav-
ing no functions of the original operator for further manipulation. This is in a sense
true of the evaluation functions associated with the operators +, * and / , for ex-
ample, because the canonical form does not include these operators explicitly. It
is also true of an operator such as the determinant operator DET because the rel-
evant evaluation function calculates the appropriate determinant, and the operator
DET no longer appears. On the other hand, the evaluation process may leave some
residual functions of the relevant operator. For example, with the operator COS,
a residual expression like COS(X) may remain after evaluation unless a rule for
the reduction of cosines into exponentials, for example, were introduced. These
residual functions of an operator are termed kernels and are stored uniquely like

109
110 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

variables. Subsequently, the kernel is carried through the calculation as a variable

unless transformations are introduced for the operator at a later stage.
In those cases where the evaluation process leaves an operator expression with
non-trivial arguments, the form of the argument can vary depending on the state
of the system at the point of evaluation. Such arguments are normally produced in
expanded form with no terms factored or grouped in any way. For example, the
expression cos(2*x+2*y) will normally be returned in the same form. If the
argument 2*x+2*y were evaluated at the top level, however, it would be printed
as 2*(X+Y). If it is desirable to have the arguments themselves in a similar form,
the switch INTSTR (for “internal structure”), if on, will cause this to happen.
In cases where the arguments of the kernel operators may be reordered, the sys-
tem puts them in a canonical order, based on an internal intrinsic ordering of the
variables. However, some commands allow arguments in the form of kernels, and
the user has no way of telling what internal order the system will assign to these
arguments. To resolve this difficulty, we introduce the notion of a kernel form as
an expression that transforms to a kernel on evaluation.
Examples of kernel forms are:

a
cos(x*y)
log(sin(x))

whereas

a*b
(a+b)^4

are not.
We see that kernel forms can usually be used as generalized variables, and most
algebraic properties associated with variables may also be associated with kernels.

8.2 The Expression Workspace

Several mechanisms are available for saving and retrieving previously evaluated
expressions. The simplest of these refers to the last algebraic expression simpli-
fied. When an assignment of an algebraic expression is made, or an expression is
evaluated at the top level, (i.e., not inside a compound statement or procedure) the
results of the evaluation are automatically saved in a variable WS that we shall refer
to as the workspace. (More precisely, the expression is assigned to the variable WS
that is then available for further manipulation.)
8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 111

Example:
If we evaluate the expression (x+y)^2 at the top level and next wish to differen-
tiate it with respect to Y, we can simply say

df(ws,y);

to get the desired answer.

If the user wishes to assign the workspace to a variable or expression for later use,
the SAVEAS statement can be used. It has the syntax

SAVEAS hexpressioni

For example, after the differentiation in the last example, the workspace holds the
expression 2*x+2*y. If we wish to assign this to the variable Z we can now say

saveas z;

If the user wishes to save the expression in a form that allows him to use some of
its variables as arbitrary parameters, the FOR ALL command can be used.
Example:

for all x saveas h(x);

with the above expression would mean that h(z) evaluates to 2*Y+2*Z.
A further method for referencing more than the last expression is described in
chapter 13 on interactive use of REDUCE.

8.3 Output of Expressions

A considerable degree of flexibility is available in REDUCE in the printing of

expressions generated during calculations. No explicit format statements are sup-
plied, as these are in most cases of little use in algebraic calculations, where the size
of output or its composition is not generally known in advance. Instead, REDUCE
provides a series of mode options to the user that should enable him to produce his
output in a comprehensible and possibly pleasing form.
The most extreme option offered is to suppress the output entirely from any top
level evaluation. This is accomplished by turning off the switch OUTPUT which is
normally on. It is useful for limiting output when loading large files or producing
“clean” output from the prettyprint programs.
In most circumstances, however, we wish to view the output, so we need to know
how to format it appropriately. As we mentioned earlier, an algebraic expression
112 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

is normally printed in an expanded form, filling the whole output line with terms.
Certain output declarations, however, can be used to affect this format. To begin
with, we look at an operator for changing the length of the output line.

8.3.1 LINELENGTH Operator

This operator is used with the syntax

LINELENGTH(NUM:integer):integer

and sets the output line length to the integer NUM. It returns the previous output line
length (so that it can be stored for later resetting of the output line if needed).

8.3.2 Output Declarations

We now describe a number of switches and declarations that are available for con-
trolling output formats. It should be noted, however, that the transformation of
large expressions to produce these varied output formats can take a lot of comput-
ing time and space. If a user wishes to speed up the printing of the output in such
cases, he can turn off the switch PRI. If this is done, then output is produced in
one fixed format, which basically reflects the internal form of the expression, and
none of the options below apply. PRI is normally on.
With PRI on, the output declarations and switches available are as follows:

ORDER Declaration

The declaration ORDER may be used to order variables on output. The syntax is:

order v1,...vn;

where the vi are kernels. Thus,

order x,y,z;

orders X ahead of Y, Y ahead of Z and all three ahead of other variables not given
an order. order nil; resets the output order to the system default. The order
of variables may be changed by further calls of ORDER, but then the reordered
variables would have an order lower than those in earlier ORDER calls. Thus,

order x,y,z;
order y,x;
8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 113

would order Z ahead of Y and X. The default ordering is usually alphabetic.

FACTOR Declaration

This declaration takes a list of identifiers or kernels as argument. FACTOR is not

a factoring command (use FACTORIZE or the FACTOR switch for this purpose);
rather it is a separation command. All terms involving fixed powers of the declared
expressions are printed as a product of the fixed powers and a sum of the rest of the
terms.
For example, after the declaration

factor x;

the polynomial (x + y + 1)2 will be printed as

2 2
X + 2*X*(Y + 1) + Y + 2*Y + 1

All expressions involving a given prefix operator may also be factored by putting
the operator name in the list of factored identifiers. For example:

factor x,cos,sin(x);

causes all powers of X and SIN(X) and all functions of COS to be factored.
Note that FACTOR does not affect the order of its arguments. You should also use
ORDER if this is important.
The declaration remfac v1,...,vn; removes the factoring flag from the ex-
pressions v1 through vn.

8.3.3 Output Control Switches

In addition to these declarations, the form of the output can be modified by switch-
ing various output control switches using the declarations ON and OFF. We shall
illustrate the use of these switches by an example, namely the printing of the ex-
pression

x^2*(y^2+2*y)+x*(y^2+z)/(2*a) .

The relevant switches are as follows:

114 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

ALLFAC Switch

This switch will cause the system to search the whole expression, or any sub-
expression enclosed in parentheses, for simple multiplicative factors and print them
outside the parentheses. Thus our expression with ALLFAC off will print as

2 2 2 2
(2*X *Y *A + 4*X *Y*A + X*Y + X*Z)/(2*A)

and with ALLFAC on as

2 2
X*(2*X*Y *A + 4*X*Y*A + Y + Z)/(2*A) .

ALLFAC is normally on, and is on in the following examples, except where other-
wise stated.

DIV Switch

This switch makes the system search the denominator of an expression for simple
factors that it divides into the numerator, so that rational fractions and negative
powers appear in the output. With DIV on, our expression would print as

2 2 (-1) (-1)
X*(X*Y + 2*X*Y + 1/2*Y *A + 1/2*A *Z) .

DIV is normally off.

HORNER Switch

This switch causes the system to print polynomials according to Horner’s rule.
With HORNER on, our expression prints as

2
X*(Y + Z + 2*(Y + 2)*A*X*Y)/(2*A) .

HORNER is normally off.

LIST Switch

This switch causes the system to print each term in any sum on a separate line.
With LIST on, our expression prints as
8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 115

2
X*(2*X*Y *A

+ 4*X*Y*A

2
+ Y

+ Z)/(2*A) .

LIST is normally off.

NOSPLIT Switch

Under normal circumstances, the printing routines try to break an expression across
lines at a natural point. This is a fairly expensive process. If you are not overly
concerned about where the end-of-line breaks come, you can speed up the printing
of expressions by turning off the switch NOSPLIT. This switch is normally on.

RAT Switch

This switch is only useful with expressions in which variables are factored with
FACTOR. With this mode, the overall denominator of the expression is printed
with each factored sub-expression. We assume a prior declaration factor x; in
the following output. We first print the expression with RAT set to off:

2 2
(2*X *Y*A*(Y + 2) + X*(Y + Z))/(2*A) .

With RAT on the output becomes:

2 2
X *Y*(Y + 2) + X*(Y + Z)/(2*A) .

RAT is normally off.

Next, if we leave X factored, and turn on both DIV and RAT, the result becomes

2 (-1) 2
X *Y*(Y + 2) + 1/2*X*A *(Y + Z) .

Finally, with X factored, RAT on and ALLFAC off we retrieve the original structure
116 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

2 2 2
X *(Y + 2*Y) + X*(Y + Z)/(2*A) .

RATPRI Switch

If the numerator and denominator of an expression can each be printed in one line,
the output routines will print them in a two dimensional notation, with numerator
and denominator on separate lines and a line of dashes in between. For example,
(a+b)/2 will print as

A + B
-----
2

Turning this switch off causes such expressions to be output in a linear form.

REVPRI Switch

The normal ordering of terms in output is from highest to lowest power. In some
situations (e.g., when a power series is output), the opposite ordering is more con-
venient. The switch REVPRI if on causes such a reverse ordering of terms. For
example, the expression y*(x+1)^2+(y+3)^2 will normally print as

2 2
X *Y + 2*X*Y + Y + 7*Y + 9

whereas with REVPRI on, it will print as

2 2
9 + 7*Y + Y + 2*X*Y + X *Y.

8.3.4 WRITE Command

In simple cases no explicit output command is necessary in REDUCE, since the

value of any expression is automatically printed if a semicolon is used as a delim-
iter. There are, however, several situations in which such a command is useful.
In a FOR, WHILE, or REPEAT statement it may be desired to output something
each time the statement within the loop construct is repeated.
It may be desired for a procedure to output intermediate results or other information
while it is running. It may be desired to have results labeled in special ways,
especially if the output is directed to a file or device other than the terminal.
8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 117

The WRITE command consists of the word WRITE followed by one or more items
separated by commas, and followed by a terminator. There are three kinds of items
that can be used:

1. Expressions (including variables and constants). The expression is evalu-

ated, and the result is printed out.

2. Assignments. The expression on the right side of the := operator is evalu-

ated, and is assigned to the variable on the left; then the symbol on the left is
printed, followed by a “:=”, followed by the value of the expression on the
right – almost exactly the way an assignment followed by a semicolon prints
out normally. (The difference is that if the WRITE is in a FOR statement and
the left-hand side of the assignment is an array position or something similar
containing the variable of the FOR iteration, then the value of that variable is
inserted in the printout.)

3. Arbitrary strings of characters, preceded and followed by double-quote

marks (e.g., "string").

The items specified by a single WRITE statement print side by side on one line.
(The line is broken automatically if it is too long.) Strings print exactly as quoted.
The WRITE command itself however does not return a value.
The print line is closed at the end of a WRITE command evaluation. Therefore the
command WRITE ""; (specifying nothing to be printed except the empty string)
causes a line to be skipped.
Examples:

1. If A is X+5, B is itself, C is 123, M is an array, and Q=3, then

write m(q):=a," ",b/c," THANK YOU";

will set M(3) to x+5 and print

M(Q) := X + 5 B/123 THANK YOU

The blanks between the 5 and B, and the 3 and T, come from the blanks in
the quoted strings.

2. To print a table of the squares of the integers from 1 to 20:

for i:=1:20 do write i," ",i^2;

3. To print a table of the squares of the integers from 1 to 20, and at the same
time store them in positions 1 to 20 of an array A:
118 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

for i:=1:20 do <<a(i):=i^2; write i," ",a(i)>>;

This will give us two columns of numbers. If we had used

for i:=1:20 do write i," ",a(i):=i^2;

we would also get A(i) := repeated on each line.

4. The following more complete example calculates the famous f and g se-
ries, first reported in Sconzo, P., LeSchack, A. R., and Tobey, R., “Symbolic
Computation of f and g Series by Computer”, Astronomical Journal 70 (May
1965).

x1:= -sig*(mu+2*eps)$
x2:= eps - 2*sig^2$
x3:= -3*mu*sig$
f:= 1$
g:= 0$
for i:= 1 step 1 until 10 do begin
f1:= -mu*g+x1*df(f,eps)+x2*df(f,sig)+x3*df(f,mu);
write "f(",i,") := ",f1;
g1:= f+x1*df(g,eps)+x2*df(g,sig)+x3*df(g,mu);
write "g(",i,") := ",g1;
f:=f1$
g:=g1$
end;

A portion of the output, to illustrate the printout from the WRITE command,
is as follows:

... <prior output> ...

2
F(4) := MU*(3*EPS - 15*SIG + MU)

G(4) := 6*SIG*MU

2
F(5) := 15*SIG*MU*( - 3*EPS + 7*SIG - MU)

2
G(5) := MU*(9*EPS - 45*SIG + MU)

... <more output> ...

8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 119

8.3.5 Suppression of Zeros

It is sometimes annoying to have zero assignments (i.e. assignments of the form

<expression> := 0) printed, especially in printing large arrays with many
zero elements. The output from such assignments can be suppressed by turning on
the switch NERO.

8.3.6 FORTRAN Style Output Of Expressions

It is naturally possible to evaluate expressions numerically in REDUCE by giving

all variables and sub-expressions numerical values. However, as we pointed out
elsewhere the user must declare real arithmetical operation by turning on the switch
ROUNDED. However, it should be remembered that arithmetic in REDUCE is not
particularly fast, since results are interpreted rather than evaluated in a compiled
form. The user with a large amount of numerical computation after all necessary
algebraic manipulations have been performed is therefore well advised to perform
these calculations in a FORTRAN or similar system. For this purpose, REDUCE
offers facilities for users to produce FORTRAN compatible files for numerical pro-
cessing.
First, when the switch FORT is on, the system will print expressions in a FOR-
TRAN notation. Expressions begin in column seven. If an expression extends over
one line, a continuation mark (.) followed by a blank appears on subsequent cards.
After a certain number of lines have been produced (according to the value of the
variable CARD_NO), a new expression is started. If the expression printed arises
from an assignment to a variable, the variable is printed as the name of the expres-
sion. Otherwise the expression is given the default name ANS. An error occurs if
identifiers or numbers are outside the bounds permitted by FORTRAN.
A second option is to use the WRITE command to produce other programs.
Example:
The following REDUCE statements

on fort;
out "forfil";
write "C this is a fortran program";
write " 1 format(e13.5)";
write " u=1.23";
write " v=2.17";
write " w=5.2";
x:=(u+v+w)^11;
write "C it was foolish to expand this expression";
write " print 1,x";
120 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

write " end";

shut "forfil";
off fort;

will generate a file forfil that contains:

c this is a fortran program

1 format(e13.5)
u=1.23
v=2.17
w=5.2
ans1=1320.*u**3*v*w**7+165.*u**3*w**8+55.*u**2*v**9+495.*u
. **2*v**8*w+1980.*u**2*v**7*w**2+4620.*u**2*v**6*w**3+
. 6930.*u**2*v**5*w**4+6930.*u**2*v**4*w**5+4620.*u**2*v**3*
. w**6+1980.*u**2*v**2*w**7+495.*u**2*v*w**8+55.*u**2*w**9+
. 11.*u*v**10+110.*u*v**9*w+495.*u*v**8*w**2+1320.*u*v**7*w
. **3+2310.*u*v**6*w**4+2772.*u*v**5*w**5+2310.*u*v**4*w**6
. +1320.*u*v**3*w**7+495.*u*v**2*w**8+110.*u*v*w**9+11.*u*w
. **10+v**11+11.*v**10*w+55.*v**9*w**2+165.*v**8*w**3+330.*
. v**7*w**4+462.*v**6*w**5+462.*v**5*w**6+330.*v**4*w**7+
. 165.*v**3*w**8+55.*v**2*w**9+11.*v*w**10+w**11
x=u**11+11.*u**10*v+11.*u**10*w+55.*u**9*v**2+110.*u**9*v*
. w+55.*u**9*w**2+165.*u**8*v**3+495.*u**8*v**2*w+495.*u**8
. *v*w**2+165.*u**8*w**3+330.*u**7*v**4+1320.*u**7*v**3*w+
. 1980.*u**7*v**2*w**2+1320.*u**7*v*w**3+330.*u**7*w**4+462.
. *u**6*v**5+2310.*u**6*v**4*w+4620.*u**6*v**3*w**2+4620.*u
. **6*v**2*w**3+2310.*u**6*v*w**4+462.*u**6*w**5+462.*u**5*
. v**6+2772.*u**5*v**5*w+6930.*u**5*v**4*w**2+9240.*u**5*v
. **3*w**3+6930.*u**5*v**2*w**4+2772.*u**5*v*w**5+462.*u**5
. *w**6+330.*u**4*v**7+2310.*u**4*v**6*w+6930.*u**4*v**5*w
. **2+11550.*u**4*v**4*w**3+11550.*u**4*v**3*w**4+6930.*u**
. 4*v**2*w**5+2310.*u**4*v*w**6+330.*u**4*w**7+165.*u**3*v
. **8+1320.*u**3*v**7*w+4620.*u**3*v**6*w**2+9240.*u**3*v**
. 5*w**3+11550.*u**3*v**4*w**4+9240.*u**3*v**3*w**5+4620.*u
. **3*v**2*w**6+ans1
c it was foolish to expand this expression
print 1,x
end

If the arguments of a WRITE statement include an expression that requires con-

tinuation records, the output will need editing, since the output routine prints the
arguments of WRITE sequentially, and the continuation mechanism therefore gen-
erates its auxiliary variables after the preceding expression has been printed.
Finally, since there is no direct analog of list in FORTRAN, a comment line of the
form

c ***** invalid fortran construct (list) not printed

8.3. OUTPUT OF EXPRESSIONS 121

will be printed if you try to print a list with FORT on.

FORTRAN Output Options

There are a number of methods available to change the default format of the FOR-
TRAN output.
The breakup of the expression into subparts is such that the number of continuation
lines produced is less than a given number. This number can be modified by the
assignment

card_no := hnumberi;

where hnumberi is the total number of cards allowed in a statement. The default
value of CARD_NO is 20.
The width of the output expression is also adjustable by the assignment

fort_width := hintegeri;

FORT_WIDTH which sets the total width of a given line to hintegeri. The initial
FORTRAN output width is 70.
REDUCE automatically inserts a decimal point after each isolated integer coeffi-
cient in a FORTRAN expression (so that, for example, 4 becomes 4. ). To prevent
this, set the PERIOD mode switch to OFF.
FORTRAN output is normally produced in lower case. If upper case is desired, the
switch FORTUPPER should be turned on.
Finally, the default name ANS assigned to an unnamed expression and its subparts
can be changed by the operator VARNAME. This takes a single identifier as argu-
ment, which then replaces ANS as the expression name. The value of VARNAME is
its argument.
Further facilities for the production of FORTRAN and other language output are
provided by the SCOPE and GENTRAN packagesdescribed in chapters 16.26 and
16.62.

8.3.7 Saving Expressions for Later Use as Input

It is often useful to save an expression on an external file for use later as input
in further calculations. The commands for opening and closing output files are
explained elsewhere. However, we see in the examples on output of expressions
that the standard “natural” method of printing expressions is not compatible with
the input syntax. So to print the expression in an input compatible form we must
122 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

inhibit this natural style by turning off the switch NAT. If this is done, a dollar sign
will also be printed at the end of the expression.
Example:
The following sequence of commands

off nat; out "out"; x := (y+z)^2; write "end";

shut "out"; on nat;

will generate a file out that contains

X := Y**2 + 2*Y*Z + Z**2$

END$

8.3.8 Displaying Expression Structure

In those cases where the final result has a complicated form, it is often convenient
to display the skeletal structure of the answer. The operator STRUCTR, that takes
a single expression as argument, will do this for you. Its syntax is:

STRUCTR(EXPRN:algebraic[,ID1:identifier[,ID2:identifier]]);

The structure is printed effectively as a tree, in which the subparts are laid out with
auxiliary names. If the optional ID1 is absent, the auxiliary names are prefixed by
the root ANS. This root may be changed by the operator VARNAME. If the optional
ID1 is present, and is an array name, the subparts are named as elements of that
array, otherwise ID1 is used as the root prefix. (The second optional argument
ID2 is explained later.)
The EXPRN can be either a scalar or a matrix expression. Use of any other will
result in an error.
Example:
Let us suppose that the workspace contains ((A+B)^2+C)^3+D. Then the input
STRUCTR WS; will (with EXP off) result in the output:

ANS3

where

3
ANS3 := ANS2 + D

2
8.4. CHANGING THE INTERNAL ORDER OF VARIABLES 123

ANS2 := ANS1 + C

ANS1 := A + B

The workspace remains unchanged after this operation, since STRUCTR in the de-
fault situation returns no value (if STRUCTR is used as a sub-expression, its value
is taken to be 0). In addition, the sub-expressions are normally only displayed and
not retained. If you wish to access the sub-expressions with their displayed names,
the switch SAVESTRUCTR should be turned on. In this case, STRUCTR returns a
list whose first element is a representation for the expression, and subsequent ele-
ments are the sub-expression relations. Thus, with SAVESTRUCTR on, STRUCTR
WS in the above example would return

3 2
{ANS3,ANS3=ANS2 + D,ANS2=ANS1 + C,ANS1=A + B}

The PART operator can be used to retrieve the required parts of the expression. For
example, to get the value of ANS2 in the above, one could say:

part(ws,3,2);

If FORT is on, then the results are printed in the reverse order; the algorithm in fact
guaranteeing that no sub-expression will be referenced before it is defined. The
second optional argument ID2 may also be used in this case to name the actual
expression (or expressions in the case of a matrix argument).
Example:
Let us suppose that M, a 2 by 1 matrix, contains the elements ((a+b)^2 + c)^3
+ d and (a + b)*(c + d) respectively, and that V has been declared to be an
array. With EXP off and FORT on, the statement structr(2*m,v,k); will
result in the output

V(1)=A+B
V(2)=V(1)**2+C
V(3)=V(2)**3+D
V(4)=C+D
K(1,1)=2.*V(3)
K(2,1)=2.*V(1)*V(4)

8.4 Changing the Internal Order of Variables

The internal ordering of variables (more specifically kernels) can have a significant
effect on the space and time associated with a calculation. In its default state, RE-
124 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

DUCE uses a specific order for this which may vary between sessions. However,
it is possible for the user to change this internal order by means of the declaration
KORDER. The syntax for this is:

korder v1,...,vn;

where the Vi are kernels. With this declaration, the Vi are ordered internally ahead
of any other kernels in the system. V1 has the highest order, V2 the next highest,
and so on. A further call of KORDER replaces a previous one. KORDER NIL;
resets the internal order to the system default.
Unlike the ORDER declaration, that has a purely cosmetic effect on the way results
are printed, the use of KORDER can have a significant effect on computation time.
In critical cases then, the user can experiment with the ordering of the variables
used to determine the optimum set for a given problem.

8.5 Obtaining Parts of Algebraic Expressions

There are many occasions where it is desirable to obtain a specific part of an ex-
pression, or even change such a part to another expression. A number of operators
are available in REDUCE for this purpose, and will be described in this section. In
addition, operators for obtaining specific parts of polynomials and rational funct-
ions (such as a denominator) are described in another section.

8.5.1 COEFF Operator

Syntax:

COEFF(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel)

COEFF is an operator that partitions EXPRN into its various coefficients with re-
spect to VAR and returns them as a list, with the coefficient independent of VAR
first.
Under normal circumstances, an error results if EXPRN is not a polynomial in VAR,
although the coefficients themselves can be rational as long as they do not depend
on VAR. However, if the switch RATARG is on, denominators are not checked for
dependence on VAR, and are taken to be part of the coefficients.
Example:

coeff((y^2+z)^3/z,y);

returns the result

8.5. OBTAINING PARTS OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 125

2
{Z ,0,3*Z,0,3,0,1/Z}.

whereas

coeff((y^2+z)^3/y,y);

gives an error if RATARG is off, and the result

3 2
{Z /Y,0,3*Z /Y,0,3*Z/Y,0,1/Y}

if RATARG is on.
The length of the result of COEFF is the highest power of VAR encountered plus
1. In the above examples it is 7. In addition, the variable HIGH_POW is set to
the highest non-zero power found in EXPRN during the evaluation, and LOW_POW
to the lowest non-zero power, or zero if there is a constant term. If EXPRN is a
constant, then HIGH_POW and LOW_POW are both set to zero.

8.5.2 COEFFN Operator

The COEFFN operator is designed to give the user a particular coefficient of a vari-
able in a polynomial, as opposed to COEFF that returns all coefficients. COEFFN
is used with the syntax

COEFFN(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel,N:integer)

It returns the nth coefficient of VAR in the polynomial EXPRN.

8.5.3 PART Operator

Syntax:

PART(EXPRN:algebraic[,INTEXP:integer])

This operator works on the form of the expression as printed or as it would have
been printed at that point in the calculation bearing in mind all the relevant switch
settings at that point. The reader therefore needs some familiarity with the way
that expressions are represented in prefix form in REDUCE to use these operators
effectively. Furthermore, it is assumed that PRI is ON at that point in the calcula-
tion. The reason for this is that with PRI off, an expression is printed by walking
the tree representing the expression internally. To save space, it is never actually
126 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS

transformed into the equivalent prefix expression as occurs when PRI is on. How-
ever, the operations on polynomials described elsewhere can be equally well used
in this case to obtain the relevant parts.
The evaluation proceeds recursively down the integer expression list. In other
words,

PART(hexpressioni,hinteger1i,hinteger2i)
→ PART(PART(hexpressioni,hinteger1i),hinteger2i)

and so on, and

PART(hexpressioni) → hexpressioni.

INTEXP can be any expression that evaluates to an integer. If the integer is pos-
itive, then that term of the expression is found. If the integer is 0, the operator
is returned. Finally, if the integer is negative, the counting is from the tail of the
expression rather than the head.
For example, if the expression a+b is printed as A+B (i.e., the ordering of the
variables is alphabetical), then

part(a+b,2) -> B
part(a+b,-1) -> B
and
part(a+b,0) -> PLUS

An operator ARGLENGTH is available to determine the number of arguments of the

top level operator in an expression. If the expression does not contain a top level
operator, then −1 is returned. For example,

arglength(a+b+c) -> 3
arglength(f()) -> 0
arglength(a) -> -1

8.5.4 Substituting for Parts of Expressions

PART may also be used to substitute for a given part of an expression. In this case,
the PART construct appears on the left-hand side of an assignment statement, and
the expression to replace the given part on the right-hand side.
For example, with the normal settings of the REDUCE switches:

xx := a+b;
part(xx,2) := c; -> A+C
part(c+d,0) := -; -> C-D
8.5. OBTAINING PARTS OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS 127

Note that xx in the above is not changed by this substitution. In addition, un-
like expressions such as array and matrix elements that have an instant evaluation
property, the values of part(xx,2) and part(c+d,0) are also not changed.
128 CHAPTER 8. DISPLAY AND STRUCTURING OF EXPRESSIONS
Chapter 9

Polynomials and Rationals

Many operations in computer algebra are concerned with polynomials and rational
functions. In this section, we review some of the switches and operators available
for this purpose. These are in addition to those that work on general expressions
(such as DF and INT) described elsewhere. In the case of operators, the arguments
are first simplified before the operations are applied. In addition, they operate
only on arguments of prescribed types, and produce a type mismatch error if given
arguments which cannot be interpreted in the required mode with the current switch
settings. For example, if an argument is required to be a kernel and a/2 is used
(with no other rules for A), an error

A/2 invalid as kernel

will result.
With the exception of those that select various parts of a polynomial or rational
function, these operations have potentially significant effects on the space and time
associated with a given calculation. The user should therefore experiment with
their use in a given calculation in order to determine the optimum set for a given
problem.
One such operation provided by the system is an operator LENGTH which returns
the number of top level terms in the numerator of its argument. For example,

length ((a+b+c)^3/(c+d));

has the value 10. To get the number of terms in the denominator, one would first
select the denominator by the operator DEN and then call LENGTH, as in

length den ((a+b+c)^3/(c+d));

Other operations currently supported, the relevant switches and operators, and the

129
130 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

required argument and value modes of the latter, follow.

9.1 Controlling the Expansion of Expressions

The switch EXP controls the expansion of expressions. If it is off, no expansion of

powers or products of expressions occurs. Users should note however that in this
case results come out in a normal but not necessarily canonical form. This means
that zero expressions simplify to zero, but that two equivalent expressions need not
necessarily simplify to the same form.
Example: With EXP on, the two expressions

(a+b)*(a+2*b)

and

a^2+3*a*b+2*b^2

will both simplify to the latter form. With EXP off, they would remain unchanged,
unless the complete factoring (ALLFAC) option were in force. EXP is normally on.
Several operators that expect a polynomial as an argument behave differently when
EXP is off, since there is often only one term at the top level. For example, with
EXP off

length((a+b+c)^3/(c+d));

returns the value 1.

9.2 Factorization of Polynomials

REDUCE is capable of factorizing univariate and multivariate polynomials that

have integer coefficients, finding all factors that also have integer coefficients. The
package for doing this was written by Dr. Arthur C. Norman and Ms. P. Mary Ann
Moore at The University of Cambridge. It is described in P. M. A. Moore and A.
C. Norman, “Implementing a Polynomial Factorization and GCD Package”, Proc.
SYMSAC ’81, ACM (New York) (1981), 109-116.
The easiest way to use this facility is to turn on the switch FACTOR, which causes
all expressions to be output in a factored form. For example, with FACTOR on, the
expression A^2-B^2 is returned as (A+B)*(A-B).
It is also possible to factorize a given expression explicitly. The operator
FACTORIZE that invokes this facility is used with the syntax
9.2. FACTORIZATION OF POLYNOMIALS 131

FACTORIZE(EXPRN:polynomial[,INTEXP:prime integer]):list,

the optional argument of which will be described later. Thus to find and display all
factors of the cyclotomic polynomial x105 − 1, one could write:

factorize(x^105-1);

The result is a list of factor,exponent pairs. In the above example, there is no overall
numerical factor in the result, so the results will consist only of polynomials in x.
The number of such polynomials can be found by using the operator LENGTH. If
there is a numerical factor, as in factorizing 12x2 − 12, that factor will appear as
the first member of the result. It will however not be factored further. Prime factors
of such numbers can be found, using a probabilistic algorithm, by turning on the
switch IFACTOR. For example,

on ifactor; factorize(12x^2-12);

would result in the output

{{2,2},{3,1},{X + 1,1},{X - 1,1}}.

If the first argument of FACTORIZE is an integer, it will be decomposed into its

prime components, whether or not IFACTOR is on.
Note that the IFACTOR switch only affects the result of FACTORIZE. It has no
effect if the FACTOR switch is also on.
The order in which the factors occur in the result (with the exception of a possi-
ble overall numerical coefficient which comes first) can be system dependent and
should not be relied on. Similarly it should be noted that any pair of individ-
ual factors can be negated without altering their product, and that REDUCE may
sometimes do that.
The factorizer works by first reducing multivariate problems to univariate ones and
then solving the univariate ones modulo small primes. It normally selects both
evaluation points and primes using a random number generator that should lead
to different detailed behavior each time any particular problem is tackled. If, for
some reason, it is known that a certain (probably univariate) factorization can be
performed effectively with a known prime, P say, this value of P can be handed to
FACTORIZE as a second argument. An error will occur if a non-prime is provided
to FACTORIZE in this manner. It is also an error to specify a prime that divides
the discriminant of the polynomial being factored, but users should note that this
condition is not checked by the program, so this capability should be used with
care.
Factorization can be performed over a number of polynomial coefficient domains
132 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

in addition to integers. The particular description of the relevant domain should

be consulted to see if factorization is supported. For example, the following state-
ments will factorize x4 + 1 modulo 7:

setmod 7;
on modular;
factorize(x^4+1);

The factorization module is provided with a trace facility that may be useful as a
way of monitoring progress on large problems, and of satisfying curiosity about the
internal workings of the package. The most simple use of this is enabled by issuing
the REDUCE command on trfac; . Following this, all calls to the factorizer
will generate informative messages reporting on such things as the reduction of
multivariate to univariate cases, the choice of a prime and the reconstruction of
full factors from their images. Further levels of detail in the trace are intended
mainly for system tuners and for the investigation of suspected bugs. For example,
TRALLFAC gives tracing information at all levels of detail. The switch that can
be set by on timings; makes it possible for one who is familiar with the algo-
rithms used to determine what part of the factorization code is consuming the most
resources. on overview; reduces the amount of detail presented in other forms
of trace. Other forms of trace output are enabled by directives of the form

symbolic set!-trace!-factor(<number>,<filename>);

where useful numbers are 1, 2, 3 and 100, 101, ... . This facility is intended to make
it possible to discover in fairly great detail what just some small part of the code has
been doing — the numbers refer mainly to depths of recursion when the factorizer
calls itself, and to the split between its work forming and factorizing images and
reconstructing full factors from these. If NIL is used in place of a filename the
trace output requested is directed to the standard output stream. After use of this
trace facility the generated trace files should be closed by calling

symbolic close!-trace!-files();

NOTE: Using the factorizer with MCD off will result in an error.

9.3 Cancellation of Common Factors

Facilities are available in REDUCE for cancelling common factors in the numer-
ators and denominators of expressions, at the option of the user. The system will
perform this greatest common divisor computation if the switch GCD is on. (GCD
is normally off.)
9.3. CANCELLATION OF COMMON FACTORS 133

A check is automatically made, however, for common variable and numerical prod-
ucts in the numerators and denominators of expressions, and the appropriate can-
cellations made.
When GCD is on, and EXP is off, a check is made for square free factors in an
expression. This includes separating out and independently checking the content
of a given polynomial where appropriate. (For an explanation of these terms, see
Anthony C. Hearn, “Non-Modular Computation of Polynomial GCDs Using Trial
Division”, Proc. EUROSAM 79, published as Lecture Notes on Comp. Science,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, No 72 (1979) 227-239.)
Example: With EXP off and GCD on, the polynomial a*c+a*d+b*c+b*d would
be returned as (A+B)*(C+D).
Under normal circumstances, GCDs are computed using an algorithm described in
the above paper. It is also possible in REDUCE to compute GCDs using an al-
ternative algorithm, called the EZGCD Algorithm, which uses modular arithmetic.
The switch EZGCD, if on in addition to GCD, makes this happen.
In non-trivial cases, the EZGCD algorithm is almost always better than the basic
algorithm, often by orders of magnitude. We therefore strongly advise users to
use the EZGCD switch where they have the resources available for supporting the
package.
For a description of the EZGCD algorithm, see J. Moses and D.Y.Y. Yun, “The EZ
GCD Algorithm”, Proc. ACM 1973, ACM, New York (1973) 159-166.
NOTE: This package shares code with the factorizer, so a certain amount of trace
information can be produced using the factorizer trace switches.
An implementation of the heuristic GCD algorithm, first introduced by B.W. Char,
K.O. Geddes and G.H. Gonnet, as described in J.H. Davenport and J. Padget,
“HEUGCD: How Elementary Upperbounds Generate Cheaper Data”, Proc. of EU-
ROCAL ’85, Vol 2, 18-28, published as Lecture Notes on Comp. Science, No. 204,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1985, is also available on an experimental basis. To use
this algorithm, the switch HEUGCD should be on in addition to GCD. Note that if
both EZGCD and HEUGCD are on, the former takes precedence.

9.3.1 Determining the GCD of Two Polynomials

This operator, used with the syntax

GCD(EXPRN1:polynomial,EXPRN2:polynomial):polynomial,

returns the greatest common divisor of the two polynomials EXPRN1 and EXPRN2.
Examples:
134 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

gcd(x^2+2*x+1,x^2+3*x+2) -> X+1

gcd(2*x^2-2*y^2,4*x+4*y) -> 2*X+2*Y
gcd(x^2+y^2,x-y) -> 1.

9.4 Working with Least Common Multiples

Greatest common divisor calculations can often become expensive if extensive

work with large rational expressions is required. However, in many cases, the only
significant cancellations arise from the fact that there are often common factors
in the various denominators which are combined when two rationals are added.
Since these denominators tend to be smaller and more regular in structure than the
numerators, considerable savings in both time and space can occur if a full GCD
check is made when the denominators are combined and only a partial check when
numerators are constructed. In other words, the true least common multiple of
the denominators is computed at each step. The switch LCM is available for this
purpose, and is normally on.
In addition, the operator LCM, used with the syntax

LCM(EXPRN1:polynomial,EXPRN2:polynomial):polynomial,

returns the least common multiple of the two polynomials EXPRN1 and EXPRN2.
Examples:

lcm(x^2+2*x+1,x^2+3*x+2) -> X**3 + 4*X**2 + 5*X + 2

lcm(2*x^2-2*y^2,4*x+4*y) -> 4*(X**2 - Y**2)

9.5 Controlling Use of Common Denominators

When two rational functions are added, REDUCE normally produces an expression
over a common denominator. However, if the user does not want denominators
combined, he or she can turn off the switch MCD which controls this process. The
latter switch is particularly useful if no greatest common divisor calculations are
desired, or excessive differentiation of rational functions is required.
CAUTION: With MCD off, results are not guaranteed to come out in either normal
or canonical form. In other words, an expression equivalent to zero may in fact not
be simplified to zero. This option is therefore most useful for avoiding expression
swell during intermediate parts of a calculation.
MCD is normally on.
9.6. DIVIDE AND MOD / REMAINDER OPERATORS 135

9.6 divide and mod / remainder Operators

The operators divide and mod / remainder implement Euclidean division of

polynomials. The remainder operator is used with the syntax

remainder(EXPRN1:polynomial,EXPRN2:polynomial):polynomial.

It returns the remainder when EXPRN1 is divided by EXPRN2. This is the true
remainder based on the internal ordering of the variables, and not the pseudo-
remainder.
Examples:

remainder((x+y)*(x+2*y),x+3*y) -> 2*Y**2

remainder(2*x+y,2) -> Y.

CAUTION: In the default case, remainders are calculated over the integers. If you
need the remainder with respect to another domain, it must be declared explicitly.
Example:

remainder(x^2-2,x+sqrt(2)); -> X^2 - 2

load_package arnum;
defpoly sqrt2**2-2;
remainder(x^2-2,x+sqrt2); -> 0

The infix operator is an alias for remainder, e.g.

(x^2 + y^2) mod (x - y);

2
2*y

The Euclidean division operator divide is used with the syntax

divide(EXPRN1:polynomial,EXPRN2:polynomial):
list(polynomial,polynomial).

and returns both the quotient and the remainder together as the first and second
elements of a list, e.g.

divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y);

2
{x + y,2*y }
136 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

It can also be used as an infix operator:

(x^2 + y^2) divide (x - y);

2
{x + y,2*y }

All Euclidean division operators (when used in prefix form, and including the
standard remainder operator) accept an optional third argument, which spec-
ifies the main variable to be used during the division. The default is the leading
kernel in the current global ordering. Specifying the main variable does not change
the ordering of any other variables involved, nor does it change the global environ-
ment. For example

remainder(x^2 + y^2, x - y, y);

2
2*x

divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y, y);

2
{ - (x + y),2*x }

Specifying x as main variable gives the same behaviour as the default shown ear-
lier, i.e.

divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y, x);

2
{x + y,2*y }

remainder(x^2 + y^2, x - y, x);

2
2*y

9.7 Polynomial Pseudo-Division

The polynomial division discussed above is normally most useful for a univariate
polynomial over a field, otherwise the division is likely to fail giving trivially a zero
quotient and a remainder equal to the dividend. (A ring of univariate polynomials
is a Euclidean domain only if the coefficient ring is a field.) For example, over the
9.7. POLYNOMIAL PSEUDO-DIVISION 137

integers:

divide(x^2 + y^2, 2(x - y));

2 2
{0,x + y }

The division of a polynomial u(x) of degree m by a polynomial v(x) of de-

gree n ≤ m can be performed over any commutative ring with identity (such
as the integers, or any polynomial ring) if the polynomial u(x) is first multi-
plied by lc(v, x)m−n+1 (where lc denotes the leading coefficient). This is called
pseudo-division. The polynomial pseudo-division operators pseudo_divide,
pseudo_quotient (or pseudo_div) and pseudo_remainder are imple-
mented as prefix operators (only). When multivariate polynomials are pseudo-
divided it is important which variable is taken as the main variable, because the
leading coefficient of the divisor is computed with respect to this variable. There-
fore, if this is allowed to default and there is any ambiguity, i.e. the polynomials are
multivariate or contain more than one kernel, the pseudo-division operators output
a warning message to indicate which kernel has been selected as the main variable
– it is the first kernel found in the internal forms of the dividend and divisor. (As
usual, the warning can be turned off by setting the switch msg to off.) For example

pseudo_divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y);

*** Main division variable selected is x

2
{x + y,2*y }

pseudo_divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y, x);

2
{x + y,2*y }

pseudo_divide(x^2 + y^2, x - y, y);

2
{ - (x + y),2*x }

If the leading coefficient of the divisor is a unit (invertible element) of the coeffi-
cient ring then division and pseudo-division should be identical, otherwise they are
not, e.g.

divide(x^2 + y^2, 2(x - y));

138 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

2 2
{0,x + y }

pseudo_divide(x^2 + y^2, 2(x - y));

*** Main division variable selected is x

2
{2*(x + y),8*y }

The pseudo-division gives essentially the same result as would division over the
field of fractions of the coefficient ring (apart from the overall factors [contents] of
the quotient and remainder), e.g.

on rational;

divide(x^2 + y^2, 2(x - y));

1 2
{---*(x + y),2*y }
2

pseudo_divide(x^2 + y^2, 2(x - y));

*** Main division variable selected is x

2
{2*(x + y),8*y }

Polynomial division and pseudo-division can only be applied to what REDUCE

regards as polynomials, i.e. rational expressions with denominator 1, e.g.

off rational;

pseudo_divide((x^2 + y^2)/2, x - y);

2 2
x + y
***** --------- invalid as polynomial
2

Pseudo-division is implemented in the polydiv package using an algorithm (D.

E. Knuth 1981, Seminumerical Algorithms, Algorithm R, page 407) that does not
9.8. RESULTANT OPERATOR 139

perform any actual division at all (which proves that it applies over a ring). It is
more efficient than the naive algorithm, and it also has the advantage that it works
over coefficient domains in which REDUCE may not be able to perform in prac-
tice divisions that are possible mathematically. An example of this is coefficient
√
domains involving algebraic numbers, such as the integers extended by 2, as
illustrated in the file polydiv.tst.
The implementation attempts to be reasonably efficient, except that it always com-
putes the quotient internally even when only the remainder is required (as does the
standard remainder operator).

9.8 RESULTANT Operator

This is used with the syntax

RESULTANT(EXPRN1:polynomial,EXPRN2:polynomial,VAR:kernel):
polynomial.

It computes the resultant of the two given polynomials with respect to the given
variable, the coefficients of the polynomials can be taken from any domain. The
result can be identified as the determinant of a Sylvester matrix, but can often
also be thought of informally as the result obtained when the given variable is
eliminated between the two input polynomials. If the two input polynomials have
a non-trivial GCD their resultant vanishes.
The switch BEZOUT controls the computation of the resultants. It is off by default.
In this case a subresultant algorithm is used. If the switch Bezout is turned on,
the resultant is computed via the Bezout Matrix. However, in the latter case, only
polynomial coefficients are permitted.
The sign conventions used by the resultant function follow those in R. Loos, “Com-
puting in Algebraic Extensions” in “Computer Algebra — Symbolic and Algebraic
Computation”, Second Ed., Edited by B. Buchberger, G.E. Collins and R. Loos,
Springer-Verlag, 1983. Namely, with A and B not dependent on X:

deg(p)*deg(q)
resultant(p(x),q(x),x)= (-1) *resultant(q,p,x)

deg(p)
resultant(a,p(x),x) = a

resultant(a,b,x) = 1
140 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

Examples:

2
resultant(x/r*u+y,u*y,u) -> - y

calculation in an algebraic extension:

load arnum;
defpoly sqrt2**2 - 2;

resultant(x + sqrt2,sqrt2 * x +1,x) -> -1

or in a modular domain:

setmod 17;
on modular;

resultant(2x+1,3x+4,x) -> 5

9.9 DECOMPOSE Operator

The DECOMPOSE operator takes a multivariate polynomial as argument, and re-

turns an expression and a list of equations from which the original polynomial can
be found by composition. Its syntax is:

DECOMPOSE(EXPRN:polynomial):list.

For example:

decompose(x^8-88*x^7+2924*x^6-43912*x^5+263431*x^4-
218900*x^3+65690*x^2-7700*x+234)
2 2 2
-> {U + 35*U + 234, U=V + 10*V, V=X - 22*X}
2
decompose(u^2+v^2+2u*v+1) -> {W + 1, W=U + V}

Users should note however that, unlike factorization, this decomposition is not
unique.
9.10. INTERPOL OPERATOR 141

9.10 INTERPOL operator

Syntax:

INTERPOL(hvaluesi,hvariablei,metapoints);

where hvaluesi and hpointsi are lists of equal length and <variable> is an alge-
braic expression (preferably a kernel).
INTERPOL generates an interpolation polynomial f in the given variable of degree
length(hvaluesi)-1. The unique polynomial f is defined by the property that for
corresponding elements v of hvaluesi and p of hpointsi the relation f (p) = v holds.
The Aitken-Neville interpolation algorithm is used which guarantees a stable result
even with rounded numbers and an ill-conditioned problem.

9.11 Obtaining Parts of Polynomials and Rationals

These operators select various parts of a polynomial or rational function structure.

Except for the cost of rearrangement of the structure, these operations take very
little time to perform.
For those operators in this section that take a kernel VAR as their second argument,
an error results if the first expression is not a polynomial in VAR, although the coef-
ficients themselves can be rational as long as they do not depend on VAR. However,
if the switch RATARG is on, denominators are not checked for dependence on VAR,
and are taken to be part of the coefficients.

9.11.1 DEG Operator

This operator is used with the syntax

DEG(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel):integer.

It returns the leading degree of the polynomial EXPRN in the variable VAR. If VAR
does not occur as a variable in EXPRN, 0 is returned.
Examples:

deg((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,a) -> 1
deg((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,d) -> 2
deg((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,e) -> 0.

Note also that if RATARG is on,

142 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

deg((a+b)^3/a,a) -> 3

since in this case, the denominator A is considered part of the coefficients of the
numerator in A. With RATARG off, however, an error would result in this case.

9.11.2 DEN Operator

This is used with the syntax:

DEN(EXPRN:rational):polynomial.

It returns the denominator of the rational expression EXPRN. If EXPRN is a poly-

nomial, 1 is returned.
Examples:

den(x/y^2) -> Y**2

den(100/6) -> 3
[since 100/6 is first simplified to 50/3]
den(a/4+b/6) -> 12
den(a+b) -> 1

9.11.3 LCOF Operator

LCOF is used with the syntax

LCOF(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel):polynomial.

It returns the leading coefficient of the polynomial EXPRN in the variable VAR. If
VAR does not occur as a variable in EXPRN, EXPRN is returned. Examples:

lcof((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,a) -> C**2+4*C*D+4*D**2

lcof((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,d) -> 4*(A+B)
lcof((a+b)*(c+2*d),e) -> A*C+2*A*D+B*C+2*B*D

9.11.4 LPOWER Operator

Syntax:

LPOWER(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel):polynomial.

LPOWER returns the leading power of EXPRN with respect to VAR. If EXPRN
does not depend on VAR, 1 is returned.
9.11. OBTAINING PARTS OF POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS 143

Examples:

lpower((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,a) -> A
lpower((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,d) -> D**2
lpower((a+b)*(c+2*d),e) -> 1

9.11.5 LTERM Operator

Syntax:

LTERM(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel):polynomial.

LTERM returns the leading term of EXPRN with respect to VAR. If EXPRN does
not depend on VAR, EXPRN is returned.
Examples:

lterm((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,a) -> A*(C**2+4*C*D+4*D**2)

lterm((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2,d) -> 4*D**2*(A+B)
lterm((a+b)*(c+2*d),e) -> A*C+2*A*D+B*C+2*B*D

Compatibility Note: In some earlier versions of REDUCE, LTERM returned 0 if

the EXPRN did not depend on VAR. In the present version, EXPRN is always equal
to LTERM(EXPRN,VAR) + REDUCT(EXPRN,VAR).

9.11.6 MAINVAR Operator

Syntax:

MAINVAR(EXPRN:polynomial):expression.

Returns the main variable (based on the internal polynomial representation) of

EXPRN. If EXPRN is a domain element, 0 is returned.
Examples:
Assuming A has higher kernel order than B, C, or D:

mainvar((a+b)*(c+2*d)^2) -> A
mainvar(2) -> 0

9.11.7 NUM Operator

Syntax:
144 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

NUM(EXPRN:rational):polynomial.

Returns the numerator of the rational expression EXPRN. If EXPRN is a polyno-

mial, that polynomial is returned.
Examples:

num(x/y^2) -> X
num(100/6) -> 50
num(a/4+b/6) -> 3*A+2*B
num(a+b) -> A+B

9.11.8 REDUCT Operator

Syntax:

REDUCT(EXPRN:polynomial,VAR:kernel):polynomial.

Returns the reductum of EXPRN with respect to VAR (i.e., the part of EXPRN left
after the leading term is removed). If EXPRN does not depend on the variable VAR,
0 is returned.
Examples:

reduct((a+b)*(c+2*d),a) -> B*(C + 2*D)

reduct((a+b)*(c+2*d),d) -> C*(A + B)
reduct((a+b)*(c+2*d),e) -> 0

Compatibility Note: In some earlier versions of REDUCE, REDUCT returned

EXPRN if it did not depend on VAR. In the present version, EXPRN is always equal
to LTERM(EXPRN,VAR) + REDUCT(EXPRN,VAR).

9.11.9 TOTALDEG Operator

Syntax:

totaldeg(a*x^2+b*x+c, x) => 2
totaldeg(a*x^2+b*x+c, {a,b,c}) => 1
totaldeg(a*x^2+b*x+c, {x, a}) => 3
totaldeg(a*x^2+b*x+c, {x,b}) => 2
totaldeg(a*x^2+b*x+c, {p,q,r}) => 0

totaldeg(u, kernlist) finds the total degree of the polynomial u in the

variables in kernlist. If kernlist is not a list it is treated as a simple single
9.12. POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENT ARITHMETIC 145

variable. The denominator of u is ignored, and "degree" here does not pay attention
to fractional powers. Mentions of a kernel within the argument to any operator or
function (eg sin, cos, log, sqrt) are ignored. Really u is expected to be just a
polynomial.

9.12 Polynomial Coefficient Arithmetic

REDUCE allows for a variety of numerical domains for the numerical coefficients
of polynomials used in calculations. The default mode is integer arithmetic, al-
though the possibility of using real coefficients has been discussed elsewhere. Ra-
tional coefficients have also been available by using integer coefficients in both the
numerator and denominator of an expression, using the ON DIV option to print the
coefficients as rationals. However, REDUCE includes several other coefficient opt-
ions in its basic version which we shall describe in this section. All such coefficient
modes are supported in a table-driven manner so that it is straightforward to extend
the range of possibilities. A description of how to do this is given in R.J. Brad-
ford, A.C. Hearn, J.A. Padget and E. Schrüfer, “Enlarging the REDUCE Domain
of Computation,” Proc. of SYMSAC ’86, ACM, New York (1986), 100–106.

9.12.1 Rational Coefficients in Polynomials

Instead of treating rational numbers as the numerator and denominator of a rational

expression, it is also possible to use them as polynomial coefficients directly. This
is accomplished by turning on the switch RATIONAL.
Example: With RATIONAL off, the input expression a/2 would be converted
into a rational expression, whose numerator was A and denominator 2. With
RATIONAL on, the same input would become a rational expression with numerator
1/2*A and denominator 1. Thus the latter can be used in operations that require
polynomial input whereas the former could not.

9.12.2 Real Coefficients in Polynomials

The switch ROUNDED permits the use of arbitrary sized real coefficients in poly-
nomial expressions. The actual precision of these coefficients can be set by the
operator PRECISION. For example, precision 50; sets the precision to fifty
decimal digits. The default precision is system dependent and can be found by
precision 0;. In this mode, denominators are automatically made monic, and
an appropriate adjustment is made to the numerator.
Example: With ROUNDED on, the input expression a/2 would be converted into a
rational expression whose numerator is 0.5*A and denominator 1.
146 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

Internally, REDUCE uses floating point numbers up to the precision supported by

the underlying machine hardware, and so-called bigfloats for higher precision or
whenever necessary to represent numbers whose value cannot be represented in
floating point. The internal precision is two decimal digits greater than the external
precision to guard against roundoff inaccuracies. Bigfloats represent the fraction
and exponent parts of a floating-point number by means of (arbitrary precision)
integers, which is a more precise representation in many cases than the machine
floating point arithmetic, but not as efficient. If a case arises where use of the
machine arithmetic leads to problems, a user can force REDUCE to use the bigfloat
representation at all precisions by turning on the switch ROUNDBF. In rare cases,
this switch is turned on by the system, and the user informed by the message

ROUNDBF turned on to increase accuracy

Rounded numbers are normally printed to the specified precision. However, if the
user wishes to print such numbers with less precision, the printing precision can be
set by the command PRINT_PRECISION. For example, print_precision
5; will cause such numbers to be printed with five digits maximum.
Under normal circumstances when ROUNDED is on, REDUCE converts the number
1.0 to the integer 1. If this is not desired, the switch NOCONVERT can be turned
on.
Numbers that are stored internally as bigfloats are normally printed with a space
between every five digits to improve readability. If this feature is not required, it
can be suppressed by turning off the switch BFSPACE.
Further information on the bigfloat arithmetic may be found in T. Sasaki, “Man-
ual for Arbitrary Precision Real Arithmetic System in REDUCE”, Department of
Computer Science, University of Utah, Technical Note No. TR-8 (1979).
When a real number is input, it is normally truncated to the precision in effect
at the time the number is read. If it is desired to keep the full precision of all
numbers input, the switch ADJPREC (for adjust precision) can be turned on. While
on, ADJPREC will automatically increase the precision, when necessary, to match
that of any integer or real input, and a message printed to inform the user of the
precision increase.
When ROUNDED is on, rational numbers are normally converted to rounded rep-
resentation. However, if a user wishes to keep such numbers in a rational form
until used in an operation that returns a real number, the switch ROUNDALL can be
turned off. This switch is normally on.
Results from rounded calculations are returned in rounded form with two excep-
tions: if the result is recognized as 0 or 1 to the current precision, the integer result
is returned.
9.12. POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENT ARITHMETIC 147

9.12.3 Modular Number Coefficients in Polynomials

REDUCE includes facilities for manipulating polynomials whose coefficients are

computed modulo a given base. To use this option, two commands must be used;
SETMOD hintegeri, to set the prime modulus, and ON MODULAR to cause the
actual modular calculations to occur. For example, with setmod 3; and on
modular;, the polynomial (a+2*b)^3 would become A^3+2*B^3.
The argument of SETMOD is evaluated algebraically, except that non-modular (in-
teger) arithmetic is used. Thus the sequence

setmod 3; on modular; setmod 7;

will correctly set the modulus to 7.

Modular numbers are by default represented by integers in the interval [0,p-1]
where p is the current modulus. Sometimes it is more convenient to use an equiv-
alent symmetric representation in the interval [-p/2+1,p/2], or more precisely [-
floor((p-1)/2), ceiling((p-1)/2)], especially if the modular numbers map objects that
include negative quantities. The switch BALANCED_MOD allows you to select the
symmetric representation for output.
Users should note that the modular calculations are on the polynomial coefficients
only. It is not currently possible to reduce the exponents since no check for a prime
modulus is made (which would allow xp−1 to be reduced to 1 mod p). Note also
that any division by a number not co-prime with the modulus will result in the error
“Invalid modular division”.

9.12.4 Complex Number Coefficients in Polynomials

Although REDUCE routinely treats the square of the variable i as equivalent to −1,
this is not sufficient to reduce expressions involving i to lowest terms, or to factor
such expressions over the complex numbers. For example, in the default case,

factorize(a^2+1);

gives the result

{{A**2+1,1}}

and

(a^2+b^2)/(a+i*b)

is not reduced further. However, if the switch COMPLEX is turned on, full complex
148 CHAPTER 9. POLYNOMIALS AND RATIONALS

arithmetic is then carried out. In other words, the above factorization will give the
result

{{A + I,1},{A - I,1}}

and the quotient will be reduced to A-I*B.

The switch COMPLEX may be combined with ROUNDED to give complex real num-
bers; the appropriate arithmetic is performed in this case.
Complex conjugation is used to remove complex numbers from denominators
of expressions. To do this if COMPLEX is off, you must turn the switch
RATIONALIZE on.

9.13 ROOT_VAL Operator

The ROOT_VAL operator takes a single univariate polynomial as argument, and

returns a list of root values at system precision (or greater if required to separate
roots). It is used with the syntax

ROOT_VAL(EXPRN:univariate polynomial):list.

For example, the sequence

on rounded; root_val(x^3-x-1);

gives the result

{0.562279512062*I - 0.662358978622, - 0.562279512062*I

- 0.662358978622,1.32471795724}
Chapter 10

Assigning and Testing Algebraic

Properties

Sometimes algebraic expressions can be further simplified if there is additional

information about the value ranges of its components. The following section de-
scribes how to inform REDUCE of such assumptions.

10.1 REALVALUED Declaration and Check

The declaration REALVALUED may be used to restrict variables to the real num-
bers. The syntax is:

realvalued v1,...vn;

For such variables the operator IMPART gives the result zero. Thus, with

realvalued x,y;

the expression impart(x+sin(y)) is evaluated as zero. You may also declare

an operator as real valued with the meaning, that this operator maps real arguments
always to real values. Example:

operator h; realvalued h,x;

impart h(x);

impart h(w);

149
150 CHAPTER 10. ASSIGNING AND TESTING ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES

impart(h(w))

Such declarations are not needed for the standard elementary functions.
To remove the propery from a variable or an operator use the declaration
NOTREALVALUED with the syntax:

notrealvalued v1,...vn;

The boolean operator REALVALUEDP allows you to check if a variable, an opera-

tor, or an operator expression is known as real valued. Thus,

realvalued x;
write if realvaluedp(sin x) then "yes" else "no";
write if realvaluedp(sin z) then "yes" else "no";

would print first yes and then no. For general expressions test the impart for
checking the value range:

realvalued x,y; w:=(x+i*y); w1:=conj w;

impart(w*w1);

impart(w*w);

2*x*y

10.2 SELFCONJUGATE Declaration

The declaration SELFCONJUGATE may be used to declare an operator to be self-

conjuate in the sense that conj(f(z)) = f(conj(z)). The syntax is:

selfconjugate f1,...fn;

Such declarations are not needed for the standard elementary functions nor for
the inverses atan, acot, asinh, acsch. The remaining inverse functions
log, asin, acos, atanh, acosh etc. and sqrt fail to be self-conjugate
on their branch cuts (which are all subsets of the real axis).
10.3. DECLARING EXPRESSIONS POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE 151

10.3 Declaring Expressions Positive or Negative

Detailed knowlege about the sign of expressions allows REDUCE to simplify ex-
pressions involving exponentials or ABS. You can express assumptions about the
positivity or negativity of expressions by rules for the operator SIGN. Examples:

abs(a*b*c);

abs(a*b*c);

let sign(a)=>1,sign(b)=>1; abs(a*b*c);

abs(c)*a*b

on precise; sqrt(x^2-2x+1);

abs(x - 1)

ws where sign(x-1)=>1;

x - 1

Here factors with known sign are factored out of an ABS expression.

on precise; on factor;

(q*x-2q)^w;

w
((x - 2)*q)

ws where sign(x-2)=>1;

w w
q *(x - 2)

In this case the factor (x − 2)w may be extracted from the base of the exponential
because it is known to be positive.
Note that REDUCE knows a lot about sign propagation. For example, with x and y
also x + y, x + y + π and (x + e)/y 2 are known as positive. Nevertheless, it is often
necessary to declare additionally the sign of a combined expression. E.g. at present
a positivity declaration of x − 2 does not automatically lead to sign evaluation for
152 CHAPTER 10. ASSIGNING AND TESTING ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES

x − 1 or for x.
Chapter 11

Substitution Commands

An important class of commands in REDUCE define substitutions for variables and

expressions to be made during the evaluation of expressions. Such substitutions use
the prefix operator SUB, various forms of the command LET, and rule sets.

11.1 SUB Operator

Syntax:

SUB(hsubstitution_listi, hEXPRN1:algebraici) : algebraic

where hsubstitution_listi is a list of one or more equations of the form

hVAR:kerneli = hEXPRN:algebraici

or a kernel that evaluates to such a list.

The SUB operator gives the algebraic result of replacing every occurrence of the
variable VAR in the expression EXPRN1 by the expression EXPRN. Specifically,
EXPRN1 is first evaluated using all available rules. Next the substitutions are made,
and finally the substituted expression is reevaluated. When more than one variable
occurs in the substitution list, the substitution is performed by recursively walking
down the tree representing EXPRN1, and replacing every VAR found by the ap-
propriate EXPRN. The EXPRN are not themselves searched for any occurrences of
the various VARs. The trivial case SUB(EXPRN1) returns the algebraic value of
EXPRN1.
Examples:

2 2
sub({x=a+y,y=y+1},x^2+y^2) -> A + 2*A*Y + 2*Y + 2*Y + 1

153
154 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

and with s := {x=a+y,y=y+1},

2 2
sub(s,x^2+y^2) -> A + 2*A*Y + 2*Y + 2*Y + 1

Note that the global assignments x:=a+y, etc., do not take place.
EXPRN1 can be any valid algebraic expression whose type is such that a substi-
tution process is defined for it (e.g., scalar expressions, lists and matrices). An
error will occur if an expression of an invalid type for substitution occurs either in
EXPRN or EXPRN1.
The braces around the substitution list may also be omitted, as in:

2 2
sub(x=a+y,y=y+1,x^2+y^2) -> A + 2*A*Y + 2*Y + 2*Y + 1

11.2 LET Rules

Unlike substitutions introduced via SUB, LET rules are global in scope and stay in
effect until replaced or CLEARed.
The simplest use of the LET statement is in the form

LET hsubstitution listi

where hsubstitution listi is a list of rules separated by commas, each of the form:

hvariablei = hexpressioni

or

hprefix operatori(hargumenti, . . . , hargumenti) = hexpressioni

or

hargumentihinfix operatori, . . . , hargumenti = hexpressioni

For example,

let {x => y^2,

h(u,v) => u - v,
cos(pi/3) => 1/2,
a*b => c,
11.2. LET RULES 155

l+m => n,
w^3 => 2*z - 3,
z^10 => 0}

The list brackets can be left out if preferred. The above rules could also have been
entered as seven separate LET statements.
After such LET rules have been input, X will always be evaluated as the square of
Y, and so on. This is so even if at the time the LET rule was input, the variable Y
had a value other than Y. (In contrast, the assignment x:=y^2 will set X equal to
the square of the current value of Y, which could be quite different.)
The rule let a*b=c means that whenever A and B are both factors in an ex-
pression their product will be replaced by C. For example, a^5*b^7*w would be
replaced by c^5*b^2*w.
The rule for l+m will not only replace all occurrences of l+m by N, but will also
normally replace L by n-m, but not M by n-l. A more complete description of this
case is given in Section 11.2.5.
The rule pertaining to w^3 will apply to any power of W greater than or equal to
the third.
Note especially the last example, let z^10=0. This declaration means, in effect:
ignore the tenth or any higher power of Z. Such declarations, when appropriate,
often speed up a computation to a considerable degree. (See Section 11.4 for more
details.)
Any new operators occurring in such LET rules will be automatically declared
OPERATOR by the system, if the rules are being read from a file. If they are being
entered interactively, the system will ask DECLARE . . . OPERATOR? . Answer Y
or N and hit Return .
In each of these examples, substitutions are only made for the explicit expressions
given; i.e., none of the variables may be considered arbitrary in any sense. For
example, the command

let h(u,v) = u - v;

will cause h(u,v) to evaluate to U - V, but will not affect h(u,z) or H with
any arguments other than precisely the symbols U,V.
These simple LET rules are on the same logical level as assignments made with
the := operator. An assignment x := p+q cancels a rule let x = y^2 made
earlier, and vice versa.
CAUTION: A recursive rule such as

let x = x + 1;
156 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

is erroneous, since any subsequent evaluation of X would lead to a non-terminating

chain of substitutions:

x -> x + 1 -> (x + 1) + 1 -> ((x + 1) + 1) + 1 -> ...

Similarly, coupled substitutions such as

let l = m + n, n = l + r;

would lead to the same error. As a result, if you try to evaluate an X, L or N defined
as above, you will get an error such as

X improperly defined in terms of itself

Array and matrix elements can appear on the left-hand side of a LET statement.
However, because of their instant evaluation property, it is the value of the element
that is substituted for, rather than the element itself. E.g.,

array a(5);
a(2) := b;
let a(2) = c;

results in B being substituted by C; the assignment for a(2) does not change.
Finally, if an error occurs in any equation in a LET statement (including generalized
statements involving FOR ALL and SUCH THAT), the remaining rules are not
evaluated.

11.2.1 FOR ALL . . . LET

If a substitution for all possible values of a given argument of an operator is re-

quired, the declaration FOR ALL may be used. The syntax of such a command
is

FOR ALL hvariablei, . . . , hvariablei

hLET statementihterminatori

e.g.,

for all x,y let h(x,y) = x-y;

for all x let k(x,y) = x^y;

The first of these declarations would cause h(a,b) to be evaluated as A-B,

h(u+v,u+w) to be V-W, etc. If the operator symbol H is used with more or
11.2. LET RULES 157

fewer argument places, not two, the LET would have no effect, and no error would
result.
The second declaration would cause k(a,y) to be evaluated as a^y, but would
have no effect on k(a,z) since the rule didn’t say FOR ALL Y . . . .
Where we used X and Y in the examples, any variables could have been used. This
use of a variable doesn’t affect the value it may have outside the LET statement.
However, you should remember what variables you actually used. If you want
to delete the rule subsequently, you must use the same variables in the CLEAR
command.
It is possible to use more complicated expressions as a template for a LET state-
ment, as explained in the section on substitutions for general expressions. In nearly
all cases, the rule will be accepted, and a consistent application made by the sys-
tem. However, if there is a sole constant or a sole free variable on the left-hand side
of a rule (e.g., let 2=3 or for all x let x=2), then the system is unable
to handle the rule, and the error message

Substitution for ... not allowed

will be issued. Any variable listed in the FOR ALL part will have its symbol
preceded by an equal sign: X in the above example will appear as =X. An error will
also occur if a variable in the FOR ALL part is not properly matched on both sides
of the LET equation.

11.2.2 FOR ALL . . . SUCH THAT . . . LET

If a substitution is desired for more than a single value of a variable in an operator

or other expression, but not all values, a conditional form of the FOR ALL ...
LET declaration can be used.
Example:

for all x such that numberp x and x<0 let h(x)=0;

will cause h(-5) to be evaluated as 0, but H of a positive integer, or of an argument

that is not an integer at all, would not be affected. Any boolean expression can
follow the SUCH THAT keywords.

11.2.3 Removing Assignments and Substitution Rules

The user may remove all assignments and substitution rules from any expression
by the command CLEAR, in the form
158 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

CLEAR hexpressioni, . . . , hexpressioni = hterminatori

e.g.

clear x, h(x,y);

Because of their instant evaluation property, array and matrix elements cannot be
cleared with CLEAR. For example, if A is an array, you must say

a(3) := 0;

rather than

clear a(3);

to “clear” element a(3).

On the other hand, a whole array (or matrix) A can be cleared by the command
clear a; This means much more than resetting to 0 all the elements of A. The
fact that A is an array, and what its dimensions are, are forgotten, so A can be
redefined as another type of object, for example an operator.
If you need to clear a variable whose name must be computed, see the UNSET
statement.
The more general types of LET declarations can also be deleted by using CLEAR.
Simply repeat the LET rule to be deleted, using CLEAR in place of LET, and omit-
ting the equal sign and right-hand part. The same dummy variables must be used
in the FOR ALL part, and the boolean expression in the SUCH THAT part must be
written the same way. (The placing of blanks doesn’t have to be identical.)
Example: The LET rule

for all x such that numberp x and x<0 let h(x)=0;

can be erased by the command

for all x such that numberp x and x<0 clear h(x);

11.2.4 Overlapping LET Rules

CLEAR is not the only way to delete a LET rule. A new LET rule identical to
the first, but with a different expression after the equal sign, replaces the first.
Replacements are also made in other cases where the existing rule would be in
conflict with the new rule. For example, a rule for x^4 would replace a rule for
x^5. The user should however be cautioned against having several LET rules in
11.2. LET RULES 159

effect that relate to the same expression. No guarantee can be given as to which
rules will be applied by REDUCE or in what order. It is best to CLEAR an old rule
before entering a new related LET rule.

11.2.5 Substitutions for General Expressions

The examples of substitutions discussed in other sections have involved very sim-
ple rules. However, the substitution mechanism used in REDUCE is very general,
and can handle arbitrarily complicated rules without difficulty.
The general substitution mechanism used in REDUCE is discussed in Hearn, A.
C., “REDUCE, A User-Oriented Interactive System for Algebraic Simplification,”
Interactive Systems for Experimental Applied Mathematics, (edited by M. Klerer
and J. Reinfelds), Academic Press, New York (1968), 79-90, and Hearn. A. C.,
“The Problem of Substitution,” Proc. 1968 Summer Institute on Symbolic Mathe-
matical Computation, IBM Programming Laboratory Report FSC 69-0312 (1969).
For the reasons given in these references, REDUCE does not attempt to imple-
ment a general pattern matching algorithm. However, the present system uses far
more sophisticated techniques than those discussed in the above papers. It is now
possible for the rules appearing in arguments of LET to have the form

hsubstitution expressioni = hexpressioni

where any rule to which a sensible meaning can be assigned is permitted. How-
ever, this meaning can vary according to the form of hsubstitution expressioni. The
semantic rules associated with the application of the substitution are completely
consistent, but somewhat complicated by the pragmatic need to perform such sub-
stitutions as efficiently as possible. The following rules explain how the majority
of the cases are handled.
To begin with, the hsubstitution expressioni is first partly simplified by collecting
like terms and putting identifiers (and kernels) in the system order. However, no
substitutions are performed on any part of the expression with the exception of
expressions with the instant evaluation property, such as array and matrix elements,
whose actual values are used. It should also be noted that the system order used is
not changeable by the user, even with the KORDER command. Specific cases are
then handled as follows:

1. If the resulting simplified rule has a left-hand side that is an identifier, an

expression with a top-level algebraic operator or a power, then the rule is
added without further change to the appropriate table.

2. If the operator * appears at the top level of the simplified left-hand side, then
any constant arguments in that expression are moved to the right-hand side
160 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

of the rule. The remaining left-hand side is then added to the appropriate
table. For example,

let 2*x*y=3

becomes

let x*y=3/2

so that x*y is added to the product substitution table, and when this rule is
applied, the expression x*y becomes 3/2, but X or Y by themselves are not
replaced.

3. If the operators +, - or / appear at the top level of the simplified left-hand

side, all but the first term is moved to the right-hand side of the rule. Thus
the rules

let l+m=n, x/2=y, a-b=c

become

let l=n-m, x=2*y, a=c+b.

One problem that can occur in this case is that if a quantified expression is moved
to the right-hand side, a given free variable might no longer appear on the left-hand
side, resulting in an error because of the unmatched free variable. E.g.,

for all x,y let f(x)+f(y)=x*y

would become

for all x,y let f(x)=x*y-f(y)

which no longer has Y on both sides.

The fact that array and matrix elements are evaluated in the left-hand side of rules
can lead to confusion at times. Consider for example the statements

array a(5); let x+a(2)=3; let a(3)=4;

The left-hand side of the first rule will become X, and the second 0. Thus the first
rule will be instantiated as a substitution for X, and the second will result in an
error.
The order in which a list of rules is applied is not easily understandable without
a detailed knowledge of the system simplification protocol. It is also possible for
11.3. RULE LISTS 161

this order to change from release to release, as improved substitution techniques

are implemented. Users should therefore assume that the order of application of
rules is arbitrary, and program accordingly.
After a substitution has been made, the expression being evaluated is reexamined
in case a new allowed substitution has been generated. This process is continued
until no more substitutions can be made.
As mentioned elsewhere, when a substitution expression appears in a product, the
substitution is made if that expression divides the product. For example, the rule

let a^2*c = 3*z;

would cause a^2*c*x to be replaced by 3*Z*X and a^2*c^2 by 3*Z*C. If the

substitution is desired only when the substitution expression appears in a product
with the explicit powers supplied in the rule, the command MATCH should be used
instead.
For example,

match a^2*c = 3*z;

would cause a^2*c*x to be replaced by 3*Z*X, but a^2*c^2 would not be

replaced. MATCH can also be used with the FOR ALL constructions described
above.
To remove substitution rules of the type discussed in this section, the CLEAR com-
mand can be used, combined, if necessary, with the same FOR ALL clause with
which the rule was defined, for example:

for all x clear log(e^x),e^log(x),cos(w*t+theta(x));

Note, however, that the arbitrary variable names in this case must be the same as
those used in defining the substitution.

11.3 Rule Lists

Rule lists offer an alternative approach to defining substitutions that is different

from either SUB or LET. In fact, they provide the best features of both, since they
have all the capabilities of LET, but the rules can also be applied locally as is pos-
sible with SUB. In time, they will be used more and more in REDUCE. However,
since they are relatively new, much of the REDUCE code you see uses the older
constructs.
A rule list is a list of rules that have the syntax
162 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

<expression> => <expression> (WHEN <boolean expression>)

For example,

{cos(~x)*cos(~y) => (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2,

cos(~n*pi) => (-1)^n when remainder(n,2)=0}

The tilde preceding a variable marks that variable as free for that rule, much as a
variable in a FOR ALL clause in a LET statement. The first occurrence of that
variable in each relevant rule must be so marked on input, otherwise inconsistent
results can occur. For example, the rule list

{cos(~x)*cos(~y) => (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2,

cos(x)^2 => (1+cos(2x))/2}

designed to replace products of cosines, would not be correct, since the second
rule would only apply to the explicit argument X. Later occurrences in the same
rule may also be marked, but this is optional (internally, all such rules are stored
with each relevant variable explicitly marked). The optional WHEN clause allows
constraints to be placed on the application of the rule, much as the SUCH THAT
clause in a LET statement.
A rule list may be named, for example

trig1 := {cos(~x)*cos(~y) => (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2,

cos(~x)*sin(~y) => (sin(x+y)-sin(x-y))/2,
sin(~x)*sin(~y) => (cos(x-y)-cos(x+y))/2,
cos(~x)^2 => (1+cos(2*x))/2,
sin(~x)^2 => (1-cos(2*x))/2};

Such named rule lists may be inspected as needed. E.g., the command trig1;
would cause the above list to be printed.
Rule lists may be used in two ways. They can be globally instantiated by means of
the command LET. For example,

let trig1;

would cause the above list of rules to be globally active from then on until cancelled
by the command CLEARRULES, as in

clearrules trig1;

CLEARRULES has the syntax

11.3. RULE LISTS 163

CLEARRULES <rule list>|<name of rule list>(,...) .

The second way to use rule lists is to invoke them locally by means of a WHERE
clause. For example

cos(a)*cos(b+c)
where {cos(~x)*cos(~y) => (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2};

or

cos(a)*sin(b) where trigrules;

The syntax of an expression with a WHERE clause is:

<expression>
WHERE <rule>|<rule list>(,<rule>|<rule list> ...)

so the first example above could also be written

cos(a)*cos(b+c)
where cos(~x)*cos(~y) => (cos(x+y)+cos(x-y))/2;

The effect of this construct is that the rule list(s) in the WHERE clause only apply to
the expression on the left of WHERE. They have no effect outside the expression. In
particular, they do not affect previously defined WHERE clauses or LET statements.
For example, the sequence

let a=2;
a where a=>4;
a;

would result in the output

Although WHERE has a precedence less than any other infix operator, it still binds
higher than keywords such as ELSE, THEN, DO, REPEAT and so on. Thus the
expression

if a=2 then 3 else a+2 where a=3

will parse as
164 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

if a=2 then 3 else (a+2 where a=3)

WHERE may be used to introduce auxiliary variables in symbolic mode expres-

sions, as described in Section 17.4. However, the symbolic mode use has different
semantics, so expressions do not carry from one mode to the other.
Compatibility Note: In order to provide compatibility with older versions of rule
lists released through the Network Library, it is currently possible to use an equal
sign interchangeably with the replacement sign => in rules and LET statements.
However, since this will change in future versions, the replacement sign is prefer-
able in rules and the equal sign in non-rule-based LET statements.

Advanced Use of Rule Lists

Some advanced features of the rule list mechanism make it possible to write more
complicated rules than those discussed so far, and in many cases to write more
compact rule lists. These features are:

• Free operators

• Double slash operator

• Double tilde variables.

A free operator in the left hand side of a pattern will match any operator with the
same number of arguments. The free operator is written in the same style as a
variable. For example, the implementation of the product rule of differentiation
can be written as:

operator diff, !~f, !~g;

prule := {diff(~f(~x) * ~g(~x),x) =>

diff(f(x),x) * g(x) + diff(g(x),x) * f(x)};

let prule;

diff(sin(z)*cos(z),z);

cos(z)*diff(sin(z),z) + diff(cos(z),z)*sin(z)

The double slash operator may be used as an alternative to a single slash (quotient)
in order to match quotients properly. E.g., in the example of the Gamma function
above, one can use:
11.3. RULE LISTS 165

gammarule :=
{gamma(~z)//(~c*gamma(~zz)) => gamma(z)/(c*gamma(zz-1)*zz)
when fixp(zz -z) and (zz -z) >0,
gamma(~z)//gamma(~zz) => gamma(z)/(gamma(zz-1)*zz)
when fixp(zz -z) and (zz -z) >0};

let gammarule;

gamma(z)/gamma(z+3);

1
----------------------
3 2
z + 6*z + 11*z + 6

The above example suffers from the fact that two rules had to be written in order
to perform the required operation. This can be simplified by the use of double tilde
variables. E.g. the rule list

GGrule := {
gamma(~z)//(~~c*gamma(~zz)) => gamma(z)/(c*gamma(zz-1)*zz)
when fixp(zz -z) and (zz -z) >0};

will implement the same operation in a much more compact way. In general, dou-
ble tilde variables are bound to the neutral element with respect to the operation in
which they are used.
Pattern given Argument used Binding

~z + ~~y x z=x; y=0

~z + ~~y x+3 z=x; y=3 or z=3; y=x

~z * ~~y x z=x; y=1

~z * ~~y x*3 z=x; y=3 or z=3; y=x

~z / ~~y x z=x; y=1

~z / ~~y x/3 z=x; y=3

Remarks: A double tilde variable as the numerator of a pattern is not allowed.

Also, using double tilde variables may lead to recursion errors when the zero case
is not handled properly.

let f(~~a * ~x,x) => a * f(x,x) when freeof (a,x);

166 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

f(z,z);

***** f(z,z) improperly defined in terms of itself

% BUT:

let ff(~~a * ~x,x)

=> a * ff(x,x) when freeof (a,x) and a neq 1;

ff(z,z);
ff(z,z)

ff(3*z,z);
3*ff(z,z)

Displaying Rules Associated with an Operator

The operator SHOWRULES takes a single identifier as argument, and returns in

rule-list form the operator rules associated with that argument. For example:

showrules log;

{LOG(E) => 1,

LOG(1) => 0,

~X
LOG(E ) => ~X,

1
DF(LOG(~X),~X) => ----}
~X

Such rules can then be manipulated further as with any list. For example rhs
first ws; has the value 1. Note that an operator may have other properties that
cannot be displayed in such a form, such as the fact it is an odd function, or has a
definition defined as a procedure.

Order of Application of Rules

If rules have overlapping domains, their order of application is important. In gen-

eral, it is very difficult to specify this order precisely, so that it is best to assume
11.4. ASYMPTOTIC COMMANDS 167

that the order is arbitrary. However, if only one operator is involved, the order of
application of the rules for this operator can be determined from the following:

1. Rules containing at least one free variable apply before all rules without free
variables.

2. Rules activated in the most recent LET command are applied first.

3. LET with several entries generate the same order of application as a corre-
sponding sequence of commands with one rule or rule set each.

4. Within a rule set, the rules containing at least one free variable are applied in
their given order. In other words, the first member of the list is applied first.

5. Consistent with the first item, any rule in a rule list that contains no free
variables is applied after all rules containing free variables.

Example: The following rule set enables the computation of exact values of the
Gamma function:

operator gamma,gamma_error;
gamma_rules :=
{gamma(~x)=>sqrt(pi)/2 when x=1/2,
gamma(~n)=>factorial(n-1) when fixp n and n>0,
gamma(~n)=>gamma_error(n) when fixp n,
gamma(~x)=>(x-1)*gamma(x-1) when fixp(2*x) and x>1,
gamma(~x)=>gamma(x+1)/x when fixp(2*x)};

Here, rule by rule, cases of known or definitely uncomputable values are sorted out;
e.g. the rule leading to the error expression will be applied for negative integers
only, since the positive integers are caught by the preceding rule, and the last rule
will apply for negative odd multiples of 1/2 only. Alternatively the first rule could
have been written as

gamma(1/2) => sqrt(pi)/2,

but then the case x = 1/2 should be excluded in the WHEN part of the last rule
explicitly because a rule without free variables cannot take precedence over the
other rules.

11.4 Asymptotic Commands

In expansions of polynomials involving variables that are known to be small, it is

often desirable to throw away all powers of these variables beyond a certain point
168 CHAPTER 11. SUBSTITUTION COMMANDS

to avoid unnecessary computation. The command LET may be used to do this. For
example, if only powers of X up to x^7 are needed, the command

let x^8 = 0;

will cause the system to delete all powers of X higher than 7.

CAUTION: This particular simplification works differently from most substitu-
tion mechanisms in REDUCE in that it is applied during polynomial manipulation
rather than to the whole evaluated expression. Thus, with the above rule in effect,
x^10/x^5 would give the result zero, since the numerator would simplify to zero.
Similarly x^20/x^10 would give a Zero divisor error message, since both
numerator and denominator would first simplify to zero.
The method just described is not adequate when expressions involve several vari-
ables having different degrees of smallness. In this case, it is necessary to supply
an asymptotic weight to each variable and count up the total weight of each product
in an expanded expression before deciding whether to keep the term or not. There
are two associated commands in the system to permit this type of asymptotic con-
straint. The command WEIGHT takes a list of equations of the form

hkernel formi = hnumberi

where hnumberi must be a positive integer (not just evaluate to a positive integer).
This command assigns the weight hnumberi to the relevant kernel form. A check
is then made in all algebraic evaluations to see if the total weight of the term is
greater than the weight level assigned to the calculation. If it is, the term is deleted.
To compute the total weight of a product, the individual weights of each kernel
form are multiplied by their corresponding powers and then added.
The weight level of the system is initially set to 1. The user may change this setting
by the command

wtlevel <number>;

which sets hnumberi as the new weight level of the system. meta must evaluate to
a positive integer. WTLEVEL will also allow NIL as an argument, in which case
the current weight level is returned.
Chapter 12

File Handling Commands

In many applications, it is desirable to load previously prepared REDUCE files

into the system, or to write output on other files. REDUCE offers four commands
for this purpose, namely, IN, OUT, SHUT, LOAD, and LOAD_PACKAGE. The first
three operators are described here; LOAD and LOAD_PACKAGE are discussed in
Section 19.2.

12.1 IN Command

This command takes a list of file names as argument and directs the system to
input each file (that should contain REDUCE statements and commands) into the
system. File names can either be an identifier or a string. The explicit format of
these will be system dependent and, in many cases, site dependent. The explicit
instructions for the implementation being used should therefore be consulted for
further details. For example:

in f1,"ggg.rr.s";

will first load file f1, then ggg.rr.s. When a semicolon is used as the terminator
of the IN statement, the statements in the file are echoed on the terminal or written
on the current output file. If $ is used as the terminator, the input is not shown.
Echoing of all or part of the input file can be prevented, even if a semicolon was
used, by placing an off echo; command in the input file.
Files to be read using IN should end with ;END;. Note the two semicolons! First
of all, this is protection against obscure difficulties the user will have if there are,
by mistake, more BEGINs than ENDs on the file. Secondly, it triggers some file
control book-keeping which may improve system efficiency. If END is omitted, an
error message "End-of-file read" will occur.

169
170 CHAPTER 12. FILE HANDLING COMMANDS

While a file is being loaded, the special identifier !__LINE__ is replaced by the
number of the current line in the file currently being read. Similarly, !__FILE__
is replaced by the name of the file currently being read.

12.2 OUT Command

This command takes a single file name as argument, and directs output to that
file from then on, until another OUT changes the output file, or SHUT closes it.
Output can go to only one file at a time, although many can be open. If the file
has previously been used for output during the current job, and not SHUT, the new
output is appended to the end of the file. Any existing file is erased before its first
use for output in a job, or if it had been SHUT before the new OUT.
To output on the terminal without closing the output file, the reserved file name T
(for terminal) may be used. For example, out ofile; will direct output to the
file OFILE and out t; will direct output to the user’s terminal.
The output sent to the file will be in the same form that it would have on the
terminal. In particular x^2 would appear on two lines, an X on the lower line and
a 2 on the line above. If the purpose of the output file is to save results to be read
in later, this is not an appropriate form. We first must turn off the NAT switch that
specifies that output should be in standard mathematical notation.
Example: To create a file ABCD from which it will be possible to read – using IN
– the value of the expression XYZ:

off echo$ % needed if your input is from a file.

off nat$ % output in IN-readable form. Each expression
% printed will end with a $ .
out abcd$ % output to new file
linelength 72$ % for systems with fixed input line length.
xyz:=xyz; % will output "XYZ := " followed by the value
% of XYZ
write ";end"$ % standard for ending files for IN
shut abcd$ % save ABCD, return to terminal output
on nat$ % restore usual output form

12.3 SHUT Command

This command takes a list of names of files that have been previously opened via
an OUT statement and closes them. Most systems require this action by the user
before he ends the REDUCE job (if not sooner), otherwise the output may be lost.
If a file is shut and a further OUT command issued for the same file, the file is
12.4. REDUCE STARTUP FILE 171

erased before the new output is written.

If it is the current output file that is shut, output will switch to the terminal. At-
tempts to shut files that have not been opened by OUT, or an input file, will lead to
errors.

12.4 REDUCE startup file

At the start of a REDUCE session, the system checks for the existence of a user’s
startup file, and executes the REDUCE statements in it. This is equivalent to in-
putting the file with the IN command.
To find the directory/folder where the file resides, the system checks the existence
of the following environment variables:

1. HOME,

2. HOMEDRIVE and HOMEPATH together (Windows).

If none of these are set, the current directory is used. The file itself must be named
either .reducerc or reduce.rc1 .

1
If none of these exist, the system checks for a file called reduce.INI in the current directory.
This is historical and may be removed in future.
172 CHAPTER 12. FILE HANDLING COMMANDS
Chapter 13

Commands for Interactive Use

REDUCE is designed as an interactive system, but naturally it can also operate in

a batch processing or background mode by taking its input command by command
from the relevant input stream. There is a basic difference, however, between in-
teractive and batch use of the system. In the former case, whenever the system
discovers an ambiguity at some point in a calculation, such as a forgotten type
assignment for instance, it asks the user for the correct interpretation. In batch
operation, it is not practical to terminate the calculation at such points and require
resubmission of the job, so the system makes the most obvious guess of the user’s
intentions and continues the calculation.
There is also a difference in the handling of errors. In the former case, the computa-
tion can continue since the user has the opportunity to correct the mistake. In batch
mode, the error may lead to consequent erroneous (and possibly time consuming)
computations. So in the default case, no further evaluation occurs, although the
remainder of the input is checked for syntax errors. A message "Continuing
with parsing only" informs the user that this is happening. On the other
hand, the switch ERRCONT, if on, will cause the system to continue evaluating
expressions after such errors occur.
When a syntactical error occurs, the place where the system detected the error is
marked with three dollar signs ($$$). In interactive mode, the user can then use ED
to correct the error, or retype the command. When a non-syntactical error occurs in
interactive mode, the command being evaluated at the time the last error occurred
is saved, and may later be reevaluated by the command RETRY.

13.1 Referencing Previous Results

It is often useful to be able to reference results of previous computations during a

REDUCE session. For this purpose, REDUCE maintains a history of all interactive

173
174 CHAPTER 13. COMMANDS FOR INTERACTIVE USE

inputs and the results of all interactive computations during a given session. These
results are referenced by the command number that REDUCE prints automatically
in interactive mode. To use an input expression in a new computation, one writes
input(n), where n is the command number. To use an output expression, one
writes WS(n). WS references the previous command. E.g., if command number 1
was INT(X-1,X); and the result of command number 7 was X-1, then

2*input(1)-ws(7)^2;

would give the result -1, whereas

2*ws(1)-ws(7)^2;

would yield the same result, but without a recomputation of the integral.
The operator DISPLAY is available to display previous inputs. If its argument
is a positive integer, n say, then the previous n inputs are displayed. If its argu-
ment is ALL (or in fact any non-numerical expression), then all previous inputs are
displayed.

13.2 Interactive Editing

It is possible when working interactively to edit any REDUCE input that comes
from the user’s terminal, and also some user-defined procedure definitions. At the
top level, one can access any previous command string by the command ed(n),
where n is the desired command number as prompted by the system in interactive
mode. ED; (i.e. no argument) accesses the previous command.
After ED has been called, you can now edit the displayed string using a string editor
with the following commands:
B move pointer to beginning
Chcharacteri replace next character by hcharacteri
D delete next character
E end editing and reread text
Fhcharacteri move pointer to next occurrence of
hcharacteri
Ihstringihescapei insert hstringi in front of pointer
Khcharacteri delete all characters until hcharacteri
P print string from current pointer
Q give up with error exit
Shstringihescapei search for first occurrence of hstringi, po-
sitioning pointer just before it
space or X move pointer right one character.
13.3. INTERACTIVE FILE CONTROL 175

The above table can be displayed online by typing a question mark followed by a
carriage return to the editor. The editor prompts with an angle bracket. Commands
can be combined on a single line, and all command sequences must be followed by
a carriage return to become effective.
Thus, to change the command x := a+1; to x := a+2; and cause it to be
executed, the following edit command sequence could be used:

f1c2e<return>.

The interactive editor may also be used to edit a user-defined procedure that has
not been compiled. To do this, one says:

editdef hidi;

where hidi is the name of the procedure. The procedure definition will then be
displayed in editing mode, and may then be edited and redefined on exiting from
the editor.
Some versions of REDUCE now include input editing that uses the capabilities of
modern window systems. Please consult your system dependent documentation to
see if this is possible. Such editing techniques are usually much easier to use then
ED or EDITDEF.

13.3 Interactive File Control

If input is coming from an external file, the system treats it as a batch processed
calculation. If the user desires interactive response in this case, he can include the
command ON INT; in the file. Likewise, he can issue the command off int;
in the main program if he does not desire continual questioning from the system.
Regardless of the setting of INT, input commands from a file are not kept in the
system, and so cannot be edited using ED. However, many implementations of RE-
DUCE provide a link to an external system editor that can be used for such editing.
The specific instructions for the particular implementation should be consulted for
information on this.
Two commands are available in REDUCE for interactive use of files. PAUSE; may
be inserted at any point in an input file. When this command is encountered on
input, the system prints the message CONT? on the user’s terminal and halts. If the
user responds Y (for yes), the calculation continues from that point in the file. If the
user responds N (for no), control is returned to the terminal, and the user can input
further statements and commands. Later on he can use the command cont; to
transfer control back to the point in the file following the last PAUSE encountered.
A top-level pause; from the user’s terminal has no effect.
176 CHAPTER 13. COMMANDS FOR INTERACTIVE USE
Chapter 14

Matrix Calculations

A very powerful feature of REDUCE is the ease with which matrix calculations
can be performed. To extend our syntax to this class of calculations we need to
add another prefix operator, MAT, and a further variable and expression type as
follows:

14.1 MAT Operator

This prefix operator is used to represent n × m matrices. MAT has n arguments

interpreted as rows of the matrix, each of which is a list of m expressions repre-
senting elements in that row. For example, the matrix
 
a b c
d e f
would be written as mat((a,b,c),(d,e,f)).
Note that the single column matrix
 
x
y
becomes mat((x),(y)). The inside parentheses are required to distinguish it
from the single row matrix

x y
that would be written as mat((x,y)).

14.2 Matrix Variables

An identifier may be declared a matrix variable by the declaration MATRIX. The

size of the matrix may be declared explicitly in the matrix declaration, or by default

177
178 CHAPTER 14. MATRIX CALCULATIONS

in assigning such a variable to a matrix expression. For example,

matrix x(2,1),y(3,4),z;

declares X to be a 2 x 1 (column) matrix, Y to be a 3 x 4 matrix and Z a matrix

whose size is to be declared later.
Matrix declarations can appear anywhere in a program. Once a symbol is declared
to name a matrix, it can not also be used to name an array, operator or a procedure,
or used as an ordinary variable. It can however be redeclared to be a matrix, and
its size may be changed at that time. Note however that matrices once declared
are global in scope, and so can then be referenced anywhere in the program. In
other words, a declaration within a block (or a procedure) does not limit the scope
of the matrix to that block, nor does the matrix go away on exiting the block (use
CLEAR instead for this purpose). An element of a matrix is referred to in the
expected manner; thus x(1,1) gives the first element of the matrix X defined
above. References to elements of a matrix whose size has not yet been declared
leads to an error. All elements of a matrix whose size is declared are initialized to
0. As a result, a matrix element has an instant evaluation property and cannot stand
for itself. If this is required, then an operator should be used to name the matrix
elements as in:

matrix m; operator x; m := mat((x(1,1),x(1,2));

14.3 Matrix Expressions

These follow the normal rules of matrix algebra as defined by the following syntax:

hmatrix expressioni −→ MAThmatrix descriptioni | hmatrix variablei |

hscalar expressioni*hmatrix expressioni |
hmatrix expressioni*hmatrix expressioni |
hmatrix expressioni+hmatrix expressioni |
hmatrix expressioni^hintegeri |
hmatrix expressioni/hmatrix expressioni

Sums and products of matrix expressions must be of compatible size; otherwise an

error will result during their evaluation. Similarly, only square matrices may be
raised to a power. A negative power is computed as the inverse of the matrix raised
to the corresponding positive power. a/b is interpreted as a*b^(-1).
Examples:
Assuming X and Y have been declared as matrices, the following are matrix ex-
pressions
14.4. OPERATORS WITH MATRIX ARGUMENTS 179

y
y^2*x-3*y^(-2)*x
y + mat((1,a),(b,c))/2

The computation of the quotient of two matrices normally uses a two-step elimina-
tion method due to Bareiss. An alternative method using Cramer’s method is also
available. This is usually less efficient than the Bareiss method unless the matrices
are large and dense, although we have no solid statistics on this as yet. To use
Cramer’s method instead, the switch CRAMER should be turned on.

14.4 Operators with Matrix Arguments

The operator LENGTH applied to a matrix returns a list of the number of rows and
columns in the matrix. Other operators useful in matrix calculations are defined in
the following subsections. Attention is also drawn to the LINALG (section 16.37)
and NORMFORM (section 16.43) packages.

14.4.1 DET Operator

Syntax:

DET(EXPRN:matrix_expression):algebraic.

The operator DET is used to represent the determinant of a square matrix expres-
sion. E.g.,

det(y^2)

is a scalar expression whose value is the determinant of the square of the matrix Y,
and

det mat((a,b,c),(d,e,f),(g,h,j));

is a scalar expression whose value is the determinant of the matrix

 
a b c
 d e f 
g h j

Determinant expressions have the instant evaluation property. In other words, the
statement

let det mat((a,b),(c,d)) = 2;

180 CHAPTER 14. MATRIX CALCULATIONS

sets the value of the determinant to 2, and does not set up a rule for the determinant
itself.

14.4.2 MATEIGEN Operator

Syntax:

MATEIGEN(EXPRN:matrix_expression,ID):list.

MATEIGEN calculates the eigenvalue equation and the corresponding eigenvectors

of a matrix, using the variable ID to denote the eigenvalue. A square free decom-
position of the characteristic polynomial is carried out. The result is a list of lists
of 3 elements, where the first element is a square free factor of the characteristic
polynomial, the second its multiplicity and the third the corresponding eigenvector
(as an n by 1 matrix). If the square free decomposition was successful, the product
of the first elements in the lists is the minimal polynomial. In the case of degener-
acy, several eigenvectors can exist for the same eigenvalue, which manifests itself
in the appearance of more than one arbitrary variable in the eigenvector. To extract
the various parts of the result use the operations defined on lists.
Example: The command

mateigen(mat((2,-1,1),(0,1,1),(-1,1,1)),eta);

gives the output

{{ETA - 1,2,

[ARBCOMPLEX(1)]
[ ]
[ARBCOMPLEX(1)]
[ ]
[ 0 ]

},

{ETA - 2,1,

[ 0 ]
[ ]
[ARBCOMPLEX(2)]
[ ]
[ARBCOMPLEX(2)]
14.4. OPERATORS WITH MATRIX ARGUMENTS 181

}}

14.4.3 TP Operator

Syntax:

TP(EXPRN:matrix_expression):matrix.

This operator takes a single matrix argument and returns its transpose.

14.4.4 Trace Operator

Syntax:

TRACE(EXPRN:matrix_expression):algebraic.

The operator TRACE is used to represent the trace of a square matrix.

14.4.5 Matrix Cofactors

Syntax:

COFACTOR(EXPRN:matrix_expression,ROW:integer,COLUMN:integer):
algebraic

The operator COFACTOR returns the cofactor of the element in row ROW and col-
umn COLUMN of the matrix MATRIX. Errors occur if ROW or COLUMN do not
simplify to integer expressions or if MATRIX is not square.

14.4.6 NULLSPACE Operator

Syntax:

NULLSPACE(EXPRN:matrix_expression):list

NULLSPACE calculates for a matrix A a list of linear independent vectors (a basis)

whose linear combinations satisfy the equation Ax = 0. The basis is provided in a
form such that as many upper components as possible are isolated.
Note that with b := nullspace a the expression length b is the nullity of
A, and that second length a - length b calculates the rank of A. The
182 CHAPTER 14. MATRIX CALCULATIONS

rank of a matrix expression can also be found more directly by the RANK operator
described below.
Example: The command

nullspace mat((1,2,3,4),(5,6,7,8));

gives the output

{
[ 1 ]
[ ]
[ 0 ]
[ ]
[ - 3]
[ ]
[ 2 ]
,
[ 0 ]
[ ]
[ 1 ]
[ ]
[ - 2]
[ ]
[ 1 ]
}

In addition to the REDUCE matrix form, NULLSPACE accepts as input a matrix

given as a list of lists, that is interpreted as a row matrix. If that form of input
is chosen, the vectors in the result will be represented by lists as well. This addi-
tional input syntax facilitates the use of NULLSPACE in applications different from
classical linear algebra.

14.4.7 RANK Operator

Syntax:

RANK(EXPRN:matrix_expression):integer

RANK calculates the rank of its argument, that, like NULLSPACE can either be a
standard matrix expression, or a list of lists, that can be interpreted either as a row
matrix or a set of equations.
Example:
14.5. MATRIX ASSIGNMENTS 183

rank mat((a,b,c),(d,e,f));

returns the value 2.

14.5 Matrix Assignments

Matrix expressions may appear in the right-hand side of assignment statements. If

the left-hand side of the assignment, which must be a variable, has not already been
declared a matrix, it is declared by default to the size of the right-hand side. The
variable is then set to the value of the right-hand side.
Such an assignment may be used very conveniently to find the solution of a set of
linear equations. For example, to find the solution of the following set of equations

a11*x(1) + a12*x(2) = y1
a21*x(1) + a22*x(2) = y2

we simply write

x := 1/mat((a11,a12),(a21,a22))*mat((y1),(y2));

14.6 Evaluating Matrix Elements

Once an element of a matrix has been assigned, it may be referred to in standard

array element notation. Thus y(2,1) refers to the element in the second row and
first column of the matrix Y.
184 CHAPTER 14. MATRIX CALCULATIONS
Chapter 15

Procedures

It is often useful to name a statement for repeated use in calculations with varying
parameters, or to define a complete evaluation procedure for an operator. REDUCE
offers a procedural declaration for this purpose. Its general syntax is:

[hprocedural typei] PROCEDURE hnamei[hvarlisti];hstatementi;

where

hvarlisti −→ (hvariablei, . . . ,hvariablei)

This will be explained more fully in the following sections.

In the algebraic mode of REDUCE the hprocedural typei can be omitted, since the
default is ALGEBRAIC. Procedures of type INTEGER or REAL may also be used.
In the former case, the system checks that the value of the procedure is an integer.
At present, such checking is not done for a real procedure, although this will change
in the future when a more complete type checking mechanism is installed. Users
should therefore only use these types when appropriate. An empty variable list
may also be omitted.
All user-defined procedures are automatically declared to be operators.
In order to allow users relatively easy access to the whole REDUCE source pro-
gram, system procedures are not protected against user redefinition. If a procedure
is redefined, a message

*** <procedure name> REDEFINED

is printed. If this occurs, and the user is not redefining his own procedure, he is
well advised to rename it, and possibly start over (because he has already redefined
some internal procedure whose correct functioning may be required for his job!)

185
186 CHAPTER 15. PROCEDURES

All required procedures should be defined at the top level, since they have global
scope throughout a program. In particular, an attempt to define a procedure within
a procedure will cause an error to occur.

15.1 Procedure Heading

Each procedure has a heading consisting of the word PROCEDURE (optionally

preceded by the word ALGEBRAIC), followed by the name of the procedure to be
defined, and followed by its formal parameters – the symbols that will be used in
the body of the definition to illustrate what is to be done. There are three cases:

1. No parameters. Simply follow the procedure name with a terminator (semi-

colon or dollar sign).

procedure abc;

When such a procedure is used in an expression or command, abc(), with

empty parentheses, must be written.

2. One parameter. Enclose it in parentheses or just leave at least one space,

then follow with a terminator.

procedure abc(x);

or

procedure abc x;

3. More than one parameter. Enclose them in parentheses, separated by com-

mas, then follow with a terminator.

procedure abc(x,y,z);

Referring to the last example, if later in some expression being evaluated the sym-
bols abc(u,p*q,123) appear, the operations of the procedure body will be
carried out as if X had the same value as U does, Y the same value as p*q does,
and Z the value 123. The values of X, Y, Z, after the procedure body operations are
completed are unchanged. So, normally, are the values of U, P, Q, and (of course)
123. (This is technically referred to as call by value.)
The reader will have noted the word normally a few lines earlier. The call by value
protections can be bypassed if necessary, as described elsewhere.
15.2. PROCEDURE BODY 187

15.2 Procedure Body

Following the delimiter that ends the procedure heading must be a single statement
defining the action to be performed or the value to be delivered. A terminator must
follow the statement. If it is a semicolon, the name of the procedure just defined is
printed. It is not printed if a dollar sign is used.
If the result wanted is given by a formula of some kind, the body is just that for-
mula, using the variables in the procedure heading.
Simple Example:
If f(x) is to mean (x+5)*(x+6)/(x+7), the entire procedure definition could
read

procedure f x; (x+5)*(x+6)/(x+7);

Then f(10) would evaluate to 240/17, f(a-6) to A*(A-1)/(A+1), and so

on.
More Complicated Example:
Suppose we need a function p(n,x) that, for any positive integer N, is the Legen-
dre polynomial of order n. We can define this operator using the textbook formula
defining these functions:

1 dn 1 
pn (x) =

n! dy n (y 2 − 2xy + 1) 12 

y=0

Put into words, the Legendre polynomial pn (x) is the result of substituting y = 0
in the nth partial derivative with respect to y of a certain fraction involving x and
y, then dividing that by n!.
This verbal formula can easily be written in REDUCE:

procedure p(n,x);
sub(y=0,df(1/(y^2-2*x*y+1)^(1/2),y,n))
/(for i:=1:n product i);

Having input this definition, the expression evaluation

2p(2,w);

would result in the output

2
3*W - 1 .
188 CHAPTER 15. PROCEDURES

If the desired process is best described as a series of steps, then a group or com-
pound statement can be used.
Example:
The above Legendre polynomial example can be rewritten as a series of steps in-
stead of a single formula as follows:

procedure p(n,x);
begin scalar seed,deriv,top,fact;
seed:=1/(y^2 - 2*x*y +1)^(1/2);
deriv:=df(seed,y,n);
top:=sub(y=0,deriv);
fact:=for i:=1:n product i;
return top/fact
end;

Procedures may also be defined recursively. In other words, the procedure body can
include references to the procedure name itself, or to other procedures that them-
selves reference the given procedure. As an example, we can define the Legendre
polynomial through its standard recurrence relation:

procedure p(n,x);
if n<0 then rederr "Invalid argument to P(N,X)"
else if n=0 then 1
else if n=1 then x
else ((2*n-1)*x*p(n-1,x)-(n-1)*p(n-2,x))/n;

The operator REDERR in the above example provides for a simple error exit from
an algebraic procedure (and also a block). It can take a string as argument.
It should be noted however that all the above definitions of p(n,x) are quite
inefficient if extensive use is to be made of such polynomials, since each call ef-
fectively recomputes all lower order polynomials. It would be better to store these
expressions in an array, and then use say the recurrence relation to compute only
those polynomials that have not already been derived. We leave it as an exercise
for the reader to write such a definition.

15.3 Matrix-valued Procedures

Normally, procedures can only return scalar values. In order for a procedure to
return a matrix, it has to be declared of type MATRIXPROC:

matrixproc SkewSym1 (w);

15.4. USING LET INSIDE PROCEDURES 189

mat((0,-w(3,1),w(2,1)),
(w(3,1),0,-w(1,1)),
(-w(2,1), w(1,1), 0));

Following this declaration, the call to SkewSym1 can be used as a matrix, e.g.

X := SkewSym1(mat((qx),(qy),(qz)));

[ 0 - qz qy ]
[ ]
x := [ qz 0 - qx]
[ ]
[ - qy qx 0 ]

X * mat((rx),(ry),(rz));

[ qy*rz - qz*ry ]
[ ]
[ - qx*rz + qz*rx]
[ ]
[ qx*ry - qy*rx ]

15.4 Using LET Inside Procedures

By using LET instead of an assignment in the procedure body it is possible to

bypass the call-by-value protection. If X is a formal parameter or local variable
of the procedure (i.e. is in the heading or in a local declaration), and LET is used
instead of := to make an assignment to X, e.g.

let x = 123;

then it is the variable that is the value of X that is changed. This effect also occurs
with local variables defined in a block. If the value of X is not a variable, but a
more general expression, then it is that expression that is used on the left-hand side
of the LET statement. For example, if X had the value p*q, it is as if let p*q =
123 had been executed.
190 CHAPTER 15. PROCEDURES

15.5 LET Rules as Procedures

The LET statement offers an alternative syntax and semantics for procedure defi-
nition.
In place of

procedure abc(x,y,z); <procedure body>;

one can write

for all x,y,z let abc(x,y,z) = <procedure body>;

There are several differences to note.

If the procedure body contains an assignment to one of the formal parameters, e.g.

x := 123;

in the PROCEDURE case it is a variable holding a copy of the first actual argument
that is changed. The actual argument is not changed.
In the LET case, the actual argument is changed. Thus, if ABC is defined using
LET, and abc(u,v,w) is evaluated, the value of U changes to 123. That is, the
LET form of definition allows the user to bypass the protections that are enforced
by the call by value conventions of standard PROCEDURE definitions.
Example: We take our earlier FACTORIAL procedure and write it as a LET state-
ment.

for all n let factorial n =

begin scalar m,s;
m:=1; s:=n;
l1: if s=0 then return m;
m:=m*s;
s:=s-1;
go to l1
end;

The reader will notice that we introduced a new local variable, S, and set it equal
to N. The original form of the procedure contained the statement n:=n-1;. If the
user asked for the value of factorial(5) then N would correspond to, not just
have the value of, 5, and REDUCE would object to trying to execute the statement
5 := 5 − 1.
If PQR is a procedure with no parameters,
15.6. REMEMBER STATEMENT 191

procedure pqr;
<procedure body>;

it can be written as a LET statement quite simply:

let pqr = <procedure body>;

To call procedure PQR, if defined in the latter form, the empty parentheses would
not be used: use PQR not PQR() where a call on the procedure is needed.
The two notations for a procedure with no arguments can be combined. PQR can
be defined in the standard PROCEDURE form. Then a LET statement

let pqr = pqr();

would allow a user to use PQR instead of PQR() in calling the procedure.
A feature available with LET-defined procedures and not with procedures defined
in the standard way is the possibility of defining partial functions.

for all x such that numberp x let uvw(x)=<procedure body>;

Now UVW of an integer would be calculated as prescribed by the procedure body,

while UVW of a general argument, such as Z or p+q (assuming these evaluate to
themselves) would simply stay uvw(z) or uvw(p+q) as the case may be.

15.6 REMEMBER Statement

Setting the remember option for an algebraic procedure by

REMEMBER (PROCNAME:procedure);

saves all intermediate results of such procedure evaluations, including recursive

calls. Subsequent calls to the procedure can then be determined from the saved
results, and thus the number of evaluations (or the complexity) can be reduced.
This mode of evalation costs extra memory, of course. In addition, the procedure
must be free of side–effects.
The following examples show the effect of the remember statement on two well–
192 CHAPTER 15. PROCEDURES

known examples.

procedure H(n); % Hofstadter’s function

if numberp n then
<< cnn := cnn +1; % counts the calls
if n < 3 then 1 else H(n-H(n-1))+H(n-H(n-2))>>;

remember h;

<< cnn := 0; H(100); cnn>>;

100

% H has been called 100 times only.

procedure A(m,n); % Ackermann function

if m=0 then n+1 else

if n=0 then A(m-1,1) else
A(m-1,A(m,n-1));

remember a;

A(3,3);
Chapter 16

User Contributed Packages

The complete REDUCE system includes a number of packages contributed by

users that are provided as a service to the user community. Questions regarding
these packages should be directed to their individual authors.
All such packages have been precompiled as part of the installation process. How-
ever, many must be specifically loaded before they can be used. (Those that are
loaded automatically are so noted in their description.) You should also consult the
user notes for your particular implementation for further information on whether
this is necessary. If it is, the relevant command is LOAD_PACKAGE, which takes a
list of one or more package names as argument, for example:

load_package algint;

although this syntax may vary from implementation to implementation.

Nearly all these packages come with separate documentation and test files (except
those noted here that have no additional documentation), which is included, along
with the source of the package, in the REDUCE system distribution. These items
should be studied for any additional details on the use of a particular package.
The packages available in the current release of REDUCE are as follows:

193
194 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.1 ALGINT: Integration of square roots

This package, which is an extension of the basic integration package distributed

with REDUCE, will analytically integrate a wide range of expressions involving
square roots where the answer exists in that class of functions. It is an implemen-
tation of the work described in J.H. Davenport, “On the Integration of Algebraic
Functions", LNCS 102, Springer Verlag, 1981. Both this and the source code
should be consulted for a more detailed description of this work.
The ALGINT package is loaded automatically when the switch ALGINT is turned
on. One enters an expression for integration, as with the regular integrator, for
example:

int(sqrt(x+sqrt(x**2+1))/x,x);

If one later wishes to integrate expressions without using the facilities of this pack-
age, the switch ALGINT should be turned off.
The switches supported by the standard integrator (e.g., TRINT) are also sup-
ported by this package. In addition, the switch TRA, if on, will give further tracing
information about the specific functioning of the algebraic integrator.
There is no additional documentation for this package.
Author: James H. Davenport.
 195

16.2 APPLYSYM: Infinitesimal symmetries of differen-

tial equations

This package provides programs APPLYSYM, QUASILINPDE and DETRAFO

for applying infinitesimal symmetries of differential equations, the generalization
of special solutions and the calculation of symmetry and similarity variables.
Author: Thomas Wolf.
In this paper the programs APPLYSYM, QUASILINPDE and DETRAFO are de-
scribed which aim at the utilization of infinitesimal symmetries of differential
equations. The purpose of QUASILINPDE is the general solution of quasilinear
PDEs. This procedure is used by APPLYSYM for the application of point symme-
tries for either

• calculating similarity variables to perform a point transformation which low-

ers the order of an ODE or effectively reduces the number of explicitly oc-
curing independent variables in a PDE(-system) or for
• generalizing given special solutions of ODEs / PDEs with new constant pa-
rameters.

The program DETRAFO performs arbitrary point- and contact transformations of

ODEs / PDEs and is applied if similarity and symmetry variables have been found.
The program APPLYSYM is used in connection with the program LIEPDE for
formulating and solving the conditions for point- and contact symmetries which is
described in [4]. The actual problem solving is done in all these programs through
a call to the package CRACK for solving overdetermined PDE-systems.

16.2.1 Introduction and overview of the symmetry method

The investigation of infinitesimal symmetries of differential equations (DEs) with

computer algebra programs attrackted considerable attention over the last years.
Corresponding programs are available in all major computer algebra systems. In
a review article by W. Hereman [1] about 200 references are given, many of them
describing related software.
One reason for the popularity of the symmetry method is the fact that Sophus Lie’s
method [2],[3] is the most widely used method for computing exact solutions of
non-linear DEs. Another reason is that the first step in this method, the formulation
of the determining equation for the generators of the symmetries, can already be
very cumbersome, especially in the case of PDEs of higher order and/or in case of
many dependent and independent variables. Also, the formulation of the conditions
is a straight forward task involving only differentiations and basic algebra - an ideal
task for computer algebra systems. Less straight forward is the automatic solution
196 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

of the symmetry conditions which is the strength of the program LIEPDE (for a
comparison with another program see [4]).
The novelty described in this paper are programs aiming at the final third step:
Applying symmetries for

• calculating similarity variables to perform a point transformation which low-

ers the order of an ODE or effectively reduces the number of explicitly oc-
curing independent variables of a PDE(-system) or for

• generalizing given special solutions of ODEs/PDEs with new constant pa-

rameters.

Programs which run on their own but also allow interactive user control are indis-
pensible for these calculations. On one hand the calculations can become quite
lengthy, like variable transformations of PDEs (of higher order, with many vari-
ables). On the other hand the freedom of choosing the right linear combination
of symmetries and choosing the optimal new symmetry- and similarity variables
makes it necessary to ‘play’ with the problem interactively.
The focus in this paper is directed on questions of implementation and efficiency,
no principally new mathematics is presented.
In the following subsections a review of the first two steps of the symmetry method
is given as well as the third, i.e. the application step is outlined. Each of the re-
maining sections is devoted to one procedure.

The first step: Formulating the symmetry conditions

To obey classical Lie-symmetries, differential equations

HA = 0 (16.1)

for unknown functions y α , 1 ≤ α ≤ p of independent variables xi , 1 ≤ i ≤ q

must be forminvariant against infinitesimal transformations

x̃i = xi + εξ i , ỹ α = y α + εη α (16.2)

in first order of ε. To transform the equations (16.1) by (16.2), derivatives of y α

must be transformed, i.e. the part linear in ε must be determined. The correspond-
ing formulas are (see e.g. [10], [20])

ỹjα1 ...jk = yjα1 ...jk + εηjα1 ...jk + O(ε2 )

Dηjα1 ...jk−1 Dξ i
ηjα1 ...jk−1 jk = α
− yij1 ...jk−1
(16.3)
Dxk Dxk
 197

where D/Dxk means total differentiation w.r.t. xk and from now on lower latin
indices of functions y α , (and later uα ) denote partial differentiation w.r.t. the inde-
pendent variables xi , (and later v i ). The complete symmetry condition then takes
the form

XHA = 0 mod HA = 0 (16.4)

∂ ∂ α ∂ ∂ ∂
X = ξ i i + η α α + ηm α
α
+ ηmn α
α
+ . . . + ηmn...p α
.
(16.5)
∂x ∂y ∂ym ∂ymn ∂ymn...p
where mod HA = 0 means that the original PDE-system is used to replace some
partial derivatives of y α to reduce the number of independent variables, because
the symmetry condition (16.4) must be fulfilled identically in xi , y α and all partial
derivatives of y α .
For point symmetries, ξ i , η α are functions of xj , y β and for contact symmetries
they depend on xj , y β and ykβ . We restrict ourself to point symmetries as those are
the only ones that can be applied by the current version of the program APPLYSYM
(see below). For literature about generalized symmetries see [1].
Though the formulation of the symmetry conditions (16.4), (16.5), (16.3) is
straightforward and handled in principle by all related programs [1], the computa-
tional effort to formulate the conditions (16.4) may cause problems if the number
of xi and y α is high. This can partially be avoided if at first only a few condi-
tions are formulated and solved such that the remaining ones are much shorter and
quicker to formulate.
A first step in this direction is to investigate one PDE HA = 0 after another, as done
in [22]. Two methods to partition the conditions for a single PDE are described by
Bocharov/Bronstein [9] and Stephani [20].
In the first method only those terms of the symmetry condition XHA = 0 are
calculated which contain at least a derivative of y α of a minimal order m. Setting
coefficients of these u-derivatives to zero provides symmetry conditions. Lowering
the minimal order m successively then gradually provides all symmetry conditions.
The second method is even more selective. If HA is of order n then only terms of
the symmetry condition XHA = 0 are generated which contain n0 th order deriva-
tives of y α . Furthermore these derivatives must not occur in HA itself. They can
therefore occur in the symmetry condition (16.4) only in ηjα1 ...jn , i.e. in the terms

∂HA
ηjα1 ...jn .
∂yjα1 ...jn

If only coefficients of n0 th order derivatives of y α need to be accurate to formulate

preliminary conditions then from the total derivatives to be taken in (16.3) only
that part is performed which differentiates w.r.t. the highest y α -derivatives. This
means, for example, to form only ymnk α ∂/∂y α if the expression, which is to be
mn
differentiated totally w.r.t. x , contains at most second order derivatives of y α .
k
198 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The second method is applied in LIEPDE. Already the formulation of the remain-
ing conditions is speeded up considerably through this iteration process. These
methods can be applied if systems of DEs or single PDEs of at least second order
are investigated concerning symmetries.

The second step: Solving the symmetry conditions

The second step in applying the whole method consists in solving the determining
conditions (16.4), (16.5), (16.3) which are linear homogeneous PDEs for ξ i , η α .
The complete solution of this system is not algorithmic any more because the so-
lution of a general linear PDE-system is as difficult as the solution of its non-linear
characteristic ODE-system which is not covered by algorithms so far.
Still algorithms are used successfully to simplify the PDE-system by calculating
its standard normal form and by integrating exact PDEs if they turn up in this sim-
plification process [4]. One problem in this respect, for example, concerns the
optimization of the symbiosis of both algorithms. By that we mean the ranking of
priorities between integrating, adding integrability conditions and doing simplifi-
cations by substitutions - all depending on the length of expressions and the overall
structure of the PDE-system. Also the extension of the class of PDEs which can be
integrated exactly is a problem to be pursuit further.
The program LIEPDE which formulates the symmetry conditions calls the pro-
gram CRACK to solve them. This is done in a number of successive calls in order
to formulate and solve some first order PDEs of the overdetermined system first and
use their solution to formulate and solve the next subset of conditions as described
in the previous subsection. Also, LIEPDE can work on DEs that contain paramet-
ric constants and parametric functions. An ansatz for the symmetry generators can
be formulated. For more details see [4] or [17].
The procedure LIEPDE is called through
LIEPDE(problem,symtype,flist,inequ);
All parameters are lists.
The first parameter specifies the DEs to be investigated:
problem has the form {equations, ulist, xlist} where

equations is a list of equations, each has the form df(ui,..)=... where

the LHS (left hand side) df(ui,..) is selected such that
- The RHS (right h.s.) of an equations must not include
the derivative on the LHS nor a derivative of it.
- Neither the LHS nor any derivative of it of any equation
may occur in any other equation.
- Each of the unknown functions occurs on the LHS of
exactly one equation.
 199

ulist is a list of function names, which can be chosen freely

xlist is a list of variable names, which can be chosen freely

Equations can be given as a list of single differential expressions and then the
program will try to bring them into the ‘solved form’ df(ui,..)=... auto-
matically. If equations are given in the solved form then the above conditions are
checked and execution is stopped it they are not satisfied. An easy way to get the
equations in the desired form is to use
FIRST SOLVE({eq1,eq2,...},{one highest derivative for each function
u})
(see the example of the Karpman equations in LIEPDE.TST). The example of the
Burgers equation in LIEPDE.TST demonstrates that the number of symmetries
for a given maximal order of the infinitesimal generators depends on the derivative
chosen for the LHS.
The second parameter symtype of LIEPDE is a list { } that specifies the symmetry
to be calculated. symtype can have the following values and meanings:

{"point"} Point symmetries with ξ i = ξ i (xj , uβ ), η α = η α (xj , uβ ) are

determined.
{"contact"} Contact symmetries with ξ i = 0, η = η(xj , u, uk ) are
determined (uk = ∂u/∂xk ), which is only applicable if a
single equation (16.1) with an order > 1 for a single function
u is to be investigated. (The symtype {"contact"}
is equivalent to {"general",1} (see below) apart from
the additional checks done for {"contact"}.)
{"general",order} where order is an integer > 0. Generalized symmetries ξ i = 0,
η α = η α (xj , uβ , . . . , uβK ) of a specified order are determined
(where K is a multiple index representing order many indices.)
NOTE: Characteristic functions of generalized symmetries
(= η α if ξ i = 0) are equivalent if they are equal on
the solution manifold. Therefore, all dependences of
characteristic functions on the substituted derivatives
and their derivatives are dropped. For example, if the heat
equation is given as ut = uxx (i.e. ut is substituted by uxx )
then {"general",2} would not include characteristic
functions depending on utx or uxxx .
THEREFORE:
If you want to find all symmetries up to a given order then either
- avoid using HA = 0 to substitute lower order
derivatives by expressions involving higher derivatives, or
- increase the order specified in symtype.
For an illustration of this effect see the two symmetry
determinations of the Burgers equation in the file
200 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

LIEPDE.TST.
{xi!_x1 =...,...,
eta!_u1=...,...} It is possible to specify an ansatz for the symmetry. Such
an ansatz must specify all ξ i for all independent variables and
all η α for all dependent variables in terms of differential
expressions which may involve unknown functions/constants.
The dependences of the unknown functions have to be declared
in advance by using the DEPEND command. For example,
DEPEND f, t, x, u$
specifies f to be a function of t, x, u. If one wants to have f as
a function of derivatives of u(t, x), say f depending on utxx ,
then one cannot write
DEPEND f, df(u,t,x,2)$
but instead must write
DEPEND f, u!‘1!‘2!‘2$
assuming xlist has been specified as {t,x}. Because t is the
first variable and x is the second variable in xlist and u is
differentiated oncs wrt. t and twice wrt. x we therefore
use u!‘1!‘2!‘2. The character ! is the escape character
to allow special characters like ‘ to occur in an identifier.
For generalized symmetries one usually sets all ξ i = 0.
Then the η α are equal to the characteristic functions.

The third parameter flist of LIEPDE is a list { } that includes

• all parameters and functions in the equations which are to be determined

such that symmetries exist (if any such parameters/functions are specified in
flist then the symmetry conditions formulated in LIEPDE become non-linear
conditions which may be much harder for CRACK to solve with many cases
and subcases to be considered.)

• all unknown functions and constants in the ansatz xi!_.. and eta!_..
if that has been specified in symtype.

The fourth parameter inequ of LIEPDE is a list { } that includes all non-vanishing
expressions which represent inequalities for the functions in flist.
The result of LIEPDE is a list with 3 elements, each of which is a list:

{{con 1 , con 2 , . . .}, {xi_... = . . . , . . . , eta_... = . . . , . . .}, {flist}}.

The first list contains remaining unsolved symmetry conditions coni . It is the empty
list {} if all conditions have been solved. The second list gives the symmetry
generators, i.e. expressions for ξi and ηj . The last list contains all free constants
and functions occuring in the first and second list.
 201

The third step: Application of infinitesimal symmetries

If infinitesimal symmetries have been found then the program APPLYSYM can use
them for the following purposes:

1. Calculation of one symmetry variable and further similarity variables. After

transforming the DE(-system) to these variables, the symmetry variable will
not occur explicitly any more. For ODEs this has the consequence that their
order has effectively been reduced.

2. Generalization of a special solution by one or more constants of integration.

Both methods are described in the following section.

16.2.2 Applying symmetries with APPLYSYM

The first mode: Calculation of similarity and symmetry variables

In the following we assume that a symmetry generator X, given in (16.5), is known

such that ODE(s)/PDE(s) HA = 0 satisfy the symmetry condition (16.4). The aim
is to find new dependent functions uα = uα (xj , y β ) and new independent variables
v i = v i (xj , y β ), 1 ≤ α, β ≤ p, 1 ≤ i, j ≤ q such that the symmetry generator
X = ξ i (xj , y β )∂xi + η α (xj , y β )∂yα transforms to

X = ∂v1 . (16.6)

Inverting the above transformation to xi = xi (v j , uβ ), y α = y α (v j , uβ ) and setting

HA (xi (v j , uβ ), y α (v j , uβ ), . . .) = hA (v j , uβ , . . .) this means that

0 = XHA (xi , y α , yjβ , . . .) mod HA = 0

= XhA (v i , uα , uβj , . . .) mod hA = 0
= ∂v1 hA (v i , uα , uβj , . . .) mod hA = 0.

Consequently, the variable v 1 does not occur explicitly in hA . In the case of

an ODE(-system) (v 1 = v) the new equations 0 = hA (v, uα , duβ /dv, . . .) are
then of lower total order after the transformation z = z(u1 ) = du1 /dv with now
z, u2 , . . . up as unknown functions and u1 as independent variable.
The new form (16.6) of X leads directly to conditions for the symmetry variable
v 1 and the similarity variables v i |i6=1 , uα (all functions of xk , y γ ):

Xv 1 = 1 = ξ i (xk , y γ )∂xi v 1 + η α (xk , y γ )∂yα v 1 (16.7)

j β i k γ β α k γ β
Xv |j6=1 = Xu = 0 = ξ (x , y )∂xi u + η (x , y )∂yα u (16.8)
202 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The general solutions of (16.7), (16.8) involve free functions of p+q−1 arguments.
From the general solution of equation (16.8), p + q − 1 functionally independent
special solutions have to be selected (v 2 , . . . , v p and u1 , . . . , uq ), whereas from
(16.7) only one solution v 1 is needed. Together, the expressions for the symmetry
and similarity variables must define a non-singular transformation x, y → u, v.
Different special solutions selected at this stage will result in different resulting
DEs which are equivalent under point transformations but may look quite differ-
ently. A transformation that is more difficult than another one will in general only
complicate the new DE(s) compared with the simpler transformation. We therefore
seek the simplest possible special solutions of (16.7), (16.8). They also have to be
simple because the transformation has to be inverted to solve for the old variables
in order to do the transformations.
The following steps are performed in the corresponding mode of the program
APPLYSYM:

• The user is asked to specify a symmetry by selecting one symmetry from all
the known symmetries or by specifying a linear combination of them.
• Through a call of the procedure QUASILINPDE (described in a later sec-
tion) the two linear first order PDEs (16.7), (16.8) are investigated and, if
possible, solved.
• From the general solution of (16.7) 1 special solution is selected and from
(16.8) p + q − 1 special solutions are selected which should be as simple as
possible.
• The user is asked whether the symmetry variable should be one of the inde-
pendent variables (as it has been assumed so far) or one of the new functions
(then only derivatives of this function and not the function itself turn up in
the new DE(s)).
• Through a call of the procedure DETRAFO the transformation xi , y α →
v j , uβ of the DE(s) HA = 0 is finally done.
• The program returns to the starting menu.

The second mode: Generalization of special solutions

A second application of infinitesimal symmetries is the generalization of a known

special solution given in implicit form through 0 = F (xi , y α ). If one knows a
symmetry variable v 1 and similarity variables v r , uα , 2 ≤ r ≤ p then v 1 can
be shifted by a constant c because of ∂v1 HA = 0 and therefore the DEs 0 =
HA (v r , uα , uβj , . . .) are unaffected by the shift. Hence from

0 = F (xi , y α ) = F (xi (v j , uβ ), y α (v j , uβ )) = F̄ (v j , uβ )
 203

follows that
0 = F̄ (v 1 + c, v r , uβ ) = F̄ (v 1 (xi , y α ) + c, v r (xi , y α ), uβ (xi , y α ))
defines implicitly a generalized solution y α = y α (xi , c).
This generalization works only if ∂v1 F̄ 6= 0 and if F̄ does not already have a
constant additive to v 1 .
The method above needs to know xi = xi (uβ , v j ), y α = y α (uβ , v j ) and uα =
uα (xj , y β ), v α = v α (xj , y β ) which may be practically impossible. Better is, to
integrate xi , y α along X:
dx̄i dȳ α
= ξ i (x̄j (ε), ȳ β (ε)), = η α (x̄j (ε), ȳ β (ε)) (16.9)
dε dε
with initial values x̄i = xi , ȳ α = y α for ε = 0. (This ODE-system is the character-
istic system of (16.8).)
Knowing only the finite transformations
x̄i = x̄i (xj , y β , ε), ȳ α = ȳ α (xj , y β , ε) (16.10)
gives immediately the inverse transformation x̄i = x̄i (xj , y β , ε), ȳ α =
ȳ α (xj , y β , ε) just by ε → −ε and renaming xi , y α ↔ x̄i , ȳ α .
The special solution 0 = F (xi , y α ) is generalized by the new constant ε through
0 = F (xi , y α ) = F (xi (x̄j , ȳ β , ε), y α (x̄j , ȳ β , ε))
after dropping the ¯.
The steps performed in the corresponding mode of the program APPLYSYM show
features of both techniques:

• The user is asked to specify a symmetry by selecting one symmetry from all
the known symmetries or by specifying a linear combination of them.
• The special solution to be generalized and the name of the new constant have
to be put in.
• Through a call of the procedure QUASILINPDE, the PDE (16.7) is solved
which amounts to a solution of its characteristic ODE system (16.9) where
v 1 = ε.
• QUASILINPDE returns a list of constant expressions
ci = ci (xk , y β , ε), 1 ≤ i ≤ p + q (16.11)
which are solved for xj = xj (ci , ε), y α = y α (ci , ε) to obtain the general-
ized solution through
0 = F (xj , y α ) = F (xj (ci (xk , y β , 0), ε), y α (ci (xk , y β , 0), ε)).
204 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• The new solution is availabe for further generalizations w.r.t. other symme-
tries.

If one would like to generalize a given special solution with m new constants be-
cause m symmetries are known, then one could run the whole program m times,
each time with a different symmetry or one could run the program once with a lin-
ear combination of m symmetry generators which again is a symmetry generator.
Running the program once adds one constant but we have in addition m − 1 arbi-
trary constants in the linear combination of the symmetries, so m new constants are
added. Usually one will generalize the solution gradually to make solving (16.9)
gradually more difficult.

Syntax

The call of APPLYSYM is APPLYSYM({de, fun, var}, {sym, cons});

• de is a single DE or a list of DEs in the form of a vanishing expression or in

the form . . . = . . . .
• fun is the single function or the list of functions occuring in de.
• var is the single variable or the list of variables in de.
• sym is a linear combination of all symmetries, each with a different constant
coefficient, in form of a list of the ξ i and η α : {xi_. . . =. . . ,. . . ,eta_. . . =. . . ,. . . },
where the indices after ‘xi_’ are the variable names and after ‘eta_’ the func-
tion names.
• cons is the list of constants in sym, one constant for each symmetry.

The list that is the first argument of APPLYSYM is the same as the first argument of
LIEPDE and the second argument is the list that LIEPDE returns without its first
element (the unsolved conditions). An example is given below.
What APPLYSYM returns depends on the last performed modus. After modus 1
the return is
{{newde, newfun, newvar}, trafo}
where

• newde lists the transformed equation(s)

• newfun lists the new function name(s)
• newvar lists the new variable name(s)
• trafo lists the transformations xi = xi (v j , uβ ), y α = y α (v j , uβ )

After modus 2, APPLYSYM returns the generalized special solution.

 205

Example: A second order ODE

Weyl’s class of solutions of Einsteins field equations consists of axialsymmetric

time independent metrics of the form
h i
ds2 = e−2U e2k dρ2 + dz2 + ρ2 dϕ2 − e2U dt2 ,


(16.12)

where U and k are functions of ρ and z. If one is interested in generalizing these

solutions to have a time dependence then the resulting DEs can be transformed such
that one longer third order ODE for U results which contains only ρ derivatives
[23]. Because U appears not alone but only as derivative, a substitution

g = dU/dρ (16.13)

lowers the order and the introduction of a function

h = ρg − 1 (16.14)

simplifies the ODE to

0 = 3ρ2 h h00 − 5ρ2 h02 + 5ρ h h0 − 20ρ h3 h0 − 20 h4 + 16 h6 + 4 h2 . (16.15)

where 0 = d/dρ. Calling LIEPDE through

depend h,r;
prob:={{-20*h**4+16*h**6+3*r**2*h*df(h,r,2)+5*r*h*df(h,r)
-20*h**3*r*df(h,r)+4*h**2-5*r**2*df(h,r)**2},
{h}, {r}};
sym:=liepde(prob, {"point"},{},{});
end;

gives

3 2
sym := {{}, {xi_r= - c10*r - c11*r, eta_h=c10*h*r }, {c10,c11}}.

All conditions have been solved because the first element of sym is {}. The two
existing symmetries are therefore

− ρ3 ∂ρ + hρ2 ∂h and ρ∂ρ . (16.16)

Corresponding finite transformations can be calculated with APPLYSYM through

newde:=applysym(prob,rest sym);

The interactive session is given below with the user input following the prompt
‘Input:3:’ or following ‘?’. (Empty lines have been deleted.)
206 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Do you want to find similarity and symmetry variables (enter ‘1;’)

or generalize a special solution with new parameters (enter ‘2;’)
or exit the program (enter ‘;’)
Input:3: 1;

We enter ‘1;’ because we want to reduce dependencies by finding similarity vari-

ables and one symmetry variable and then doing the transformation such that the
symmetry variable does not explicitly occur in the DE.

---------------------- The 1. symmetry is:

3
xi_r= - r
2
eta_h=h*r
---------------------- The 2. symmetry is:
xi_r= - r
----------------------
Which single symmetry or linear combination of symmetries
do you want to apply?
Enter an expression with ‘sy_(i)’ for the i’th symmetry.
sy_(1);

We could have entered ‘sy_(2);’ or a combination of both as well with the calcula-
tion running then differently.

The symmetry to be applied in the following is

3 2
{xi_r= - r ,eta_h=h*r }
Enter the name of the new dependent variables:
Input:3: u;
Enter the name of the new independent variables:
Input:3: v;

This was the input part, now the real calculation starts.

The ODE/PDE (-system) under investigation is :

2 2 2 3
0 = 3*df(h,r,2)*h*r - 5*df(h,r) *r - 20*df(h,r)*h *r
6 4 2
+ 5*df(h,r)*h*r + 16*h - 20*h + 4*h
for the function(s) : h.
It will be looked for a new dependent variable u
and an independent variable v such that the transformed
de(-system) does not depend on u or v.
1. Determination of the similarity variable
2
The quasilinear PDE: 0 = r *(df(u_,h)*h - df(u_,r)*r).
The equivalent characteristic system:
3
 207

0= - df(u_,r)*r
2
0= - r *(df(h,r)*r + h)
for the functions: h(r) u_(r).

The PDE is equation (16.8).

The general solution of the PDE is given through

0 = ff(u_,h*r)
with arbitrary function ff(..).
A suggestion for this function ff provides:
0 = - h*r + u_
Do you like this choice? (Y or N)
?y

For the following calculation only a single special solution of the PDE is neces-
sary and this has to be specified from the general solution by choosing a special
function ff. (This function is called ff to prevent a clash with names of user
variables/functions.) In principle any choice of ff would work, if it defines a non-
singular coordinate transformation, i.e. here r must be a function of u_. If we have
q independent variables and p functions of them then ff has p + q arguments.
Because of the condition 0 =ff one has essentially the freedom of choosing a
function of p + q − 1 arguments freely. This freedom is also necessary to select
p + q − 1 different functions ff and to find as many functionally independent so-
lutions u_ which all become the new similarity variables. q of them become the
new functions uα and p − 1 of them the new variables v 2 , . . . , v p . Here we have
p = q = 1 (one single ODE).
Though the program could have done that alone, once the general solution ff(..)
is known, the user can interfere here to enter a simpler solution, if possible.

2. Determination of the symmetry variable

2 3
The quasilinear PDE: 0 = df(u_,h)*h*r - df(u_,r)*r - 1.
The equivalent characteristic system:
3
0=df(r,u_) + r
2
0=df(h,u_) - h*r
for the functions: r(u_) h(u_) .
New attempt with a different independent variable
The equivalent characteristic system:
2
0=df(u_,h)*h*r - 1
2
0=r *(df(r,h)*h + r)
for the functions: r(h) u_(h) .
The general solution of the PDE is given through
208 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2 2 2
- 2*h *r *u_ + h
0 = ff(h*r,--------------------)
2
with arbitrary function ff(..).
A suggestion for this function ff(..) yields:
2 2
h *( - 2*r *u_ + 1)
0 = ---------------------
2
Do you like this choice? (Y or N)
?y

Similar to above.

The suggested solution of the algebraic system which will

do the transformation is:
sqrt(v)*sqrt(2)
{h=sqrt(v)*sqrt(2)*u,r=-----------------}
2*v
Is the solution ok? (Y or N)
?y
In the intended transformation shown above the dependent
variable is u and the independent variable is v.
The symmetry variable is v, i.e. the transformed expression
will be free of v.
Is this selection of dependent and independent variables ok? (Y or N)
?n

We so far assumed that the symmetry variable is one of the new variables, but,
of course we also could choose it to be one of the new functions. If it is one
of the functions then only derivatives of this function occur in the new DE, not
the function itself. If it is one of the variables then this variable will not occur
explicitly.
In our case we prefer (without strong reason) to have the function as symmetry vari-
able. We therefore answered with ‘no’. As a consequence, u and v will exchange
names such that still all new functions have the name u and the new variables have
name v:

Please enter a list of substitutions. For example, to

make the variable, which is so far call u1, to an
independent variable v2 and the variable, which is
so far called v2, to an dependent variable u1,
enter: ‘{u1=v2, v2=u1};’
Input:3: {u=v,v=u};

The transformed equation which should be free of u:

3 6 2 3
 209

0=3*df(u,v,2)*v - 16*df(u,v) *v - 20*df(u,v) *v + 5*df(u,v)

Do you want to find similarity and symmetry variables (enter ‘1;’)
or generalize a special solution with new parameters (enter ‘2;’)
or exit the program (enter ‘;’)
Input:3: ;

We stop here. The following is returned from our APPLYSYM call:

3 6 2 3
{{{3*df(u,v,2)*v - 16*df(u,v) *v - 20*df(u,v) *v + 5*df(u,v)},
{u},
{v}},
sqrt(u)*sqrt(2)
{r=-----------------, h=sqrt(u)*sqrt(2)*v }}
2*u

The use of APPLYSYM effectively provided us the finite transformation

ρ = (2 u)−1/2 , h = (2 u)1/2 v. (16.17)

and the new ODE

0 = 3u00 v − 16u03 v 6 − 20u02 v 3 + 5u0 (16.18)
where u = u(v) and 0 = d/dv. Using one symmetry we reduced the 2. order ODE (16.15)
to a first order ODE (16.18) for u0 plus one integration. The second symmetry can be used
to reduce the remaining ODE to an integration too by introducing a variable w through
v 3 d/dv = d/dw, i.e. w = −1/(2v 2 ). With

p = du/dw (16.19)

the remaining ODE is

dp
0 = 3w + 2 p (p + 1)(4 p + 1)
dw
with solution
p3 (p + 1)
c̃w−2 /4 = c̃v 4 = , c̃ = const.
(4 p + 1)4
Writing (16.19) as p = v 3 (du/dp)/(dv/dp) we get u by integration and with (16.17)
further a parametric solution for ρ, h:
−1/2
3c21 (2p − 1)

ρ = + c2 (16.20)
p1/2 (p + 1)1/2
(c2 p1/2 (p + 1)1/2 + 6c21 p − 3c21 )1/2 p1/2
h = (16.21)
c1 (4p + 1)

where c1 , c2 = const. and c1 = c̃1/4 . Finally, the metric function U (p) is obtained as an
integral from (16.13),(16.14).
210 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Limitations of APPLYSYM

Restrictions of the applicability of the program APPLYSYM result from limitations of the
program QUASILINPDE described in a section below. Essentially this means that sym-
metry generators may only be polynomially non-linear in xi , y α . Though even then the
solvability can not be guaranteed, the generators of Lie-symmetries are mostly very simple
such that the resulting PDE (16.22) and the corresponding characteristic ODE-system have
good chances to be solvable.
Apart from these limitations implied through the solution of differential equations with
CRACK and algebraic equations with SOLVE the program APPLYSYM itself is free
of restrictions, i.e. if once new versions of CRACK, SOLVE would be available then
APPLYSYM would not have to be changed.
Currently, whenever a computational step could not be performed the user is informed and
has the possibility of entering interactively the solution of the unsolved algebraic system
or the unsolved linear PDE.

16.2.3 Solving quasilinear PDEs

The content of QUASILINPDE

The generalization of special solutions of DEs as well as the computation of similarity

and symmetry variables involve the general solution of single first order linear PDEs. The
procedure QUASILINPDE is a general procedure aiming at the general solution of PDEs
a1 (wi , φ)φw1 + a2 (wi , φ)φw2 + . . . + an (wi , φ)φwn = b(wi , φ) (16.22)
in n independent variables wi , i = 1 . . . n for one unknown function φ = φ(wi ).

1. The first step in solving a quasilinear PDE (16.22) is the formulation of the corre-
sponding characteristic ODE-system
dwi
= ai (wj , φ) (16.23)
dε
dφ
= b(wj , φ) (16.24)
dε
for φ, wi regarded now as functions of one variable ε.
Because the ai and b do not depend explicitly on ε, one of the equations
(16.23),(16.24) with non-vanishing right hand side can be used to divide all others
through it and by that having a system with one less ODE to solve. If the equation
to divide through is one of (16.23) then the remaining system would be
dwi ai
= , i = 1, 2, . . . k − 1, k + 1, . . . n (16.25)
dwk ak
dφ b
= (16.26)
dwk ak
with the independent variable wk instead of ε. If instead we divide through equation
(16.24) then the remaining system would be
dwi ai
= , i = 1, 2, . . . n (16.27)
dφ b
 211

with the independent variable φ instead of ε.

The equation to divide through is chosen by a subroutine with a heuristic to find the
“simplest” non-zero right hand side (ak or b), i.e. one which
• is constant or
• depends only on one variable or
• is a product of factors, each of which depends only on one variable.
One purpose of this division is to reduce the number of ODEs by one. Secondly,
the general solution of (16.23), (16.24) involves an additive constant to ε which is
not relevant and would have to be set to zero. By dividing through one ODE we
eliminate ε and lose the problem of identifying this constant in the general solution
before we would have to set it to zero.
2. To solve the system (16.25), (16.26) or (16.27), the procedure CRACK is called. Al-
though being designed primarily for the solution of overdetermined PDE-systems,
CRACK can also be used to solve simple not overdetermined ODE-systems. This
solution process is not completely algorithmic. Improved versions of CRACK could
be used, without making any changes of QUASILINPDE necessary.
If the characteristic ODE-system can not be solved in the form (16.25), (16.26) or
(16.27) then successively all other ODEs of (16.23), (16.24) with non-vanishing
right hand side are used for division until one is found such that the resulting
ODE-system can be solved completely. Otherwise the PDE can not be solved by
QUASILINPDE.
3. If the characteristic ODE-system (16.23), (16.24) has been integrated completely
and in full generality to the implicit solution

0 = Gi (φ, wj , ck , ε), i, k = 1, . . . , n + 1, j = 1, . . . , n (16.28)

then according to the general theory for solving first order PDEs, ε has to be elim-
inated from one of the equations and to be substituted in the others to have left n
equations. Also the constant that turns up additively to ε is to be set to zero. Both
tasks are automatically fulfilled, if, as described above, ε is already eliminated from
the beginning by dividing all equations of (16.23), (16.24) through one of them.
On either way one ends up with n equations

0 = gi (φ, wj , ck ), i, j, k = 1 . . . n (16.29)

involving n constants ck .
The final step is to solve (16.29) for the ci to obtain

ci = ci (φ, w1 , . . . , wn ) i = 1, . . . n. (16.30)

The final solution φ = φ(wi ) of the PDE (16.22) is then given implicitly through

0 = F (c1 (φ, wi ), c2 (φ, wi ), . . . , cn (φ, wi ))

where F is an arbitrary function with n arguments.

212 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Syntax

The call of QUASILINPDE is

QUASILINPDE(de, fun, varlist);

• de is the differential expression which vanishes due to the PDE de = 0 or, de may
be the differential equation itself in the form . . . = . . . .
• fun is the unknown function.
• varlist is the list of variables of fun.

The result of QUASILINPDE is a list of general solutions

{sol 1 , sol 2 , . . .}.
If QUASILINPDE can not solve the PDE then it returns {}. Each solution sol i is a list of
expressions
{ex 1 , ex 2 , . . .}
such that the dependent function (φ in (16.22)) is determined implicitly through an arbitrary
function F and the algebraic equation
0 = F (ex 1 , ex 2 , . . .).

Examples

Example 1:
To solve the quasilinear first order PDE
1 = xu,x +uu,y −zu,z
for the function u = u(x, y, z), the input would be

depend u,x,y,z;
de:=x*df(u,x)+u*df(u,y)-z*df(u,z) - 1;
varlist:={x,y,z};
QUASILINPDE(de,u,varlist);

In this example the procedure returns

{{x/eu , zeu , u2 − 2y}},
i.e. there is one general solution (because the outer list has only one element which
itself is a list) and u is given implicitly through the algebraic equation
0 = F (x/eu , zeu , u2 − 2y)
with arbitrary function F.
Example 2:
For the linear inhomogeneous PDE
0 = yz,x +xz,y −1, for z = z(x, y)
 213

QUASILINPDE returns the result that for an arbitrary function F, the equation
 
x+y z
0=F , e (x − y)
ez
defines the general solution for z.
Example 3:
For the linear inhomogeneous PDE (3.8) from [15]

0 = xw,x +(y + z)(w,y −w,z ), for w = w(x, y, z)

QUASILINPDE returns the result that for an arbitrary function F, the equation

0 = F (w, y + z, ln(x)(y + z) − y)

defines the general solution for w, i.e. for any function f

w = f (y + z, ln(x)(y + z) − y)

solves the PDE.

Limitations of QUASILINPDE

One restriction on the applicability of QUASILINPDE results from the program

CRACK which tries to solve the characteristic ODE-system of the PDE. So far
CRACK can be applied only to polynomially non-linear DE’s, i.e. the characteristic
ODE-system (16.25),(16.26) or (16.27) may only be polynomially non-linear, i.e.
in the PDE (16.22) the expressions ai and b may only be rational in wj , φ.
The task of CRACK is simplified as (16.28) does not have to be solved for wj , φ. On
the other hand (16.28) has to be solved for the ci . This gives a second restriction
coming from the REDUCE function SOLVE. Though SOLVE can be applied to
polynomial and transzendential equations, again no guarantee for solvability can
be given.

16.2.4 Transformation of DEs

The content of DETRAFO

Finally, after having found the finite transformations, the program APPLYSYM calls
the procedure DETRAFO to perform the transformations. DETRAFO can also be
used alone to do point- or higher order transformations which involve a consid-
erable computational effort if the differential order of the expression to be trans-
formed is high and if many dependent and independent variables are involved. This
might be especially useful if one wants to experiment and try out different coordi-
nate transformations interactively, using DETRAFO as standalone procedure.
214 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

To run DETRAFO, the old functions y α and old variables xi must be known explic-
itly in terms of algebraic or differential expressions of the new functions uβ and
new variables v j . Then for point transformations the identity
 
dy α = y α ,vi +y α ,uβ uβ ,vi dv i (16.31)
= y α ,xj dxj (16.32)
 
= y α ,xj xj ,vi +xj ,uβ uβ ,vi dv i (16.33)

provides the transformation

−1
dy α dxj

α
y ,xj = · (16.34)
dv i dv i

with det dxj /dv i 6= 0 because of the regularity of the transformation which is

checked by DETRAFO. Non-regular transformations are not performed.

DETRAFO is not restricted to point transformations. In the case of contact- or
higher order transformations, the total derivatives dy α /dv i and dxj /dv i then only
include all v i − derivatives of uβ which occur in

y α = y α (v i , uβ , uβ ,vj , . . .)
xk = xk (v i , uβ , uβ ,vj , . . .).

Syntax

The call of DETRAFO is

DETRAFO({ex1 , ex2 , . . . , exm },

{ofun1 =fex1 , ofun2 =fex2 , . . . ,ofunp =fexp },
{ovar1 =vex1 , ovar2 =vex2 , . . . , ovarq =vexq },
{nfun1 , nfun2 , . . . , nfunp },
{nvar1 , nvar2 , . . . , nvarq });

where m, p, q are arbitrary.

• The exi are differential expressions to be transformed.

• The second list is the list of old functions ofun expressed as expressions fex
in terms of new functions nfun and new independent variables nvar.

• Similarly the third list expresses the old independent variables ovar as ex-
pressions vex in terms of new functions nfun and new independent variables
nvar.
 215

• The last two lists include the new functions nfun and new independent vari-
ables nvar.

Names for ofun, ovar, nfun and nvar can be arbitrarily chosen.
As the result DETRAFO returns the first argument of its input, i.e. the list

{ex 1 , ex 2 , . . . , ex m }

where all ex i are transformed.

Limitations of DETRAFO

The only requirement is that the old independent variables xi and old functions
y α must be given explicitly in terms of new variables v j and new functions uβ
as indicated in the syntax. Then all calculations involve only differentiations and
basic algebra.

Bibliography

[1] W. Hereman, Chapter 13 in vol 3 of the CRC Handbook of Lie Group Anal-
ysis of Differential Equations, Ed.: N.H. Ibragimov, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
Florida (1995). Systems described in this paper are among others:
DELiA (Alexei Bocharov et.al.) Pascal
DIFFGROB2 (Liz Mansfield) Maple
DIMSYM (James Sherring and Geoff Prince) REDUCE
HSYM (Vladimir Gerdt) Reduce
LIE (V. Eliseev, R.N. Fedorova and V.V. Kornyak) Reduce
LIE (Alan Head) muMath
Lie (Gerd Baumann) Mathematica
LIEDF/INFSYM (Peter Gragert and Paul Kersten) Reduce
Liesymm (John Carminati, John Devitt and Greg Fee) Maple
MathSym (Scott Herod) Mathematica
NUSY (Clara Nucci) Reduce
PDELIE (Peter Vafeades) Macsyma
SPDE (Fritz Schwarz) Reduce and Axiom
SYM_DE (Stanly Steinberg) Macsyma
Symmgroup.c (Dominique Berube and Marc de Montigny) Mathematica
STANDARD FORM (Gregory Reid and Alan Wittkopf) Maple
SYMCAL (Gregory Reid) Macsyma and Maple
SYMMGRP.MAX (Benoit Champagne, Willy Hereman and Pavel Winter-
nitz) Macsyma
LIE package (Khai Vu) Maple
216 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Toolbox for symmetries (Mark Hickman) Maple

Lie symmetries (Jeffrey Ondich and Nick Coult) Mathematica.
[2] S. Lie, Sophus Lie’s 1880 Transformation Group Paper, Translated by M.
Ackerman, comments by R. Hermann, Mathematical Sciences Press, Brook-
line, (1975).
[3] S. Lie, Differentialgleichungen, Chelsea Publishing Company, New York,
(1967).
[4] T. Wolf, An efficiency improved program LIEPDE for determining Lie - sym-
metries of PDEs, Proceedings of the workshop on Modern group theory meth-
ods in Acireale (Sicily) Nov. (1992)
[5] C. Riquier, Les systèmes d’équations aux dérivées partielles, Gauthier–
Villars, Paris (1910).
[6] J. Thomas, Differential Systems, AMS, Colloquium publications, v. 21,
N.Y. (1937).
[7] M. Janet, Leçons sur les systèmes d’équations aux dérivées, Gauthier–Villars,
Paris (1929).
[8] V.L. Topunov, Reducing Systems of Linear Differential Equations to a Passive
Form, Acta Appl. Math. 16 (1989) 191–206.
[9] A.V. Bocharov and M.L. Bronstein, Efficiently Implementing Two Methods
of the Geometrical Theory of Differential Equations: An Experience in Al-
gorithm and Software Design, Acta. Appl. Math. 16 (1989) 143–166.
[10] P.J. Olver, Applications of Lie Groups to Differential Equations, Springer-
Verlag New York (1986).
[11] G.J. Reid, A triangularization algorithm which determines the Lie symmetry
algebra of any system of PDEs, J.Phys. A: Math. Gen. 23 (1990) L853-L859.
[12] F. Schwarz, Automatically Determining Symmetries of Partial Differential
Equations, Computing 34, (1985) 91-106.
[13] W.I. Fushchich and V.V. Kornyak, Computer Algebra Application for De-
termining Lie and Lie–Bäcklund Symmetries of Differential Equations,
J. Symb. Comp. 7 (1989) 611–619.
[14] E. Kamke, Differentialgleichungen, Lösungsmethoden und Lösungen, Band
1, Gewöhnliche Differentialgleichungen, Chelsea Publishing Company, New
York, 1959.
[15] E. Kamke, Differentialgleichungen, Lösungsmethoden und Lösungen, Band
2, Partielle Differentialgleichungen, 6.Aufl., Teubner, Stuttgart:Teubner,
1979.
 217

[16] T. Wolf, An Analytic Algorithm for Decoupling and Integrating systems of

Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations, J. Comp. Phys., no. 3, 60 (1985)
437-446 and, Zur analytischen Untersuchung und exakten Lösung von Dif-
ferentialgleichungen mit Computeralgebrasystemen, Dissertation B, Jena
(1989).

[17] T. Wolf, A. Brand, The Computer Algebra Package CRACK for Investigating
PDEs, Manual for the package CRACK in the REDUCE network library and
in Proceedings of ERCIM School on Partial Differential Equations and Group
Theory, April 1992 in Bonn, GMD Bonn.

[18] M.A.H. MacCallum, F.J. Wright, Algebraic Computing with REDUCE,

Clarendon Press, Oxford (1991).

[19] M.A.H. MacCallum, An Ordinary Differential Equation Solver for RE-

DUCE, Proc. ISAAC’88, Springer Lect. Notes in Comp Sci. 358, 196–205.

[20] H. Stephani, Differential equations, Their solution using symmetries, Cam-

bridge University Press (1989).

[21] V.I. Karpman, Phys. Lett. A 136, 216 (1989)

[22] B. Champagne, W. Hereman and P. Winternitz, The computer calcula-

tion of Lie point symmetries of large systems of differential equations,
Comp. Phys. Comm. 66, 319-340 (1991)

[23] M. Kubitza, private communication

218 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.3 ARNUM: An algebraic number package

This package provides facilities for handling algebraic numbers as polynomial co-
efficients in REDUCE calculations. It includes facilities for introducing indetermi-
nates to represent algebraic numbers, for calculating splitting fields, and for factor-
ing and finding greatest common divisors in such domains.
Author: Eberhard Schrüfer.
Algebraic numbers are the solutions of an irreducible polynomial over some
ground domain. The algebraic number i (imaginary unit), for example, would
be defined by the polynomial i2 + 1. The arithmetic of algebraic number s can be
viewed as a polynomial arithmetic modulo the defining polynomial.
Given a defining polynomial for an algebraic number a
an + pn−1 an−1 + ... + p0

All algebraic numbers which can be built up from a are then of the form:
rn−1 an−1 + rn−2 an−2 + ... + r0
where the rj ’s are rational numbers.
The operation of addition is defined by
(rn−1 an−1 + rn−2 an−2 + ...) + (sn−1 an−1 + sn−2 an−2 + ...) =
(rn−1 + sn−1 )an−1 + (rn−2 + sn−2 )an−2 + ...

Multiplication of two algebraic numbers can be performed by normal polynomial

multiplication followed by a reduction of the result with the help of the defining
polynomial.

(rn−1 an−1 + rn−2 an−2 + ...) × (sn−1 an−1 + sn−2 an−2 + ...) =
rn−1 sn−1 a2n−2 + ... modulo an + pn−1 an−1 + ... + p0
= qn−1 an−1 + qn−2 an−2 + ...

Division of two algebraic numbers r and s yields another algebraic number q.

r
s = q or r = qs.
The last equation written out explicitly reads

(rn−1 an−1 + rn−2 an−2 + . . .)

= (qn−1 an−1 + qn−2 an−2 + . . .) × (sn−1 an−1 + sn−2 an−2 + . . .)
modulo(an + pn−1 an−1 + . . .)
= (tn−1 an−1 + tn−2 an−2 + . . .)
 219

The ti are linear in the qj . Equating equal powers of a yields a linear system for
the quotient coefficients qj .
With this, all field operations for the algebraic numbers are available. The transla-
tion into algorithms is straightforward. For an implementation we have to decide
on a data structure for an algebraic number. We have chosen the representation
REDUCE normally uses for polynomials, the so-called standard form. Since our
polynomials have in general rational coefficients, we must allow for a rational num-
ber domain inside the algebraic number.

< algebraic number > ::=

:ar: . < univariate polynomial over the rationals >
< univariate polynomial over the rationals > ::=
< variable > .** < ldeg > .* < rational > .+ < reductum >
< ldeg > ::= integer

< rational > ::=

:rn: . < integer numerator > . < integer denominator > : integer
< reductum > ::= < univariate polynomial > : < rational > : nil

This representation allows us to use the REDUCE functions for adding and multi-
plying polynomials on the tail of the tagged algebraic number. Also, the routines
for solving linear equations can easily be used for the calculation of quotients.
We are still left with the problem of introducing a particular algebraic number. In
the current version this is done by giving the defining polynomial to the statement
defpoly. The algebraic number sqrt(2), for example, can be introduced by

defpoly sqrt2**2 - 2;

This statement associates a simplification function for the translation of the vari-
able in the defining polynomial into its tagged internal form and also generates a
power reduction rule used by the operations times and quotient for the reduction
of their result modulo the defining polynomial. A basis for the representation of
an algebraic number is also set up by the statement. In the working version, the
basis is a list of powers of the indeterminate of the defining polynomial up to one
less then its degree. Experiments with integral bases, however, have been very
encouraging, and these bases might be available in a later version. If the defining
polynomial is not monic, it will be made so by an appropriate substitution.
Example 1

defpoly sqrt2**2-2;
220 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1/(sqrt2+1);

sqrt2 - 1

(x**2+2*sqrt2*x+2)/(x+sqrt2);

x + sqrt2

on gcd;

(x**3+(sqrt2-2)*x**2-(2*sqrt2+3)*x-3*sqrt2)/(x**2-2);

2
(x - 2*x - 3)/(x - sqrt2)

off gcd;

sqrt(x**2-2*sqrt2*x*y+2*y**2);

abs(x - sqrt2*y)

Until now we have dealt with only a single algebraic number. In practice this is not
sufficient as very often several algebraic numbers appear in an expression. There
are two possibilities for handling this: one can use multivariate extensions [2] or
one can construct a defining polynomial that contains all specified extensions. This
package implements the latter case (the so called primitive representation). The
algorithm we use for the construction of the primitive element is the same as given
by Trager [3]. In the implementation, multiple extensions can be given as a list
of equations to the statement defpoly, which, among other things, adds the new
extension to the previously defined one. All algebraic numbers are then expressed
in terms of the primitive element.
Example 2

defpoly sqrt2**2-2,cbrt5**3-5;

*** defining polynomial for primitive element:

6 4 3 2
a1 - 6*a1 - 10*a1 + 12*a1 - 60*a1 + 17

sqrt2;

5 4 3 2
 221

48/1187*a1 + 45/1187*a1 - 320/1187*a1 - 780/1187*a1 +

735/1187*a1 - 1820/1187

sqrt2**2;

2
222 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

We can provide factorization of polynomials over the algebraic number domain by

using Trager’s algorithm. The polynomial to be factored is first mapped to a poly-
nomial over the integers by computing the norm of the polynomial, which is the
resultant with respect to the primitive element of the polynomial and the defining
polynomial. After factoring over the integers, the factors over the algebraic number
field are recovered by GCD calculations.
Example 3

defpoly a**2-5;

on factor;

x**2 + x - 1;

(x + (1/2*a + 1/2))*(x - (1/2*a - 1/2))

We have also incorporated a function split_field for the calculation of a primitive

element of minimal degree for which a given polynomial splits into linear factors.
The algorithm as described in Trager’s article is essentially a repeated primitive
element calculation.
Example 4

split_field(x**3-3*x+7);

*** Splitting field is generated by:

6 4 2
a2 - 18*a2 + 81*a2 + 1215

4 2
{1/126*a2 - 5/42*a2 - 1/2*a2 + 2/7,

4 2
- (1/63*a2 - 5/21*a2 + 4/7),

4 2
1/126*a2 - 5/42*a2 + 1/2*a2 + 2/7}
 223

for each j in ws product (x-j);

3
x - 3*x + 7

A more complete description can be found in [1].

Bibliography

[1] R. J. Bradford, A. C. Hearn, J. A. Padget, and E. Schrüfer. Enlarging the

REDUCE domain of computation. In Proceedings of SYMSAC ’86, pages
100–106, 1986.

[2] James Harold Davenport. On the integration of algebraic functions. In Lecture

Notes in Computer Science, volume 102. Springer Verlag, 1981.

[3] B. M. Trager. Algebraic factoring and rational function integration. In Pro-

ceedings of SYMSAC ’76, pages 196–208, 1976.
224 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.4 ASSERT: Dynamic Verification of Assertions on Func-

tion Types

ASSERT admits to add to symbolic mode RLISP code assertions (partly) specify-
ing types of the arguments and results of RLISP expr procedures. These types can
be associated with functions testing the validity of the respective arguments during
runtime.
Author: Thomas Sturm.

16.4.1 Loading and Using

The package is loaded using load_package or load!-package in algebraic

or symbolic mode, resp. There is a central switch assert, which is off by default.
With assert off, all type definitions and assertions described in the sequel are
ignored and have the status of comments. For verification of the assertions it most
be turned on (dynamically) before the first relevant type definition or assertion.
ASSERT aims at the dynamic analysis of RLISP expr procedure in symbolic mode.
All uses of typedef and assert discussed in the following have to take place
in symbolic mode. There is, in contrast, a final print routine assert_analyze
that is available in both symbolic and algebraic mode.

16.4.2 Type Definitions

Here are some examples for definitions of types:

typedef any;
typedef number checked by numberp;
typedef sf checked by sfpx;
typedef sq checked by sqp;

The first one defines a type any, which is not possibly checked by any function.
This is useful, e.g., for functions which admit any argument at one position but at
others rely on certain types or guarantee certain result types, e.g.,

procedure cellcnt(a);
% a is any, returns a number.
if not pairp a then 0 else cellcnt car a + cellcnt cdr a + 1;

The other ones define a type number, which can be checked by the RLISP func-
tion numberp, a type sf for standard forms, which can be checked by the function
sfpx provided by ASSERT, and similarly a type for standard quotients.
 225

All type checking functions take one argument and return extended Boolean, i.e.,
non-nil iff their argument is of the corresponding type.

16.4.3 Assertions

Having defined types, we can formulate assertions on expr procedures in terms of

these types:

assert cellcnt: (any) -> number;

assert addsq: (sq,sq) -> sq;

Note that on the argument side parenthesis are mandatory also with only one argu-
ment. This notation is inspired by Haskell but avoids the intuition of currying.1
Assertions can be dynamically checked only for expr procedures. When making
assertions for other types of procedures, a warning is issued and the assertion has
the status of a comment.
It is important that assertions via assert come after the definitions of the used types
via typedef and also after the definition of the procedures they make assertions
on.
A natural order for adding type definitions and assertions to the source code files
would be to have all typedefs at the beginning of a module and assertions immedi-
ately after the respective functions. Fig. 16.1 illustrates this. Note that for dynamic
checking of the assertions the switch assert has to be on during the translation
of the module; i.e., either when reading it with in or during compilation. For com-
pilation this can be achieved by commenting in the on assert at the beginning
or by parameterizing the Lisp-specific compilation scripts in a suitable way.
An alternative option is to have type definitions and assertions for specific packages
right after load_package in batch files as illustrated in Fig. 16.2.

16.4.4 Dynamic Checking of Assertions

Recall that with the switch assert off at translation time, all type definitions and
assertions have the status of comments. We are now going to discuss how these
statements are processed with assert on.
typedef marks the type identifier as a valid type and possibly associates the given
typechecking function with it. Technically, the property list of the type identifier is
used for both purposes.
assert encapsulates the procedure that it asserts on into another one, which
1
This notation has benn suggested by C. Zengler
226 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

module sizetools;

load!-package ’assert;

% on assert;

typedef any;
typedef number checked by number;

procedure cellcnt(a);
% a is any, returns a number.
if not pairp a then 0 else cellcnt car a + cellcnt cdr a + 1;

assert cellcnt: (any) -> number;

% ...

endmodule;

end; % of file

Figure 16.1: Assertions in the source code.

load_package sizetools;
load_package assert;

on assert;

lisp <<
typedef any;
typedef number checked by numberp;

assert cellcnt: (any) -> number

>>;

% ... computations ...

assert_analyze();

end; % of file

Figure 16.2: Assertions in a batch file.

 227

checks the types of the arguments and of the result to the extent that there are
typechecking functions given. Whenever some argument does not pass the test by
the typechecking function, there is a warning message issued. Furthermore, the
following numbers are counted for each asserted function:

1. The number of overall calls,

2. the number of calls with at least one assertion violation,

3. the number of assertion violations.

These numbers can be printed anytime in either symbolic or algebraic mode using
the command assert_analyze(). This command at the same time resets all
the counters.
Fig. 16.3 shows an interactive sample session.

16.4.5 Switches

As discussed above, the switch assert controls at translation time whether or not
assertions are dynamically checked.
There is a switch assertbreak, which is off by default. When on, there are not
only warnings issued for assertion violations but the computations is interrupted
with a corresponding error.
The statistical counting of procedure calls and assertion violations is toggled by
the switch assertstatistics, which is on by default.

16.4.6 Efficiency

The encapsulating functions introduced with assertions are automatically com-

piled.
We have experimentally checked assertions on the standard quotient arithmetic
addsq, multsq, quotsq, invsq, negsq for the test file taylor.tst of the
TAYLOR package. For CSL we observe a slowdown of factor 3.2, and for PSL
we observe a slowdown of factor 1.8 in this particular example, where there are
323 750 function calls checked altogether.
The ASSERT package is considered an analysis and debugging tool. Production
system should as a rule not run with dynamic assertion checking. For critical ap-
plications, however, the slowdown might be even acceptable.
228 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1: symbolic$

2* load_package assert$

3* on assert$

4* typedef sq checked by sqp;

sqp

5* assert negsq: (sq) -> sq;

+++ negsq compiled, 13 + 20 bytes

(negsq)

6* assert addsq: (sq,sq) -> sq;

+++ addsq compiled, 14 + 20 bytes

(addsq)

7* addsq(simp ’x,negsq simp ’y);

((((x . 1) . 1) ((y . 1) . -1)) . 1)

8* addsq(simp ’x,negsq numr simp ’y);

*** assertion negsq: (sq) -> sq violated by arg1 (((y . 1) . 1))

*** assertion negsq: (sq) -> sq violated by result (((y . -1) . -1))

*** assertion addsq: (sq,sq) -> sq violated by arg2 (((y . -1) . -1))

*** assertion addsq: (sq,sq) -> sq violated by result (((y . -1) . -1))

(((y . -1) . -1))

9* assert_analyze()$
------------------------------------------------------------------------
function #calls #bad calls #assertion violations
------------------------------------------------------------------------
addsq 2 1 2
negsq 2 1 2
------------------------------------------------------------------------
sum 4 2 4
------------------------------------------------------------------------

Figure 16.3: An interactive sample session.

 229

16.4.7 Possible Extensions

Our assertions could be used also for a static type analysis of source code. In
that case, the type checking functions become irrelevant. On the other hand, the
introduction of variouse unchecked types becomes meaningful.
In a model, where the source code is systematically annotated with assertions, it
is technically no problem to generalize the specification of procedure definitions
such that assertions become implicit. For instance, one could optionally admit
procedure definitions like the following:

procedure cellcnt(a:any):number;
if not pairp a then 0 else cellcnt car a + cellcnt cdr a + 1;
230 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.5 ASSIST: Useful utilities for various applications

ASSIST contains a large number of additional general purpose functions that allow
a user to better adapt REDUCE to various calculational strategies and to make the
programming task more straightforward and more efficient.
Author: Hubert Caprasse.

16.5.1 Introduction

The package ASSIST contains an appreciable number of additional general pur-

pose functions which allow one to better adapt REDUCE to various calculational
strategies, to make the programming task more straightforward and, sometimes,
more efficient.
In contrast with all other packages, ASSIST does not aim to provide either a new
facility to compute a definite class of mathematical objects or to extend the base of
mathematical knowledge of REDUCE . The functions it contains should be useful
independently of the nature of the application which is considered. They were ini-
tially written while applying REDUCE to specific problems in theoretical physics.
Most of them were designed in such a way that their applicability range is broad.
Though it was not the primary goal, efficiency has been sought whenever possible.
The source code in ASSIST contains many comments concerning the meaning
and use of the supplementary functions available in the algebraic mode. These
comments, hopefully, make the code transparent and allow a thorough exploitation
of the package. The present documentation contains a non–technical description
of it and describes the various new facilities it provides.

16.5.2 Survey of the Available New Facilities

An elementary help facility is available both within the MS-DOS and Windows
environments. It is independent of the help facility of REDUCE itself. It includes
two functions:
ASSIST is a function which takes no argument. If entered, it returns the informa-
tions required for a proper use of ASSISTHELP.
ASSISTHELP takes one argument.

i. If the argument is the identifier assist, the function returns the information
necessary to retrieve the names of all the available functions.

ii. If the argument is an integer equal to one of the section numbers of the
present documentation. The names of the functions described in that section
are obtained.
 231

There is, presently, no possibility to retrieve the number and the type of the
arguments of a given function.

The package contains several modules. Their content reflects closely the various
categories of facilities listed below. Some functions do already exist inside the
KERNEL of REDUCE. However, their range of applicability is extended.

• Control of Switches:

SWITCHES SWITCHORG

• Operations on Lists and Bags:

MKLIST KERNLIST ALGNLIST LENGTH

POSITION FREQUENCY SEQUENCES SPLIT
INSERT INSERT_KEEP_ORDER MERGE_LIST
FIRST SECOND THIRD REST REVERSE LAST
BELAST CONS ( . ) APPEND APPENDN
REMOVE DELETE DELETE_ALL DELPAIR
MEMBER ELMULT PAIR DEPTH MKDEPTH_ONE
REPFIRST REPREST ASFIRST ASLAST ASREST
ASFLIST ASSLIST RESTASLIST SUBSTITUTE
BAGPROP PUTBAG CLEARBAG BAGP BAGLISTP
ALISTP ABAGLISTP LISTBAG

• Operations on Sets:

MKSET SETP UNION INTERSECT DIFFSET SYMDIFF

• General Purpose Utility Functions:

LIST_TO_IDS MKIDN MKIDNEW DELLASTDIGIT DETIDNUM

ODDP FOLLOWLINE == RANDOMLIST MKRANDTABL
PERMUTATIONS CYCLICPERMLIST PERM_TO_NUM NUM_TO_PERM
COMBNUM COMBINATIONS SYMMETRIZE REMSYM
SORTNUMLIST SORTLIST ALGSORT EXTREMUM GCDNL
DEPATOM FUNCVAR IMPLICIT EXPLICIT REMNONCOM
KORDERLIST SIMPLIFY CHECKPROPLIST EXTRACTLIST

• Properties and Flags:

PUTFLAG PUTPROP DISPLAYPROP DISPLAYFLAG

CLEARFLAG CLEARPROP

• Control Statements, Control of Environment:

NORDP DEPVARP ALATOMP ALKERNP PRECP

SHOW SUPPRESS CLEAROP CLEARFUNCTIONS
232 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• Handling of Polynomials:

ALG_TO_SYMB SYMB_TO_ALG
DISTRIBUTE LEADTERM REDEXPR MONOM
LOWESTDEG DIVPOL SPLITTERMS SPLITPLUSMINUS

• Handling of Transcendental Functions:

TRIGEXPAND HYPEXPAND TRIGREDUCE HYPREDUCE

• Coercion from Lists to Arrays and converse:

LIST_TO_ARRAY ARRAY_TO_LIST

• Handling of n-dimensional Vectors:

SUMVECT MINVECT SCALVECT CROSSVECT MPVECT

• Handling of Grassmann Operators:

PUTGRASS REMGRASS GRASSP GRASSPARITY GHOSTFACTOR

• Handling of Matrices:

UNITMAT MKIDM BAGLMAT COERCEMAT

SUBMAT MATSUBR MATSUBC RMATEXTR RMATEXTC
HCONCMAT VCONCMAT TPMAT HERMAT
SETELTMAT GETELTMAT

• Control of the HEPHYS package:

REMVECTOR REMINDEX MKGAM

In the following all these functions are described.

16.5.3 Control of Switches

The two available functions i.e. SWITCHES, SWITCHORG have no argument

and are called as if they were mere identifiers.
SWITCHES displays the actual status of the most frequently used switches when
manipulating rational functions. The chosen switches are

EXP, ALLFAC, EZGCD, GCD, MCD, LCM, DIV, RAT,

INTSTR, RATIONAL, PRECISE, REDUCED, RATIONALIZE,
COMBINEEXPT, COMPLEX, REVPRI, DISTRIBUTE.
 233

The selection is somewhat arbitrary but it may be changed in a trivial fashion by

the user.
The new switch DISTRIBUTE allows one to put polynomials in a distributed form
(see the description below of the new functions for manipulating them. ).
Most of the symbolic variables !*EXP, !*DIV, . . . which have either the value
T or the value NIL are made available in the algebraic mode so that it becomes
possible to write conditional statements of the kind

IF !*EXP THEN DO ......

IF !*GCD THEN OFF GCD;

SWITCHORG resets the switches enumerated above to the status they had when
starting REDUCE .

16.5.4 Manipulation of the List Structure

Additional functions for list manipulations are provided and some already defined
functions in the kernel of REDUCE are modified to properly generalize them to
the available new structure BAG.

i. Generation of a list of length n with all its elements initialized to 0 and

possibility to append to a list l a certain number of zero’s to make it of length
n:

MKLIST n ; n is an INTEGER

MKLIST(l,n); l is List-like, n is an INTEGER

ii. Generation of a list of sublists of length n containing p elements equal to 0

and q elements equal to 1 such that

p + q = n.

The function SEQUENCES works both in algebraic and symbolic modes.

Here is an example in the algebraic mode:

SEQUENCES 2 ; ==> {{0,0},{0,1},{1,0},{1,1}}

234 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

An arbitrary splitting of a list can be done. The function SPLIT generates a

list which contains the splitted parts of the original list.

SPLIT({a,b,c,d},{1,1,2}) ==> {{a},{b},{c,d}}

The function ALGNLIST constructs a list which contains n copies of a list

bound to its first argument.

ALGNLIST({a,b,c,d},2); ==> {{a,b,c,d},{a,b,c,d}}

The function KERNLIST transforms any prefix of a kernel into the list
prefix. The output list is a copy:

KERNLIST (<kernel>); ==> {<kernel arguments>}

Four functions to delete elements are DELETE, REMOVE, DELETE_ALL

and DELPAIR. The first two act as in symbolic mode, and the third elimi-
nates from a given list all elements equal to its first argument. The fourth
acts on a list of pairs and eliminates from it the first pair whose first element
is equal to its first argument :

DELETE(x,{a,b,x,f,x}); ==> {a,b,f,x}

REMOVE({a,b,x,f,x},3); ==> {a,b,f,x}

DELETE_ALL(x,{a,b,x,f,x}); ==> {a,b,f}

DELPAIR(a,{{a,1},{b,2},{c,3}}; ==> {{b,2},{c,3}}

iv. The function ELMULT returns an integer which is the multiplicity of its
first argument inside the list which is its second argument. The function
FREQUENCY gives a list of pairs whose second element indicates the num-
ber of times the first element appears inside the original list:

ELMULT(x,{a,b,x,f,x}) ==> 2

FREQUENCY({a,b,c,a}); ==> {{a,2},{b,1},{c,1}}

 235

v. The function INSERT allows one to insert a given object into a list at the
desired position.
The functions INSERT_KEEP_ORDER and MERGE_LIST allow one to
keep a given ordering when inserting one element inside a list or when merg-
ing two lists. Both have 3 arguments. The last one is the name of a binary
boolean ordering function:

ll:={1,2,3}$

INSERT(x,ll,3); ==> {1,2,x,3}

INSERT_KEEP_ORDER(5,ll,lessp); ==> {1,2,3,5}

MERGE_LIST(ll,ll,lessp); ==> {1,1,2,2,3,3}

Notice that MERGE_LIST will act correctly only if the two lists are well
ordered themselves.

vi. Algebraic lists can be read from right to left or left to right. They look sym-
metrical. One would like to dispose of manipulation functions which reflect
this. So, to the already defined functions FIRST and REST are added the
functions LAST and BELAST. LAST gives the last element of the list while
BELAST gives the list without its last element.
Various additional functions are provided. They are:

. (“dot”), POSITION, DEPTH, MKDEPTH_ONE,

PAIR, APPENDN, REPFIRST, REPREST

The token “dot” needs a special comment. It corresponds to several different

operations.

1. If one applies it on the left of a list, it acts as the CONS function. Note
however that blank spaces are required around the dot:

4 . {a,b}; ==> {4,a,b}

2. If one applies it on the right of a list, it has the same effect as the PART
operator:

{a,b,c}.2; ==> b
236 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

3. If one applies it to a 4–dimensional vectors, it acts as in the HEPHYS

package.
POSITION returns the POSITION of the first occurrence of x in a list or a
message if x is not present in it.
DEPTH returns an integer equal to the number of levels where a list is found
if and only if this number is the same for each element of the list otherwise
it returns a message telling the user that the list is of unequal depth. The
function MKDEPTH_ONE allows to transform any list into a list of depth
equal to 1.
PAIR has two arguments which must be lists. It returns a list whose ele-
ments are lists of two elements. The nth sublist contains the nth element of
the first list and the nth element of the second list. These types of lists are
called association lists or ALISTS in the following. To test for these type of
lists a boolean function ABAGLISTP is provided. It will be discussed below.
APPENDN has any fixed number of lists as arguments. It generalizes the al-
ready existing function APPEND which accepts only two lists as arguments.
It may also be used for arbitrary kernels but, in that case, it is important to
notice that the concatenated object is always a list.
REPFIRST has two arguments. The first one is any object, the second one
is a list. It replaces the first element of the list by the object. It works like the
symbolic function REPLACA except that the original list is not destroyed.
REPREST has also two arguments. It replaces the rest of the list by its first
argument and returns the new list without destroying the original list. It is
analogous to the symbolic function REPLACD. Here are examples:

ll:={{a,b}}$
ll1:=ll.1; ==> {a,b}
ll.0; ==> list
0 . ll; ==> {0,{a,b}}

DEPTH ll; ==> 2

PAIR(ll1,ll1); ==> {{a,a},{b,b}}

REPFIRST{new,ll); ==> {new}

ll3:=APPENDN(ll1,ll1,ll1); ==> {a,b,a,b,a,b}

POSITION(b,ll3); ==> 2

REPREST(new,ll3); ==> {a,new}

 237

vii. The functions ASFIRST, ASLAST, ASREST, ASFLIST, ASSLIST,

RESTASLIST act on ALISTS or on lists of lists of well defined depths and
have two arguments. The first is the key object which one seeks to associate
in some way with an element of the association list which is the second argu-
ment.
ASFIRST returns the pair whose first element is equal to the first argument.
ASLAST returns the pair whose last element is equal to the first argument.
ASREST needs a list as its first argument. The function seeks the first sublist
of a list of lists (which is its second argument) equal to its first argument and
returns it.
RESTASLIST has a list of keys as its first argument. It returns the collection
of pairs which meet the criterium of ASREST.
ASFLIST returns a list containing all pairs which satisfy the criteria of the
function ASFIRST. So the output is also an association list.
ASSLIST returns a list which contains all pairs which have their second
element equal to the first argument.
Here are a few examples:

lp:={{a,1},{b,2},{c,3}}$

ASFIRST(a,lp); ==> {a,1}

ASLAST(1,lp); ==> {a,1}

ASREST({1},lp); ==> {a,1}

RESTASLIST({a,b},lp); ==> {{1},{2}}

lpp:=APPEND(lp,lp)$

ASFLIST(a,lpp); ==> {{a,1},{a,1}}

ASSLIST(1,lpp); ==> {{a,1},{a,1}}

vii. The function SUBSTITUTE has three arguments. The first is the object to
be substituted, the second is the object which must be replaced by the first,
and the third is the list in which the substitution must be made. Substitution
is made to all levels. It is a more elementary function than SUB but its
capabilities are less. When dealing with algebraic quantities, it is important
to make sure that all objects involved in the function have either the prefix
lisp or the standard quotient representation otherwise it will not properly
work.
238 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.5.5 The Bag Structure and its Associated Functions

The LIST structure of REDUCE is very convenient for manipulating groups of ob-
jects which are, a priori, unknown. This structure is endowed with other properties
such as “mapping” i.e. the fact that if OP is an operator one gets, by default,

OP({x,y}); ==> {OP(x),OP(y)}

It is not permitted to submit lists to the operations valid on rings so that, for exam-
ple, lists cannot be indeterminates of polynomials.
Very frequently too, procedure arguments cannot be lists. At the other extreme,
so to say, one has the KERNEL structure associated with the algebraic declaration
operator . This structure behaves as an “unbreakable” one and, for that reason,
behaves like an ordinary identifier. It may generally be bound to all non-numeric
procedure parameters and it may appear as an ordinary indeterminate inside poly-
nomials.
The BAG structure is intermediate between a list and an operator. From the operator
it borrows the property of being a KERNEL and, therefore, may be an indetermi-
nate of a polynomial. From the list structure it borrows the property of being a
composite object.
Definition:
A bag is an object endowed with the following properties:

1. It is a KERNEL i.e. it is composed of an atomic prefix (its envelope) and its

content (miscellaneous objects).

2. Its content may be handled in an analogous way as the content of a list. The
important difference is that during these manipulations the name of the bag
is kept.

3. Properties may be given to the envelope. For instance, one may declare it
NONCOM or SYMMETRIC etc. . . .

Available Functions:

i. A default bag envelope BAG is defined. It is a reserved identifier. An iden-

tifier other than LIST or one which is already associated with a boolean
function may be defined as a bag envelope through the command PUTBAG.
In particular, any operator may also be declared to be a bag. When and only
when the identifier is not an already defined function does PUTBAG put on
it the property of an OPERATOR PREFIX. The command:
 239

PUTBAG id1,id2,....idn;

declares id1,.....,idn as bag envelopes. Analogously, the command

CLEARBAG id1,...idn;

eliminates the bag property on id1,...,idn.

ii. The boolean function BAGP detects the bag property. Here is an example:

aa:=bag(x,y,z)$

if BAGP aa then "ok"; ==> ok

iii. The functions listed below may act both on lists or bags. Moreover, functions
subsequently defined for SETS also work for a bag when its content is a set.
Here is a list of the main ones:

FIRST, SECOND, LAST, REST, BELAST, DEPTH, LENGTH,

REVERSE,
MEMBER, APPEND, . (“dot”), REPFIRST, REPREST
...

However, since they keep track of the envelope, they act somewhat differ-
ently. Remember that

the NAME of the ENVELOPE is KEPT by the functions

FIRST, SECOND and LAST.

Here are a few examples (more examples are given inside the test file):

PUTBAG op; ==> T

aa:=op(x,y,z)$

FIRST op(x,y,z); ==> op(x)

240 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

REST op(x,y,z); ==> op(y,z)

BELAST op(x,y,z); ==> op(x,y)

APPEND(aa,aa); ==> op(x,y,z,x,y,z)

APPENDN(aa,aa,aa); ==> {x,y,z,x,y,z,x,y,z}

LENGTH aa; ==> 3

DEPTH aa; ==> 1

MEMBER(y,aa); ==> op(y,z)

When “appending” two bags with different envelopes, the resulting bag
gets the name of the one bound to the first parameter of APPEND. When
APPENDN is used, the output is always a list.
The function LENGTH gives the number of objects contained in the bag.

iv. The connection between the list and the bag structures is made easy thanks
to KERNLIST which transforms a bag into a list and thanks to the coercion
function LISTBAG which transforms a list into a bag. This function has 2
arguments and is used as follows:

LISTBAG(<list>,<id>); ==> <id>(<arg_list>)

The identifier <id>, if allowed, is automatically declared as a bag envelope

or an error message is generated.
Finally, two boolean functions which work both for bags and lists are pro-
vided. They are BAGLISTP and ABAGLISTP. They return t or nil (in a
conditional statement) if their argument is a bag or a list for the first one, or
if their argument is a list of sublists or a bag containing bags for the second
one.

16.5.6 Sets and their Manipulation Functions

Functions for sets exist at the level of symbolic mode. The package makes them
available in algebraic mode but also generalizes them so that they can be applied
to bag-like objects as well.
 241

i. The constructor MKSET transforms a list or bag into a set by eliminating

duplicates.

MKSET({1,a,a}); ==> {1,a}

MKSET bag(1,a,1,a); ==> bag(1,a)

SETP is a boolean function which recognizes set–like objects.

if SETP {1,2,3} then ... ;

ii. The available functions are

UNION, INTERSECT, DIFFSET, SYMDIFF.

They have two arguments which must be sets otherwise an error message
is issued. Their meaning is transparent from their name. They respectively
give the union, the intersection, the difference and the symmetric difference
of two sets.

16.5.7 General Purpose Utility Functions

Functions in this sections have various purposes. They have all been used many
times in applications in some form or another. The form given to them in this
package is adjusted to maximize their range of applications.

i. The functions MKIDNEW DELLASTDIGIT DETIDNUM LIST_TO_IDS

handle identifiers.
MKIDNEW has either 0 or 1 argument. It generates an identifier which has
not yet been used before.

MKIDNEW(); ==> g0001

MKIDNEW(a); ==> ag0002

DELLASTDIGIT takes an integer as argument and strips it from its last digit.

DELLASTDIGIT 45; ==> 4

242 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

DETIDNUM deletes the last digit from an identifier. It is a very convenient

function when one wants to make a do loop starting from a set of indices
a1 , . . . , a n .

DETIDNUM a23; ==> 23

LIST_to_IDS generalizes the function MKID to a list of atoms. It creates

and intern an identifier from the concatenation of the atoms. The first atom
cannot be an integer.

LIST_TO_IDS {a,1,id,10}; ==> a1id10

The function ODDP detects odd integers.

The function FOLLOWLINE is convenient when using the function PRIN2.
It allows one to format output text in a much more flexible way than with the
function WRITE.
Try the following examples :

<<prin2 2; prin2 5>>$ ==> ?

<<prin2 2; followline(5); prin2 5;>>; ==> ?

The function == is a short and convenient notation for the SET function. In
fact it is a generalization of it to allow one to deal also with KERNELS:

operator op;

op(x):=abs(x)$

op(x) == x; ==> x

op(x); ==> x

abs(x); ==> x
 243

The function RANDOMLIST generates a list of random numbers. It takes two

arguments which are both integers. The first one indicates the range inside
which the random numbers are chosen. The second one indicates how many
numbers are to be generated. Its output is the list of generated numbers.

RANDOMLIST(10,5); ==> {2,1,3,9,6}

MKRANDTABL generates a table of random numbers. This table is either a

one or two dimensional array. The base of random numbers may be either an
integer or a decimal number. In this last case, to work properly, the switch
rounded must be ON. It has three arguments. The first is either a one
integer or a two integer list. The second is the base chosen to generate the
random numbers. The third is the chosen name for the generated array. In
the example below a two-dimensional table of random integers is generated
as array elements of the identifier ar.

MKRANDTABL({3,4},10,ar); ==>

*** array ar redefined

{3,4}

The output is the dimension of the constructed array.

PERMUTATIONS gives the list of permutations of n objects. Each permuta-
tion is itself a list. CYCLICPERMLIST gives the list of cyclic permutations.
For both functions, the argument may also be a bag.

PERMUTATIONS {1,2} ==> {{1,2},{2,1}}

CYCLICPERMLIST {1,2,3} ==>

{{1,2,3},{2,3,1},{3,1,2}}

PERM_TO_NUM and NUM_TO_PERM allow to associate to a given permu-

tation of n numbers or identifiers a number between 0 and n! − 1. The first
function has the two permutated lists as its arguments and it returns an in-
teger. The second one has an integer as its first argument and a list as its
second argument. It returns the list of permutated objects.
244 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

PERM_TO_NUM({4,3,2,1},{1,2,3,4}) ==> 23

NUM_TO_PERM(23,{1,2,3,4}); ==> {4,3,2,1}

COMBNUM gives the number of combinations of n objects taken p at a time.

It has the two integer arguments n and p.
COMBINATIONS gives a list of combinations on n objects taken p at a time.
It has two arguments. The first one is a list (or a bag) and the second one is
the integer p.

COMBINATIONS({1,2,3},2) ==> {{2,3},{1,3},{1,2}}

REMSYM is a command that suppresses the effect of the REDUCE com-

mands symmetric or antisymmetric .
SYMMETRIZE is a powerful function which generates a symmetric expres-
sion. It has 3 arguments. The first is a list (or a list of lists) containing the
expressions which will appear as variables for a kernel. The second argu-
ment is the kernel-name and the third is a permutation function which exists
either in algebraic or symbolic mode. This function may be constructed
by the user. Within this package the two functions PERMUTATIONS and
CYCLICPERMLIST may be used. Examples:

ll:={a,b,c}$

SYMMETRIZE(ll,op,cyclicpermlist); ==>

OP(A,B,C) + OP(B,C,A) + OP(C,A,B)

SYMMETRIZE(list ll,op,cyclicpermlist); ==>

OP({A,B,C}) + OP({B,C,A}) + OP({C,A,B})

Notice that, taking for the first argument a list of lists gives rise to an ex-
pression where each kernel has a list as argument. Another peculiarity of
this function is the fact that, unless a pattern matching is made on the oper-
ator OP, it needs to be reevaluated. This peculiarity is convenient when OP
is an abstract operator if one wants to control the subsequent simplification
process. Here is an illustration:
 245

op(a,b,c):=a*b*c$

SYMMETRIZE(ll,op,cyclicpermlist); ==>

OP(A,B,C) + OP(B,C,A) + OP(C,A,B)

REVAL ws; ==>

OP(B,C,A) + OP(C,A,B) + A*B*C

for all x let op(x,a,b)=sin(x*a*b);

SYMMETRIZE(ll,op,cyclicpermlist); ==>

OP(B,C,A) + SIN(A*B*C) + OP(A,B,C)

The functions SORTNUMLIST and SORTLIST are functions which sort

lists. They use the bubblesort and the quicksort algorithms.
SORTNUMLIST takes as argument a list of numbers. It sorts it in increasing
order.
SORTLIST is a generalization of the above function. It sorts the list accord-
ing to any well defined ordering. Its first argument is the list and its second
argument is the ordering function. The content of the list need not necessar-
ily be numbers but must be such that the ordering function has a meaning.
ALGSORT exploits the PSL SORT function. It is intended to replace the two
functions above.

l:={1,3,4,0}$ SORTNUMLIST l; ==> {0,1,3,4}

ll:={1,a,tt,z}$ SORTLIST(ll,ordp); ==> {a,z,tt,1}

l:={-1,3,4,0}$ ALGSORT(l,>); ==> {4,3,0,-1}

It is important to realise that using these functions for kernels or bags may
be dangerous since they are destructive. If it is necessary, it is recommended
to first apply KERNLIST to them to act on a copy.
The function EXTREMUM is a generalization of the already defined functions
MIN, MAX to include general orderings. It is a 2 argument function. The
first is the list and the second is the ordering function. With the list ll
defined in the last example, one gets
246 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

EXTREMUM(ll,ordp); ==> 1

GCDNL takes a list of integers as argument and returns their gcd.

iii. There are four functions to identify dependencies. FUNCVAR takes any ex-
pression as argument and returns the set of variables on which it depends.
Constants are eliminated.

FUNCVAR(e+pi+sin(log(y)); ==> {y}

DEPATOM has an atom as argument. It returns it if it is a number or if no

dependency has previously been declared. Otherwise, it returns the list of
variables which the prevoius DEPEND declarations imply.

depend a,x,y;

DEPATOM a; ==> {x,y}

The functions EXPLICIT and IMPLICIT make explicit or implicit the de-
pendencies. This example shows how they work:

depend a,x; depend x,y,z;

EXPLICIT a; ==> a(x(y,z))

IMPLICIT ws; ==> a

These are useful when one wants to trace the names of the independent vari-
ables and (or) the nature of the dependencies.
KORDERLIST is a zero argument function which displays the actual order-
ing.

korder x,y,z;

KORDERLIST; ==> (x,y,z)

 247

iv. A command REMNONCOM to remove the non-commutativity of operators

previously declared non-commutative is available. Its use is like the one of
the command NONCOM.

v. Filtering functions for lists.

CHECKPROPLIST is a boolean function which checks if the elements of a
list have a definite property. Its first argument is the list, its second argument
is a boolean function (FIXP NUMBERP . . .) or an ordering function (as
ORDP).
EXTRACTLIST extracts from the list given as its first argument the elements
which satisfy the boolean function given as its second argument. For exam-
ple:

if CHECKPROPLIST({1,2},fixp) then "ok"; ==> ok

l:={1,a,b,"st")$

EXTRACTLIST(l,fixp); ==> {1}

EXTRACTLIST(l,stringp); ==> {st}

vi. Coercion.
Since lists and arrays have quite distinct behaviour and storage properties,
it is interesting to coerce lists into arrays and vice-versa in order to fully
exploit the advantages of both datatypes. The functions ARRAY_TO_LIST
and LIST_TO_ARRAY are provided to do that easily. The first function has
the array identifier as its unique argument. The second function has three
arguments. The first is the list, the second is the dimension of the array
and the third is the identifier which defines it. If the chosen dimension is
not compatible with the the list depth, an error message is issued. As an
illustration suppose that ar is an array whose components are 1,2,3,4. then

ARRAY_TO_LIST ar; ==> {1,2,3,4}

LIST_TO_ARRAY({1,2,3,4},1,arr}; ==>

generates the array arr with the components 1,2,3,4.

vii. Control of the HEPHYS package.

248 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The commands REMVECTOR and REMINDEX remove the property of being

a 4-vector or a 4-index respectively.
The function MKGAM allows to assign to any identifier the property of a Dirac
gamma matrix and, eventually, to suppress it. Its interest lies in the fact that,
during a calculation, it is often useful to transform a gamma matrix into an
abstract operator and vice-versa. Moreover, in many applications in basic
physics, it is interesting to use the identifier g for other purposes. It takes
two arguments. The first is the identifier. The second must be chosen equal
to t if one wants to transform it into a gamma matrix. Any other binding for
this second argument suppresses the property of being a gamma matrix the
identifier is supposed to have.

16.5.8 Properties and Flags

In spite of the fact that many facets of the handling of property lists is easily acces-
sible in algebraic mode, it is useful to provide analogous functions genuine to the
algebraic mode. The reason is that, altering property lists of objects, may easily
destroy the integrity of the system. The functions, which are here described, do
ignore the property list and flags already defined by the system itself. They gen-
erate and track the addtional properties and flags that the user issues using them.
They offer him the possibility to work on property lists so that he can design a
programming style of the “conceptual” type.

i. We first consider “flags”.

To a given identifier, one may associate another one linked to it “in
the background”. The three functions PUTFLAG, DISPLAYFLAG and
CLEARFLAG handle them.
PUTFLAG has 3 arguments. The first one is the identifier or a list of iden-
tifiers, the second one is the name of the flag, and the third one is T (true)
or 0 (zero). When the third argument is T, it creates the flag, when it is 0 it
destroys it. In this last case, the function does return nil (not seen inside the
algebraic mode).

PUTFLAG(z1,flag_name,t); ==> flag_name

PUTFLAG({z1,z2},flag1_name,t); ==> t

PUTFLAG(z2,flag1_name,0) ==>

DISPLAYFLAG allows one to extract flags. The previous actions give:

 249

DISPLAYFLAG z1; ==>{flag_name,flag1_name}

DISPLAYFLAG z2 ; ==> {}

CLEARFLAG is a command which clears all flags associated with the iden-
tifiers id1 , . . . , idn .

ii. Properties are handled by similar functions. PUTPROP has four arguments.
The second argument is, here, the indicator of the property. The third argu-
ment may be any valid expression. The fourth one is also T or 0.

PUTPROP(z1,property,x^2,t); ==> z1

In general, one enters

PUTPROP(LIST(idp1,idp2,..),<propname>,<value>,T);

To display a specific property, one uses DISPLAYPROP which takes two

arguments. The first is the name of the identifier, the second is the indicator
of the property.

2
DISPLAYPROP(z1,property); ==> {property,x }

Finally, CLEARPROP is a nary commmand which clears all properties of the

identifiers which appear as arguments.

16.5.9 Control Functions

Here we describe additional functions which improve user control on the environ-
ment.

i. The first set of functions is composed of unary and binary boolean functions.
They are:
250 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ALATOMP x; x is anything.
ALKERNP x; x is anything.
DEPVARP(x,v); x is anything.

(v is an atom or a kernel)

ALATOMP has the value T iff x is an integer or an identifier after it has been
evaluated down to the bottom.
ALKERNP has the value T iff x is a kernel after it has been evaluated down
to the bottom.
DEPVARP returns T iff the expression x depends on v at any level.
The above functions together with PRECP have been declared operator func-
tions to ease the verification of their value.
NORDP is equal to NOT ORDP.

ii. The next functions allow one to analyze and to clean the environment of
REDUCE created by the user while working interactively. Two functions
are provided:
SHOW allows the user to get the various identifiers already assigned and to
see their type. SUPPRESS selectively clears the used identifiers or clears
them all. It is to be stressed that identifiers assigned from the input of files
are ignored. Both functions have one argument and the same options for this
argument:

SHOW (SUPPRESS) all

SHOW (SUPPRESS) scalars
SHOW (SUPPRESS) lists
SHOW (SUPPRESS) saveids (for saved expressions)
SHOW (SUPPRESS) matrices
SHOW (SUPPRESS) arrays
SHOW (SUPPRESS) vectors
(contains vector, index and tvector)
SHOW (SUPPRESS) forms

The option all is the most convenient for SHOW but, with it, it may takes
some time to get the answer after one has worked several hours. When en-
tering REDUCE the option all for SHOW gives:
 251

SHOW all; ==>

scalars are: NIL

arrays are: NIL
lists are: NIL
matrices are: NIL
vectors are: NIL
forms are: NIL

It is a convenient way to remind the various options. Here is an example

which is valid when one starts from a fresh environment:

a:=b:=1$

SHOW scalars; ==> scalars are: (A B)

SUPPRESS scalars; ==> t

SHOW scalars; ==> scalars are: NIL

iii. The CLEAR function of the system does not do a complete cleaning of
OPERATORS and FUNCTIONS . The following two functions do a more
complete cleaning and, also, automatically takes into account the user flag
and properties that the functions PUTFLAG and PUTPROP may have intro-
duced.
Their names are CLEAROP and CLEARFUNCTIONS. CLEAROP takes one
operator as its argument.
CLEARFUNCTIONS is a nary command. If one issues

CLEARFUNCTIONS a1,a2, ... , an $

The functions with names a1,a2, ... ,an are cleared. One should
be careful when using this facility since the only functions which cannot be
erased are those which are protected with the lose flag.
252 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.5.10 Handling of Polynomials

The module contains some utility functions to handle standard quotients and sev-
eral new facilities to manipulate polynomials.

i. Two functions ALG_TO_SYMB and SYMB_TO_ALG allow one to change

an expression which is in the algebraic standard quotient form into a prefix
lisp form and vice-versa. This is done in such a way that the symbol list
which appears in the algebraic mode disappears in the symbolic form (there
it becomes a parenthesis “()” ) and it is reintroduced in the translation from
a symbolic prefix lisp expression to an algebraic one. Here, is an exam-
ple, showing how the wellknown lisp function FLATTENS can be trivially
transposed inside the algebraic mode:

algebraic procedure ecrase x;

lisp symb_to_alg flattens1 alg_to_symb algebraic x;

symbolic procedure flattens1 x;

% ll; ==> ((A B) ((C D) E))
% flattens1 ll; (A B C D E)
if atom x then list x else
if cdr x then
append(flattens1 car x, flattens1 cdr x)
else flattens1 car x;

gives, for instance,

ll:={a,{b,{c},d,e},{{{z}}}}$

ECRASE ll; ==> {A, B, C, D, E, Z}

The function MKDEPTH_ONE described above implements that functional-

ity.
ii. LEADTERM and REDEXPR are the algebraic equivalent of the symbolic
functions LT and RED. They give, respectively, the leading term and the
reductum of a polynomial. They also work for rational functions. Their in-
terest lies in the fact that they do not require one to extract the main variable.
They work according to the current ordering of the system:
 253

pol:=x++y+z$

LEADTERM pol; ==> x

korder y,x,z;

LEADTERM pol; ==> y

REDEXPR pol; ==> x + z

By default, the representation of multivariate polynomials is recursive. It

is justified since it is the one which takes the least memory. With such a
representation, the function LEADTERM does not necessarily extract a true
monom. It extracts a monom in the leading indeterminate multiplied by a
polynomial in the other indeterminates. However, very often, one needs to
handle true monoms separately. In that case, one needs a polynomial in dis-
tributive form. Such a form is provided by the package GROEBNER (H.
Melenk et al.). The facility there is, however, much too involved in many
applications and the necessity to load the package makes it interesting to
construct an elementary facility to handle the distributive representation of
polynomials. A new switch has been created for that purpose. It is called
DISTRIBUTE and a new function DISTRIBUTE puts a polynomial in dis-
tributive form. With that switch set to on, LEADTERM gives true monoms.
MONOM transforms a polynomial into a list of monoms. It works whatever
the position of the switch DISTRIBUTE.
SPLITTERMS is analoguous to MONOM except that it gives a list of two lists.
The first sublist contains the positive terms while the second sublist contains
the negative terms.
SPLITPLUSMINUS gives a list whose first element is the positive part of
the polynomial and its second element is its negative part.

iii. Two complementary functions LOWESTDEG and DIVPOL are provided. The
first takes a polynomial as its first argument and the name of an indeterminate
as its second argument. It returns the lowest degree in that indeterminate.
The second function takes two polynomials and returns both the quotient
and its remainder.

16.5.11 Handling of Transcendental Functions

The functions TRIGREDUCE and TRIGEXPAND and the equivalent ones for hy-
perbolic functions HYPREDUCE and HYPEXPAND make the transformations to
254 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

multiple arguments and from multiple arguments to elementary arguments. Here

is a simple example:

aa:=sin(x+y)$

TRIGEXPAND aa; ==> SIN(X)*COS(Y) + SIN(Y)*COS(X)

TRIGREDUCE ws; ==> SIN(Y + X)

When a trigonometric or hyperbolic expression is symmetric with respect to the in-

terchange of SIN (SINH) and COS (COSH), the application of
TRIG(HYP)-REDUCE may often lead to great simplifications. However, if it is
highly asymmetric, the repeated application of TRIG(HYP)-REDUCE followed
by the use of TRIG(HYP)-EXPAND will lead to more complicated but more sym-
metric expressions:

aa:=(sin(x)^2+cos(x)^2)^3$

TRIGREDUCE aa; ==> 1

bb:=1+sin(x)^3$

TRIGREDUCE bb; ==>

- SIN(3*X) + 3*SIN(X) + 4
---------------------------
4

TRIGEXPAND ws; ==>

3 2
SIN(X) - 3*SIN(X)*COS(X) + 3*SIN(X) + 4
-------------------------------------------
4
 255

16.5.12 Handling of n–dimensional Vectors

Explicit vectors in EUCLIDEAN space may be represented by list-like or bag-like

objects of depth 1. The components may be bags but may not be lists. Funct-
ions are provided to do the sum, the difference and the scalar product. When the
space-dimension is three there are also functions for the cross and mixed prod-
ucts. SUMVECT, MINVECT, SCALVECT, CROSSVECT have two arguments.
MPVECT has three arguments. The following example is sufficient to explain how
they work:

l:={1,2,3}$

ll:=list(a,b,c)$

SUMVECT(l,ll); ==> {A + 1,B + 2,C + 3}

MINVECT(l,ll); ==> { - A + 1, - B + 2, - C + 3}

SCALVECT(l,ll); ==> A + 2*B + 3*C

CROSSVECT(l,ll); ==> { - 3*B + 2*C,3*A - C, - 2*A + B}

MPVECT(l,ll,l); ==> 0

16.5.13 Handling of Grassmann Operators

Grassman variables are often used in physics. For them the multiplication oper-
ation is associative, distributive but anticommutative. The KERNEL of REDUCE
does not provide it. However, implementing it in full generality would almost cer-
tainly decrease the overall efficiency of the system. This small module together
with the declaration of antisymmetry for operators is enough to deal with most cal-
culations. The reason is, that a product of similar anticommuting kernels can easily
be transformed into an antisymmetric operator with as many indices as the number
of these kernels. Moreover, one may also issue pattern matching rules to imple-
ment the anticommutativity of the product. The functions in this module represent
the minimum functionality required to identify them and to handle their specific
features.
PUTGRASS is a (nary) command which give identifiers the property of being the
names of Grassmann kernels. REMGRASS removes this property.
GRASSP is a boolean function which detects grassmann kernels.
256 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

GRASSPARITY takes a monom as argument and gives its parity. If the monom is
a simple grassmann kernel it returns 1.
GHOSTFACTOR has two arguments. Each one is a monom. It is equal to

(-1)**(GRASSPARITY u * GRASSPARITY v)

Here is an illustration to show how the above functions work:

PUTGRASS eta; ==> t

if GRASSP eta(1) then "grassmann kernel"; ==>

grassmann kernel

aa:=eta(1)*eta(2)-eta(2)*eta(1); ==>

AA := - ETA(2)*ETA(1) + ETA(1)*ETA(2)

GRASSPARITY eta(1); ==> 1

GRASSPARITY (eta(1)*eta(2)); ==> 0

GHOSTFACTOR(eta(1),eta(2)); ==> -1

grasskernel:=
{eta(~x)*eta(~y) => -eta y * eta x when nordp(x,y),
(~x)*(~x) => 0 when grassp x};

exp:=eta(1)^2$

exp where grasskernel; ==> 0

aa where grasskernel; ==> - 2*ETA(2)*ETA(1)

16.5.14 Handling of Matrices

This module provides functions for handling matrices more comfortably.

i. Often, one needs to construct some UNIT matrix of a given dimension. This
 257

construction is done by the system thanks to the function UNITMAT. It is a

nary function. The command is

UNITMAT M1(n1), M2(n2), .....Mi(ni) ;

where M1,...Mi are names of matrices and n1, n2, ..., ni are
integers .
MKIDM is a generalization of MKID. It allows one to connect two or several
matrices. If u and u1 are two matrices, one can go from one to the other:

matrix u(2,2);$ unitmat u1(2)$

u1; ==>

[1 0]
[ ]
[0 1]

mkidm(u,1); ==>

[1 0]
[ ]
[0 1]

This function allows one to make loops on matrices like in the following
illustration. If U, U1, U2,.., U5 are matrices:

FOR I:=1:5 DO U:=U-MKIDM(U,I);

can be issued.
ii. The next functions map matrices on bag-like or list-like objects and con-
versely they generate matrices from bags or lists.
COERCEMAT transforms the matrix U into a list of lists. The entry is

COERCEMAT(U,id)
258 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where id is equal to list othewise it transforms it into a bag of bags whose

envelope is equal to id.
BAGLMAT does the opposite job. The first argument is the bag-like or list-
like object while the second argument is the matrix identifier. The entry is

BAGLMAT(bgl,U)

bgl becomes the matrix U . The transformation is not done if U is already

the name of a previously defined matrix. This is to avoid ACCIDENTAL
redefinition of that matrix.

ii. The functions SUBMAT, MATEXTR, MATEXTC take parts of a given ma-
trix.
SUBMAT has three arguments. The entry is

SUBMAT(U,nr,nc)

The first is the matrix name, and the other two are the row and column num-
bers. It gives the submatrix obtained from U by deleting the row nr and the
column nc. When one of them is equal to zero only column nc or row nr
is deleted.
MATEXTR and MATEXTC extract a row or a column and place it into a list-
like or bag-like object. The entries are

MATEXTR(U,VN,nr)

MATEXTC(U,VN,nc)

where U is the matrix, VN is the “vector name”, nr and nc are integers. If

VN is equal to list the vector is given as a list otherwise it is given as a
bag.

iii. Functions which manipulate matrices. They are MATSUBR, MATSUBC,

HCONCMAT, VCONCMAT, TPMAT, HERMAT
MATSUBR MATSUBC substitute rows and columns. They have three argu-
ments. Entries are:
 259

MATSUBR(U,bgl,nr)

MATSUBC(U,bgl,nc)

The meaning of the variables U, nr, nc is the same as above while bgl
is a list-like or bag-like vector. Its length should be compatible with the
dimensions of the matrix.
HCONCMAT VCONCMAT concatenate two matrices. The entries are

HCONCMAT(U,V)

VCONCMAT(U,V)

The first function concatenates horizontally, the second one concatenates

vertically. The dimensions must match.
TPMAT makes the tensor product of two matrices. It is also an infix function.
The entry is

TPMAT(U,V) or U TPMAT V

HERMAT takes the hermitian conjuguate of a matrix The entry is

HERMAT(U,HU)

where HU is the identifier for the hermitian matrix of U. It should be unas-

signed for this function to work successfully. This is done on purpose to
prevent accidental redefinition of an already used identifier .

iv. SETELMAT GETELMAT are functions of two integers. The first one resets
the element (i,j) while the second one extracts an element identified by
(i,j). They may be useful when dealing with matrices inside procedures.
260 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.6 AVECTOR: A vector algebra and calculus package

This package provides REDUCE with the ability to perform vector algebra using
the same notation as scalar algebra. The basic algebraic operations are supported,
as are differentiation and integration of vectors with respect to scalar variables,
cross product and dot product, component manipulation and application of scalar
functions (e.g. cosine) to a vector to yield a vector result.
Author: David Harper.

16.6.1 Introduction

This package 2 is written in RLISP (the LISP meta-language) and is intended for
use with REDUCE 3.4. It provides REDUCE with the ability to perform vector
algebra using the same notation as scalar algebra. The basic algebraic operations
are supported, as are differentiation and integration of vectors with respect to scalar
variables, cross product and dot product, component manipulation and application
of scalar functions (e.g. cosine) to a vector to yield a vector result.
A set of vector calculus operators are provided for use with any orthogonal curvi-
linear coordinate system. These operators are gradient, divergence, curl and del-
squared (Laplacian). The Laplacian operator can take scalar or vector arguments.
Several important coordinate systems are pre-defined and can be invoked by name.
It is also possible to create new coordinate systems by specifying the names of the
coordinates and the values of the scale factors.

16.6.2 Vector declaration and initialisation

Any name may be declared to be a vector, provided that it has not previously been
declared as a matrix or an array. To declare a list of names to be vectors use the
VEC command:

VEC A,B,C;

declares the variables A, B and C to be vectors. If they have already been assigned
(scalar) values, these will be lost.
When a vector is declared using the VEC command, it does not have an initial
value.
If a vector value is assigned to a scalar variable, then that variable will automati-
cally be declared as a vector and the user will be notified that this has happened.
2
Reference: Computer Physics Communications, 54, 295-305 (1989)
 261

A vector may be initialised using the AVEC function which takes three scalar argu-
ments and returns a vector made up from those scalars. For example

A := AVEC(A1, A2, A3);

sets the components of the vector A to A1, A2 and A3.

16.6.3 Vector algebra

(In the examples which follow, V, V1, V2 etc are assumed to be vectors while S,
S1, S2 etc are scalars.)
The scalar algebra operators +,-,* and / may be used with vector operands accord-
ing to the rules of vector algebra. Thus multiplication and division of a vector by
a scalar are both allowed, but it is an error to multiply or divide one vector by
another.
V := V1 + V2 - V3; Addition and subtraction
V := S1*3*V1; Scalar multiplication
V := V1/S; Scalar division
V := -V1; Negation
Vector multiplication is carried out using the infix operators DOT and CROSS.
These are defined to have higher precedence than scalar multiplication and divi-
sion.
V := V1 CROSS V2; Cross product
S := V1 DOT V2; Dot product
V := V1 CROSS V2 + V3;
V := (V1 CROSS V2) + V3;
The last two expressions are equivalent due to the precedence of the CROSS oper-
ator.
The modulus of a vector may be calculated using the VMOD operator.

S := VMOD V;

A unit vector may be generated from any vector using the VMOD operator.

V1 := V/(VMOD V);

Components may be extracted from any vector using index notation in the same
way as an array.
262 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

V := AVEC(AX, AY, AZ);

V(0); yields AX
V(1); yields AY
V(2); yields AZ
It is also possible to set values of individual components. Following from above:

V(1) := B;

The vector V now has components AX, B, AZ.

Vectors may be used as arguments in the differentiation and integration routines in
place of the dependent expression.
V := AVEC(X**2, SIN(X), Y);
DF(V,X); yields (2*X, COS(X), 0)
INT(V,X); yields (X**3/3, -COS(X), Y*X)
Vectors may be given as arguments to monomial functions such as SIN, LOG and
TAN. The result is a vector obtained by applying the function component-wise to
the argument vector.
V := AVEC(A1, A2, A3);
SIN(V); yields (SIN(A1), SIN(A2), SIN(A3))

16.6.4 Vector calculus

The vector calculus operators div, grad and curl are recognised. The Laplacian
operator is also available and may be applied to scalar and vector arguments.
V := GRAD S; Gradient of a scalar field
S := DIV V; Divergence of a vector field
V := CURL V1; Curl of a vector field
S := DELSQ S1; Laplacian of a scalar field
V := DELSQ V1; Laplacian of a vector field
These operators may be used in any orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system. The
user may alter the names of the coordinates and the values of the scale factors.
Initially the coordinates are X, Y and Z and the scale factors are all unity.
There are two special vectors : COORDS contains the names of the coordinates in
the current system and HFACTORS contains the values of the scale factors.
The coordinate names may be changed using the COORDINATES operator.

COORDINATES R,THETA,PHI;

This command changes the coordinate names to R, THETA and PHI.

 263

The scale factors may be altered using the SCALEFACTORS operator.

SCALEFACTORS(1,R,R*SIN(THETA));

This command changes the scale factors to 1, R and R SIN(THETA).

Note that the arguments of SCALEFACTORS must be enclosed in parentheses.
This is not necessary with COORDINATES.
When vector differential operators are applied to an expression, the current set of
coordinates are used as the independent variables and the scale factors are em-
ployed in the calculation. (See, for example, Batchelor G.K. ’An Introduction to
Fluid Mechanics’, Appendix 2.)
Several coordinate systems are pre-defined and may be invoked by name. To see a
list of valid names enter

SYMBOLIC !*CSYSTEMS;

and REDUCE will respond with something like

(CARTESIAN SPHERICAL CYLINDRICAL)

To choose a coordinate system by name, use the command GETCSYSTEM.

To choose the Cartesian coordinate system :

GETCSYSTEM ’CARTESIAN;

Note the quote which prefixes the name of the coordinate system. This is required
because GETCSYSTEM (and its complement PUTCSYSTEM) is a SYMBOLIC pro-
cedure which requires a literal argument.
REDUCE responds by typing a list of the coordinate names in that coordinate
system. The example above would produce the response

(X Y Z)

whilst

GETCSYSTEM ’SPHERICAL;

would produce

(R THETA PHI)

Note that any attempt to invoke a coordinate system is subject to the same restric-
264 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

tions as the implied calls to COORDINATES and SCALEFACTORS. In particular,

GETCSYSTEM fails if any of the coordinate names has been assigned a value and
the previous coordinate system remains in effect.
A user-defined coordinate system can be assigned a name using the command
PUTCSYSTEM. It may then be re-invoked at a later stage using GETCSYSTEM.
Example 5
We define a general coordinate system with coordinate names X,Y,Z and scale fac-
tors H1,H2,H3 :

COORDINATES X,Y,Z;
SCALEFACTORS(H1,H2,H3);
PUTCSYSTEM ’GENERAL;

This system may later be invoked by entering

GETCSYSTEM ’GENERAL;

16.6.5 Volume and Line Integration

Several functions are provided to perform volume and line integrals. These operate
in any orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system and make use of the scale factors
described in the previous section.
Definite integrals of scalar and vector expressions may be calculated using the
DEFINT function.
Example 6
To calculate the definite integral of sin(x)2 between 0 and 2π we enter

DEFINT(SIN(X)**2,X,0,2*PI);

This function is a simple extension of the INT function taking two extra arguments,
the lower and upper bounds of integration respectively.
Definite volume integrals may be calculated using the VOLINTEGRAL function
whose syntax is as follows :
VOLINTEGRAL(integrand, vector lower-bound, vector upper-bound);
Example 7
In spherical polar coordinates we may calculate the volume of a sphere by integrat-
ing unity over the range r=0 to RR, θ=0 to PI, φ=0 to 2*π as follows :
 265

VLB := AVEC(0,0,0); Lower bound

VUB := AVEC(RR,PI,2*PI); Upper bound in r, θ, φ respectively
VOLINTORDER := (0,1,2); The order of integration
VOLINTEGRAL(1,VLB,VUB);
Note the use of the special vector VOLINTORDER which controls the order in
which the integrations are carried out. This vector should be set to contain the
number 0, 1 and 2 in the required order. The first component of VOLINTORDER
contains the index of the first integration variable, the second component is the
index of the second integration variable and the third component is the index of the
third integration variable.
Example 8
Suppose we wish to calculate the volume of a right circular cone. This is equivalent
to integrating unity over a conical region with the bounds:
z = 0 to H (H = the height of the cone)
r = 0 to pZ (p = ratio of base diameter to height)
phi = 0 to 2*PI
We evaluate the volume by integrating a series of infinitesimally thin circular disks
of constant z-value. The integration is thus performed in the order : d(φ) from 0 to
2π, dr from 0 to p*Z, dz from 0 to H. The order of the indices is thus 2, 0, 1.

VOLINTORDER := AVEC(2,0,1);
VLB := AVEC(0,0,0);
VUB := AVEC(P*Z,H,2*PI);
VOLINTEGRAL(1,VLB,VUB);

(At this stage, we replace P*H by RR, the base radius of the cone, to obtain the
result in its more familiar form.)
Line integrals may be calculated using the LINEINT and DEFLINEINT funct-
ions. Their general syntax is
LINEINT(vector-function, vector-curve, variable);
DEFLINENINT(vector-function, vector-curve, variable, lower-bound,
upper-bound);
where

vector-function is any vector-valued expression;

vector-curve is a vector expression which describes the path of integration in
terms of the independent variable;
variable is the independent variable;
lower-bound
266 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

upper-bound are the bounds of integration in terms of the independent variable.

Example 9
In spherical polar coordinates, we may integrate round a line of constant theta
(‘latitude’) to find the length of such a line. The vector function is thus the tangent
to the ‘line of latitude’, (0,0,1) and the path is (0,LAT,PHI) where PHI is the
independent variable. We show how to obtain the definite integral i.e. from φ = 0
to 2π :

DEFLINEINT(AVEC(0,0,1),AVEC(0,LAT,PHI),PHI,0,2*PI);

16.6.6 Defining new functions and procedures

Most of the procedures in this package are defined in symbolic mode and are in-
voked by the REDUCE expression-evaluator when a vector expression is encoun-
tered. It is not generally possible to define procedures which accept or return vector
values in algebraic mode. This is a consequence of the way in which the REDUCE
interpreter operates and it affects other non-scalar data types as well : arrays cannot
be passed as algebraic procedure arguments, for example.

16.6.7 Acknowledgements

This package was written whilst the author was the U.K. Computer Algebra Sup-
port Officer at the University of Liverpool Computer Laboratory.
 267

16.7 BIBASIS: A Package for Calculating Boolean Invo-

lutive Bases

Authors: Yuri A. Blinkov and Mikhail V. Zinin

16.7.1 Introduction

Involutive polynomial bases are redundant Gröbner bases of special structure with
some additional useful features in comparison with reduced Gröbner bases [1].
Apart from numerous applications of involutive bases [2] the involutive algo-
rithms [3] provide an efficient method for computing reduced Gröbner bases. A
reduced Gröbner basis is a well-determined subset of an involutive basis and can
be easily extracted from the latter without any extra reductions. All this takes place
not only in rings of commutative polynomials but also in Boolean rings.
Boolean Gröbner basis already have already revealed their value and usability in
practice. The first impressive demonstration of practicability of Boolean Gröbner
bases was breaking the first HFE (Hidden Fields Equations) challenge in the public
key cryptography done in [4] by computing a Boolean Gröbner basis for the system
of quadratic polynomials in 80 variables. Since that time the Boolean Gröbner
bases application area has widen drastically and nowadays there is also a number
of quite successful examples of using Gröbner bases for solving SAT problems.
During our research we had developed [5, 6, 7] Boolean involutive algorithms
based on Janet and Pommaret divisions and applied them to computation of
Boolean Gröbner bases. Our implementation of both divisions has experimentally
demonstrated computational superiority of the Pommaret division implementation.
This package BIBASIS is the result of our thorough research in the field of Boolean
Gröbner bases. BIBASIS implements the involutive algorithm based on Pommaret
division in a multivariate Boolean ring.
In section 2 the Boolean ring and its peculiarities are shortly introduced. In section
3 we briefly argue why the involutive algorithm and Pommaret division are good
for Boolean ring while the Buhberger’s algorithm is not. And finally in section 4
we give the full description of BIBASIS package capabilities and illustrate it by
examples.

16.7.2 Boolean Ring

Boolean ring perfectly goes with its name, it is a ring of Boolean functions of n
variables, i.e mappings from {0, 1}n to {0, 1}n . Considering these variables are
X := {x1 , . . . , xn } and F2 is the finite field of two elements {0, 1}, Boolean ring
268 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

can be regarded as the quotient ring

B [X] := F2 [X] / < x21 + x1 , . . . , x2n + xn > .

Multiplication in B [X] is idempotent and addition is nilpotent

∀ b ∈ B [X] : b2 = b , b + b = 0.

Elements in B [X] are Boolean polynomials and can be represented as finite sums
X Y
x
j x∈ Ωj ⊆ X

of Boolean monomials. Each monomial is a conjunction. If set Ω is empty, then

the corresponding monomial is the unity Boolean function 1. The sum of zero
monomials corresponds to zero polynomial, i.e. is zero Boolean function 0.

16.7.3 Pommaret Involutive Algorithm

Detailed description of involutive algorithm can found in [3]. Here we note that
result of both involutive and Buhberger’s algorithms depend on chosen monomial
ordering. At that the ordering must be admissible, i.e.

m 6= 1 ⇐⇒ m  1, m1  m2 ⇐⇒ m1 m  m2 m ∀ m, m1 , m2 .

But as one can easily check the second condition of admissibility does not hold for
any monomial ordering in Boolean ring:
∗x
1
x1  x2 −−−−→ x1 ∗ x1  x2 ∗ x2 −−→ x1 ≺ x1 x2

Though B [X] is a principal ideal ring, boolean singleton {p} is not necessarily a
Gröbner basis of ideal < p >, for example:

x1 , x2 ∈ < x1 x2 + x1 + x2 >⊂ B [x1 , x2 ].

That the reason why one cannot apply the Buhberger’s algorithm directly in a
Boolean ring, using instead a ring F2 [X] and the field binomials x21 + x1 , . . . , x2n +
xn .
The involutive algorithm based on Janet division has the same disadvantage unlike
the Pommaret division algorithm as shown in [5]. The Pommaret division algo-
rithm can be applied directly in a Boolean ring and admits effective data structures
for monomial representation.
 269

16.7.4 BIBASIS Package

The package BIBASIS implements the Pommaret division algorithm in a Boolean

ring. The first step to using the package is to load it:

1: load_package bibasis;

The current version of the BIBASIS user interface consists only of 2 functions:
bibasis and bibasis_print_statistics.
The bibasis is the function that performs all the computation and has the fol-
lowing syntax:

bibasis(initial_polynomial_list, variables_list,
monomial_ordering, reduce_to_groebner);

Input:

• initial_polynomial_list is the list of polynomials containing the

known basis of initial Boolean ideal. All given polynomials are treated mod-
ulo 2. See Example 1.

• variables_list is the list of independent variables in decreasing order.

• monomial_ordering is a chosen monomial ordering and the supported

ones are:

lex – pure lexicographical ordering;

deglex – degree lexicographic ordering;
degrevlex – degree reverse lexicographic.

See Examples 2—4 to check that Gröbner (as well as involutive) basis de-
pends on monomial ordering.

• reduce_to_groebner is a Boolean value, if it is t the output is the

reduced Boolean Gröbner basis, if nil, then the reduced Boolean Pommaret
basis. Examples 5,6 show distinctions between these two outputs.

Output:

• The list of polynomials which constitute the reduced Boolean Gröbner or

Pommaret basis.

The syntax of bibasis_print_statistics is simple:

bibasis_print_statistics();
270 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

This function prints out a brief statistics for the last invocation of bibasis func-
tion. See Example 7.

16.7.5 Examples

Example 1:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: bibasis({x+2*y}, {x,y}, lex, t);
{x}

Example 2:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={x0,x1,x2,x3,x4}$
3: polynomials := {x0*x3+x1*x2,x2*x4+x0}$
4: bibasis(polynomials, variables, lex, t);
{x0 + x2*x4,x2*(x1 + x3*x4)}

Example 3:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={x0,x1,x2,x3,x4}$
3: polynomials := {x0*x3+x1*x2,x2*x4+x0}$
4: bibasis(polynomials, variables, deglex, t);
{x1*x2*(x3 + 1),
x1*(x0 + x2),
x0*(x2 + 1),
x0*x3 + x1*x2,
x0*(x4 + 1),
x2*x4 + x0}

Example 4:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={x0,x1,x2,x3,x4}$
3: polynomials := {x0*x3+x1*x2,x2*x4+x0}$
4: bibasis(polynomials, variables, degrevlex, t);
{x0*(x1 + x3),
x0*(x2 + 1),
 271

x1*x2 + x0*x3,
x0*(x4 + 1),
x2*x4 + x0}
272 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Example 5:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={x,y,z}$
3: polinomials := {x, z}$
4: bibasis(polinomials, variables, degrevlex, t);
{x,z}

Example 6:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={x,y,z}$
3: polinomials := {x, z}$
4: bibasis(polinomials, variables, degrevlex, nil);
{x,z,y*z}

Example 7:

1: load_package bibasis;
2: variables :={u0,u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6,u7,u8,u9}$
3: polinomials := {u0*u1+u1*u2+u1+u2*u3+u3*u4+u4*u5+u5*u6+u6*u7+u7*u8+
3: u0*u2+u1+u1*u3+u2*u4+u2+u3*u5+u4*u6+u5*u7+u6*u8+u7*
3: u0*u3+u1*u2+u1*u4+u2*u5+u3*u6+u3+u4*u7+u5*u8+u6*u9,
3: u0*u4+u1*u3+u1*u5+u2+u2*u6+u3*u7+u4*u8+u4+u5*u9,
3: u0*u5+u1*u4+u1*u6+u2*u3+u2*u7+u3*u8+u4*u9+u5,
3: u0*u6+u1*u5+u1*u7+u2*u4+u2*u8+u3+u3*u9+u6,
3: u0*u7+u1*u6+u1*u8+u2*u5+u2*u9+u3*u4+u7,
3: u0*u8+u1*u7+u1*u9+u2*u6+u3*u5+u4+u8,
3: u0+u1+u2+u3+u4+u5+u6+u7+u8+u9+1}$
4: bibasis(polinomials, variables, degrevlex, t);
{u3*u6,
u3*u7,
u7*(u6 + 1),
u3*u8,
u6*u8 + u6 + u7,
u7*u8,
u3*(u9 + 1),
u6*u9 + u7,
u7*(u9 + 1),
u8*u9 + u6 + u7 + u8,
u0 + u3 + u6 + u9 + 1,
u1 + u7,
 273

u2 + u7 + u8,
u4 + u6 + u8,
u5 + u6 + u7 + u8}
5: bibasis_print_statistics();
Variables order = u0 > u1 > u2 > u3 > u4 > u5 > u6 > u7 > u8 > u9
Normal forms calculated = 216
Non-zero normal forms = 85
Reductions made = 4488
Time: 270 ms
GC time: 0 ms

Bibliography

[1] V.P.Gerdt and Yu.A.Blinkov. Involutive Bases of Polynomial Ideals. Mathe-

matics and Computers in Simulation, 45, 519–542, 1998; Minimal Involutive
Bases, ibid. 543–560.

[2] W.M.Seiler. Involution: The Formal Theory of Differential Equations and its
Applications in Computer Algebra. Algorithms and Computation in Mathe-
matics, 24, Springer, 2010. arXiv:math.AC/0501111

[3] Vladimir P. Gerdt. Involutive Algorithms for Computing Gröbner Bases.

Computational Commutative and Non-Commutative Algebraic Geometry.
IOS Press, Amsterdam, 2005, pp.199–225.

[4] J.-C.Faugère and A.Joux. Algebraic Cryptanalysis of Hidden Field Equations

(HFE) Using Gröbner Bases. LNCS 2729, Springer-Verlag, 2003, pp.44–60.

[5] V.P.Gerdt and M.V.Zinin. A Pommaret Division Algorithm for Computing

Gröbner Bases in Boolean Rings. Proceedings of ISSAC 2008, ACM Press,
2008, pp.95–102.

[6] V.P.Gerdt and M.V.Zinin. Involutive Method for Computing Gröbner Bases
over F2 . Programming and Computer Software, Vol.34, No. 4, 2008, 191–
203.

[7] Vladimir Gerdt, Mikhail Zinin and Yuri Blinkov. On computation of Boolean
involutive bases, Proceedings of International Conference Polynomial Com-
puter Algebra 2009, pp. 17-24 (International Euler Institute, April 7-12, 2009,
St. Peterburg, Russia)
274 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.8 BOOLEAN: A package for boolean algebra

This package supports the computation with boolean expressions in the proposi-
tional calculus. The data objects are composed from algebraic expressions con-
nected by the infix boolean operators and, or, implies, equiv, and the unary prefix
operator not. Boolean allows you to simplify expressions built from these oper-
ators, and to test properties like equivalence, subset property etc.
Author: Herbert Melenk.

16.8.1 Introduction

The package Boolean supports the computation with boolean expressions in the
propositional calculus. The data objects are composed from algebraic expressions
(“atomic parts”, “leafs”) connected by the infix boolean operators and, or, im-
plies, equiv, and the unary prefix operator not. Boolean allows you to simplify
expressions built from these operators, and to test properties like equivalence, sub-
set property etc. Also the reduction of a boolean expression by a partial evaluation
and combination of its atomic parts is supported.

16.8.2 Entering boolean expressions

In order to distinguish boolean data expressions from boolean expressions in the

REDUCE programming language (e.g. in an if statement), each expression must
be tagged explicitly by an operator boolean. Otherwise the boolean operators
are not accepted in the REDUCE algebraic mode input. The first argument of
boolean can be any boolean expression, which may contain references to other
boolean values.

boolean (a and b or c);

q := boolean(a and b implies c);
boolean(q or not c);

Brackets are used to override the operator precedence as usual. The leafs or atoms
of a boolean expression are those parts which do not contain a leading boolean
operator. These are considered as constants during the boolean evaluation. There
are two pre-defined values:

• true, t or 1
• false, nil or 0

These represent the boolean constants. In a result form they are used only as 1 and
0.
 275

By default, a boolean expression is converted to a disjunctive normal form, that is

a form where terms are connected by or on the top level and each term is set of
leaf expressions, eventually preceded by not and connected by and. An operators
or or and is omitted if it would have only one single operand. The result of the
transformation is again an expression with leading operator boolean such that the
boolean expressions remain separated from other algebraic data. Only the boolean
constants 0 and 1 are returned untagged.
On output, the operators and and or are represented as /\ and \/, respectively.

boolean(true and false); -> 0

boolean(a or not(b and c)); -> boolean(not(b) \/ not(c) \/ a)
boolean(a equiv not c); -> boolean(not(a)/\c \/ a/\not(c))

16.8.3 Normal forms

The disjunctive normal form is used by default. It represents the “natural” view
and allows us to represent any form free or parentheses. Alternatively a conjunc-
tive normal form can be selected as simplification target, which is a form with
leading operator and. To produce that form add the keyword and as an additional
argument to a call of boolean.

boolean (a or b implies c);

->
boolean(not(a)/\not(b) \/ c)

boolean (a or b implies c, and);

->
boolean((not(a) \/ c)/\(not(b) \/ c))

Usually the result is a fully reduced disjunctive or conjuntive normal form, where
all redundant elements have been eliminated following the rules
a ∧ b ∨ ¬a ∧ b ←→ b
a ∨ b ∧ ¬a ∨ b ←→ b
Internally the full normal forms are computed as intermediate result; in these forms
each term contains all leaf expressions, each one exactly once. This unreduced
form is returned when you set the additional keyword full:

boolean (a or b implies c, full);

->
boolean(a/\b/\c \/ a/\not(b)/\c \/ not(a)/\b/\c \/ not(a)/\not(b)/\c
276 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

\/ not(a)/\not(b)/\not(c))

The keywords full and and may be combined.

16.8.4 Evaluation of a boolean expression

If the leafs of the boolean expression are algebraic expressions which may eval-
uate to logical values because the environment has changed (e.g. variables have
been bound), you can re–investigate the expression using the operator testbool
with the boolean expression as argument. This operator tries to evaluate all leaf
expressions in REDUCE boolean style. As many terms as possible are replaced
by their boolean values; the others remain unchanged. The resulting expression is
contracted to a minimal form. The result 1 (= true) or 0 (=false) signals that the
complete expression could be evaluated.
In the following example the leafs are built as numeric greater test. For using > in
the expressions the greater sign must be declared operator first. The error messages
are meaningless.

operator >;
fm:=boolean(x>v or not (u>v));
->
fm := boolean(not(u>v) \/ x>v)

v:=10$

testbool fm;

***** u - 10 invalid as number

***** x - 10 invalid as number

->
boolean(not(u>10) \/ x>10)

x:=3$
testbool fm;

***** u - 10 invalid as number

->
boolean(not(u>10))

x:=17$
 277

testbool fm;

***** u - 10 invalid as number

->
1
278 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.9 CALI: A package for computational commutative

algebra

Author: Hans-Gert Gräbe.

Key words: affine and projective monomial curves, affine and projective sets of
points, analytic spread, associated graded ring, blowup, border bases, construc-
tive commutative algebra, dual bases, elimination, equidimensional part, extended
Gröbner factorizer, free resolution, Gröbner algorithms for ideals and module,
Gröbner factorizer, ideal and module operations, independent sets, intersections,
lazy standard bases, local free resolutions, local standard bases, minimal gen-
erators, minors, normal forms, pfaffians, polynomial maps, primary decomposi-
tion, quotients, symbolic powers, symmetric algebra, triangular systems, weighted
Hilbert series, primality test, radical, unmixed radical.

16.9.1 Introduction

This package contains algorithms for computations in commutative algebra closely

related to the Gröbner algorithm for ideals and modules. Its heart is a new imple-
mentation of the Gröbner algorithm3 that allows the computation of syzygies, too.
This implementation is also applicable to submodules of free modules with gener-
ators represented as rows of a matrix.
Moreover CALI contains facilities for local computations, using a modern im-
plementation of Mora’s standard basis algorithm, see [26] and [13], that works
for arbitrary term orders. The full analogy between modules over the local ring
k[xv : v ∈ H]m and homogeneous (in fact H-local) modules over k[xv : v ∈ H]
is reflected through the switch . Turn it on (Gröbner basis, the default) or off (lo-
cal standard basis) to choose appropriate algorithms automatically. In v. 2.2 we
present an unified approach to both cases, using reduction with bounded ecart for
non Noetherian term orders, see [14] for details. This allows to have a common
driver for the Gröbner algorithm in both cases.
CALI extends also the restricted term order facilities of the groebner package,
defining term orders by degree vector lists, and the rigid implementation of the
sugar idea, by a more flexible ecart vector, in particular useful for local computa-
tions, see [13].

The package was designed mainly as a symbolic mode programming environment

extending the build-in facilities of REDUCE for the computational approach to
problems arising naturally in commutative algebra. An algebraic mode interface
accesses (in a more rigid frame) all important features implemented symbolically
3
The data representation even for polynomials is different from that given in the groebner
package distributed with REDUCE (and rests on ideas used in the dipoly package).
 279

and thus should be favored for short sample computations.

On the other hand, tedious computations are strongly recommended to be done
symbolically since this allows considerably more flexibility and avoids unneces-
sary translations of intermediate results from CALI’s internal data representation
to the algebraic mode and vice versa. Moreover, one can easily extend the package
with new symbolic mode scripts, or do more difficult interactive computations. For
all these purposes the symbolic mode interface offers substantially more facilities
than the algebraic one.

For a detailed description of special symbolic mode procedures one should consult
the source code and the comments therein. In this manual we can give only a brief
description of the main ideas incorporated into the package CALI. We concentrate
on the data structure design and the description of the more advanced algorithms.
For sample computations from several fields of commutative algebra the reader
may consult also the cali.tst file.

As main topics CALI contains facilities for

• defining rings, ideals and modules,

• computing Gröbner bases and local standard bases,

• computing syzygies, resolutions and (graded) Betti numbers,

• computing (now also weighted) Hilbert series, multiplicities, independent

sets, and dimensions,

• computing normal forms and representations,

• computing sums, products, intersections, quotients, stable quotients, elimi-

nation ideals etc.,

• primality tests, computation of radicals, unmixed radicals, equidimensional

parts, primary decompositions etc. of ideals and modules,

• advanced applications of Gröbner bases (blowup, associated graded ring,

analytic spread, symmetric algebra, monomial curves etc.),

• applications of linear algebra techniques to zero dimensional ideals, as e.g.

the FGLM change of term orders, border bases and affine and projective
ideals of sets of points,

• splitting polynomial systems of equations mixing factorization and the Gröb-

ner algorithm, triangular systems, and different versions of the extended
Gröbner factorizer.
280 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Below we will use freely without further explanation the notions common for text
books and papers about constructive commutative algebra, assuming the reader to
be familiar with the corresponding ideas and concepts. For further references see
e.g. the text books [2], [7] and [21] or the survey papers [5], [6] and [27].

Description of the Documents Distributed with CALI

The CALI package contains the following files:

cali.chg
a detailed report of changes from v. 2.1 to v. 2.2. and 2.2.1

cali.log
the output file, that cali.tst should produce with
load_package cali;
out "logfile"$
in "cali.tst";
shut "logfile"$

cali.red
the CALI source file.

cali.tex
this manual.

cali.tst
a test file with various examples and applications of CALI.

CALI should be precompiled as usual, i.e. either using the makefasl utility of RE-
DUCE or “by hand” via

faslout "cali"$
in "cali.red"$
faslend$

and then loaded via

load_package cali;
 281

Upon successful loading CALI responds with a message containing the version
number and the last update of the distribution.

Feel free to contact me by email if You have problems to get CALI started.
Also comments, hints, bug reports etc. are welcome.

CALI’s Language Concept

From a certain point of view one of the major disadvantage of the current RLISP
(and the underlying PSL) language is the fact that it supports modularity and data
encapsulation only in a rudimentary way. Since all parts of code loaded into a
session are visible all the time, name conflicts between different packages may
occur, will occur (even not issuing a warning message), and are hard to prevent,
since packages are developed (and are still developing) by different research groups
at different places and different time.
A (yet rudimentary) concept of REDUCE packages and modules indicates the di-
rection into what the REDUCE designers are looking for a solution for this general
problem.

CALI (2.0 and higher) follows a name concept for internal procedures to mimick
data encapsulation at a semantical level. We hope this way on the one hand to
resolve the conflicts described above at least for the internal part of CALI and on
the other hand to anticipate a desirable future and already foregoing development
of REDUCE towards a true modularity.
The package CALI is divided into several modules, each of them introducing either
a single new data type together with basic facilities, constructors, and selectors or
a collection of algorithms subject to a common problem. Each module contains in-
ternal procedures, conceptually hidden by this module, local procedures, designed
for a CALI wide use, and global procedures, exported by CALI into the general
(algebraic or symbolic) environment of REDUCE. A header module cali contains
all (fluid) global variables and switches defined by the pacakge CALI.
Along these lines the CALI procedures available in symbolic mode are divided into
three types with the following naming convention:

module!=procedure
internal to the given module.

module_procedure
exported by the given module into the local CALI environment.
282 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

procedure!*
a global procedure usually having a semantically equivalent procedure (possi-
bly with another parameter list) without trailing asterisk in algebraic mode.

There are also symbolic mode equivalents without trailing asterisk, if the algebraic
procedure is not a psopfn, but a symbolic operator. They transfer data to CALI’s
internal structure and call the corresponding procedure with trailing asterisk. CALI
2.2 distinguishes between algebraic and symbolic calls of such a procedure. In
symbolic mode such a procedure calls the corresponding procedure with trailing
asterisk directly without data transfer.

CALI 2.2 follows also a more concise concept for global variables. There are three
types of them:

True fluid global variables,

that are part of the current data structure, as e.g. the current base ring and the
degree vector. They are often locally rebound to be restored after interrupts.
Global variables, stored on the property list of the package name
cali,
that reflect the state of the computational model as e.g. the trace level, the
output print level or the chosen version of the Gröbner basis algorithm. There
are several such parameters in the module dualbases to serve the common dual
basis driver with information for different applications.
Switches,
that allow to choose different branches of algorithms. Note that this concept
interferes with the second one. Different versions of algorithms, that apply
different functions in a common driver, are not implemented through switches.

New and Improved Facilities in v. 2.1

The major changes in v. 2.1 reflect the experience we’ve got from the use of CALI
2.0. The following changes are worth mentioning explicitely:

1. The algebraic rule concept was adapted to CALI. It allows to supply rule
based coefficient domains. This is a more efficient way to deal with (easy)
algebraic numbers than through the arnum package.

2. listtest and listminimize provide an unified concept for different list opera-
tions previously scattered in the source text.
 283

3. There are several new quotient algorithms at the symbolic level (both the
general element and the intersection approaches are available) and new fea-
tures for the computation of equidimensional hull and equidimensional rad-
ical.
4. A new module scripts offers advanced applications of Gröbner bases.
5. Several advanced procedures initialize a Gröbner basis computation over a
certain intermediate base ring or term order as e.g. eliminate, resolve, matin-
tersect or all primary decomposition procedures. Interrupting a computation
in v. 2.1 now restores the original values of CALI’s global variables, since
all intermediate procedures work with local copies of the global variables.4
This doesn’t apply to advanced procedures that change the current base ring
as e.g. blowup, preimage, sym etc.

New and Improved Facilities in v. 2.2

Version 2.2 (beside bug fixes) incorporates several new facilities of constructive
non linear algebra that we investigated the last two years, as e.g. dual bases, the
Gröbner factorizer, triangular systems, and local standard bases. Essential changes
concern the following topics:

1. The CALI modules red and groeb were rewritten and the module mora was
removed. This is due to new theoretical insight into standard bases theory
as e.g. described in [13] or [14]. The Gröbner basis algorithm is reorganized
as a Gröbner driver with simplifier and base lists, that involves different ver-
sions of polynomial reduction according to the setting via gbtestversion. It
applies now to both noetherian and non noetherian term orders in a unified
way.
The switches and were removed.
2. The Gröbner factorizer was thoroughly revised, extended along the lines ex-
plained in [15], and collected into a separate module groebf . It now allows a
list of constraints also in algebraic mode. Two versions of an extended Gröb-
ner factorizer produce triangular systems, i.e. a decomposition into quasi
prime components, see [16], that are well suited for further (numerical) eval-
uation. There is also a version of the Gröbner factorizer that allows a list of
problems as input. This is especially useful, if a system is splitted with re-
spect to a “cheap” (e.g. degrevlex) term order and the pieces are recomputed
with respect to a “hard” (e.g. pure lex) term order.
The extended Gröbner factorizer involves, after change to dimension zero,
the computation of triangular systems. The corresponding module triang
4
Note that recovering the base ring this way may cause some trouble since the intermediate ring,
installed with setring, changed possibly the internal variable order set by setkorder.
284 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

extends the facilities for zero dimensional ideals and modules in the module
odim.

3. A new module lf implements the dual bases approach as described in [20].

On this basis there are new implementations of affine_points and proj_points,
that are significantly faster than the old ones. The linear algebra change of
term orders [9] is available, too. There are two versions, one with precom-
puted border basis, the other with conventional normal forms.

4. dpmats now have a gb-tag that indicates, whether the given ideal or module
basis is already a Gröbner basis. This avoids certain Gröbner basis recompu-
tations especially during advanced algorithms as e.g. prime decomposition.
In the algebraic interface Gröbner bases are computed automatically when
needed rather than to issue an error message as in v. 2.1. So one can call mod-
equalp or dim etc. not having computed Gröbner bases in advance. Note that
such automatic computation can be avoided with setgbasis.

5. Hilbert series are now weighted Hilbert series, since e.g. for blow up rings
the generating ideal is multigraded. Usual Hilbert series are computed as in
v. 2.1 with respect to the ecart vector. Weighted Hilbert series accept a list
of (integer) weight lists as second parameter.

6. There are some name and conceptual changes to existing procedures and
variables to have a more concise semantic concept. This concerns

tracing (the trace parameter is now stored on the property list of

cali and should be set with setcalitrace),
choosing different versions of the Gröbner algorithm (through
gbtestversion) and the Hilbert series computation (through hftestver-
sion),
some names (mat2list replaced flatten, HilbertSeries replaced
hilbseries) and
parameter lists of some local and internal procedures (consult
cali.chg for details).

7. The revlex term order is now the reverse lexicographic term order on the
reversely ordered variables. This is consistent with other computer algebra
systems (e.g. SINGULAR or AXIOM)5 and implies the same order on the
variables for deglex and degrevlex term orders (this was the main reason to
change the definition).

8. Ideals of minors, pfaffians and related stuff are now implemented as exten-
sion of the internal matrix package and collected into a separate module
5
But different to the currently distibuted groebner package in REDUCE. Note that the compu-
tations in [15] were done before these changes.
 285

calimat. Thus they allow more general expressions, especially with vari-
able exponents, as general REDUCE matrices do. So one can define generic
ideals as e.g. ideals of minors or pfaffians of matrices, containing generic
expressions as elements. They must be specified for further use in CALI
substituting general exponents by integers.

New and Improved Facilities in v. 2.2.1

The main change concerns the primary decomposition algorithm, where I fixed a
serious bug for deciding, which embedded primes are really embedded6 . During
that remake I incorporated also the Gröbner factorizer to compute isolated primes.
Since REDUCE has no multivariate modular factorizer, the switch factorprimes
may be turned off to switch to the former algorithm.
Some minor bugs are fixed, too, e.g. the bug that made radical crashing.

16.9.2 The Computational Model

This section gives a short introduction into the data type design of CALI at dif-
ferent levels. First (§1 and 2) we describe CALI’s way of algorithmic translation
of the abstract algebraic objects ring of polynomials, ideal and (finitely generated)
module. Then (§3 and 4) we describe the algebraic mode interface of CALI and
the switches and global variables to drive a session. In the next chapter we give a
more detailed overview of the basic (symbolic mode) data structures involved with
CALI. We refer to the appendix for a short summary of the commands available in
algebraic mode.

The Base Ring

A polynomial ring consists in CALI of the following data:

a list of variable names

All variables not occuring in the list of ring names are treated as parameters.
Computations are executed denominatorfree, but the results are valid only over
the corresponding parameter field extension.
a term order and a term order tag
They describe the way in which the terms in each polynomial (and polynomial
vector) are ordered.
6
That there must be a bug was pointed out to me by Shimoyama Takeshi who compared different
p.d. implementations. The bug is due to an incorrect test for embedded primes: A (superfluous)
primary component may contain none of the isolated primary components, but their intersection!
Note that neither [10] nor [2] comment on that. Details of the implementation will appear in [17].
286 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

an ecart vector
A list of positive integers corresponding to the variable names.

A base ring may be defined (in algebraic mode) through the command

setring <ring>

with < ring > ::= { vars, tord, tag [, ecart ] } resp.

setring(vars, tord, tag [,ecart])

his sets the global (symbolic) variable cali!=basering. Here vars is the list of
variable names, tord a (possibly empty) list of weight lists, the degree vectors,
and tag the tag LEX or REVLEX. Optionally one can supply ecart, a list of
positive integers of the same length as vars, to set an ecart vector different from
the default one (see below).
The degree vectors must have the same length as vars. If (w1 . . . wk ) is the list
of degree vectors then

xa < xb :⇔ either wj (xa ) = wj (xb ) for j < i and

wi (xa ) < wi (xb )

or wj (xa ) = wj (xb ) for all j and

xa <lex xb resp. xa <revlex xb
Here <lex resp. <revlex denote the lexicographic (tag=LEX) resp. reverse lexi-
cographic (tag=REVLEX) term orders7 with respect to the variable order given in
vars, i.e.

xa < xb :⇔ ∃ j ∀ i < j : ai = bi and aj < bj (lex.)

or
xa < xb :⇔ ∃ j ∀ i > j : ai = bi and aj > bj (revlex.)

Every term order can be represented in such a way, see [24].

During the ring setting the term order will be checked to be Noetherian (i.e. to fulfill
the descending chain condition) provided the switch is on (the default). The same
applies turning noetherian on: If the term order of the underlying base ring isn’t
Noetherian the switch can’t be turned over. Hence, starting from a non Noetherian
term order, one should define first a new ring and then turn the switch on.
Useful term orders can be defined by the procedures
7
The definition of the revlex term order changed for version 2.2.
 287

degreeorder vars,
that returns tord = {{1, . . . , 1}}.

localorder vars,
that returns tord = {{−1, . . . , −1}} (a non Noetherian term order for compu-
tations in local rings).
eliminationorder(vars,elimvars),
that returns a term order for elimination of the variables in elimvars, a sub-
set of all vars. It’s recommended to combine it with the tag REVLEX.
blockorder(vars,integerlist),
that returns the list of degree vectors for the block order with block lengths
given in the integerlist. Note that these numbers should sum up to the
length of the variable list supplied as the first argument.

Examples:

vars:={x,y,z};
tord:=degreeorder vars; % Returns {{1,1,1}}.
setring(vars,tord,lex); % GRADLEX in the groebner package.

% or

setring({a,b,c,d},{},lex); % LEX in the groebner package.

% or

vars:={a,b,c,x,y,z};
tord:=eliminationorder(vars,{x,y,z});
tord:=reverse blockorder(vars,{3,3});
% Return both {{0,0,0,1,1,1},{1,1,1,0,0,0}}.
setring(vars,tord,revlex);

The base ring is initialized with

{{t,x,y,z},{{1,1,1,1}},revlex,{1,1,1,1}},

i.e. S = k[t, x, y, z] supplied with the degree wise reverse lexicographic term order.

getring m
returns the ring attached to the object with the identifier m. E.g.
288 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

setring getring m
(re)sets the base ring to the base ring of the formerly defined object (ideal or
module) m.
getring()
returns the currently active base ring.

CALI defines also an ecart vector, attaching to each variable a positive weight with
respect to that homogenizations and related algorithms are executed. It may be set
optionally by the user during the setring command. (Default: If the term order is a
(positive) degree order then the ecart is the first degree vector, otherwise each ecart
equals 1).
The ecart vector is used in several places for efficiency reason (Gröbner basis com-
putation with the sugar strategy) or for termination (local standard bases). If the
input is homogeneous the ecart vector should reflect this homogeneity rather than
the first degree vector to obtain the best possible performance. For a discussion
of local computations with encoupled ecart vector see [13]. In general the ecart
vector is recommended to be chosen in such a way that the input examples become
close to be homogeneous. Homogenizations and Hilbert series are computed with
respect to this ecart vector.

getecart() returns the ecart vector currently set.

Ideals and Modules

If S = k[xv , v ∈ H] is a polynomial ring, a matrix M of size r × c defines a map

f : S r −→ S c

by the following rule

f (v) := v · M for v ∈ S r .

There are two modules, connected with such a map, im f , the submodule of S c
generated by the rows of M , and coker f (= S c /im f ). Conceptually we will
identify M with im f for the basic algebra, and with coker f for more advanced
topics of commutative algebra (Hilbert series, dimension, resolution etc.) follow-
ing widely accepted conventions.
With respect to a fixed basis {e1 , . . . , ec } one can define module term orders on
S c , Gröbner bases of submodules of S c etc. They generalize the corresponding
notions for ideal bases. See [8] or [22] for a detailed introduction to this area of
computational commutative algebra. This allows to define joint facilities for both
 289

ideals and submodules of free modules. Moreover computing syzygies the latter
come in in a natural way.
CALI handles ideal and module bases in a unique way representing them as rows
of a dpmat (distributive polynomial matrix). It attaches to each unit vector ei a
monomial xai , the i-th column degree and represents the rows of a dpmat M as
lists of module terms xa ei , sorted with respect to a module term order, that may be
roughly8 described as

xa ei < xb ej :⇔ either xa xai < xb xaj in S

or xa xai = xb xaj
and
i < j (lex.) resp. i > j (revlex.)

Every dpmat M has its own column degrees (no default !). They are managed
through a global (symbolic) variable cali!=degrees.

getdegrees m
returns the column degrees of the object with identifier m.

getdegrees()
returns the current setting of cali!=degrees.

setdegrees <list of monomials>

sets cali!=degrees correspondingly. Use this command before executing set-
module to give a dpmat prescribed column degrees since cali!=degrees has no
default value and changes during computations. A good guess is to supply
the empty list (i.e. all column degrees are equal to x0 ). Be careful defining
modules without prescribed column degrees.

To distinguish between ideals and modules the former are represented as a dpmat
with c = 0 (and hence without column degrees). If I ⊂ S is such an ideal one has
to distinguish between the ideal I (with c = 0, allowing special ideal operations as
e.g. ideal multiplication) and the submodule I of the free one dimensional module
S 1 (with c = 1, allowing matrix operations as e.g. transposition, matrix multiplica-
tion etc.). ideal2mat converts an (algebraic) list of polynomials into an (algebraic)
matrix column whereas mat2list collects all matrix entries into a list.
8
The correct definition is even more difficult.
290 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The Algebraic Mode Interface

Corresponding to CALI’s general philosophy explained in the introduction the al-

gebraic mode interface translates algebraic input into CALI’s internal data repre-
sentation, calls the corresponding symbolic functions, and retranslates the result
back into algebraic mode. Since Gröbner basis computations may be very tedious
even on small examples, one should find a well balance between the storage of
results computed earlier and the unavoidable time overhead and memory request
associated with the management of these results.
Therefore CALI distinguishes between free and bounded identifiers. Free iden-
tifiers stand only for their value whereas to bounded identifiers several internal
information is attached to their property list for later use.

After the initialization of the base ring bounded identifiers for ideals or modules
should be declared via

setmodule(name,matrix value)

resp.

setideal(name,list of polynomials)

This way the corresponding internal representation (as dpmat) is attached to name
as the property basis, the prefix form as its value and the current base ring as the
property ring.
Performing any algebraic operation on objects defined this way their ring will be
compared with the current base ring (including the term order). If they are different
an error message occurs. If m is a valid name, after resetting the base ring

setmodule(m1,m)

reevaluates m with respect to the new base ring (since the value of m is its prefix
form) and assigns the reordered dpmat to m1 clearing all information previously
computed for m1 (m1 and m may coincide).
All computations are performed with respect to the ring S = k[xv ∈ vars] over
the field k. Nevertheless by efficiency reasons base coefficients are represented in
a denominator free way as standard forms. Hence the computational properties of
the base coefficient domain depend on the dmode and also on auxiliary variables,
contained in the expressions, but not in the variable list. They are assumed to be
parameters.
Best performance will be obtained with integer or modular domain modes, but one
can also try algebraic numbers as coefficients as e.g. generated by sqrt or the
 291

arnum package. To avoid an unnecessary slow-down connected with the man-

agement of simplified algebraic expressions there is a switch hardzerotest (default:
off) that may be turned on to force an additional simplification of algebraic coeffi-
cients during each zero test. It should be turned on only for domain modes without
canonical representations as e.g. mixtures of arnums and square roots. We remind
the general zero decision problem for such domains.
Alternatively, CALI offers the possibility to define a set of algebraic substitution
rules that will affect CALI’s base coefficient arithmetic only.

setrules <rule list>

transfers the (algebraic) rule list into the internal representation stored at the
cali value rules.
In particular, setrules {} clears the rules previously set.
getrules()
returns the internal CALI rules list in algebraic form.

We recommend to use setrules for computations with algebraic numbers since they
are better adapted to the data structure of CALI than the algebraic numbers pro-
vided by the arnum package. Note, that due to the zero decision problem compli-
cated setrules based computations may produce wrong results if base coefficient’s
pseudo division is involved (as e.g. with dp_pseudodivmod). In this case we rec-
ommend to enlarge the variable set and add the defining equations of the algebraic
numbers to the equations of the problem9 .

The standard domain (Integer) doesn’t allow denominators for input. setideal
clears automatically the common denominator of each input expression whereas
a polynomial matrix with true rational coefficients will be rejected by setmodule.

One can save/initialize ideal and module bases together with their accompanying
data (base ring, degrees) to/from a file:

savemat(m,name)

resp.

initmat name

execute the file transfer from/to disk files with the specified file name. e.g.

savemat(m,"myfile");
9
A qring facility for the computation over quotient rings will be incorporated into future versions.
292 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

saves the base ring and the ideal basis of m to the file “myfile” whereas

setideal(m,initmat "myfile");

sets the current base ring (via a call to setring) to the base ring of m saved at
“myfile” and then recovers the basis of m from the same file.

Switches and Global Variables

There are several switches, (fluid) global variables, a trace facility, and global pa-
rameters on the property list of the package name cali to control CALI’s compu-
tations.

Switches

bcsimp
on: Cancel out gcd’s of base coefficients. (Default: on)

detectunits
on: replace polynomials of the form
hmonomiali∗hpolynomial uniti by hmonomiali during interreductions and
standard basis computations.
Affects only local computations. (Default: off)
factorprimes
on: Invoke the Gröbner factorizer during computation of isolated primes. (De-
fault: on). Note that REDUCE lacks a modular multivariate factorizer, hence
for modular prime decomposition computations this switch has to be turned
off.
factorunits
on: factor polynomials and remove polynomial unit factors during interreduc-
tions and standard basis computations.
Affects only local computations. (Default: off)
hardzerotest
on: try an additional algebraic simplification of base coefficients at each base
coefficient’s zero test. Useful only for advanced base coefficient domains with-
out canonical REDUCE representation. May slow down the computation dras-
tically. (Default: off)
 293

lexefgb
on: Use the pure lexicographic term order and zerosolve during reduction to
dimension zero in the extended Gröbner factorizer. This is a single, but possi-
bly hard task compared to the degrevlex invocation of zerosolve1. See [16] for
a discussion of different zero dimensional solver strategies. (Default: off)
Noetherian
on: choose algorithms for Noetherian term orders.
off: choose algorithms for local term orders.
(Default: on)
red_total
on: compute total normal forms, i.e. apply reduction (Noetherian term orders)
or reduction with bounded ecart (non Noetherian term orders to tail terms of
polynomials, too.
off: Do only top reduction.
(Default: on)

Tracing Different to v. 2.1 now intermediate output during the computations is

controlled by the value of the trace and printterms entries on the property
list of the package name cali. The former value controls the intensity of the
intermediate output (Default: 0, no tracing), the latter the number of terms printed
in such intermediate polynomials (Default: all).

setcalitrace <n>
changes the trace intensity. Set n = 2 for a sparse tracing (a dot for each
reduction step). Other good suggestions are the values 30 or 40 for tracing
the Gröbner algorithm or n > 70 for tracing the normal form algorithm. The
higher n the more intermediate information will be given.
setcaliprintterms <n>
sets the number of terms that are printed in intermediate polynomials. Note
that this does not affect the output of whole dpmats. The output of polynomials
with more than n terms (n > 0) breaks off and continues with ellipses.
clearcaliprintterms()
clears the printterms value forcing full intermediate output (according to
the current trace level).

Global Variables

cali!=basering
294 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The currently active base ring initialized e.g. by setring.

cali!=degrees
The currently active module component degrees initialized e.g. by setdegrees.

cali!=monset
A list of variable names considered as non zero divisors during Gröbner ba-
sis computations initialized e.g. by setmonset. Useful e.g. for binomial ideals
defining monomial varieties or other prime ideals.

Entries on the Property List of cali This approach is new for v. 2.2. Infor-
mation concerning the state of the computational model as e.g. trace intensity, base
coefficient rules, or algorithm versions are stored as values on the property list of
the package name cali. This concerns

trace and printterms

see above.

efgb
Changed by the switch lexefgb.

groeb!=rf
Reduction function invoked during the Gröbner algorithm. It can be changed
with gbtestversion < n > (n = 1, 2, 3, default is 1).
hf!=hf
Variant for the computation of the Hilbert series numerator. It can be changed
with hftestversion < n > (n = 1, 2, default is 1).
rules
Algebraic “replaceby” rules introduced to CALI with the setrules command.

evlf , varlessp, sublist, varnames, oldborderbasis, oldring, oldbasis

see module lf , implementing the dual bases approach.

16.9.3 Basic Data Structures

In the following we describe the data structure layers underlying the dpmat rep-
resentation in CALI and some important (symbolic) procedures to handle them.
 295

We refer to the source code and the comments therein for a more complete survey
about the procedures available for different data types.

The Coefficient Domain

Base coefficients as implemented in the module bcsf are standard forms in the vari-
ables outside the variable list of the current ring. All computations are executed
"denominator free" over the corresponding quotient field, i.e. gcd’s are canceled
out without request. To avoid this set the switch bcsimp off.10 In the given imple-
mentation we use the s.f. procedure qremf for effective divisibility test. We had
some trouble with it under on factor.
Additionally it is possible to supply the parameters occuring as base coefficients
with a (global) set of algebraic rules.11

setrules!* r
converts an algebraic mode rules list r as e.g. used in WHERE statements into
the internal CALI format.

The Base Ring

The base ring is defined by its name list, the degree matrix (a list of lists
of integers), the ring tag (LEX or REVLEX), and the ecart. The name list
contains a phantom name cali!=mk for the module component at place 0.

The module ring exports among others the selectors ring_names, ring_degrees,
ring_tag, ring_ecart, the test function ring_isnoetherian and the transfer pro-
cedures from/to an (appropriate, printable by mathprint) algebraic prefix form
ring_from_a (including extensive tests of the supplied parameters for consistency)
and ring_2a.
The following procedures allow to define a base ring:

ring_define(name list, degree matrix, ring tag, ecart)

combines the given parameters to a ring.

10
This induces a rapid base coefficient’s growth and doesn’t yield Z-Gröbner bases in the sense of
[10] since the S-pair criteria are different.
11
This is different from the LET rule mechanism since they must be present in symbolic mode.
Hence for a simultaneous application of the same rules in algebraic mode outside CALI they must
additionally be declared in the usual way.
296 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

setring!* <ring>
sets cali!=basering and checks for consistency with the switch Noetherian. It
also sets through setkorder the current variable list as main variables. It is
strongly recommended to use setring!* . . . instead of cali!=basering:=. . . .

degreeorder!* , localorder!*, eliminationorder!*, and blockorder!*

define term order matrices in full analogy to algebraic mode.

There are three ring constructors for special purposes:

ring_sum(a,b)
returns a ring, that is constructed in the following way: Its variable list is the
union of the (disjoint) lists of the variables of the rings a and b (in this order)
whereas the degree list is the union of the (appropriately shifted) degree lists of
b and a (inLthis order). The ring tag is that of a. Hence it returns (essentially)
the ring b a if b has a degree part (e.g. useful Lfor elimination problems,
introducing “big” new variables) and the ring a b if b has no degree part
(introducing “small” new variables).
ring_rlp(r,u)
u is a subset of the names of the ring r. Returns the ring r, but with a term
order “first degrevlex on u, then the order on r”.
ring_lp(r,u)
As rlp, but with a term order “first lex on u, then the order on r”.

Example:

vars:=’(x y z)
setring!* ring_define(vars,degreeorder!* vars,’lex,’(1 1 1));
% GRADLEX in the groebner package.

Monomials

The current version uses a place-driven exponent representation closely related to

a vector model. This model handles term orders on S and module term orders
on S c in a unique way. The zero component of the exponent list of a monomial
contains its module component (> 0) or 0 (ring element). All computations are
executed with respect to a current ring (cali!=basering) and current (monomial)
weights of the free generators ei , i = 1, . . . , c, of S c (cali!=degrees). For efficiency
reasons every monomial has a precomputed degree part that should be reevaluated
if cali!=basering (i.e. the term order) or cali!=degrees were changed.
 297

cali!=degrees contains the list of column degrees of the current module as

an assoc. list and will be set automatically by (almost) all dpmat procedure calls.
Since monomial operations use the degree list that was precomputed with respect
to fixed column degrees (and base ring)

watch carefully for cali!=degrees programming at the mono-

mial or dpoly level !

As procedures there are selectors for the module component, the exponent and
the degree parts, comparison procedures, procedures for the management of the
module component and the degree vector, monomial arithmetic, transfer from/to
prefix form, and more special tools.

Polynomials and Polynomial Vectors

CALI uses a distributive representation as a list of terms for both polynomials and
polynomial vectors, where a term is a dotted pair
(< monomial > . < base coef f icient >).
P
The ecart of a polynomial (vector) f = ti with (module) terms ti is defined as
max(ec(ti )) − ec(lt(ti )),
see [13]. Here ec(ti ) denotes the ecart of the term ti , i.e. the scalar product of the
exponent vector of ti (including the monomial weight of the module generator)
with the ecart vector of the current base ring.
As procedures there are selectors, dpoly arithmetic including the management of
the module component, procedures for reordering (and reevaluating) polynomials
wrt. new term order degrees, for extracting common base coefficient or monomial
factors, for transfer from/to prefix form and for homogenization and dehomoge-
nization (wrt. the current ecart vector).
Two advanced procedures use ideal theory ingredients:

dp_pseudodivmod(g,f)
returns a dpoly list {q, r, z} such that z · g = q · f + r and z is a dpoly unit
(i.e. a scalar for Noetherian term orders). For non Noetherian term orders the
necessary modifications are described in [14].
g, f and r belong to the same free module or ideal.
dpgcd(a,b)
computes the gcd of two dpolys a and b by the syzygy method: The syzygy
module of {a, b} is generated by a single element [−b0 a0 ] with a = ga0 , b =
gb0 , where g is the gcd of a and b. Since it uses dpoly pseudodivision it may
work not properly with setrules.
298 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Base Lists

Ideal bases are one of the main ingredients for dpmats. They are represented as
lists of base elements and contain together with each dpoly entry the following
information:

• a number (the row number of the polynomial vector in the corresponding

dpmat).

• the dpoly, its ecart (as the main sort criterion), and length.

• a representation part, that may contain a representation of the given dpoly in

terms of a certain fixed basis (default: empty).

The representation part is managed during normal form computations and other
row arithmetic of dpmats appropriately with the following procedures:

bas_setrelations b
sets the relation part of the base element i in the base list b to ei .

bas_removerelations b
removes all relations, i.e. replaces them with the zero polynomial vector.

bas_getrelations b
gets the relation part of b as a separate base list.

Further there are procedures for selection and construction of base elements and for
the manipulation of lists of base elements as e.g. sorting, renumbering, reordering,
simplification, deleting zero base elements, transfer from/to prefix form, homoge-
nization and dehomogenization.

Dpoly Matrices

Ideals and matrices, represented as dpmats, are the central data type of the CALI
package, as already explained above. Every dpmat m combines the following in-
formation:

• its size (dpmat_rows m,dpmat_cols m),

• its base list (dpmat_list m) and

 299

• its column degrees as an assoc. list of monomials (dpmat_coldegs m). If this

list is empty, all degrees are assumed to be equal to x0 .
• New in v. 2.2 there is a gb-tag (dpmat_gbtag m), indicating that the given
base list is already a Gröbner basis (under the given term order).

The module dpmat contains selectors, constructors, and the algorithms for the basic
management of this data structure as e.g. file transfer, transfer from/to algebraic
prefix forms, reordering, simplification, extracting row degrees and leading terms,
dpmat matrix arithmetic, homogenization and dehomogenization.
The modules matop and quot collect more advanced procedures for the algebraic
management of dpmats.

Extending the REDUCE Matrix Package

In v. 2.2 minors, Jacobian matrix, and Pfaffians are available for general REDUCE
matrices. They are collected in the module calimat and allow to define procedures
in more generality, especially allowing variable exponents in polynomial expres-
sions. Such a generalization is especially useful for the investigation of whole
classes of examples that may be obtained from a generic one by specialization. In
the following m is a matrix given in algebraic prefix form.

matjac(m,l)
returns the Jacobian matrix of the ideal m (given as an algebraic mode list)
with respect to the variable list l.
minors(m,k)
returns the matrix of k-minors of the matrix m.

ideal_of_minors(m,k)
returns the ideal of the k-minors of the matrix m.

pfaffian m
returns the pfaffian of a skewsymmetric matrix m.

ideal_of_pfaffians(m,k)
returns the ideal of the 2k-pfaffians of the skewsymmetric matrix m.

random_linear_form(vars,bound)
returns a random linear form in algebraic prefix form in the supplied variables
vars with integer coefficients bounded by the supplied bound.
300 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

singular_locus!*(m,c)
returns the singular locus of m (as dpmat). m must be an ideal of codimension
c given as a list of polynomials in prefix form. Singular_locus computes
the ideal generated by the corresponding Jacobian and m itself.

16.9.4 About the Algorithms Implemented in CALI

Below we give a short explanation of the main algorithmic ideas of CALI and the
way they are implemented and may be accessed (symbolically).

Normal Form Algorithms

For v. 2.2 we completely revised the implementation of normal form algorithms

due to the insight obtained from our investigations of normal form procedures for
local term orders in [14] and [13]. It allows a common handling of Noetherian
and non Noetherian term orders already on this level thus making superfluous the
former duplication of reduction procedures in the modules red and mora as in v.
2.1.

Normal form algorithms reduce polynomials (or polynomial vectors) with respect
to a given finite set of generators of an ideal or module. The result is not unique ex-
cept for a total normal form with respect to a Gröbner basis. Furthermore different
reduction strategies may yield significant differences in computing time.
CALI reduces by first matching, usually keeping base lists sorted with respect to
the sort predicate red_better. In v. 2.2 we sort solely by the dpoly length, since
the introduction of red_TopRedBE, i.e. reduction with bounded ecart, guarantees
termination also for non Noetherian term orders. Overload red_better for other
reduction strategies.

Reduction procedures produce for a given ideal basis B ⊂ S and a polynomial

f ∈ S a (pseudo) normal form h ∈ S such that h ≡ u · f mod B where u ∈ S
is a polynomial unit, i.e. a (polynomially represented) non zero domain element in
the Noetherian case (pseudodivision of f by B) or a polynomial with a scalar as
leading term in the non Noetherian case. Following up the reduction steps one can
even produce a presentation of h − u · f as a polynomial combination of the base
elements in B.
rik ek = Ri · E T
P
More general, given for fi ∈ B and f representations fi =
T
and f = R · E as polynomial combinations wrt. a fixed basis E one can produce
such a presentation also for h. For this purpose the dpoly f and its representation
are collected into a base element and reduced simultaneously by the base list B,
that collects the base elements and their representations.
 301

The main procedures of the newly designed reduction package are the following:

red_TopRedBE(bas,model)
Top reduction with bounded ecart of the base element model by the base list
bas, i.e. only reducing the top term and only with base elements with ecart
bounded by that of model.
red_TopRed(bas,model)
Top reduction of model, but without restrictions.

red_TailRed(bas,model)
Make tail reduction on model, i.e. top reduction on the tail terms. For conver-
gence this uses reduction with bounded ecart for non Noetherian term orders
and full reduction otherwise.

There is a common red_TailRedDriver that takes a top reduction func-

tion as parameter. It can be used for experiments with other top reduc-
tion procedure combinations.
red_TotalRed(bas,model)
A terminating total reduction, i.e. for Noetherian term orders the classical one
and for local term orders using tail reduction with bounded ecart.
red_Straight bas
Reduce (with red_TailRed) the tails of the polynomials in the base list bas.

red_TopInterreduce bas
Reduces the base list bas with red_T opRed until it has pairwise incompa-
rable leading terms, computes correct representation parts, but does no tail
reduction.
red_Interreduce bas
Does top and, if on red_total, also tail interreduction on the base list bas.

Usually, e.g. for ideal generation problems, there is no need to care about the mul-
tiplier u. If nevertheless one needs its value, the base element f may be prepared
with red_prepare to collect this information in the 0-slot of its representation part.
Extract this information with red_extract.

red_redpol(bas,model)
combines this tool with a total reduction of the base element model and returns
a dotted pair
(< reduced model > . < dpoly unit multiplier >).
302 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Advanced applications call the interfacing procedures

interreduce!* m
that returns an interreduced basis of the dpmat m.

mod!*(f,m)
that returns the dotted pair (h.u) where h is the pseudo normal form of the
dpoly f modulo the dpmat m and u the corresponding polynomial unit multi-
plier.
normalform!*(a,b)
that returns {a1 , r, z} with a1 = z ∗ a − r ∗ b where the rows of the dpmat a1
are the normalforms of the rows of the dpmat a with respect to the dpmat b.

For local standard bases the ideal generated by the basic polynomials may have
components not passing through the origin. Although they do not contribute to the
ideal in Loc(S) = Sm they usually heavily increase the necessary computational
effort. Hence for local term orders one should try to remove polynomial units
as soon as they are detected. To remove them from base elements in an early
stage of the computation one can either try the (cheap) test, whether f ∈ S is of
the form hmonomiali ∗ hpolynomial uniti or factor f completely and remove
polynomial unit factors. For base elements this may be done with bas_detectunits
or bas_factorunits.
Moreover there are two switches detectunits and factorunits, both off by default,
that force such automatic simplifications during more advanced computations.
The procedure deleteunits!* tries explicitely to factor the basis polynomials of a
dpmat and to remove polynomial units occuring as one of the factors.

The Gröbner and Standard Basis Algorithms

There is now a unique module groeb that contains the Gröbner resp. standard basis
algorithms with syzygy computation facility and related topics. There are common
procedures (working for both Noetherian and non Noetherian term orders)

gbasis!* m
that returns a minimal Gröbner or standard basis of the dpmat m,

syzygies!* m
that returns an interreduced basis of the first syzygy module of the dpmat m
and
 303

syzygies1!* m
that returns a (not yet interreduced) basis of the syzygy module of the dpmat
m.

These procedures start the outer Gröbner engine (now also common for both
Noetherian and non Noetherian term orders)

groeb_stbasis(m,mgb,ch,syz)

that returns, applied to the dpmat m, three dpmats g, c, s with

g — the minimal reduced Gröbner basis of m if mgb = t,

c — the transition matrix g = c · m if ch = t, and
s — the (not yet interreduced) syzygy matrix of m if syz = t.

The next layer manages the preparation of the representation parts of the base el-
ements to carry the syzygy information, calls the general internal driver, and ex-
tracts the relevant information from the result of that computation. The general
internal driver branches according to different reduction functions into several ver-
sions. Upto now there are three different strategies for the reduction procedures for
the S-polynomial reduction (different versions may be chosen via gbtestversion):

1. Total reduction with local simplifier lists. For local term orders this is (al-
most) Mora’s first version for the tangent cone (the default).

2. Total reduction with global simplifier list. For local term orders this is (al-
most) Mora’s SimpStBasis, see [26].

3. Total reduction with bounded ecart.

The first two versions (almost) coincide for Noetherian term orders. The third
version reduces only with bounded ecart, thus forcing more pairs to be treated than
necessary, but usually less expensive to be reduced. It is not yet well understood,
whether this idea is of practical importance.
groeb_lazystbasis calls the lazy standard basis driver instead, that implements
Mora’s lazy algorithm, see [26]. As groeb_homstbasis, the computation of Gröb-
ner and standard bases via homogenization (Lazard’s approach), it is not fully in-
tegrated into the algebraic interface. Use

homstbasis!* m
for the invocation of the homogenization approach to compute a standard basis
of the dpmat m and
304 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

lazystbasis!* m
for the lazy algorithm.

Experts commonly agree that the classical approach is better for “computable”
examples, but computations done by the author on large examples indicate, that
both approaches are in fact independent.

The pair list management uses the sugar strategy, see [11], with respect to the
current ecart vector. If the input is homogeneous and the ecart vector reflects this
homogeneity then pairs are sorted by ascending degree. Hence no superfluous base
elements will be computed in this case. In general the sugar strategy performs best
if the ecart vector is chosen to make the input close to be homogeneous.
There is another global variable cali!=monset that may contain a list of vari-
able names (a subset of the variable names of the current base ring). During the
“pure” Gröbner algorithm (without syzygy and representation computations) com-
mon monomial factors containing only these variables will be canceled out. This
shortcut is useful if some of the variables are known to be non zero divisors as e.g.
in most implicitation problems.

setmonset!* vars
initializes cali!=monset with a given list of variables vars.

The Gröbner tools as e.g. pair criteria, pair list update, pair management and S-
polynomial construction are available.

groeb_mingb m
extracts a minimal Gröbner basis from the dpmat m, removing base elements
with leading terms, divisible by other leading terms.
groeb_minimize(bas,syz)
minimizes the dpmat pair (bas, syz) deleting superfluous base elements from
bas using syzygies from syz containing unit entries.

The Gröbner Factorizer

If k̄ is the algebraic closure of k, B := {f1 , . . . , fm } ⊂ S a finite system of

polynomials, and C := {g1 , . . . , gk } a set of side conditions define the relative set
of zeroes

Z(B, C) := {a ∈ k̄ n : ∀ f ∈ B f (a) = 0 and ∀g ∈ C g(a) 6= 0}.

 305

Q
Its Zariski closure is the zero set of I(B) :< C >.
The Gröbner factorizer solves the following problem:

Find a collection (Bα , Cα ) of Gröbner bases Bα and side conditions

Cα such that [
Z(B, C) = Z(Bα , Cα ).
α

The module groebf and the module triang contain algorithms related to that prob-
lem, triangular systems, and their generalizations as described in [15] and [16].
V. 2.2 thus heavily extends the algorithmic possibilities that were implemented in
former releases of CALI.
Note that, different to v. 2.1, we work with constraint lists.

groebfactor!*(bas,con)
returns for the dpmat ideal bas and the constraint list con (of dpolys) a minimal
list of (dpmat, constraint list) pairs with the desired property.

During a preprocessing it splits the submitted basis bas by a recursive factorization

of polynomials and interreduction of bases into a (reduced) list of smaller subprob-
lems consisting of a partly computed Gröbner basis, a constraint list, and a list
of pairs not yet processed. The main procedure forces the next subproblem to be
processed until another factorization is possible. Then the subproblem splits into
subsubproblems, and the subproblem list will be updated. Subproblems are kept
sorted with respect to their expected dimension easydim forcing this way a depth
first recursion. Returned and not yet interreduced Gröbner bases are, after interre-
duction, subject to another call of the preprocessor since interreduced polynomials
may factor anew.

listgroebfactor!* l
proceeds a whole list of dpmats (without constraints) at once and strips off
constraints at the end.

Using the (ordinary) Gröbner factorizer even components of different dimension

may keep gluing together. The extended Gröbner factorizer involves a postpro-
cessing, that guarantees a decomposition into puredimensional components, given
by triangular systems instead of Gröbner bases. Triangular systems in positive
dimension must not be Gröbner bases of the underlying ideal. They should be
preferred, since they are more simple but contain all information about the (quasi)
prime component that they represent. The complete Gröbner basis of the corre-
sponding component can be obtained by an easy stable quotient computation, see
[16]. We refer to the same paper for the definition of triangular systems in positive
dimension, that is consistent with our approach.
306 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

extendedgroebfactor!*(bas,c) and extendedgroebfactor1!*(bas,c)

return a list of results {bi , ci , vi } in algebraic prefix form such that bi is a

Q set wrt. the variables vi and ci is a list of constraints, such that
triangular
bi :< N ci > is the (puredimensional) recontraction of the zerodimensional
ideal bi k k(vi ). For the first version the recontraction is not computed,
hence the output may be not minimal. The second version computes recon-
tractions to decide superfluous components already during the algorithm. Note
that the stable quotient computation involved for that purpose may drastically
slow down the whole attempt.

The postprocessing involves a change to dimension zero and invokes (zero dimen-
sional) triangular system computations from the module triang. In a first step
groebf_zeroprimes1 incorporates the square free parts of certain univariate poly-
nomials into these systems and strips off the constraints (since relative sets of ze-
roes in dimension zero are Zariski closed), using a splitting approach analogous
to the Gröbner factorizer. In a second step, according to the switch lexefgb, either
zerosolve!* or zerosolve1!* converts these intermediate results into lists of trian-
gular systems in prefix form. If lexefgb is off (the default), the zero dimensional
term order is degrevlex and zerosolve1!*, the “slow turn to lex” is involved, for
on lexefgb the pure lexicographic term order and zerosolve!*, Möllers original
approach, see [23], are used. Note that for this term order we need only a single
Gröbner basis computation at this level.
A third version, zerosolve2!*, mixes the first approach with the FGLM change of
term orders. It is not incorporated into the extended Gröbner factorizer.

Basic Operations on Ideals and Modules

Gröbner and local standard bases are the heart of several basic algorithms in ideal
theory, see e.g. [2, 6.2.]. CALI offers the following facilities:

submodulep!*(m,n)
tests the dpmat m for being a submodule of the dpmat n reducing the basis
elements of m with respect to n. The result will be correct provided n is a
Gröbner basis.
modequalp!*(m,n)
= submodulep!*(m,n) and submodulep!*(n,m).

eliminate!*(m,<variable list>)
 307

computes the elimination ideal/module eliminating the variables in the given

variable list (a subset of the variables of the current base ring). Changes tem-
porarily the term order to degrevlex.
matintersect!* l 12
computes the intersection of the dpmats in the dpmat list l along [2, 6.20].

CALI offers several quotient algorithms. They rest on the computation of quotients
by a single element of the following kind: Assume M ⊂ S c , v ∈ S c , f ∈ S. Then
there are

the module quotient M : (v) = {g ∈ S | gv ∈ M },

the ideal quotient M : (f ) = {w ∈ S c | f w ∈ M }, and
the stable quotient M : (f )∞ = {w ∈ S c | ∃ n : f n w ∈ M }.

CALI uses the elimination approach [7, 4.4.] and [2, 6.38] for their computation:

matquot!*(M,f)
returns the module or ideal quotient M : (f ) depending on f .

matqquot!*(M,f)
returns the stable quotient M : (f )∞ .

matquot!* calls the pseudo division with remainder

dp_pseudodivmod(g,f)
that returns a dpoly list {q, r, z} such that z · g = q · f + r with a dpoly unit
z. (g, f and r must belong to the same free module). This is done uniformly
for noetherian and local term orders with an extended normal form algorithm
as described in [14].

In the same way one defines the quotient of a module by another module (both
embedded in a common free module S c ), the quotient of a module by an ideal, and
the stable quotient of a module by an ideal. Algorithms for their computation can
be obtained from the corresponding algorithms for a single element as divisor either
by the generic element method [8] or as an intersection [2, 6.31]. CALI offers both
approaches (X=1 or 2 below) at the symbolic level, but for true quotients only the
latter one is integrated into the algebraic mode interface.
12
This can be done for ideals and modules in an unique way. Hence idealintersect!* has been
removed in v. 2.1.
308 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

idealquotientX!*(M,I)
returns the ideal quotient M : I of the dpmat M by the dpmat ideal I.

modulequotientX!*(M,N)
returns the module quotient M : N of the dpmat M by the dpmat N .

annihilatorX!* M
returns the annihilator of coker M , i.e. the module quotient S c : M , if M is a
submodule of S c .
matstabquot!*(M,I)
returns the stable quotient M : I ∞ (only by the general element method).

Monomial Ideals

Monomial ideals occur as ideals of leading terms of (ideal’s) Gröbner bases and
also as components of leading term modules of submodules of free modules, see
[12], and reflect some properties of the original ideal/module. Several parameters
of the original ideal or module may be read off from it as e.g. dimension and Hilbert
series.
The module moid contains the corresponding algorithms on monomial ideals.
Monomial ideals are lists of monomials, kept sorted by descending lexicographic
order as proposed in [1].

moid_primes u
returns the minimal primes (as a list of lists of variable names) of the monomial
ideal u using an adaption of the algorithm, proposed in [1] for the computation
of the codimension.
indepvarsets!* m
returns (based on moid_primes) the list of strongly independent sets of m, see
[19] and [12] for definitions.
dim!* m
returns the dimension of coker m as the size of the largest independent set.

codim!* m
returns the codimension of coker m.
 309

easyindepset!* m
returns a maximal with respect to inclusion independent set of m.

easydim!* m
is a fast dimension algorithm (based on easyindepset), that will be correct if m
is (radically) unmixed. Since it is significantly faster than the general dimen-
sion algorithm13 , it should be used, if all maximal independent sets are known
to be of equal cardinality (as e.g. for prime or unmixed ideals, see [12]).

Hilbert Series

CALI v. 2.2 now offers also weighted Hilbert series, i.e. series that may reflect
multihomogeneity of ideals and modules. For this purpose a weighted Hilbert se-
ries has a list of (integer) degree vectors as second parameter, and the ideal(s) of
leading terms are evaluated wrt. these weights. For the output and polynomial
arithmetic, involved during the computation of the Hilbert series numerator, the
different weight levels are mapped onto the first variables of the current ring. If
w is such a weight vector list and I is a monomial ideal in the polynomial ring
S = k[xv : v ∈ V ] we get (using multi exponent notation)
X Q(t)
H(S/I, t) := |{xa 6∈ I : w(a) = α}| · tα = Q

α v∈V 1 − tw(xv )

for a certain polynomial Hilbert series numerator Q(t). H(R/I, t) is known to be

a rational function with pole order at t = 1 equal to dim R/I. Note that Weighted-
HilbertSeries returns a reduced rational function where the gcd of numerator and
denominator is canceled out.
(Non weighted) Hilbert series call the weighted Hilbert series procedure with a
single weight vector, the ecart vector of the current ring.
The Hilbert series numerator Q(t) is computed using (the obvious generalizations
to the weighted case of) the algorithms in [1] and [3]. Experiments suggest that
the former is better for few generators of high degree whereas the latter has to be
preferred for many generators of low degree. Choose the version with hftestversion
n, n = 1, 2. Bayer/Stillman’s approach (n = 1) is the default. In the following m
is a dpmat and Gröbner basis.

hf_whilb(m,w)
returns the weighted Hilbert series numerator Q(t) of m according to the ver-
sion chosen with hftestversion.
13
This algorithm is of linear time as opposed to the problem to determine the dimension of an
arbitrary monomial ideal, that is known to be NP-hard in the number of variables, see [1].
310 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

WeightedHilbertSeries!*(m,w)
returns the weighted Hilbert series reduced rational function of m as s.q.

HilbertSeries!*(m,w)
returns the Hilbert series reduced rational function of m wrt. the ecart vector
of the current ring as s.q.
hf_whilb3(u,w) and hf_whs_from_resolution(u,w)
compute the weighted Hilbert series numerator and the corresponding reduced
rational function from (the column degrees of) a given resolution u.
degree!* m
returns the value of the numerator of the reduced Hilbert series of m at t = 1.
i.e. the sum of its coefficients. For the standard ecart this is the degree of
coker m.

Resolutions

Resolutions of ideals and modules, represented as lists of dpmats, are computed

via repeated syzygy computation with minimization steps between them to get
minimal bases and generators of syzygy modules. Note that the algorithms apply
simultaneously to both Noetherian and non Noetherian term orders. For compati-
bility reasons with further releases v. 2.2 introduces a second parameter to bound
the number of syzygy modules to be computed, since Hilbert’s syzygy theorem
applies only to regular rings.

Resolve!*(m,d)
computes a minimal resolution of the dpmat m, i.e. a list of dpmats
{s0 , s1 , s2 , . . .}, where sk is the k-th syzygy module of m, upto part sd .
BettiNumbers!* c and GradedBettiNumbers!* c
returns the Betti numbers resp. the graded Betti numbers of the resolution c, i.e.
the list of the lengths resp. the degree lists (according to the ecart) themselves
of the dpmats in c.

Zero Dimensional Ideals and Modules

There are several algorithms that either force the reduction of a given problem to
dimension zero or work only for zero dimensional ideals or modules. The module
odim offers such algorithms. It contains, e.g.
 311

dimzerop!* m
that tests a dpmat m for being zero dimensional.

getkbase!* m
that returns a (monomial) k-vector space basis of Coker m provided m is a
Gröbner basis.
odim_borderbasis m
that returns a border basis, see [20], of the zero dimensional dpmat m as a list
of base elements.
odim_parameter m
that returns a parameter of the dpmat m, i.e. a variable x ∈ vars such that
k[x] Ann S c /m = (0), or nil if m is zero dimensional.
T

odim_up(a,m)
that returns an univariate polynomial (of smallest possible degree if m is a
gbasis) in the variable a, that belongs to the zero dimensional dpmat ideal m,
using Buchberger’s approach [5].

Primary Decomposition and Related Algorithms

The algorithms of the module prime implement the ideas of [10] with modifica-
tions along [18] and their natural generalizations to modules as e.g. explained in
[28]. Version 2.2.1 fixes a serious bug detecting superfluous embedded primary
components, see section 16.9.1, and contains now a second primary decomposition
algorithm, based on ideal separation, as standard. For a discussion about embedded
primes and the ideal separation approach, see [17].
CALI contains also algorithms for the computation of the unmixed part of a given
module and the unmixed radical of a given ideal (along the same lines). We fol-
lowed the stepwise recursion decreasing dimension in each step by 1 as proposed in
(the final version of) [10] rather than the “one step” method described in [2] since
handling leading coefficients, i.e. standard forms, depending on several variables
is a quite hard job for REDUCE14 .
In the following procedures m must be a Gröbner basis.

zeroradical!* m
returns the radical of the zero dimensional ideal m, using squarefree decom-
position of univariate polynomials.
14
prime!=decompose2 implements this strategy in the symbolic mode layer.
312 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

zeroprimes!* m
computes as in [10] the list of prime ideals of Ann F/M if m is zero dimen-
sional, using the (sparse) general position argument from [19].
zeroprimarydecomposition!* m
computes the primary components of the zero dimensional dpmat m using
prime splitting with the prime ideals of Ann F/M . It returns a list of pairs
with first entry the primary component and second entry the corresponding
associated prime ideal.
isprime!* m
a (one step) primality test for ideals, extracted from [10].

isolatedprimes!* m
computes (only) the isolated prime ideals of Ann F/M .

radical!* m
computes the radical of the dpmat ideal m, reducing as in [10] to the zero
dimensional case.
easyprimarydecomposition!* m
computes the primary components of the dpmat m, if it has no embedded
components. The algorithm uses prime splitting with the isolated prime ideals
of Ann F/M . It returns a list of pairs as in zeroprimarydecomposition!*.
primarydecomposition!* m
computes the primary components of the dpmat m along the lines of [10]. It
returns a list of two-element lists as in zeroprimarydecomposition!*.
unmixedradical!* m
returns the unmixed radical, i.e. the intersection of the isolated primes of top
dimension, associated to the dpmat ideal m.
eqhull!* m
returns the equidimensional hull, i.e. the intersection of the top dimensional
primary components of the dpmat m.

Advanced Algorithms

The module scripts just under further development offers some advanced topics of
the Gröbner bases theory. It introduces the new data structure of a map between
base rings:
 313

A ring map
φ : R −→ S
for R = k[ri ], S = k[sj ] is represented in symbolic mode as a list

{preimage_ring R, image_ring S, subst_list},

where subst_list is a substitution list {r1 = φ1 (s), r2 = φ2 (s), . . .} in alge-

braic prefix form, i.e. looks like (list (equal var image) ...).
The central tool for several applications is the computation of the preimage
φ−1 (I) ⊂ R of an ideal I ⊂ S either under a polynomial map φ or its closure
in R under a rational map φ, see [2, 7.69 and 7.71].

preimage!*(m,map)
computes the preimage of the ideal m in algebraic prefix form under the given
polynomial map and sets the current base ring to the preimage ring. Returns
the result also in algebraic prefix form.
ratpreimage!*(m,map)
computes the closure of the preimage of the ideal m in algebraic prefix form
under the given rational map and sets the current base ring to the preimage
ring. Returns the result also in algebraic prefix form.

Derived applications are

affine_monomial_curve!*(l,vars)
l is a list of integers, vars a list of variable names of the same length as l. The
procedure sets the current base ring and returns the defining ideal of the affine
monomial curve with generic point (ti : i ∈ l) computing the corresponding
preimage.
analytic_spread!* M
Computes the analytic spread of M , i.e. the dimension of the exceptional fiber
R(M )/mR(M ) of the blowup along M over the irrelevant ideal m of the
current base ring.
assgrad!*(M,N,vars)
314 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Computes the associated graded ring

grR (N ) := (R/N ⊕ N/N 2 ⊕ . . .) = R(N )/N R(N )

over the ring R = S/M , where M and N are dpmat ideals defined over the cur-
rent base ring S. vars is a list of new variable names one for each generator
of N . They are used to create a second ring T with degree order corresponding
to the ecart of the row degrees of N and a ring map

φ : S ⊕ T −→ S.

It returns a dpmat ideal J such that (S ⊕ T )/J is a presentation of the desired

associated graded ring over the new current base ring S ⊕ T .
blowup!*(M,N,vars)
Computes the blow up R(N ) := R[N · t] of N over the ring R = S/M , where
M and N are dpmat ideals defined over the current base ring S. vars is a list
of new variable names one for each generator of N . They are used to create a
second ring T with degree order corresponding to the ecart of the row degrees
of N and a ring map
φ : S ⊕ T −→ S.
It returns a dpmat ideal J such that (S ⊕ T )/J is a presentation of the desired
blowup ring over the new current base ring S ⊕ T .
proj_monomial_curve!*(l,vars)
l is a list of integers, vars a list of variable names of the same length as l.
The procedure set the current base ring and returns the defining ideal of the
projective monomial curve with generic point (sd−i · ti : i ∈ l) in R, where
d = max{x : x ∈ l}, computing the corresponding preimage.
sym!*(M,vars)
Computes the symmetric algebra Sym(M ) where M is a dpmat ideal defined
over the current base ring S. vars is a list of new variable names one for each
generator of M . They are used to create a second ring R with degree order
corresponding to the ecart of the row degrees of N and a ring map

φ : S ⊕ R −→ S.

It returns a dpmat ideal J such that (S ⊕R)/J is the desired symmetric algebra
over the new current base ring S ⊕ R.

There are several other applications:

minimal_generators!* m
 315

returns a set of minimal generators of the dpmat m inspecting the first syzygy
module.
nzdp!*(f,m)
tests whether the dpoly f is a non zero divisor on coker m. m must be a
Gröbner basis.
symbolic_power!*(m,d)
returns the dth symbolic power of the prime dpmat ideal m as the equidimen-
sional hull of the dth true power. (Hence applies also to unmixed ideals.)
varopt!* m
finds a heuristically optimal variable order by the approach in [4] and returns
the corresponding list of variables.

Dual Bases

For the general ideas underlying the dual bases approach see e.g. [20]. This pa-
per explains, that constructive problems from very different areas of commutative
algebra can be formulated in a unified way as the computation of a basis for the
intersection of the kernels of a finite number of linear functionals generating a dual
S-module. Our implementation honours this point of view, presenting two gen-
eral drivers dualbases and dualhbases for the computation of such bases (even as
submodules of a free module M = S m ) with affine resp. projective dimension
zero.
Such a collection of N linear functionals

L : M = S m −→ k N

should be given through values {[ei , L(ei )], i = 1, . . . , m} on the generators ei of

M and an evaluation function evlf([p,L(p)],x), that evaluates L(p · x) from
L(p) for p ∈ M and the variable x ∈ S.
dualbases starts with a list of such generator/value constructs generating M and
performs Gaussian reduction on expressions [p · x, L(p · x)], where p was already
processed, L(p) 6= 0, and x ∈ S is a variable. These elements are processed in
ascending order wrt. the term order on M . This guarantees both termination and
that the resulting basis of ker L is a Gröbner basis. The N values of L are attached
to N variables, that are ordered linearly. Gaussian elimination is executed wrt. this
variable order.
To initialize the dual bases driver one has to supply the basic generator/value list
(through the parameter list; for ideals just the one element list containing the gen-
erator [1 ∈ S, L(1)]), the evaluation function, and the linear algebra variable or-
der. The latter are supplied via the property list of cali as properties evlf and
316 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

varlessp. Different applications need more entries on the property list of cali
to manage the communication between the driver and the calling routine.
dualhbases realizes the same idea for (homogeneous) ideals and modules of (pro-
jective) dimension zero. It produces zerodimensional “slices” with ascending de-
gree until it reaches a supremum supplied by the user, see [20] for details.

Applications concern affine and projective defining ideals of a finite number of

points15 and two versions (with and without precomputed border basis) of term
order changes for zerodimensional ideals and modules as first described in [9].

affine_points!* m
m is a matrix of domain elements (in algebraic prefix form) with as many
columns as the current base ring has ring variables. This procedure returns the
defining ideal of the collection of points in affine space with coordinates given
by the rows of m. Note that m may contain parameters. In this case k is treated
as rational function field.
change_termorder!*(m,r) and change_termorder1!*(m,r)

m is a Gröbner basis of a zero dimensional ideal wrt. the current base ring.
These procedures change the current ring to r and compute the Gröbner basis
of m wrt. the new ring r. The former uses a precomputed border basis.
proj_points!* m
m is a matrix of domain elements (in algebraic prefix form) with as many
columns as the current base ring has ring variables. This procedure returns
the defining ideal of the collection of points in projective space with ho-
mogeneous coordinates given by the rows of m. Note that m may as for
affine_points contain parameters.

16.9.5 A Short Description of Procedures Available in Algebraic

Mode

Here we give a short description, ordered alphabetically, of algebraic procedures

offered by CALI in the algebraic mode interface16 .
If not stated explicitely procedures take (algebraic mode) polynomial matrices (c >
0) or polynomial lists (c = 0) m, m1, m2, . . . as input and return results of the
same type. gb stands for a bounded identifier17 , gbr for one with precomputed
15
This substitutes the “brute force” method computing the corresponding intersections directly as
it was implemented in v. 2.1. The new approach is significantly faster. The old stuff is available as
affine_points1!* and proj_points1!*.
16
It does not contain switches, get. . . procedures, setting trace level and related stuff.
17
Different to v. 2.1 a Gröbner basis will be computed automatically, if necessary.
 317

resolution. For the mechanism of bounded identifier see the section “Algebraic
Mode Interface”.

affine_monomial_curve(l,vars)
l is a list of integers, vars a list of variable names of the same length as l. The
procedure sets the current base ring and returns the defining ideal of the affine
monomial curve with generic point (ti : i ∈ l).
affine_points m
m is a matrix of domain elements (in algebraic prefix form) with as many
columns as the current base ring has ring variables. This procedure returns the
defining ideal of the collection of points in affine space with coordinates given
by the rows of m. Note that m may contain parameters. In this case k is treated
as rational function field.
analytic_spread m
Computes the analytic spread of m.

annihilator m
returns the annihilator of the dpmat m ⊆ S c , i.e. Ann S c /M .

assgrad(M,N,vars)
Computes the associated graded ring grR (N ) over R = S/M , where S is the
current base ring. vars is a list of new variable names, one for each generator
of N . They are used to create a second ring T to return an ideal J such that
(S ⊕ T )/J is the desired associated graded ring over the new current base ring
S ⊕ T.
bettiNumbers gbr
extracts the list of Betti numbers from the resolution of gbr.

blowup(M,N,vars)
Computes the blow up R(N ) of N over the ring R = S/M , where S is the
current base ring. vars is a list of new variable names, one for each generator
of N . They are used to create a second ring T to return an ideal J such that
(S ⊕ T )/J is the desired blowup ring over the new current base ring S ⊕ T .
change_termorder(m,r) and change_termorder1(m,r)

Change the current ring to r and compute the Gröbner basis of m wrt. the
new ring r by the FGLM approach. The former uses internally a precomputed
border basis.
318 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

codim gb
returns the codimension of S c /gb.

degree gb
returns the multiplicity of gb as the sum of the coefficients of the (classical)
Hilbert series numerator.
degsfromresolution gbr
returns the list of column degrees from the minimal resolution of gbr.

deleteunits m
factors each basis element of the dpmat ideal m and removes factors that are
polynomial units. Applies only to non Noetherian term orders.
dim gb
returns the dimension of S c /gb.

dimzerop gb
tests whether S c /gb is zerodimensional.

directsum(m1,m2,...)
returns the direct sum of the modules m1, m2, . . ., embedded into the direct
sum of the corresponding free modules.
dpgcd(f,g)
returns the gcd of two polynomials f and g, computed by the syzygy method.

easydim m and easyindepset m

If the given ideal or module is unmixed (e.g. prime) then all maximal strongly
independent sets are of equal size and one can look for a maximal with respect
to inclusion rather than size strongly independent set. These procedures don’t
test the input for being a Gröbner basis or unmixed, but construct a maximal
with respect to inclusion independent set of the basic leading terms resp. detect
from this (an approximation for) the dimension.
easyprimarydecomposition m
a short primary decomposition using ideal separation of isolated primes of
m, that yields true results only for modules without embedded components.
Returns a list of {component, associated prime} pairs.
 319

eliminate(m,<variable list>)
computes the elimination ideal/module eliminating the variables in the given
variable list (a subset of the variables of the current base ring). Changes tem-
porarily the term order to degrevlex.
eqhull m
returns the equidimensional hull of the dpmat m.

extendedgroebfactor(m,c) and extendedgroebfactor1(m,c)

return for a polynomial ideal m and a list of (polynomial) constraints c a list of

results {bi , ci , vi }, where bi is a triangular
S set wrt. the variables vi and ci is a list
of constraints, such that Z(m, c) = Z(bi , ci ). For the first version the output
may be not minimal. The second version decides superfluous components
already during the algorithm.
gbasis gb
returns the Gröbner resp. local standard basis of gb.

getkbase gb
returns a k-vector space basis of S c /gb, consisting of module terms, provided
gb is zerodimensional.
getleadterms gb
returns the dpmat of leading terms of a Gröbner resp. local standard basis of
gb.
GradedBettinumbers gbr
extracts the list of degree lists of the free summands in a minimal resolution of
gbr.
groebfactor(m[,c])
returns for the dpmat ideal m and an optional constraint list c a (reduced) list
of dpmats such that the union of their zeroes is exactly Z(m, c). Factors all
polynomials involved in the Gröbner algorithms of the partial results.
HilbertSeries gb
returns the Hilbert series of gb with respect to the current ecart vector.

homstbasis m
computes the standard basis of m by Lazard’s homogenization approach.
320 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ideal2mat m
converts the ideal (=list of polynomials) m into a column vector.

ideal_of_minors(mat,k)
computes the generators for the ideal of k-minors of the matrix mat.

ideal_of_pfaffians(mat,k)
computes the generators for the ideal of the 2k-pfaffians of the skewsymmetric
matrix mat.
idealpower(m,n)
returns the interreduced basis of the ideal power mn with respect to the integer
n ≥ 0.
idealprod(m1,m2,...)
returns the interreduced basis of the ideal product m1 · m2 · . . . of the ideals
m1, m2, . . ..
idealquotient(m1,m2)
returns the ideal quotient m1 : m2 of the module m1 ⊆ S c by the ideal m2.

idealsum(m1,m2,...)
returns the interreduced basis of the ideal sum m1 + m2 + . . ..

indepvarsets gb
returns the list of strongly independent sets of gb with respect to the current
term order, see [19] for a definition in the case of ideals and [12] for submod-
ules of free modules.
initmat(m,<file name>
initializes the dpmat m together with its base ring, term order and column
degrees from a file.
interreduce m
returns the interreduced module basis given by the rows of m, i.e. a basis with
pairwise indivisible leading terms.
isolatedprimes m
returns the list of isolated primes of the dpmat m, i.e. the isolated primes of
Ann S c /M .
 321

isprime gb
tests the ideal gb to be prime.

iszeroradical gb
tests the zerodimensional ideal gb to be radical.

lazystbasis m
computes the standard basis of m by the lazy algorithm, see e.g. [26].

listgroebfactor in
computes for the list in of ideal bases
S a list out of Gröbner
S bases by the Gröb-
ner factorization method, such that m∈in Z(m) = m∈out Z(m).

mat2list m
converts the matrix m into a list of its entries.

matappend(m1,m2,...)
collects the rows of the dpmats m1, m2, . . . to a common matrix. m1, m2, . . .
must be submodules of the same free module, i.e. have equal column degrees
(and size).
mathomogenize(m,var) 18

returns the result obtained by homogenization of the rows of m with respect to

the variable var and the current ecart vector.
matintersect(m1,m2,...)
T T
returns the interreduced basis of the intersection m1 m2 . . ..

matjac(m,<variable list>)
returns the Jacobian matrix of the ideal m with respect to the supplied variable
list
matqquot(m,f)
returns the stable quotient m : (f )∞ of the dpmat m by the polynomial f ∈ S.

matquot(m,f)
returns the quotient m : (f ) of the dpmat m by the polynomial f ∈ S.

18
Dehomogenize with sub(z=1,m) if z is the homogenizing variable.
322 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

matstabquot(m1,id)
returns the stable quotient m1 : id∞ of the dpmat m1 by the ideal id.

matsum(m1,m2,...)
returns the interreduced basis of the module sum m1 + m2 + . . . in a common
free module.
minimal_generators m
returns a set of minimal generators of the dpmat m.

minors(m,b)
returns the matrix of minors of size b × b of the matrix m.

a mod m
computes the (true) normal form(s), i.e. a standard quotient representation, of
a modulo the dpmat m. a may be either a polynomial or a polynomial list
(c = 0) or a matrix (c > 0) of the correct number of columns.
modequalp(gb1,gb2)
tests, whether gb1 and gb2 are equal (returns YES or NO).

modulequotient(m1,m2)
returns the module quotient m1 : m2 of two dpmats m1, m2 in a common free
module.
normalform(m1,m2)
returns a list of three dpmats {m3, r, z}, where m3 is the normalform of m1
modulo m2, z a scalar matrix of polynomial units (i.e. polynomials of degree
0 in the noetherian case and polynomials with leading term of degree 0 in the
tangent cone case), and r the relation matrix, such that

m3 = z ∗ m1 + r ∗ m2.

nzdp(f,m)
tests whether the dpoly f is a non zero divisor on coker m.

pfaffian mat
returns the pfaffian of a skewsymmetric matrix mat.
 323

preimage(m,map)
computes the preimage of the ideal m under the given polynomial map and
sets the current base ring to the preimage ring.
primarydecomposition m
returns the primary decomposition of the dpmat m as a list of
{component, associated prime} pairs.
proj_monomial_curve(l,vars)
l is a list of integers, vars a list of variable names of the same length as l.
The procedure sets the current base ring and returns the defining ideal of the
projective monomial curve with generic point (sd−i · ti : i ∈ l) in R where
d = max{x : x ∈ l}.
proj_points m
m is a matrix of domain elements (in algebraic prefix form) with as many
columns as the current base ring has ring variables. This procedure returns
the defining ideal of the collection of points in projective space with ho-
mogeneous coordinates given by the rows of m. Note that m may as for
affine_points contain parameters.
radical m
returns the radical of the dpmat ideal m.

random_linear_form(vars,bound)
returns a random linear form in the variables vars with integer coefficients
less than the supplied bound.
ratpreimage(m,map)
computes the closure of the preimage of the ideal m under the given rational
map and sets the current base ring to the preimage ring.
resolve(m[,d])
returns the first d members of the minimal resolution of the bounded identifier
m as a list of matrices. If the resolution has less than d non zero members,
only those are collected. (Default: d = 100)
savemat(m,<file name>)
save the dpmat m together with the settings of it base ring, term order and
column degrees to a file.
324 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

setgbasis m
declares the rows of the bounded identifier m to be already a Gröbner resp. lo-
cal standard basis thus avoiding a possibly time consuming Gröbner or stand-
ard basis computation.
sieve(m,<variable list>)
sieves out all base elements with leading terms having a factor contained in
the specified variable list (a subset of the variables of the current base ring).
Useful for elimination problems solved “by hand”.
singular_locus(M,c)
returns the defining ideal of the singular locus of Spec S/M where M is an
ideal of codimension c, adding to M the generators of the ideal of the c-minors
of the Jacobian of M .
submodulep(m,gb)
tests, whether m is a submodule of gb (returns YES or NO).

sym(M,vars)
Computes the symmetric algebra Sym(M ) where M is an ideal defined over
the current base ring S. vars is a list of new variable names, one for each
generator of M . They are used to create a second ring R to return an ideal
J such that (S ⊕ R)/J is the desired symmetric algebra over the new current
base ring S ⊕ R.
symbolic_power(m,d)
returns the dth symbolic power of the prime dpmat ideal m.

syzygies m
returns the first syzygy module of the bounded identifier m.

tangentcone gb
returns the tangent cone part, i.e. the homogeneous part of highest degree with
respect to the first degree vector of the term order from the Gröbner basis
elements of the dpmat gb. The term order must be a degree order.
unmixedradical m
returns the unmixed radical of the dpmat ideal m.
 325

varopt m
finds a heuristically optimal variable order, see [4].

vars := varopt m; setring(vars, {}, lex); setideal(m, m);

changes to the lexicographic term order with heuristically best performance

for a lexicographic Gröbner basis computation.
WeightedHilbertSeries(m,w)
returns the weighted Hilbert series of the dpmat m. Note that m is not a
bounded identifier and hence not checked to be a Gröbner basis. w is a list
of integer weight vectors.
zeroprimarydecomposition m
returns the primary decomposition of the zerodimensional dpmat m as a list of
{component, associated prime} pairs.
zeroprimes m
returns the list of primes of the zerodimensional dpmat m.

zeroradical gb
returns the radical of the zerodimensional ideal gb.

zerosolve m, zerosolve1 m and zerosolve2 m

Returns for a zerodimensional ideal a list of triangular systems that cover
Z(m). Zerosolve needs a pure lex. term order for the “fast” turn to lex.
as described in [23], Zerosolve1 is the “slow” turn to lex. as described
in [16], and Zerosolve2 incorporated the FGLM term order change into
Zerosolve1.
326 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.9.6 The CALI Module Structure

name subject data type representation

cali Header module, contains — —
global variables, switches etc.
bcsf Base coefficient arithmetic base coeff. standard forms
ring Base ring setting, definition of the base ring special type RING
term order
mo monomial arithmetic monomials (exp. list . degree list)
dpoly Polynomial and vector arithmetic dpolys list of terms
bas Operations on base lists base list list of base elements
dpmat Operations on polynomial matrices, dpmat special type DPMAT
the central data type of CALI
red Normal form algorithms — —
groeb Gröbner basis algorithm and related — —
ones
groebf the Gröbner factorizer and its exten- — —
sions
matop Operations on (lists of) — —
dpmats that correspond to
ideal/module operations
quot Different quotient algorithms — —
moid Monomial ideal algorithms monomial list of monomials
ideal
hf weighted Hilbert series – –
res Resolutions of dpmats resolution list of dpmats
intf Interface to algebraic mode — —
odim Algorithms for zerodimensional — —
ideals and modules
prime Primary decomposition and related — —
questions
scripts Advanced applications — —
calimat Extension of the matrix package — —
lf The dual bases approach — —
triang (Zero dimensional) triangular sys- — —
tems
 327

Bibliography

[1] D. Bayer, M. Stillman: Computation of Hilbert functions. J. Symb. Comp.

14 (1992), 31 - 50.

[2] T. Becker, H. Kredel, V. Weispfenning: Gröbner bases. A computational

approach to commutative algebra. Grad. Texts in Math. 141, Springer, New
York 1993.

[3] A. M. Bigatti, P. Conti, L. Robbiano, C. Traverso: A “divide and conquer”

algorithm for Hilbert-Poincare series, multiplicity and dimension of mono-
mial ideals. In: Proc. AAECC-10, LNCS 673 (1993), 76 - 88.

[4] W. Boege, R. Gebauer, H. Kredel: Some examples for solving systems of

algebraic equations by calculating Gröbner bases. J. Symb. Comp. 2 (1986),
83 - 98.

[5] B. Buchberger: Gröbner bases: An algorithmic method in polynomial ideal

theory. In: Recent trends in multidimensional system theory (N. K. Bose
ed), Reidel, Dortrecht 1985, 184 - 232.

[6] B. Buchberger: Applications of Gröbner bases in non-linear computational

geometry. LNCS 296 (1988), 52 - 80.

[7] D. Cox, J. Little, D. O’Shea: Ideals, varieties, and algorithms. Undergradu-

ate Texts in Math., Springer, New York 1992.

[8] D. Eisenbud: Commutative algebra with a view toward algebraic geometry.

Springer, 1995.

[9] Faugere, Gianni, Lazard, Mora: Efficient computations of zerodimensional

Gröbner bases by change of ordering. J. Symb. Comp. 16 (1993), 329 - 344.

[10] P. Gianni, B. Trager, G. Zacharias: Gröbner bases and primary decomposi-

tion of polynomial ideals. J. Symb. Comp. 6 (1988), 149 - 167.

[11] A. Giovini, T. Mora, G. Niesi, L. Robbiano, C. Traverso: "One sugar cube,

please" or Selection strategies in the Buchberger algorithm. In: Proceedings
of the ISSAC’91, ACM Press 1991, 49 - 54.

[12] H.-G. Gräbe: Two remarks on independent sets. J. Alg. Comb. 2 (1993), 137
- 145.

[13] H.-G. Gräbe: The tangent cone algorithm and homogenization. J. Pure Ap-
plied Alg.97 (1994), 303 - 312.

[14] H.-G. Gräbe: Algorithms in local algebra. To appear

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[15] H.-G. Gräbe: On factorized Gröbner bases. Report Nr. 6 (1994), Inst. f.
Informatik, Univ. Leipzig.
To appear in: Proc. “Computer Algebra in Science and Engineering”, Biele-
feld 1994.

[16] H.-G. Gräbe: Triangular systems and factorized Gröbner bases. Report Nr.
7 (1995), Inst. f. Informatik, Univ. Leipzig.

[17] H.-G. Gräbe: Factorized Gröbner bases and primary decomposition. To ap-
pear.

[18] H. Kredel: Primary ideal decomposition. In: Proc. EUROCAL’87, Lecture

Notes in Comp. Sci. 378 (1986), 270 - 281.

[19] H. Kredel, V. Weispfenning: Computing dimension and independent sets for

polynomial ideals. J. Symb. Comp. 6 (1988), 231 - 247.

[20] M. Marinari, H.-M. Möller, T. Mora: Gröbner bases of ideals given by dual
bases. In: Proc. ISSAC’91, ACM Press 1991, 55 - 63.

[21] B. Mishra: Algorithmic Algebra. Springer, New York 1993.

[22] H.-M. Möller, F. Mora: New constructive methods in classical ideal theory.
J. Alg. 100 (1986), 138 -178.

[23] H.-M. Möller: On decomposing systems of polynomial equations with

finitely many solutions. J. AAECC 4 (1993), 217 - 230.

[24] T. Mora, L. Robbiano: The Gröbner fan of an ideal. J. Symb. Comp. 6

(1988), 183 - 208.

[25] T. Mora: Seven variations on standard bases. Preprint, Univ. Genova, 1988.

[26] T. Mora, G. Pfister, C. Traverso: An introduction to the tangent cone algo-

rithm. In: Issues in non-linear geometry and robotics, C.M. Hoffman ed.,
JAI Press.

[27] L. Robbiano: Computer algebra and commutative algebra. LNCS 357

(1989), 31 - 44.

[28] E. W. Rutman: Gröbner bases and primary decomposition of modules. J.

Symb. Comp. 14 (1992), 483 - 503.
 329

16.10 CAMAL: Calculations in celestial mechanics

This packages implements in REDUCE the Fourier transform procedures of the

CAMAL package for celestial mechanics.
Author: John P. Fitch.
It is generally accepted that special purpose algebraic systems are more efficient
than general purpose ones, but as machines get faster this does not matter. An
experiment has been performed to see if using the ideas of the special purpose
algebra system CAMAL(F) it is possible to make the general purpose system RE-
DUCE perform calculations in celestial mechanics as efficiently as CAMAL did
twenty years ago. To this end a prototype Fourier module is created for REDUCE,
and it is tested on some small and medium-sized problems taken from the CAMAL
test suite. The largest calculation is the determination of the Lunar Disturbing
Function to the sixth order. An assessment is made as to the progress, or lack of
it, which computer algebra has made, and how efficiently we are using modern
hardware.

16.10.1 Introduction

A number of years ago there emerged the divide between general-purpose algebra
systems and special purpose one. Here we investigate how far the improvements
in software and more predominantly hardware have enabled the general systems
to perform as well as the earlier special ones. It is similar in some respects to the
Possion program for MACSYMA [8] which was written in response to a similar
challenge.
The particular subject for investigation is the Fourier series manipulator which had
its origins in the Cambridge University Institute for Theoretical Astronomy, and
later became the F subsystem of CAMAL [3, 10]. In the late 1960s this system
was used for both the Delaunay Lunar Theory [7, 2] and the Hill Lunar Theory
[5], as well as other related calculations. Its particular area of application had a
number of peculiar operations on which the general speed depended. These are
outlined below in the section describing how CAMAL worked. There have been a
number of subsequent special systems for celestial mechanics, but these tend to be
restricted to the group of the originator.
The main body of the paper describes an experiment to create within the REDUCE
system a sub-system for the efficient manipulation of Fourier series. This prototype
program is then assessed against both the normal (general) REDUCE and the extant
CAMAL results. The tests are run on a number of small problems typical of those
for which CAMAL was used, and one medium-sized problem, the calculation of
the Lunar Disturbing Function. The mathematical background to this problem is
also presented for completeness. It is important as a problem as it is the first stage
330 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

in the development of a Delaunay Lunar Theory.

The paper ends with an assessment of how close the performance of a modern
REDUCE on modern equipment is to the (almost) defunct CAMAL of eighteen
years ago.

16.10.2 How CAMAL Worked

The Cambridge Algebra System was initially written in assembler for the Titan
computer, but later was rewritten a number of times, and matured in BCPL, a ver-
sion which was ported to IBM mainframes and a number of microcomputers. In
this section a brief review of the main data structures and special algorithms is
presented.

CAMAL Data Structures

CAMAL is a hierarchical system, with the representation of polynomials being

completely independent of the representations of the angular parts.
The angular part had to represent a polynomial coefficient, either a sine or cosine
function and a linear sum of angles. In the problems for which CAMAL was
designed there are 6 angles only, and so the design restricted the number, initially
to six on the 24 bit-halfword TITAN, and later to eight angles on the 32-bit IBM
370, each with fixed names (usually u through z). All that is needed is to remember
the coefficients of the linear sum. As typical problems are perturbations, it was
reasonable to restrict the coefficients to small integers, as could be represented in a
byte with a guard bit. This allowed the representation to pack everything into four
words.

[ NextTerm, Coefficient, Angles0-3, Angles4-7 ]

The function was coded by a single bit in the Coefficient field. This gives a
particularly compact representation. For example the Fourier term sin(u − 2v +
w − 3x) would be represented as

[ NULL, "1"|0x1, 0x017e017d, 0x00000000 ]

or
[ NULL, "1"|0x1, 1:-2:1:-3, 0:0:0:0 ]

where "1" is a pointer to the representation of the polynomial 1. In all this rep-
resentation of the term took 48 bytes. As the complexity of a term increased the
store requirements to no grow much; the expression (7/4)ae3 f 5 cos(u−2v +3w −
4x + 5y + 6z) also takes 48 bytes. There is a canonicalisation operation to ensure
that the leading angle is positive, and sin(0) gets removed. It should be noted that
 331

cos(0) is a valid and necessary representation.

The polynomial part was similarly represented, as a chain of terms with packed
exponents for a fixed number of variables. There is no particular significance in this
except that the terms were held in increasing total order, rather than the decreasing
order which is normal in general purpose systems. This had a number of important
effects on the efficiency of polynomial multiplication in the presence of a truncation
to a certain order. We will return to this point later. Full details of the representation
can be found in [9].
The space administration system was based on explicit return rather than garbage
collection. This meant that the system was sometimes harder to write, but it did
mean that much attention was focussed on efficient reuse of space. It was possible
for the user to assist in this by marking when an expression was needed no longer,
and the compiler then arranged to recycle the space as part of the actual opera-
tion. This degree of control was another assistance in running of large problems on
relatively small machines.

Automatic Linearisation

In order to maintain Fourier series in a canonical form it is necessary to apply the

transformations for linearising products of sine and cosines. These will be familiar
to readers of the REDUCE test program as

cos θ cos φ ⇒ (cos(θ + φ) + cos(θ − φ))/2, (16.35)

cos θ sin φ ⇒ (sin(θ + φ) − sin(θ − φ))/2, (16.36)
sin θ sin φ ⇒ (cos(θ − φ) − cos(θ + φ))/2, (16.37)
2
cos θ ⇒ (1 + cos(2θ))/2, (16.38)
2
sin θ ⇒ (1 − cos(2θ))/2. (16.39)

In CAMAL these transformations are coded directly into the multiplication rou-
tines, and no action is necessary on the part of the user to invoke them. Of course
they cannot be turned off either.

Differentiation and Integration

The differentiation of a Fourier series with respect to an angle is particularly sim-

ple. The integration of a Fourier series is a little more interesting. The terms like
cos(nu + . . .) are easily integrated with respect to u, but the treatment of terms
independent of the angle would normally introduce a secular term. By convention
in Fourier series these secular terms are ignored, and the constant of integration is
taken as just the terms independent of the angle in the integrand. This is equivalent
332 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

to the substitution rules

sin(nθ) ⇒ −(1/n) cos(nθ)

cos(nθ) ⇒ (1/n) sin(nθ)

In CAMAL these operations were coded directly, and independently of the differ-
entiation and integration of the polynomial coefficients.

Harmonic Substitution

An operation which is of great importance in Fourier operations is the harmonic

substitution. This is the substitution of the sum of some angles and a general ex-
pression for an angle. In order to preserve the format, the mechanism uses the
translations

sin(θ + A) ⇒ sin(θ) cos(A) + cos(θ) sin(A)

cos(θ + A) ⇒ cos(θ) cos(A) − sin(θ) sin(A)

and then assuming that the value A is small it can be replaced by its expansion:

sin(θ + A) ⇒ sin(θ){1 − A2 /2! + A4 /4! . . .} +

cos(θ){A − A3 /3! + A5 /5! . . .}
cos(θ + A) ⇒ cos(θ){1 − A2 /2! + A4 /4! . . .} −
sin(θ){A − A3 /3! + A5 /5! . . .}

If a truncation is set for large powers of the polynomial variables then the series
will terminate. In CAMAL the HSUB operation took five arguments; the original
expression, the angle for which there is a substitution, the new angular part, the
expression part (A in the above), and the number of terms required.
The actual coding of the operation was not as expressed above, but by the use of
Taylor’s theorem. As has been noted above the differentiation of a harmonic series
is particularly easy.

Truncation of Series

The main use of Fourier series systems is in generating perturbation expansions,

and this implies that the calculations are performed to some degree of the small
quantities. In the original CAMAL all variables were assumed to be equally small
(a restriction removed in later versions). By maintaining polynomials in increasing
 333

maximum order it is possible to truncate the multiplication of two polynomials.

Assume that we are multiplying the two polynomials

A = a0 + a1 + a2 + . . .
B = b0 + b1 + b2 + . . .

If we are generating the partial answer

ai (b0 + b1 + b2 + . . .)

then if for some j the product ai bj vanishes, then so will all products ai bk for
k > j. This means that the later terms need not be generated. In the product of
1 + x + x2 + x3 + . . . + x10 and 1 + y + y 2 + y 3 + . . . + y 1 0 to a total order of 10
instead of generating 100 term products only 55 are needed. The ordering can also
make the merging of the new terms into the answer easier.

16.10.3 Towards a CAMAL Module

For the purposes of this work it was necessary to reproduce as many of the ideas
of CAMAL as feasible within the REDUCE framework and philosophy. It was not
intended at this stage to produce a complete product, and so for simplicity a number
of compromises were made with the “no restrictions” principle in REDUCE and
the space and time efficiency of CAMAL. This section describes the basic design
decisions.

Data Structures

In a fashion similar to CAMAL a two level data representation is used. The coef-
ficients are the standard quotients of REDUCE, and their representation need not
concern us further. The angular part is similar to that of CAMAL, but the ability to
pack angle multipliers and use a single bit for the function are not readily available
in Standard LISP, so instead a longer vector is used. Two versions were written.
One used a balanced tree rather than a linear list for the Fourier terms, this being a
feature of CAMAL which was considered but never coded. The other uses a simple
linear representation for sums. The angle multipliers are held in a separate vector
in order to allow for future flexibility. This leads to a representation as a vector of
length 6 or 4;

Version1: [ BalanceBits, Coeff, Function, Angles, LeftTree, RightTree ]

Version2: [ Coeff, Function, Angles, Next ]

where the Angles field is a vector of length 8, for the multipliers. It was decided
to forego packing as for portability we do not know how many to pack into a small
334 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

integer. The tree system used is AVL, which needs 2 bits to maintain balance infor-
mation, but these are coded as a complete integer field in the vector. We can expect
the improvements implicit in a binary tree to be advantageous for large expressions,
but the additional overhead may reduce its utility for smaller expressions.
A separate vector is kept relating the position of an angle to its print name, and
on the property list of each angle the allocation of its position is kept. So long as
the user declares which variables are to be treated as angles this mechanism gives
flexibility which was lacking in CAMAL.

Linearisation

As in the CAMAL system the linearisation of products of sines and cosines is done
not by pattern matching but by direct calculation at the heart of the product func-
tion, where the transformations (1) through (3) are made in the product of terms
function. A side effect of this is that there are no simple relations which can be used
from within the Fourier multiplication, and so a full addition of partial products is
required. There is no need to apply linearisations elsewhere as a special case. Ad-
dition, differentiation and integration cannot generate such products, and where
they can occur in substitution the natural algorithm uses the internal multiplication
function anyway.

Substitution

Substitution is the main operation of Fourier series. It is useful to consider three

different cases of substitutions.

1. Angle Expression for Angle:

2. Angle Expression + Fourier Expression for Angle:

3. Fourier Expression for Polynomial Variable.

The first of these is straightforward, and does not require any further comment.
The second substitution requires a little more care, but is not significantly difficult
to implement. The method follows the algorithm used in CAMAL, using TAYLOR
series. Indeed this is the main special case for substitution.
The problem is the last case. Typically many variables used in a Fourier series
program have had a WEIGHT assigned to them. This means that substitution must
take account of any possible WEIGHTs for variables. The standard code in RE-
DUCE does this in effect by translating the expression to prefix form, and recal-
culating the value. A Fourier series has a large number of coefficients, and so this
operations are repeated rather too often. At present this is the largest problem area
 335

with the internal code, as will be seen in the discussion of the Disturbing Function
calculation.

16.10.4 Integration with REDUCE

The Fourier module needs to be seen as part of REDUCE rather than as a separate
language. This can be seen as having internal and external parts.

Internal Interface

The Fourier expressions need to co-exist with the normal REDUCE syntax and
semantics. The prototype version does this by (ab)using the module method, based
in part on the TPS code [1]. Of course Fourier series are not constant, and so are
not really domain elements. However by asserting that Fourier series form a ring
of constants REDUCE can arrange to direct basic operations to the Fourier code
for addition, subtraction, multiplication and the like.
The main interface which needs to be provided is a simplification function for
Fourier expressions. This needs to provide compilation for linear sums of angles,
as well as constructing sine and cosine functions, and creating canonical forms.

User Interface

The creation of HDIFF and HINT functions for differentiation disguises this. An
unsatisfactory aspect of the interface is that the tokens SIN and COS are already in
use. The prototype uses the operator form

fourier sin(u)

to introduce harmonically represented sine functions. An alternative of using the

tokens F_SIN and F_COS is also available.
It is necessary to declare the names of the angles, which is achieved with the dec-
laration

harmonic theta, phi;

At present there is no protection against using a variable as both an angle and a

polynomial varaible. This will nooed to be done in a user-oriented version.
336 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.10.5 The Simple Experiments

The REDUCE test file contains a simple example of a Fourier calculation, deter-
mining the value of (a1 cos(wt) + a3 cos(3wt) + b1 sin(wt) + b3 sin(3wt))3 . For
the purposes of this system this is too trivial to do more than confirm the correct
answers.
The simplest non-trivial calculation for a Fourier series manipulator is to solve
Kepler’s equation for the eccentric anomoly E in terms of the mean anomoly u,
and the eccentricity of an orbit e, considered as a small quantity

E = u + e sin E

The solution procedes by repeated approximation. Clearly the initial approxima-

tion is E0 = u. The nth approximation can be written as u + An , and so An can
be calculated by
Ak = e sin(u + Ak−1 )
This is of course precisely the case for which the HSUB operation is designed, and
so in order to calculate En − u all one requires is the code

bige := fourier 0;
for k:=1:n do <<
wtlevel k;
bige:=fourier e * hsub(fourier(sin u), u, u, bige, k);
>>;
write "Kepler Eqn solution:", bige$

It is possible to create a regular REDUCE program to simulate this (as is done

for example in Barton and Fitch[4], page 254). Comparing these two programs
indicates substantial advantages to the Fourier module, as could be expected.
 337

Solving Kepler’s Equation

Order REDUCE Fourier Module
5 9.16 2.48
6 17.40 4.56
7 33.48 8.06
8 62.76 13.54
9 116.06 21.84
10 212.12 34.54
11 381.78 53.94
12 692.56 82.96
13 1247.54 125.86
14 2298.08 187.20
15 4176.04 275.60
16 7504.80 398.62
17 13459.80 569.26
18 *** 800.00
19 *** 1116.92
20 *** 1536.40

These results were with the linear representation of Fourier series. The tree rep-
resentation was slightly slower. The ten-fold speed-up for the 13th order is most
satisfactory.

16.10.6 A Medium-Sized Problem

Fourier series manipulators are primarily designed for large-scale calculations, but
for the demonstration purposes of this project a medium problem is considered.
The first stage in calculating the orbit of the Moon using the Delaunay theory (of
perturbed elliptic motion for the restricted 3-body problem) is to calculate the en-
ergy of the Moon’s motion about the Earth — the Hamiltonian of the system. This
is the calculation we use for comparisons.

Mathematical Background

The full calculation is described in detail in [6], but a brief description is given here
for completeness, and to grasp the extent of the calculation.
338 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Referring to the figure 1 which gives the cordinate system, the basic equations are

S = (1 − γ 2 ) cos(f + g + h − f 0 − g 0 − h0 ) + γ 2 cos(f + g − h + f 0 + g(16.40)

0
+ h0 )
r = a(1 − e cos E) (16.41)
l = E − e sin E (16.42)
rdE
a = (16.43)
dl
r2 df 1
= a2 (1 − e2 ) 2 (16.44)
dl ( )
2 0  r 2  a0 2  a   r 3  a0 3
0a a
R = m 03 0 P2 (S) + 0 P3 (S) + . . . (16.45)
a r a r0 a a r0

There are similar equations to (7) to (10) for the quantities r0 , a0 , e0 , l0 , E 0 and f 0
which refer to the position of the Sun rather than the Moon. The problem is to
calculate the expression R as an expansion in terms of the quantities e, e0 , γ, a/a0 ,
l, g, h, l0 , g 0 and h0 . The first three quantities are small quantities of the first order,
and a/a0 is of second order.
The steps required are

1. Solve the Kepler equation (8)

2. Substiture into (7) to give r/a in terms of e and l.

3. Calculate a/r from (9) and f from (10)

4. Substitute for f and f 0 into S using (6)

5. Calculate R from S, a0 /r0 and r/a

The program is given in the Appendix.

Results

The Lunar Disturbing function was calculated by a direct coding of the previous
sections’ mathematics. The program was taken from Barton and Fitch [4] with
just small changes to generalise it for any order, and to make it acceptable for
Reduce3.4. The Fourier program followed the same pattern, but obviously used
the HSUB operation as appropriate and the harmonic integration. It is very similar
to the CAMAL program in [4].
The disturbing function was calculated to orders 2, 4 and 6 using Cambridge LISP
on an HLH Orion 1/05 (Intergraph Clipper), with the three programs α) Reduce3.4,
β) Reduce3.4 + Camal Linear Module and γ) Reduce3.4 + Camal AVL Module.
 339

The timings for CPU seconds (excluding garbage collection time) are summarised
the following table:

Order of DDF Reduce Camal Linear Camal Tree

2 23.68 11.22 12.9
4 429.44 213.56 260.64
6 >7500 3084.62 3445.54

If these numbers are normalised so REDUCE calculating the DDF is 100 units for
each order the table becomes

Order of DDF Reduce Camal Linear Camal Tree

2 100 47.38 54.48
4 100 49.73 60.69
6 100 <41.13 <45.94

From this we conclude that a doubling of speed is about correct, and although the
balanced tree system is slower as the problem size increases the gap between it and
the simpler linear system is narrowing.
It is disappointing that the ratio is not better, nor the absolute time less. It is worth
noting in this context that Jefferys claimed that the sixth order DDF took 30s on a
CDC6600 with TRIGMAN in 1970 [11], and Barton and Fitch took about 1s for
the second order DDF on TITAN with CAMAL [4]. A closer look at the relative
times for individual sections of the program shows that the substitution case of
replacing a polynomial variable by a Fourier series is only marginally faster than
the simple REDUCE program. In the DDF program this operation is only used
once in a major form, substituting into the Legendre polynomials, which have been
previously calculated by Rodrigues formula. This suggests that we replace this
with the recurrence relationship.
Making this change actually slows down the normal REDUCE by a small amount
but makes a significant change to the Fourier module; it reduces the run time for
the 6th order DDF from 3084.62s to 2002.02s. This gives some indication of the
problems with benchmarks. What is clear is that the current implementation of
substitution of a Fourier series for a polynomial variable is inadequate.

16.10.7 Conclusion

The Fourier module is far from complete. The operations necessary for the solution
of Duffing’s and Hill’s equations are not yet written, although they should not
cause much problem. The main defficiency is the treatment of series truncation;
at present it relies on the REDUCE WTLEVEL mechanism, and this seems too
340 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

coarse for efficient truncation. It would be possible to re-write the polynomial

manipulator as well, while retaining the REDUCE syntax, but that seems rather
more than one would hope.
The real failure so far is the large time lag between the REDUCE-based system on a
modern workstation against a mainframe of 25 years ago running a special system.
The CAMAL Disturbing function program could calculate the tenth order with a
maximum of 32K words (about 192Kbytes) whereas this system failed to calculate
the eigth order in 4Mbytes (taking 2000s before failing). I have in my archives
the output from the standard CAMAL test suite, which includes a sixth order DDF
on an IBM 370/165 run on 2 June 1978, taking 22.50s and using a maximum of
15459 words of memory for heap — or about 62Kbytes. A rough estimate is that
the Orion 1/05 is comparable in speed to the 360/165, but with more real memory
and virtual memory.
However, a simple Fourier manipulator has been created for REDUCE which per-
forms between twice and three times the speed of REDUCE using pattern match-
ing. It has been shown that this system is capable of performing the calculations of
celestial mechanics, but it still seriously lags behind the efficiency of the specialist
systems of twenty years before. It is perhaps fortunate that it was not been possible
to compare it with a modern specialist system.
There is still work to do to provide a convenient user interface, but it is intended to
develop the system in this direction. It would be pleasant to have again a system of
the efficiency of CAMAL(F).
I would like to thank Codemist Ltd for the provision of computing resources for
this project, and David Barton who taught be so much about Fourier series and
celstial mechanics. Thank are also due to the National Health Service, without
whom this work and paper could not have been produced.

Appendix: The DDF Function

array p(n/2+2);
harmonic u,v,w,x,y,z;
weight e=1, b=1, d=1, a=1;

%% Generate Legendre Polynomials to sufficient order

for i:=2:n/2+2 do <<
p(i):=(h*h-1)^i;
for j:=1:i do p(i):=df(p(i),h)/(2j)
>>;

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Step1: Solve Kepler equation

bige := fourier 0;
 341

for k:=1:n do <<

wtlevel k;
bige:=fourier e * hsub(fourier(sin u), u, u, bige, k);
>>;

%% Ensure we do not calculate things of too high an order

wtlevel n;

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Step 2: Calculate r/a in terms of e and l

dd:=-e*e; hh:=3/2; j:=1; cc := 1;
for i:=1:n/2 do <<
j:=i*j; hh:=hh-1; cc:=cc+hh*(dd^i)/j
>>;
bb:=hsub(fourier(1-e*cos u), u, u, bige, n);
aa:=fourier 1+hdiff(bige,u); ff:=hint(aa*aa*fourier cc,u);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Step 3: a/r and f

uu := hsub(bb,u,v); uu:=hsub(uu,e,b);
vv := hsub(aa,u,v); vv:=hsub(vv,e,b);
ww := hsub(ff,u,v); ww:=hsub(ww,e,b);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Step 4: Substitute f and f’ into S

yy:=ff-ww; zz:=ff+ww;
xx:=hsub(fourier((1-d*d)*cos(u)),u,u-v+w-x-y+z,yy,n)+
hsub(fourier(d*d*cos(v)),v,u+v+w+x+y-z,zz,n);

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% Step 5: Calculate R

zz:=bb*vv; yy:=zz*zz*vv;

on fourier;
for i := 2:n/2+2 do <<
wtlevel n+4-2i; p(i) := hsub(p(i), h, xx) >>;

wtlevel n;
for i:=n/2+2 step -1 until 3 do
p(n/2+2):=fourier(a*a)*zz*p(n/2+2)+p(i-1);
yy*p(n/2+2);
342 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Bibliography

[1] A. Barnes and J. A. Padget. Univariate power series expansions in Reduce. In

S. Watanabe and M. Nagata, editors, Proceedings of ISSAC’90, pages 82–7.
ACM, Addison-Wesley, 1990.

[2] D. Barton. Astronomical Journal, 72:1281–7, 1967.

[3] D. Barton. A scheme for manipulative algebra on a computer. Computer

Journal, 9:340–4, 1967.

[4] D. Barton and J. P. Fitch. The application of symbolic algebra system to

physics. Reports on Progress in Physics, 35:235–314, 1972.

[5] Stephen R. Bourne. Literal expressions for the co-ordinates of the moon. I.
the first degree terms. Celestial Mechanics, 6:167–186, 1972.

[6] E. W. Brown. An Introductory Treatise on the Lunar Theory. Cambridge

University Press, 1896.

[7] C. Delaunay. Théorie du Mouvement de la Lune. (Extraits des Mém. Acad.

Sci.). Mallet-Bachelier, Paris, 1860.

[8] Richard J. Fateman. On the multiplication of poisson series. Celestial Me-

chanics, 10(2):243–249, October 1974.

[9] J. P. Fitch. Syllabus for algebraic manipulation lectures in cambridge.

SIGSAM Bulletin, 32:15, 1975.

[10] J. P. Fitch. CAMAL User’s Manual. University of Cambridge Computer

Laboratory, 2nd edition, 1983.

[11] W. H. Jeffereys. Celestial Mechanics, 2:474–80, 1970.

 343

16.11 CANTENS: A Package for Manipulations and Sim-

plifications of Indexed Objects

This package creates an environment which allows the user to manipulate and sim-
plify expressions containing various indexed objects like tensors, spinors, fields
and quantum fields.
Author: Hubert Caprasse.

16.11.1 Introduction

CANTENS is a package that creates an environment inside REDUCE which allows

the user to manipulate and simplify expressions containing various indexed objects
like tensors, spinors, fields and quantum fields. Briefly said, it allows him

- to define generic indexed quantities which can eventually depend implicitly

or explicitly on any number of variables;

- to define one or several affine or metric (sub-)spaces, and to work within

them without difficulty;

- to handle dummy indices and simplify adequatly expressions which contain

them.

Beside the above features, it offers the user:

1. Several invariant elementary tensors which are always used in the applica-
tions involving the use of indexed objects like delta, epsilon, eta
and the generalized delta function.

2. The possibility to define any metric and to make it bloc-diagonal if he wishes

to.

3. The capability to symmetrize or antisymmetrize any expression.

4. The possibility to introduce any kind of symmetry (even partial symmetries)

for the indexed objects.

5. The choice to work with commutative, non-commutative or anticommutative

indexed objects.

In this package, one cannot find algorithms or even specific objects (i.e. like the
covariant derivative or the SU(3) group structure constants) which are of used either
in nuclear and particle physics. The objective of the package is simply to allow the
user to easily formulate his algorithms in the notations he likes most. The package
344 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

is also conceived so as to minimize the number of new commands. However, the

large number of new capabilities inherently implies that quite a substantial number
of new functions and commands must be used. On the other hand, in order to
avoid too many error or warning messages the package assumes, in many cases,
that the user is reponsible of the consistency of its inputs. The author is aware that
the package is still perfectible and he will be grateful to all people who shall spare
some time to communicate bugs or suggest improvements.
The documentation below is separated into four sections. In the first one, the
space(s) properties and definitions are described.
In the second one, the commands to geberate and handle generic indexed quantities
(called abusively tensors) are illustrated. The manipulation and control of free and
dummy indices is discussed.
In the third one, the special tensors are introduced and their properties discussed
especially with respect to their ability to work simultaneously within several sub-
spaces.
The last section, which is also the most important, is devoted entirely to the simpli-
fication function CANONICAL. This function originates from the package DUMMY
and has been substantially extended . It takes account of all symmetries, make
dummy summations and seeks a “canonical” form for any tensorial expression.
Without it, the present package would be much less useful.
Finally, an index has been created. It contains numerous references to the text.
Different typings have been adopted to make a clear distinction between them.
The conventions are the following:

• Procedure keywords are typed in capital roman letters.

• Package keywords are typed in typewriter capital letters.

• Cantens package keywords are in small typewriter letters.

• All other keywords are typed in small roman letters.

When CANTENS is loaded, the packages ASSIST and DUMMY are also loaded.

16.11.2 Handling of space(s)

One can work either in a single space environment or in a multiple space environ-
ment. After the package is loaded, the single space environment is set and a unique
space is defined. It is euclidian, and has a symbolic dimension equal to dim. The
single space environment is determined by the switch ONESPACE which is turned
on. One can verify the above assertions as follows :
 345

onespace ?; => yes

wholespace_dim ?; => dim

signature ?; => 0

One can introduce a pseudoeuclidian metric for the above space by the command
SIGNATURE and verify that the signature is indeed 1:

signature 1;

signature ?; => 1

In principle the signature may be set to any positive integer. However, presently,
the package cannot handle signatures larger than 1. One gets the Minkowski-like
space metric  
1 0 0 0
 0 −1 0 0 
 
 0 0 −1 0 
0 0 0 −1
which corresponds to the convention of high energy physicists. It is possible to
change it into the astrophysicists convention using the command GLOBAL_SIGN:

global_sign ?; => 1

global_sign (-1);

global_sign ?; => -1

This means that the actual metric is now (−1, 1, 1, 1). The space dimension may,
of course, be assigned at will using the function WHOLESPACE_DIM. Below, it is
assigned to 4:

wholespace_dim 4; ==> 4

When the switch ONESPACE is turned off, the system assumes that this default
space is non-existent and, therefore, that the user is going to define the space(s) in
which he wants to work. Unexpected error messages will occur if it is not done.
Once the switch is turned off many more functions become active. A few of them
are available in the algebraic mode to allow the user to properly conctruct and
control the properties of the various (sub-)spaces he is going to define and, also, to
assign symbolic indices to some of them.
DEFINE_SPACES is the space constructor and wholespace is a reserved identi-
346 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

fier which is meant to be the name of the global space if subspaces are introduced.
Suppose we want to define a unique space, we can choose for its any name but
choosing wholespace will be more efficient. On the other hand, it leaves open
the possibility to introduce subspaces in a more transparent way. So one writes, for
instance,:

define_spaces wholespace=

{6,signature=1,indexrange=0 .. 5}; ==>t

The arguments inside the list, assign respectively the dimension, the signature and
the range of the numeric indices which is allowed. Notice that the range starts from
0 and not from 1. This is made to conform with the usual convention for spaces of
signature equal to 1. However, this is not compulsory. Notice that the declaration
of the indexrange may be omitted if this is the only defined space. There are two
other options which may replace the signature option, namely euclidian and
affine. They have both an obvious significance.
In the subsequent example, an eleven dimension global space is defined and two
subspaces of this space are specified. Notice that no indexrange has been declared
for the entire space. However, the indexrange declaration is compulsory for sub-
spaces otherwise the package will improperly work when dealing with numeric
indices.

define_spaces wholespace={11,signature=1}; ==> t

define_spaces mink=

{4,signature=1,indexrange=0 .. 3}; ==> t

define_spaces eucl=

{6,euclidian,indexrange=4 .. 9}; ==> t

To remind ones the space context in which one is working, the use of the func-
tion SHOW_SPACES is required. Its output is an algebraic value from which the
user can retrieve all the informations displayed. After the declarations above, this
function gives:

show_spaces(); ==>

{{wholespace,11,signature=1}

{mink,4,signature=1,indexrange=0..3},
 347

{eucl,6,euclidian,indexrange=4..9}}

If an input error is made or if one wants to change the space framework, one cannot
directly redefine the relevant space(s). For instance, the input

define_spaces eucl=

{7,euclidian,indexrange=4 .. 9}; ==>

*** Warning: eucl cannot be (or is already)

defined as space identifier
t

whih aims to fill all dimensions present in wholespace tells that the space eucl
cannot be redefined. To redefine it effectively, one is to remove the existing defini-
tion first using the function REM_SPACES which takes any number of space-names
as its argument. Here is the illustration:

rem_spaces eucl; ==> t

show_spaces(); ==>

{{wholespace,11,signature=1},

{mink,4,signature=1,indexrange=0..3}}

define_spaces eucl=

{7,euclidian,indexrange=4 .. 10}; ==> t

show_spaces(); ==>

{{wholespace,11,signature=1},

{mink,4,signature=1,indexrange=0..3},

{eucl,7,euclidian,indexrange=4..10}}

Here, the user is entirely responsible of the coherence of his construction. The
system does NOT verify it but will incorrectly run if there is a mistake at this level.
When two spaces are direct product of each other (as the color and Minkowski
348 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

spaces in quantum chromodynamics), it is not necessary to introduce the global

space wholespace.
“Tensors” and symbolic indices can be declared to belong to a specific space or
subspace. It is in fact an essential ingredient of the package and make it able
to handle expressions which involve quantities belonging to several (sub-)spaces
or to handle bloc-diagonal “tensors”. This will be discussed in the next section.
Here, we just mention how to declare that some set of symbolic indices belong to
a specific (sub-)space or how to declare them to belong to any space. The relevant
command is MK_IDS_BELONG_SPACE whose syntax is

mk_ids_belong_space(<list of indices>,
<space | subspace identifier>)

For example, within the above declared spaces one could write:

mk_ids_belong_space({a0,a1,a2,a3},mink); ==> t

mk_ids_belong_space({x,y,z,u,v},eucl); ==> t

The command MK_IDS_BELONG_ANYSPACE allows to remake them usable ei-

ther in wholespace if it is defined or in anyone among the defined spaces. For
instance, the declaration:

mk_ids_belong_anyspace a1,a2; ==> t

tells that a1 and a2 belong either to mink or to eucl or to wholespace.

16.11.3 Generic tensors and their manipulation

Definition

The generic tensors handled by CANTENS are objects much more general than
usual tensors. The reason is that they are not supposed to obey well defined trans-
formation properties under a change of coordinates. They are only indexed quan-
tities. The indices are either contravariantly (upper indices) or covariantly (lower
indices) placed. They can be symbolic or numeric. When a given index is found
both in one upper and in one lower place, it is supposed to be summed over all
space-coordinates it belongs to viz. it is a dummy index and automatically recog-
nized as such. So they are supposed to obey the summation rules of tensor calcu-
lus. This why and only why they are called tensors. Moreover, aside from indices
they may also depend implicitly or explicitly on any number of variables. Within
this definition, tensors may also be spinors, they can be non-commutative or anti-
commutative, they may also be algebra generators and represent fields or quantum
 349

fields.

Implications of TENSOR declaration

The procedure TENSOR which takes an arbitrary number of identifiers as argument

defines them as operator-like objects which admit an arbitrary number of indices.
Each component has a formal character and may or may not belong to a specific
(sub-)space. Numeric indices are also allowed. The way to distinguish upper and
lower indices is the same as the one in the package EXCALC e.g. −a is a lower
index and a is an upper index. A special printing function has been created so as
to mimic as much as possible the way of writing such objects on a sheet of paper.
Let us illustrate the use of TENSOR:

tensor te; ==> t

te(3,a,-4,b,-c,7); ==>
3 a b 7
te
4 c

te(3,a,{x,y},-4,b,-c,7); ==>

3 a b 7
te (x,y)
4 c

te(3,a,-4,b,{u,v},-c,7); ==>

3 a b 7
te (u,v)
4 c

te({x,y}); ==> te(x,y)

Notice that the system distinguishes indices from variables on input solely on the
basis that the user puts variables inside a list.
The dependence can also be declared implicit through the REDUCE command
DEPEND which is generalized so as to allow to declare a tensor to depend on
350 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

another tensor irrespective of its components. It means that only one declaration
is enough to express the dependence with respect to all its components. A simple
example:

tensor te,x;

depend te,x;

df(te(a,-b),x(c)); ==>

a c
df(te ,x )
b

Therefore, when all objects are tensors, the dependence declaration is valid for all
indices.
One can also avoid the trouble to place the explicit variables inside a list if one de-
clare them as variables through the command MAKE_VARIABLES. This property
can also be removed19 using REMOVE_VARIABLES:

make_variables x,y; ==> t

te(x,y); ==> te(x,y)

te(x,y,a); ==>

a
te (x,y)

remove_variables x; ==> t

te(x,y,a); ==>

x a
te (y)

If one does that one must be careful not to substitute a number to such declared
19
One important feature of this package is its reversibility viz. it gives the user the means to erase
its previous operations at any time. So, most functions described below do possess “removing” action
companions.
 351

variables because this number would be considered as an index and no longer as a

variable. So it is only useful for formal variables.
A tensor can be easily eliminated using the function REM_TENSOR. It has the
syntax

rem_tensor t1,t2,t3 ....;

Dummy indices recognition For all individual tensors met by the evaluator, the
system will analyse the written indices and will detect those which must be con-
sidered dummy according to the usual rules of tensor calculus. Those indices
will be given the dummy property and will no longer be allowed to play the role
of free indices unless the user removes this dummy property. In that way, the
system checks immediately the consistency of an input. Three functions are at
the disposal of the user to control dummy indices. They are DUMMY_INDICES,
REM_DUMMY_INDICES and REM_DUMMY_IDS. The following illustrates their
use as well as the behaviour of the system:

dummy_indices(); ==> {} % In a fresh environment

te(a,b,-c,-a); ==>

a b
te
c a

dummy_indices(); ==> {a}

te(a,b,-c,a); ==>

***** ((c)(a b a)) are inconsistent lists of indices

% a cannot be found twice as an upper index

te(a,b,-b,-a); ==>

a b
te
b a

dummy_indices(); ==> {b,a}

te(d,-d,d); ==>
352 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

***** ((d)(d d)) are inconsistent lists of indices

dummy_indices(); ==> {d,b,a}

rem_dummy_ids d; ==> t

dummy_indices(); ==> {b,a}

te(d,d); ==>

d d
te % This is allowed again.

dummy_indices(); ==> {b,a}

rem_dummy_indices(); ==> t

dummy_indices(); ==> {}

Other verifications of coherence are made when space specifications are introduced
both in the ON and OFF onespace environment. We shall discuss them later.

Substitutions, assignements and rewriting rules The user must be able to ma-
nipulate and give specific characteristics to the generic tensors he has introduced.
Since tensors are essentially REDUCE operators, the usual commands of the sys-
tem are available. However, some limitations are implied by the fact that indices
and, especially numeric indices, must always be properly recognized before any
substitution or manipulation is done. We have gathered below a set of examples
which illustrate all the “delicate” points. First, the substitutions:

sub(a=-c,te(a,b)); ==>

b
te
c

sub(a=-1,te(a,b)); ==>

b
te
1

sub(a=-0,te(a,b)); ==>
 353

0 b
te % sub has replaced -0 by 0. wrong!

sub(a=-!0,te(a,b)); ==>

b
te % right
0

The substitution of an index by -0 is the only one case where there is a problem.
The function SUB replaces -0 by 0 because it does not recognize 0 as an index of
course. Such a recognition is context dependent and implies a modification of SUB
for this single exceptional case. Therefore,we have opted, not do do so and to use
the index 0 which is simply !0 instead of 0.
Second, the assignments. Here, we advise the user to rely on the operator==20
instead of the operator :=. Again, the reason is to avoid the problem raised above
in the case of substitutions. := does not evaluate its left hand side so that -0 is not
recognized as an index and simplified to 0 while the == operator evaluates both
its left and right hand sides and does recognize it. The disadvantage of == is that
it demands that a second assignement on a given component be made only after
having suppressed explicitly the first assignement. This is done by the function
REM_VALUE_TENS which can be applied on any component. We stress, however,
that if one is willing to use -!0 instead of -0 as the lower 0 index, the use of := is
perfectly legitimate:

te({x,y},a,-0)==x*y*te(a,-0); ==>

a
te *x*y
0

te({x,y},a,-0); ==>

a
te *x*y
0

te({x,y},a,0); ==>

20
See the ASSIST documentation for its description.
354 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

a 0
te (x,y)

te({x,y},a,-0)==x*y*te(a,-0); ==>

a
***** te *x*y invalid as setvalue kernel
0

rem_value_tens te({x,y},a,-0);

te({x,y},a,-0); ==>

a
te (x,y)
0

te({x,y},a,-0)==(x+y)*te(a,-0); ==>

a
te *(x + y)
0

In the elementary application below, the use of a tensor avoids the introduction of
two different operators and makes the calculation more readable.

te(1)==sin th * cos phi; ==> cos(phi)*sin(th)

te(-1)==sin th * cos phi; ==> cos(phi)*sin(th)

te(2)==sin th * sin phi; ==> sin(phi)*sin(th)

te(-2)==sin th * sin phi; ==> sin(phi)*sin(th)

te(3)==cos th ; ==> cos(th)

te(-3)==cos th ; ==> cos(th)

for i:=1:3 sum te(i)*te(-i); ==>

2 2 2 2 2
cos(phi) *sin(th) + cos(th) + sin(phi) *sin(th)
 355

rem_value_tens te;

te(2); ==>

2
te

There is no difference in the manipulation of numeric indices and numeric tensor

indices. The function REM_VALUE_TENS when applied to a tensor prefix sup-
presses the value of all its components. Finally, there is no “interference” with i as
a dummy index and i as a numeric index in a loop.
Third, rewriting rules. They are either global or local and can be used as in RE-
DUCE. Again, here, the -0 index problem exists each time a substitution by the
index -0 must be made in a template.

% LET:

let te({x,y},-0)=x*y;

te({x,y},-0); ==> x*y

te({x,y},+0); ==>

0
te (x,y)

te({x,u},-0); ==>

te (x,u)
0

% FOR ALL .. LET:

for all x,a let te({x},a,-b)=x*te(a,-b);

te({u},1,-b); ==>

1
te *u
b

te({u},c,-b); ==>
356 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

c
te *u
b

te({u},b,-b); ==>

b
te *u
b

te({u},a,-a); ==>

a
te (u)
a

for all x,a clear te({x},a,-b);

te({u},c,-b); ==>

c
te (u)
b

for all a,b let te({x},a,-b)=x*te(a,-b);

te({x},c,-b); ==>

c
te *x
b

te({x},a,-a); ==>

a
te *x
a

% The index -0 problem:

te({x},a,-0); ==> % -0 becomes +0 in the template

a
 357

te (x) % the rule does not apply.

0

te({x},0,-!0); ==>

0
te *x % here it applies.
0

% WHERE:

rul:={te(~a) => sin a}; ==>

a
rul := {te => sin(a)}

te(1) where rul; ==> sin(1)

te(1); ==>

1
te

% with variables:

rul1:={te(~a,{~x,~y}) => x*y*sin(a)}; ==>

~a
rul1 := {te (~x,~y) => x*y*sin(a)}

te(a,{x,y}) where rul1; ==> sin(a)*x*y

te({x,y},a) where rul1; ==> sin(a)*x*y

rul2:={te(-~a,{~x,~y}) => x*y*sin(-a)};

358 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

rul2 := {te (~x,~y) => x*y*sin(-a)}

~a

te(-a,{x,y}) where rul2; ==> -sin(a)*x*y

te({x,y},-a) where rul2; ==> -sin(a)*x*y

Notice that the position of the list of variables inside the rule may be chosen at will.
It is an irrelevant feature of the template. This may be confusing, so, we advise to
write the rules not as above but placing the list of variables in front of all indices
since it is in that canonical form which it is written by the simplification function
of individual tensors.

Behaviour under space specifications

The characteristics and the behaviour of generic tensors described up to now are
independent of all space specifications. They are complete as long as we confine
to the default space which is active when starting CANTENS. However, as soon as
some space specification is introduced, it has some consequences one the generic
tensor properties. This is true both when ONESPACE is switched ON or OFF. Here
we shall describe how to deal with these features.
When onespace is ON, if the space dimension is set to an integer, numeric in-
dices of any generic tensors are forced to be less or equal that integer if the sig-
nature is 0 or less than that integer if the signature is equal to 1. The following
illustrates what happens.

on onespace;

wholespace_dim 4; ==> 4

signature 0; ==> 0

te(3,a,-b,7); ==> ***** numeric indices out of range

te(3,a,-b,3); ==>

3 a 3
te
b
 359

te(4,a,-b,4); ==>

4 a 4
te
b

sub(a=5,te(3,a,-b,3));

==> ***** numeric indices out of range

signature 1; ==> 1

% Now indices range from 0 to 3:

te(4,a,-b,4);

==> ***** numeric indices out of range

te(0,a,-b,3); ==>

0 a 3
te
b

When onespace is OFF, many more possibilities to control the input or to give
specific properties to tensors are open. For instance, it is possible to declare that
a tensor belongs to one of them. It is also possible to declare that some indices
belongs to one of them. It is even possible to do that for numeric indices thanks
to the declaration indexrange included optionally in the space definition generated
by DEFINE_SPACES. First, when onespace is OFF, the run equivalent to the
previous one is like the following:

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace={6,signature=1); ==> t

show_spaces(); ==> {{wholespace,6,signature=1}}

make_tensor_belong_space(te,wholespace);
360 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

==> wholespace

te(4,a,-b,6); ==>

***** numeric indices out of range

te(4,a,-b,5); ==>

4 a 5
te
b

rem_spaces wholespace;

define_spaces wholespace={4,euclidean}; ==> t

te(a,5,-b); ==> ***** numeric indices out of range

te(a,4,-b); ==>

a 4
te
b

define_spaces eucl={1,signature=0}; ==> t

show_spaces(); ==>

{{wholespace,5,signature=1},

{eucl,1,signature=0}}

make_tensor_belong_space(te,eucl); ==> eucl

te(1); ==>

1
te

te(2); ==> ***** numeric indices out of range

 361

te(0); ==>

0
te

In the run, the new function MAKE_TENSOR_BELONG_SPACE has been used.

One may be surprised that te(0) is allowed in the end of the previous run and,
indeed, it is incorrect that the system allows two different components to te. This
is due to an incomplete definition of the space. When one deals with spaces of inte-
ger dimensions, if one wants to control numeric indices correctly when onespace
is switched off one must also give the indexrange. So the previous run must be cor-
rected to

define_spaces eucl=

{1,signature=0,indexrange=1 .. 1}; ==> t

make_tensor_belong_space(te,eucl); ==> eucl

te(0); ==>

***** numeric indices do not belong to (sub)-space

te(1); ==>

1
te

te(2); ==>

***** numeric indices do not belong to (sub)-space

Notice that the error message has also changed accordingly. So, now one can even
constrain the 0 component to belong to an euclidian space.
Let us go back to symbolic indices. By default, any symbolic index belongs
to the global space or to all defined partial spaces. In many cases, this is, of
course, not consistent. So, the possibility exists to declare that one or several
indices belong to a specific (sub-)space. To this end, one is to use the function
MK_IDS_BELONG_SPACE. Its syntax is

mk_ids_belong_space(<list of indices>,
<(sub-)space identifier>)
362 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The function MK_IDS_BELONG_ANYSPACE whose syntax is the same do the

reverse operation.
Combined with the declaration MAKE_TENSOR_BELONG_SPACE, it allows to
express all problems which involve tensors belonging to different spaces and do
the dummy summations correctly. One can also define a tensor which has a “bloc-
diagonal” structure. All these features are illustrated in the next sections which
describe specific tensors and the properties of the extended function CANONICAL.

16.11.4 Specific tensors

The means provided in the two previous subsection to handle generic tensors al-
ready allow to construct any specific tensor we may need. That the package con-
tains a certain number of them is already justified on the level of conviviality. How-
ever, a more important justification is that some basic tensors are so universaly and
frequently used that a careful programming of these improves considerably the ro-
bustness and the efficiency of most calculations. The choice of the set of specific
tensors is not clearcut. We have tried to keep their number to a minimum but, ex-
perience, may lead us extend it without dificulty. So, up to now, the list of specific
tensors is:

- delta tensor,
- eta Minkowski tensor,
- epsilon tensor,
- del generalised delta tensor,
- metric generic tensor metric.

It is important to realize that the typewriter font names in the list are keywords for
the corresponding tensors and do not necessarily correspond to their actual names.
Indeed, the choice of the names of particular tensors is left to the user. When
startting CANTENS specific tensors are NOT available. They must be activated by
the user using the function MAKE_PARTIC_TENS whose syntax is:

make_partic_tens(<tensor name> , <keyword>);

The name chosen may be the same as the keyword. As we shall see, it is never
needed to define more than one delta tensor but it is often needed to define
several epsilon tensors. Hereunder, we describe each of the above tensors espe-
cially their behaviour in a multi-space environment.
 363

DELTA tensor

It is the simplest example of a bloc-diagonal tensor we mentioned in the previous

section. It can also work in a space which is a direct product of two spaces. There-
fore, one never needs to introduce more than one such tensor. If one is working
in a graphic environment, it is advantageous to choose the keyword as its name.
Here we choose DELT. We illustrate how it works when the switch onespace is
successively switched ON and OFF.

on onespace;

make_partic_tens(delt,delta); ==> t

delt(a,b); ==>

***** bad choice of indices for DELTA tensor

% order of upper and lower indices irrelevant:

delt(a,-b); ==>

a
delt
b

delt(-b,a); ==>

a
delt
b

delt(-a,b); ==>

b
delt
a

wholespace_dim ?; ==> dim

delt(1,-5); ==> 0

% dummy summation done:

364 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

delt(-a,a); ==> dim

wholespace_dim 4; ==> 4

delt(1,-5); ==> ***** numeric indices out of range

wholespace_dim 3; ==> 3

delt(-a,a); ==> 3

There is a peculiarity of this tensor, viz. it can serve to represent the Dirac delta
function when it has no indices and an explicit variable dependency as hereunder

delt({x-y}) ==> delt(x-y)

Next we work in the context of several spaces:

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace={5,signature=1}; ==> t

% we need to assign delta to wholespace when it exists:

make_tensor_belong_space(delt,wholespace);

delt(a,-a); ==> 5

delt(0,-0); ==>1

rem_spaces wholespace; ==> t

define_spaces wholespace={5,signature=0}; ==> t

delt(a,-a); ==> 5

delt(0,-a); ==>

***** bad value of indices for DELTA tensor

The checking of consistency of chosen indices is made in the same way as for
generic tensor. In fact, all the previous functions which act on generic tensors may
 365

also affect, in the same way, a specific tensor. For instance, it was compulsory to
explicitly tell that we want DELT to belong to the wholespace overwise, DELT
would remain defined on the default space. In the next sample run, we display the
bloc-diagonal property of the delta tensor.

onespace ?; ==> no

rem_spaces wholespace; ==> t

define_spaces wholespace={10,signature=1}$

define_spaces d1={5,euclidian}$

define_spaces d2={2,euclidian}$

mk_ids_belong_space({a},d1); ==> t

mk_ids_belong_space({b},d2); ==> t

% c belongs to wholespace so:

delt(c,-b); ==>

c
delt
b

delt(c,-c); ==> 10

delt(b,-b); ==> 2

delt(a,-a); ==> 5

% this is especially important:

delt(a,-b); ==> 0

The bloc-diagonal property of delt is made active under two conditions. The first
is that the system knows to which space it belongs, the second is that indices must
be declared to belong to a specific space. To enforce the same property on a generic
tensor, we have to make the MAKE_BLOC_DIAGONAL declaration:
366 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

make_bloc_diagonal t1,t2, ...;

and to make it active, one proceeds as in the above run. Starting from a fresh
environment, the following sample run is illustrative:

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace={6,signature=1}$

define_spaces mink={4,signature=1,indexrange=0 .. 3}$

define_spaces eucl={3,euclidian,indexrange=4 .. 6}$

tensor te;

make_tensor_belong_space(te,eucl); ==> eucl

% the key declaration:

make_bloc_diagonal te; ==> t

% bloc-diagonal property activation:

mk_ids_belong_space({a,b,c},eucl); ==> t

mk_ids_belong_space({m1,m2},mink); ==> t

te(a,b,m1); ==> 0

te(a,b,m2); ==> 0

% bloc-diagonal property suppression:

mk_ids_belong_anyspace a,b,c,m1,m2; ==> t

te(a,b,m2); ==>

a b m2
te
 367

ETA Minkowski tensor

The use of MAKE_PARTIC_TENS with the keyword eta allows to create a

Minkowski diagonal metric tensor in a one or multi-space context either with the
convention of high energy physicists or in the convention of astrophysicists. Any
eta-like tensor is assumed to work within a space of signature 1. Therefore, if the
space whose metric, it is supposed to describe has a signature 0, an error message
follows if one is working in an ON onespace context and a warning when in an
OFF onespace context. Illustration:

on onespace;

make_partic_tens(et,eta); ==> t

signature 0; ==> 0;

et(-b,-a); ==>

***** signature must be equal to 1 for ETA tensor

off onespace;

et(a,b); ==>

*** ETA tensor not properly assigned to a space

% it is then evaluated to zero:

on onespace;

signature 1; ==> 1

et(-b,-a); ==>

et
a b

Since et(a,-a) is evaluated to the corresponding delta tensor, one cannot

define properly an eta tensor without a simultaneous introduction of a delta
tensor. Otherwise one gets the following message:
368 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

et(a,-a); ==> ***** no name found for (delta)

So we need to issue, for instance,

make_partic_tens(delta,delta); ==> t

The value of its diagonal elements depends on the chosen global sign. The next
run illustrates this:

global_sign ?; ==> 1

et(0,0); ==> 1

et(3,3); ==> - 1

global_sign(-1); ==> -1

et(0,0); ==> - 1

et(3,3); ==> 1

The tensor is of course symmetric . Its indices are checked in the same way as for
a generic tensor. In a multi_space context, the eta tensor must belong to a well
defined space of signature 1:

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace={4,signature=1}$

make_tensor_belong_space(et,wholespace)$

et(a,-a); ==> 4

If the space to which et belongs to is a subspace, one must also take care to give
a space-identity to dummy indices which may appear inside it. In the following
run, the index a belongs to wholespace if it is not told to the system that it is a
dummy index of the space mink:

make_tensor_belong_anyspace et; ==> t

rem_spaces wholespace; ==> t

define_spaces wholespace={8,signature=1}; ==> t

 369

define_spaces mink={5,signature=1}; ==> t

make_tensor_belong_space(et,mink); ==> mink

% a sits in wholespace:

et(a,-a); ==> 8

mk_ids_belong_space({a},mink); ==> t

% a sits in mink:

et(a,-a); ==> 5

EPSILON tensors

It is an antisymmetric tensor which is the invariant tensor for the unitary group
transformations in n-dimensional complex space which are continuously connected
to the identity transformation. The number of their indices are always stricty equal
to the number of space dimensions. So, to each specific space is associated a
specific epsilon tensor. Its properties are also dependent on the signature of the
space. We describe how to define and manipulate it in the context of a unique space
and, next, in a multi-space context.

ONESPACE is ON The use of MAKE_PARTIC_TENS places it, by default, in

an euclidian space if the signature is 0 and in a Minkowski-type space if the sig-
nature is 1. For higher signatures it is not constructed. For a space of symbolic
dimension, the number of its indices is not constrained. When it appears inside
an expression, its indices are all currently upper or lower indices. However, the
system allows for mixed positions of the indices. In that case, the output of the
system is changed compared to the input only to place all contravariant indices to
the left of the covariant ones.

make_partic_tens(eps,epsilon); ==> t

eps(a,d,b,-g,e,-f); ==>

a d b e
- eps
g f

eps(a,d,b,-f,e,-f); ==> 0
370 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

% indices have all the same variance:

eps(-b,-a); ==>

- eps
a b

signature ?; ==> 0

eps(1,2,3,4); ==> 1

eps(-1,-2,-3,-4); ==> 1

wholespace_dim 3; ==> 3

eps(-1,-2,-3); ==> 1

eps(-1,-2,-3,-4); ==>

***** numeric indices out of range

eps(-1,-2,-3,-3); ==>

***** bad number of indices for (eps) tensor

eps(a,b); ==>

***** bad number of indices for (eps) tensor

eps(a,b,c); ==>

a b c
eps

eps(a,b,b); ==> 0

When the signature is equal to 1, it is known that there exists two conventions
which are linked to the chosen value 1 or -1 of the (0, 1, . . . , n) component. So,
the sytem does evaluate all components in terms of the (0, 1, . . . , n) upper index
component. It is left to the user to assign it to 1 or -1.
 371

signature 1; ==> 1

eps(0,1,2); ==>

0 1 2
eps

eps(-0,-1,-2); ==>

0 1 2
eps

wholespace_dim 4; ==> 4

eps(0,1,2,3); ==>

0 1 2 3
eps

eps(-0,-1,-2,-3); ==>

0 1 2 3
- eps

% change of the global_sign convention:

global_sign(-1);

wholespace_dim 3; ==> 3

% compare with second input:

eps(-0,-1,-2); ==>

0 1 2
- eps

ONESPACE is OFF As already said, several epsilon tensors may be defined.

They must be assigned to a well defined (sub-)space otherwise the simplify-
ing function CANONICAL will not properly work. The set of epsilon ten-
sors defined associated to their space-name may be retrieved using the function
SHOW_EPSILONS. An important word of caution here. The output of this function
372 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

does NOT show the epsilon tensor one may have defined in the ON onespace
context. This is so because the default space has NO name. Starting from a fresh
environment, the following run illustrates this point:

show_epsilons(); ==> {}

onespace ?; ==> yes

make_partic_tens(eps,epsilon); ==> t

show_epsilons(); ==> {}

To make the epsilon tensor defined in the single space environment visible in
the multi-space environment, one needs to associate it to a space. For example:

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace={7,signature=1}; ==> t

show_epsilons(); ==> {} % still invisible

make_tensor_belong_space(eps,wholespace); ==>

wholespace

show_epsilons(); ==> {{eps,wholespace}}

Next, let us define an additional epsilon-type tensor:

define_spaces eucl={3,euclidian}; ==> t

make_partic_tens(ep,epsilon); ==>

*** Warning: ep MUST belong to a space

t

make_tensor_belong_space(ep,eucl); ==> eucl

show_epsilons(); ==> {{ep,eucl},{eps,wholespace}}

% We show that it is indeed working inside eucl:

ep(-1,-2,-3); ==> 1
 373

ep(1,2,3); ==> 1

ep(a,b,c,d); ==>

***** bad number of indices for (ep) tensor

ep(1,2,4); ==>

***** numeric indices out of range

As previously, the discrimation between symbolic indices may be introduced by

assigning them to one or another space :

rem_spaces wholespace;

define_spaces wholespace={dim,signature=1}; ==> t

mk_ids_belong_space({e1,e2,e3},eucl); ==> t

mk_ids_belong_space({a,b,c},wholespace); ==> t

ep(e1,e2,e3); ==>

e1 e2 e3
ep % accepted

ep(e1,e2,z); ==>

e1 e2 z
ep % accepted because z
% not attached to a space.

ep(e1,e2,a);==>

***** some indices are not in the space of ep

eps(a,b,c); ==>

a b c
eps % accepted because *symbolic*
% space dimension.
374 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

epsilon-like tensors can also be defined on disjoint spaces. The subsequent

sample run starts from the environment of the previous one. It suppresses the space
wholespace as well as the space-assignment of the indices a,b,c. It defines
the new space mink. Next, the previously defined eps tensor is attached to this
space. ep remains unchanged and e1,e2,e3 still belong to the space eucl.

rem_spaces wholespace; ==> t

make_tensor_belong_anyspace eps; ==> t

show_epsilons(); ==> {{ep,eucl}}

show_spaces(); ==> {{eucl,3,signature=0}}

mk_ids_belong_anyspace a,b,c; ==> t

define_spaces mink={4,signature=1}; ==> t

show_spaces(); ==>

{{eucl,3,signature=0},

{mink,4,signature=1}}

make_tensor_belong_space(eps,mink); ==> mink

show_epsilons(); ==> {{eps,mink},{ep,eucl}}

eps(a,b,c,d); ==>

a b c d
eps

eps(e1,b,c,d); ==>

***** some indices are not in the space of eps

ep(e1,b,c,d); ==>

***** bad number of indices for (ep) tensor

ep(e1,b,c); ==>

b c e1
 375

ep

ep(e1,e2,e3); ==>

e1 e2 e3
ep

DEL generalized delta tensor

The generalized delta function comes from the contraction of two epsilons. It is
totally antisymmetric. Suppose its name has been chosen to be gd, that the space
to which it is attached has dimension n while the name of the chosen delta tensor
is δ, then one can define it as follows:
 a1 a1 a1 
 δb
 a1 δba2 . . . δban 
 δ 2 δ 2 ... δ 2 
a1 ,a2 ,...,an  b b2 bn 
gdb1 ,b2 ,...,bn =  .1 .. .. .. 
 .. . . . 
 a
 δ n δ an . . . δ an 
b1 b1 b1

It is, in general uneconomical to explicitly write that determinant except for par-
ticular numeric values of the indices or when almost all upper and lower indices
are recognized as dummy indices. In the sample run below, gd is defined as the
generalized delta function in the default space. The main automatic evaluations are
illustrated. The indices which are summed over are always simplified:

onespace ? ==> yes

make_partic_tens(delta,delta); ==> t

make_partic_tens(gd,del); ==> t

% immediate simplifications:

gd(1,2,-3,-4); ==> 0

gd(1,2,-1,-2); ==> 1

gd(1,2,-2,-1); ==> -1 % antisymmetric

gd(a,b,-a,-b);

==> dim*(dim - 1) % summed over dummy indices

376 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

gd(a,b,c,-a,-d,-e); ==>

b c
gd *(dim - 2)
d e

gd(a,b,c,-a,-d,-c); ==>

b 2
delta *(dim - 3*dim + 2)
d

% no simplification:

gd(a,b,c,-d,-e,-f); ==>

a b c
gd
d e f

One can force evaluation in terms of the determinant in all cases. To this end, the
switch EXDELT is provided. It is initially OFF. Switching it ON will most often
give inconveniently large outputs:

on exdelt;

gd(a,b,c,-d,-e,-f); ==>

a b c a b c
delta *delta *delta - delta *delta *delta
d e f d f e

a b c a b c
- delta *delta *delta + delta *delta *delta
e d f e f d

a b c a b c
+ delta *delta *delta - delta *delta *delta
f d e f e d

In a multi-space environment, it is never necessary to define several such tensor.

The reason is that CANONICAL uses it always from the contraction of a pair of
epsilon-like tensors. Therefore the control of indices is already done, the space-
dimension in which del is working is also well defined.
 377

METRIC tensors

Very often, one has to define a specific metric. The metric-type of tensors in-
clude all generic properties. The first one is their symmetry, the second one is
their equality to the delta tensor when they get mixed indices, the third one is
their optional bloc-diagonality. So, a metric (generic) tensor is generated by the
declaration

make_partic_tens(<tensor-name>,metric);

By default, when one is working in a multi-space environment, it is defined in

wholespace One uses the usual means of REDUCE to give it specific values. In
particular, the metric ’delta’ tensor of the euclidian space can be defined that way.
Implicit or explicit dependences on variables are allowed. Here is an illustration in
the single space environment:

make_partic_tens(g,metric); ==> t

make_partic_tens(delt,delta); ==> t

onespace ?; ==> yes

g(a,b); ==>

a b
g

g(b,a); ==>

a b
g

g(a,b,c); ==>

***** bad choice of indices for a METRIC tensor

g(a,b,{x,y}); ==>

a b
g (x,y)

g(a,-b,{x,z}); ==>
378 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

a
delt
b

let g({x,y},1,1)=1/2(x+y);

g({x,y},1,1); ==>

x + y
-------
2

rem_value_tens g({x,y},1,1);

g({x,y},1,1); ==>

1 1
g (x,y)

16.11.5 The simplification function CANONICAL

Tensor expressions

Up to now, we have described the behaviour of individual tensors and how they
simplify themselves whenever possible. However, this is far from being sufficient.
In general, one is to deal with objects which involve several tensors together with
various dummy summations between them. We define a tensor expression as an
arbitrary multivariate polynomial. The indeterminates of such a polynomial may
be either an indexed object, an operator, a variable or a rational number. A tensor-
type indeterminate cannot appear to a degree larger than one except if it is a trace.
The following is a tensor expression:

aa:= delt({x - y})*delt(a, - g)*delt(d, - g)*delt(g, -r)

*eps( - d, - e, - f)*eps(a,b,c)*op(x,y) + 1; ==>

a d g
 379

aa := delt(x - y)*delt *delt *delt *eps

g g r d e f

a b c
*eps *op(x,y) + 1

In the above expression, delt and eps are, respectively, the delta and the
epsilon tensors, op is an operator. and delt(x-y) is the Dirac delta func-
tion. Notice that the above expression is not cohérent since the first term has a
variance while the second term is a scalar. Moreover, the dummy index g appears
three times in the first term. In fact, on input, each factor is simplified and each fac-
tor is checked for coherence not more. Therefore, if a dummy summation appears
inside one factor, it will be done whenever possible. Hereunder delt(a,-a) is
summed over:

sub(g=a,aa); ==>

a d a b c
delt(x - y)*delt *delt *eps *eps
r a d e f

*op(x,y)*dim + 1

The use of CANONICAL

CANONICAL is an offspring of the function with the same name of the package
DUMMY. It applies to tensor expressions as defined above. When it acts, this funct-
ions has several features which are worth to realise:

1. It tracks the free indices in each term and checks their identity. It identifies
and verify the coherence of the various dummy index summations.

2. Dummy indices summations are done on tensor products whenever possible

since it recognises the particular tensors defined above or defined by the user.

3. It seeks a canonical form for the various simplified terms, makes the compar-
ison between them. In that way it maximises simplifications and generates a
canonical form for the output polynomial.

Its capabilities have been extended in four directions:

• It is able to work within several spaces.

380 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• It manages correctly expressions where formal tensor derivatives are present21 .

• It takes into account all symmetries even if partial.

• As its parent function, it can deal with non-commutative and anticommuta-

tive indexed objects. So, Indexed objects may be spinors or quantum fields.

We describe most of these features in the rest of this documentation.

Check of tensor indices

Dummy indices for individual tensors are kept in the memory of the system. If
they are badly distributed over several tensors, it is CANONICAL which gives an
error message:

tensor te,tf; ==> t

bb:=te(a,b,b)*te(-b); ==>

a b b
bb := te *te
b

canonical bb; ==>

***** ((b)(a b b)) are inconsistent lists of indices

aa:=te(b,-c)*tf(b,-c); ==>

b b
aa := te *tf % b and c are free.
c c

canonical aa; ==>

b b
te * tf
c c

bb:=te(a,c,b)*te(-b)*tf(a)$
21
In DUMMY it does not take them into account
 381

canonical bb; ==>

a c b a
te *te *tf
b

delt(a,-a); ==> dim % a is now a dummy index

canonical bb; ==>

***** wrong use of indices (a)

The message of canonical is clear, the first sublist contains the list of all lower in-
dices, and the second one the list of all upper indices. The index b is repeated three
times. In the second example, b and c are considered as free indices, so they may
be repeated. The last example shows the interference between the check on indi-
vidual tensors and the one of canonical. The use of a as dummy index inside delt
does no longer allow a to be used as a free index in expression bb. To be usable,
one must explicitly remove it as dummy index using REM_DUMMY_INDICES.
Dans le quatrième cas, il n’y a pas de problème puisque b et c sont tous les deux
des indices libres. CANONICAL checks that in a tensor polynomial all do possess
the same variance:

aa:=te(a,c)+x^2; ==>

a c 2
aa := te + x

canonical aa; ==>

***** scalar added with tensor(s)

aa:=te(a,b)+tf(a,c); ==>

a b a c
aa := te + tf

canonical aa; ==>

***** mismatch in free indices : ((a c) (a b))

382 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

In the message the first two lists of incompatible indices are explicitly indicated.
So, it is not an exhaustive message and a more complete correction may be needed.
Of course, no message of that kind appears if the indices are inside ordinary oper-
ators22

dummy_names b; ==> t

cc:=op(b)*op(a,b,b); ==> cc := op(a,b,b)*op(b)

canonical cc; ==> op(a,b,b)*op(b)

clear_dummy_names; ==> t

Position and renaming of dummy indices

For a specific tensor, contravariant dummy indices are place in front of covariant
ones. This already leads to some useful simplifications. For instance:

pp:=te(a,-a)+te(-a,a)+1; ==>

a a
pp := te + te + 1
a a

canonical pp; ==>

a
2*te + 1
a

pp:=te(a,-a)+te(-b,b); ==>

b a
pp := te + te
b a

canonical pp; ==>

a
2*te
a
22
This is the case inside the DUMMY package.
 383

pp:=te(r,a,c,d,-a,f)+te(r,-b,c,d,b,f); ==>

r c d b f r a c d f
pp := te + te
b a

canonical pp; ==>

r a c d f
2*te
a

In the second and third example, there is also a renaming of the dummy variable
b whih becomes a. There is a loophole at this point. For some expressions one
will never reach a stable expression. This is the case for the following very simple
monom:

tensor nt; ==> t

a1:=nt(-a,d)*nt(-c,a); ==>

d a
nt *nt
a c

canonical a1; ==>

a d
nt *nt
c a

a12:=a1-canonical a1; ==>

d a a d
a12 := nt *nt - nt *nt
a c c a

canonical a12; ==>

384 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

d a a d
- nt *nt + nt *nt % changes sign.
a c c a

In the above example, no canonical form can be reached. When applied twice on
the tensor monom a1 it gives back a1!
No change of dummy index position is allowed if a tensor belongs to an AFFINE
space. With the tensor polynomial pp introduced above one has:

off onespace;

define_spaces aff={dd,affine}; ==> t

make_tensor_belong_space(te,aff); ==> aff

mk_ids_belong_space({a,b},aff); ==> t

canonical pp; ==>

r c d a f r a c d f
te + te
a a

The renaming of b has been made however.

Contractions and summations with particular tensors

This is a central part of the extension of CANONICAL. The required contractions

and summations can be done in a multi-space environment as well in a single space
environment.

The case of DELTA

Dummy indices are recognized contracted and summed over whenever possible:

aa:=delt(a,-b)*delt(b,-c)*delt(c,-a) + 1; ==>

a b c
aa := delt *delt *delt + 1
b c a
 385

canonical aa; ==> dim + 1

aa:=delt(a,-b)*delt(b,-c)*delt(c,-d)*te(d,e)$

canonical aa; ==>

a e
te

CANONICAL will not attempt to make contraction with dummy indices included
inside ordinary operators:

operator op;

aa:=delt(a,-b)*op(b,b)$

canonical aa; ==>

a
delt *op(b,b)
b

dummy_names b; ==> t

canonical aa; ==>

a
delta *op(b,b)
b

The case of ETA

First, we introduce ETA:

make_partic_tens(eta,eta); ==> t

signature 1; ==> 1 % necessary

aa:=delta(a,-b)*eta(b,c); ==>

a b c
aa := delt *eta
386 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

canonical aa; ==>

a c
eta

canonical(eta(a,b)*eta(-b,c)); ==>

a c
eta

canonical(eta(a,b)*eta(-b,-c)); ==>

a
delt
c

canonical(eta(a,b)*eta(-b,-a)); ==> dim

canonical (eta(-a,-b)*te(d,-e,f,b)); ==>

d f
te
e a

aa:=eta(a,b)*eta(-b,-c)*te(-a,c)+1; ==>

a b c
aa := eta *eta *te + 1
b c a

canonical aa; ==>

a
te + 1
a

aa:=eta(a,b)*eta(-b,-c)*delta(-a,c)+

1+eta(a,b)*eta(-b,-c)*te(-a,c)$
 387

canonical aa; ==>

a
te + dim + 1
a

Let us add a generic metric tensor:

aa:=g(a,b)*g(-b,-d); ==>

a b
aa := g *g
b d

canonical aa; ==>

a
delt
d

aa:=g(a,b)*g(c,d)*eta(-c,-e)*eta(e,f)*te(-f,g); ==>

e f a b c d g
aa := eta *eta *g *g *te
c e f

canonical aa; ==>

a b d g
g * te

The case of EPSILON

The epsilon tensor plays an important role in many contexts. CANONICAL realises
the contraction of two epsilons if and only if they belong to the same space. The
proper use of CANONICAL on expressions which contains it requires a prelimi-
nary definition of the tensor DEL. When the signature is 0; the contraction of two
epsilons gives a DEL-like tensor. When the signature is equal to 1, it is equal to
minus a DEL-like tensor. Here we choose 1 for the signature and we work in a
single space. We define the DEL tensor:
388 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

on onespace;

wholespace_dim dim; ==> dim

make_partic_tens(gd,del); ==> t

signature 1; ==> 1

We define the EPSILON tensor and show how CANONICAL contracts expression
containing two23 of them:

aa:=eps(a,b)*eps(-c,-d); ==>

a b
aa := eps *eps
c d

canonical aa; ==>

a b
- gd
c d

aa:=eps(a,b)*eps(-a,-b); ==>

a b
aa := eps *eps
a b

canonical aa; ==> dim*( - dim + 1)

on exdelt;

gd(-a,-b,a,b); ==> dim*(dim - 1)

aa:=eps(a,b,c)*eps(-b,-d,-e)$

canonical aa; ==>

a c a c
23
No contractions are done on expressions containing three or more epsilons which sit in the same
space. We are not sure whether it is useful to be more general than we are presently.
 389

delt *delt *dim - 2*delt *delt -

d e d e

a c a c
- delt *delt *dim + 2*delt * delt
e d e d

Several expressions which contain the epsilon tensor together with other special
tensors are given below as examples to treat with CANONICAL:

aa:=eps( - b, - c)*eta(a,b)*eta(a,c); ==>

a b a c
eps *eta *eta
b c

canonical aa; ==> 0

aa:=eps(a,b,c)*te(-a)*te(-b); ==> % te is generic.

a b c
aa := eps *te *te
a b

canonical aa; ==> 0

tensor tf,tg;

aa:=eps(a,b,c)*te(-a)*tf(-b)*tg(-c)

+ eps(d,e,f)*te(-d)*tf(-e)*tg(-f); ==>

canonical aa; ==>

a b c
2*eps *te *tf *tg
a b c

aa:=eps(a,b,c)*te(-a)*tf(-c)*tg(-b)

+ eps(d,e,f)*te(-d)*tf(-e)*tg(-f)$

canonical aa; ==> 0

390 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Since CANONICAL is able to work inside several spaces, we can introduce also
several epsilons and make the relevant simplifications on each (sub)-spaces. This
is the goal of the next illustration.

off onespace;

define_spaces wholespace=

{dim,signature=1}; ==> t

define_spaces subspace=

{3,signature=0}; ==> t

show_spaces(); ==>

{{wholespace,dim,signature=1},

{subspace,3,signature=0}}

make_partic_tens(eps,epsilon); ==> t

make_partic_tens(kap,epsilon); ==> t

make_tensor_belong_space(eps,wholespace);

==> wholespace

make_tensor_belong_space(kap,subspace);

==> subspace

show_epsilons(); ==>

{{eps,wholespace},{kap,subspace}}

off exdelt;

aa:=kap(a,b,c)*kap(-d,-e,-f)*eps(i,j)*eps(-k,-l)$

canonical aa; ==>

a b c i j
- gd * gd
 391

d e f k l

If there are no index summation, as in the expression above, one can develop both
terms into the delta tensor with EXDELT switched ON. In fact, the previous calcu-
lation is correct only if there are no dummy index inside the two gd’s. If some of
the indices are dummy, then we must take care of the respective spaces in which
the two gd tensors are considered. Since, the tensor themselves do not belong to
a given space, the space identification can only be made through the indices. This
is enough since the DELTA-like tensor is bloc-diagonal. With aa the result of the
above illustration, one gets, for example,:

mk_ids_belong_space({a,b,c,d,e,f},wholespace)$

mk_ids_belong_space({i,j,k,l},subspace)$

sub(d=a,e=b,k=i,aa); ==>

c j 2
2*delt *delt *( - dim + 3*dim - 2)
f l

sub(k=i,l=j,aa); ==>
a b c
- 6*gd
d e f

CANONICAL and symmetries

Most of the time, indexed objects have some symmetry property. When this prop-
erty is either full symmetry or antisymmetry, there is no difficulty to implement it
using the declarations SYMMETRIC or ANTISYMMETRIC of REDUCE. However,
most often, indexed objects are neither fully symmetric nor fully antisymmetric:
they have partial or mixed symmetries . In the DUMMY package, the declaration
SYMTREE allows to impose such type of symmetries on operators. This command
has been improved and extended to apply to tensors. In order to illustrate it, we
shall take the example of the wellknown Riemann tensor in general relativity. Let
us remind the reader that this tensor has four indices. It is separately antisymmet-
ric with respect to the interchange of the first two indices and with respect to the
interchange of the last two indices. It is symmetric with respect to the interchange
of the first two and the last two indices. In the illustration below, we show how to
express this and how CANONICAL is able to recognize mixed symmetries:
392 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

tensor r; ==> t

symtree(r,{!+,{!-,1,2},{!-,3,4}});

rem_dummy_indices a,b,c,d; % free indices

ra:=r(b,a,c,d); ==>

b a c d
ra := r

canonical ra; ==>

a b c d
- r

ra:=r(c,d,a,b); ==>
c d a b
ra := r

canonical ra; ==>

a b c d
r

canonical r(-c,-d,a,b); ==>

a b
r
c d

r(-c,-c,a,b); ==> 0

ra:=r(-c,-d,c,b); ==>

c b
ra := r
c d

canonical ra; ==>

b c
 393

- r
c d

In the last illustration, contravariant indices are placed in front of covariant indices
and the contravariant indices are transposed. The superposition of the two partial
symmetries gives a minus sign.
There exists an important (though natural) restriction on the use of SYMTREE
which is linked to the algorithm itself: Integer used to localize indices must start
from 1, be contiguous and monotoneously increasing. For instance, one is not
allow to introduce

symtree(r,{!*,{!+,1,3},{!*,2,4}});

symtree(r,{!*,{!+,1,2},{!*,4,5}};

symtree(r,{!*,{!-,1,3},{!*,2}});

but the subsequent declarations are allowed:

symtree(r,{!*,{!+,1,2},{!*,3,4}});

symtree(r,{!*,{!+,1,2},{!*,3,4,5}});

symtree(r,{!*,{!-,1,2},{!*,3}});

The first declaration endows r with a partial symmetry with respect to the first two
indices.
A side effect of SYMTREE is to restrict the number of indices of a generic tensor.
For instance, the second declaration in the above illustrations makes r depend on
5 indices as illustrated below:

symtree(r,{!*,{!+,1,2},{!*,3,4,5}});

canonical r(-b,-a,d,c); ==>

***** Index ‘5’ out of range for

((minus b) (minus a) d c) in nth

canonical r(-b,-a,d,c,e); ==>

d c e
r % correct
394 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

a b

canonical r(-b,-a,d,c,e,g); ==>

d c e
r % The sixth index is forgotten!
a b

Finally, the function REMSYM applied on any tensor identifier removes all symme-
try properties.
Another related question is the frequent need to symmetrize a tensor polynomial.
To fulfill it, the function SYMMETRIZE of the package ASSIST has been im-
proved and generalised. For any kernel (which may be either an operator or a
tensor) that function generates

- the sum over the cyclic permutations of indices,

- the symetric or antisymetric sums over all permutations of the indices.

Moreover, if it is given a list of indices, it generates a new list which contains

sublists wich contain the relevant permutations of these indices

symmetrize(te(x,y,z,{v}),te,cyclicpermlist); ==>

x y z y z x z x y
te (v) + te (v) + te (v)

symmetrize(te(x,y),te,permutations); ==>

x y y x
te + te

symmetrize(te(x,y),te,permutations,perm_sign); ==>

x y y x
te - te

symmetrize(te(y,x),te,permutations,perm_sign); ==>

x y y x
- te + te

If one wants to symmetrise an expression which is not a kernel, one can also use
 395

SYMMETRIZE to obtain the desired result as the next example shows:

ex:=te(a,-b,c)*te1(-a,-d,-e); ==>

a c
ex := te *te1
b a d e

ll:=list(b,c,d,e)$ % the chosen relevant indices

lls:=symmetrize(ll,list,cyclicpermlist); ==>

lls := {{b,c,d,e},{c,d,e,b},{d,e,b,c},{e,b,c,d}}

% The sum over the cyclic permutations is:

excyc:=for each i in lls sum

sub(b=i.1,c=i.2,d=i.3,e=i.4,ex); ==>

a c a d
excyc := te *te1 + te *te1
b a d e c a e b

a e a b
+ te *te1 + te *te1
d a b c e a c d

CANONICAL and tensor derivatives

Only ordinary (partial) derivatives are fully correctly handled by CANONICAL.

This is enough, to explicitly construct covariant derivatives. We recognize here
that extensions should still be made. The subsequent illustrations show how
CANONICAL does indeed manage to find the canonical form and simplify ex-
pressions which contain derivatives. Notice, the use of the (modified) DEPEND
declaration.

on onespace;

tensor te,x; ==> t

396 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

depend te,x;

aa:=df(te(a,-b),x(-b))-df(te(a,-c),x(-c))$

canonical aa; ==> 0

make_partic_tens(eta,eta); ==> t

signature 1;

aa:=df(te(a,-b),x(-b))$

aa:=aa*eta(-a,-d);

a
aa := df(te ,x )*eta
b b a d

canonical aa; ==>

a a
df(te ,x )
d

In the last example, after contraction, the covariant dummy index b has been
changed into the contravariant dummy index a. This is allowed since the space
is metric.
 397

16.12 CDE: A package for integrability of PDEs

Author: Raffaele Vitolo

We describe CDE, a REDUCE package devoted to differential-geometric compu-
tations on Differential Equations (DEs, for short).
We will give concrete recipes for computations in the geometry of differential
equations: higher symmetries, conservation laws, Hamiltonian operators and their
Schouten bracket, recursion operators. All programs discussed here are shipped
together with the CDE sources, inside the REDUCE sources. The mathematical
theory on which computations are based can be found in refs. [2, 12]. We invite
the interested reader to have a look at the website [1] which contains useful re-
seources in the above mathematical area. A book on integrable systems and CDE
is currently being written [17] with more examples and more detailed explanations
about the mathematical part.

16.12.1 Introduction: why CDE?

CDE is a REDUCE package for differential-geometric computations for DEs. The

package aims at defining differential operators in total derivatives and computing
with them. Such operators are called C-differential operators (see [2]).
CDE depends on the REDUCE package CDIFF for constructing total derivatives.
CDIFF was developed by Gragert and Kersten for symmetry computations in DEs,
and later extended by Roelofs and Post.
There are many software packages that can compute symmetries and conservation
laws; many of them run on Mathematica or Maple. Those who run on REDUCE
were written by M.C. Nucci [22, 23], F. Oliveri (R E L IE, [24]), F. Schwartz (SPDE,
REDUCE official distribution) T. Wolf (APPLYSYM and CONLAW in the official
REDUCE distribution, [28, 29, 30, 31]).
The development of CDE started from the idea that a computer algebra tool for
the investigation of integrability-related structures of PDEs still does not exist in
the public domain. We are only aware of a Mathematica package that may find
recursion operators under quite restrictive hypotheses [3].
CDE is especially designed for computations of integrability-related structures
(such as Hamiltonian, symplectic and recursion operators) for systems of differ-
ential equations with an arbitrary number of independent or dependent variables.
On the other hand CDE is also capable of (generalized) symmetry and conservation
laws computations. The aim of this guide is to introduce the reader to computations
of integrability related structures using CDE.
The current version of CDE, 2.0, has the following features:
398 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1. It is able to do standard computations in integrable systems like determining

systems for generalized symmetries and conservation laws. However, CDE
has not been programmed with this purpose in mind.

2. CDE is able to compute linear overdetermined systems of partial differential

equations whose solutions are Hamiltonian, symplectic or recursion oper-
ators. Such equations may be solved by different techniques; one of the pos-
sibilities is to use CRACK, a REDUCE package for solving overdetermined
systems of PDEs [32].

3. CDE can compute linearization (or Fréchet derivatives) of vector functions

and adjoints of differential operators.

4. CDE is able to compute Schouten brackets between multivectors. This can

be used eg to check Hamiltonianity of an operator or to check their compat-
ibility.

At the moment the papers [8, 9, 14, 16, 26, 27] have been written using CDE, and
more research by CDE on integrable systems is in progress.
The readers are warmly invited to send questions, comments, etc., both on the
computations and on the technical aspects of installation and configuration of RE-
DUCE, to the author of this document.
Acknowledgements. I’d like to thank Paul H.M. Kersten, who explained to me
how to use the original CDIFF package for several computations of interest in the
Geometry of Differential Equations. When I started writing CDE I was substan-
tially helped by A.C. Norman in understanding many features of Reduce which
were deeply hidden in the source code and not well documented. This also led to
writing a manual of Reduce’s internals for programmers [21]. Moreover, I’d like
to thank the developers of the REDUCE mailing list for their prompt replies with
solutions to my problems. On the mathematical side, I would like to thank J.S.
Krasil’shchik and A.M. Verbovetsky for constant support and stimulating discus-
sions which led me to write the software. Thanks are also due to B.A. Dubrovin,
M. Casati, E.V. Ferapontov, P. Lorenzoni, M. Marvan, V. Novikov, A. Savoldi, A.
Sergyeyev, M.V. Pavlov for many interesting discussions.

16.12.2 Jet space of even and odd variables, and total derivatives

The mathematical theory for jets of even (ie standard) variables and total deriva-
tives can be found in [2, 25].
Let us consider the space Rn × Rm , with coordinates (xλ , ui ), 1 ≤ λ ≤ n, 1 ≤ i ≤
m. We say xλ to be independent variables and ui to be dependent variables. Let
us introduce the jet space J r (n, m). This is the space with coordinates (xλ , uiσ ),
 399

where uiσ is defined as follows. If s : Rn → Rm is a differentiable function, then

∂ |σ| (ui ◦ s)
uiσ ◦ s(x) = .
(∂x1 )σ1 · · · (∂xn )σn

Here σ = (σ1 , . . . , σn ) ∈ Nn is a multiindex. We set |σ| = σ1 + · · · + σn . If

σ = (0, . . . , 0) we set uiσ = ui .
CDE is first of all a program which is able to create a finite order jet space inside
REDUCE. To this aim, issue the command

load_package cde;

Then, CDE needs to know the variables and the maximal order of derivatives. The
input can be organized as in the following example:

indep_var:={x,t}$
dep_var:={u,v}$
total_order:=10$

Here

• indep_var is the list of independent variables;

• dep_var is the list of dependent variables;

• total_order is the maximal order of derivatives.

Two more parameters can be set for convenience:

statename:="jetuv_state.red"$
resname:="jetuv_res.red"$

These are the name of the output file for recording the internal state of the program
cde.red (and for debugging purposes), and the name of the file containing results
of the computation.
The main routine in cde.red is called as follows:

cde({indep_var,dep_var,{},total_order},{})$

Here the two empty lists are placeholders; they are of interest for computations with
odd variables/differential equations. The function cde defines derivative symbols
of the type:

u_x,v_t,u_2xt,v_xt,v_2x3t,...
400 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Note that the symbol v_tx does not exist in the jet space. Indeed, introducing
all possible permutations of independent variables in indices would increase the
complexity and slow down every computation.
Two lists generated by CDE can be useful: all_der_id and all_odd_id,
which are, respectively, the lists of identifiers of all even and odd variables.
Other lists are generated by CDE, but they are accessible in REDUCE symbolic
mode only. Please check the file global.txt to know the names of the lists.
It can be useful to inspect the output generated by the function cde and the above
lists in particular. All that data can be saved by the function:

save_cde_state(statename)$

CDE has a few procedures involving the jet space, namely:

• jet_fiber_dim(jorder) returns the number of derivative coordinates

uiσ with |σ| equal to jorder;

• jet_dim(jorder) returns the number of derivative coordinates uiσ with

0 ≤ |σ| and |σ| equal to jorder;

• selectvars(par,orderofder,depvars,vars) returns all deriva-

tive coordinates (even if par=0, odd if par=1) of order orderofder of
the list of dependent variables depvars which belong to the set of deriva-
tive coordinates vars.

The function cde defines total derivatives truncated at the order total_order.
Their coordinate expressions are of the form

∂ ∂
Dλ = + uiσλ i , (16.46)
∂xλ ∂uσ

where σ is a multiindex.
The total derivative of an argument ϕ is invoked as follows:

td(phi,x,2);
td(phi,x,t,3);

the syntax closely follows REDUCE’s syntax for standard derivatives df; the
above expression translates to Dx Dx ϕ, or D{2,0} ϕ in multiindex notation.
When in total derivatives there is a coefficient of order higher than maximal this is
replaced by the identifier letop, which is a function that depends on independent
variables. If such a function (or its derivatives) appears during computations it is
likely that we went too close to the highest order variables that we defined in the
 401

file. All results of computations are scanned for the presence of such variables by
default, and if the presence of letop is detected the computation is stopped with
an error message. This usually means that we need to extend the order of the jet
space, just by increasing the number total_order.
Note that in the folder containing all examples there is also a shell script, rrr.sh
(works only under bash, a GNU/Linux command interpreter) which can be used
to run reduce on a given CDE program. When an error message about letop is
issued the script reruns the computation with a new value of total_order one
unity higher than the previous one.
The function that checks an expression for the presence of letop is check_letop.
If you wish to switch off this kind of check in order to increase the speed, the switch
checkord must be set off:

off checkord;

The computation of total derivatives of a huge expression can be extremely time

and resources consuming. In some cases it is a good idea to disable the expansion
of the total derivative and leave an expression of the type Dσ ϕ as indicated. This
is achieved by the command

noexpand_td();

If you wish to restore the default behaviour, do

expand_td();

CDE can also compute on jets of supermanifolds. The theory can be found in
[11, 12, 15]. The input can be organized as follows:

indep_var:={x,t}$
dep_var:={u,v}$
odd_var:={p,q}
total_order:=10$

Here odd_var is the list of odd variables. The call

cde({indep_var,dep_var,odd_var,total_order},{})$

will create the jet space of the supermanifold described by the independent vari-
ables and the even and odd dependent variables, up to the order total_order.
Total derivatives truncated at the order total_order will also include odd
derivatives:
∂ ∂ ∂
Dλ = + uiσλ i + piσλ i , (16.47)
∂xλ ∂uσ ∂pσ
402 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where σ is a multiindex. The considerations on expansion and letop apply in

this case too.
Odd variables can appear in anticommuting products; this is represented as

ext(p,p_2xt),ext(p_x,q_t,q_x2t),...

where ext(p_2xt,p) = - ext(p,p_2xt) and the variables are arranged

in a unique way terms of an internal ordering. Indeed, the internal representation
of odd variables and their products (not intended for normal users!) is

ext(3,23),ext(1,3,5),...

as all odd variables and their derivatives are indexed by integers. Note that p
and ext(p) are just the same. The odd product of two expressions ϕ and ψ is
achieved by the CDIFF function

super_product(phi,psi);

The derivative of an expression ϕ with respect to an odd variable p is achieved by

df_odd(phi,p);

16.12.3 Differential equations in even and odd variables

We now give the equation in the form of one or more derivatives equated to right-
hand side expressions. The left-hand side derivatives are called principal, and the
remaining derivatives are called parametric24 . Parametric coordinates are coor-
dinates on the equation manifold and its differential consequences, and principal
coordinates are determined by the differential equation and its differential conse-
quences. For scalar evolutionary equations with two independent variables para-
metric derivatives are of the type (u, ux , uxx , . . .). Note that the system must be
in passive orthonomic form; this also means that there will be no nontrivial inte-
grability conditions between parametric derivatives. (Lines beginning with % are
comments for REDUCE.) The input is formed as follows (Burger’s equation).

% left-hand side of the differential equation

principal_der:={u_t}$
% right-hand side of the differential equation
de:={u_2x+2*u*u_x}$

Systems of PDEs are input in the same way: of course, the above two lists must
have the same length. See 16.12.16 for an example.
24
This terminology dates back to Riquier, see [19]
 403

The main routine in cde.red is called as follows:

cde({indep_var,dep_var,{},total_order},
{principal_der,de,{},{}})$

Here the three empty lists are placeholders; they are important for computations
with odd variables. The function cde computes principal and parametric deriva-
tives of even and odd variables, they are stored in the lists all_parametric_der,
all_principal_der, all_parametric_odd, all_principal_odd.
The function cde also defines total derivatives truncated at the order total_order
and restricted on the (even and odd) equation; this means that total derivatives are
tangent to the equation manifold. Their coordinate expressions are of the form
∂ X
i ∂ X ∂
Dλ = + u σλ + piσλ i , (16.48)
∂xλ i
∂u i
σ i
∂p σ
uσ parametric pσ parametric

where σ is a multiindex. It can happen that uiσλ (or piσλ ) is principal and must be
replaced with differential consequences of the equation. Such differential conse-
quences are called primary differential consequences, and are computed; in general
they will depend on other, possibly new, differential consequences, and so on. Such
newly appearing differential consequences are called secondary differential conse-
quences. If the equation is in passive orthonomic form, the system of all differential
consequences (up to the maximal order total_order) must be solvable in terms
of parametric derivatives only. The function cde automatically computes all neces-
sary and sufficient differential consequences which are needed to solve the system.
The solved system is available in the form of REDUCE let-rules in the variables
repprincparam_der and repprincparam_odd.
The syntax and properties (expansion and letop) of total derivatives remain the
same. For exmaple:

td(u,t);

returns

u_2x+2*u*u_x;

It is possible to deal with mixed systems on eve and odd variables. For example,
in the case of Burgers equation we can input the linearized equation as a PDE on
a new odd variable as follows (of course, in addition to what has been defined
before):

odd_var:={q}$
principal_odd:={q_t}$
de_odd:={q_2x + 2*u_x*q + 2*u*q_x}$
404 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The main routine in cde.red is called as follows:

cde({indep_var,dep_var,odd_var,total_order},
{principal_der,de,principal_odd,de_odd})$

16.12.4 Calculus of variations

CDE can compute variational derivatives of any function (usually a Lagrangian

density) or superfunction L. We have the following coordinate expression
δL ∂L δL ∂L
i
= (−1)|σ| Dσ i , i
= (−1)|σ| Dσ i (16.49)
δu ∂uσ δp ∂pσ
which translates into the CDE commands

pvar_df(0,lagrangian_dens,ui);
pvar_df(1,lagrangian_dens,pi);

where

• the first argument can be 0 or 1 and is the parity of the variable ui or pi;
• lagrangian_dens is L;
• ui or pi are the given dependent variables.

The Euler operator computes variational derivatives with respect to all even and
odd variables in the jet space, and arranges them in a list of two lists, the list of even
variational derivatives and the list of odd variational derivatives. The command is

euler_df(lagrangian_dens);

All the above is used in the definition of Schouten brackets, as we will see in
Subsection 16.12.6.

16.12.5 C-differential operators

Linearizing (or taking the Fréchet derivative) of a vector function that defines a dif-
ferential equation yields a differential operator in total derivatives. This operator
can be restricted to the differential equation, which may be regarded as a differen-
tial constraint; the kernel of the restricted operator is the space of all symmetries
(including higher or generalized symmetries) [2, 25].
The formal adjoint of the linearization operator yields by restriction to the cor-
responding differential equation a differential operator whose kernel contains all
characteristic vectors or generating functions of conservation laws [2, 25].
 405

Such operators are examples of C-differential operators. The (still incomplete)

REDUCE implementation of the calculus of C-differential operators is the subject
of this section.

C-differential operators

Let us consider the spaces

P = {ϕ : J r (n, m) → Rk }, Q = {ψ : J r (n, m) → Rs }.

A C-differential operator ∆ : P → Q is defined to be a map of the type

X σj
∆(ϕ) = ( ai Dσ ϕi ), (16.50)
σ,i

where aσj r
i are differentiable functions on J (n, m), 1 ≤ i ≤ k, 1 ≤ j ≤ s. The
order of δ is the highest length of σ in the above formula.
We may consider a generalization to k-C-differential operators of the type

∆ : P1 × · · · × Ph → Q
aσi11···i
,...,σh , j
X
∆(ϕ1 , . . . , ϕh ) = ( h
Dσ1 ϕi11 · · · Dσh ϕihh ), (16.51)
σ1 ,...,σh ,i1 ,...,ih

where the enclosing parentheses mean that the value of the operator is a vector
function in Q.
A C-differential operator in CDE must be declared as follows:

mk_cdiffop(opname,num_arg,length_arg,length_target)

where

• opname is the name of the operator;

• num_arg is the number of arguments eg k in (16.51);

• length_arg is the list of lengths of the arguments: eg the length of the

single argument of ∆ (16.50) is k, and the corresponding list is {k}, while in
(16.51) one needs a list of k items {k_1,...,k_h}, each corresponding
to number of components of the vector functions to which the operator is
applied;

• length_target is the numer of components of the image vector function.

The syntax for one component of the operator opname is

406 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

opname(j,i1,...,ih,phi1,...,phih)

The above operator will compute

X σ ,...,σ , j
∆(ϕ1 , . . . , ϕh ) = ai11···ih h Dσ1 ϕi11 · · · Dσh ϕihh , (16.52)
σ1 ,...,σh

for fixed integer indices i1 ,. . . ,ih and j.

There are several operations which involve differential operators. Obviously they
can be summed and multiplied by scalars.
An important example of C-differential operator is that of linearization, or Fréchet
derivative, of a vector function

F : J r (n, m) → Rk .

This is the operator

X ∂F k
`F : κ → P, ϕ 7→ Dσ ϕi ,
∂uiσ
σ,i

where κ = {ϕ : J r (n, m) → Rm } is the space of generalized vector fields on jets

[2, 25].
Linearization can be extended to an operation that, starting from a k-C-differential
operator, generates a k + 1-C-differential operator as follows:

X ∂aσi11···i
,...,σk , j
`∆ (p1 , . . . , pk , ϕ) = ( k
Dσ ϕi Dσ1 pi11 · · · Dσk pikk )
∂uiσ
σ,σ1 ,...,σk ,i,i1 ,...,ik

(The above operation is also denoted by `∆,p1 ,...,pk (ϕ).)

At the moment, CDE is only able to compute the linearization of a vector function
(Section 16.12.8).
Given a C-differential operator ∆ like in (16.50) we can define its adjoint as

∆∗ ((qj )) = ( (−1)|σ| Dσ (aσj

X
i qj )). (16.53)
σ,i

Note that the matrix of coefficients is transposed. Again, the coefficients of the
adjoint operator can be found by computing ∆∗ (xσ ej ) for every basis vector ej and
every count xσ , where |σ| ≤ r, and r is the order of the operator. This operation
can be generalized to C-differential operators with h arguments.
At the moment, CDE can compute the adjoint of an operator with one argument
(Section 16.12.8).
 407

Now, consider two operators ∆ : P → Q and ∇ : Q → R. Then the composition

∇ ◦ ∆ is again a C-differential operator. In particular, if
X σj X
∆(p) = ( ai Dσ pi ), ∇(q) = ( bτj k Dτ q j ),
σ,i τ,j

then X X σj
∇ ◦ ∆(p) = ( bτj k Dτ ( ai Dσ pi ))
τ,j σ,i

This operation can be generalized to C-differential operators with h arguments.

There is another important operation between C-differential operators with h ar-
guments: the Schouten bracket [2]. We will discuss it in next Subsection, in the
context of another formalism, where it takes an easier form [12].

16.12.6 C-differential operators as superfunctions

In the papers [11, 12] (and independently in [10]) a scheme for dealing with (skew-
adjoint) variational multivectors was devised. The idea was that operators of the
type (16.51) could be represented by homogeneous vector superfunctions on a
supermanifold, where odd coordinates qσi would correspond to total derivatives
D σ ϕi .
The isomorphism between the two languages is given by
 
aσi11···i
,...,σh , j
X ih
i1
h
D σ1 ϕ 1 · · · D σ h
ϕh
σ1 ,...,σh ,i1 ,...,ih
  (16.54)
aσi11···i
,...,σh , j i1
X
−→ h
qσ1 · · · qσihh
σ1 ,...,σh ,i1 ,...,ih

where qσi is the derivative of an odd dependent variable (and an odd variable itself).
A superfunction in CDE must be declared as follows:

mk_superfun(sfname,num_arg,length_arg,length_target)

where

• sfname is the name of the superfunction;

• num_arg is the degree of the superfunction eg h in (16.54);
• length_arg is the list of lengths of the arguments: eg the length of the
single argument of ∆ (16.50) is k, and the corresponding list is {k}, while in
(16.51) one needs a list of k items {k_1,...,k_h}, each corresponding
to number of components of the vector functions to which the operator is
applied;
408 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• length_target is the numer of components of the image vector function.

The above parameters of the operator opname are stored in the property list25
of the identifier opname. This means that if one would like to know how many
arguments has the operator opname the answer will be the output of the command

get(’cdnarg,cdiff_op);

and the same for the other parameters.

The syntax for one component of the superfunction sfname is

sfname(j)

CDE is able to deal with C-differential operators in both formalisms, and provides
conversion utilities:

• conv_cdiff2superfun(cdop,superfun)

• conv_superfun2cdiff(superfun,cdop)

where in the first case a C-differential operator cdop is converted into a vector
superfunction superfun with the same properties, and conversely.

16.12.7 The Schouten bracket

We are interested in the operation of Schouten bracket between variational multi-

vectors [11]. These are differential operators with h arguments in κ with values in
densities, and whose image is defined up to total divergencies:

∆: κ × · · · × κ →
{J r (n, m) → λn T ∗ Rn }/d({J
¯ r (n, m) → λn−1 T ∗ Rn }) (16.55)

It is known [10, 12] that the Schouten bracket between two variational multivec-
tors A1 , A2 can be computed in terms of their corresponding superfunction by the
formula h δA δA
1 2 δA2 δA1 i
[A1 , A2 ] = + (16.56)
δuj δpj δuj δpj
where δ/δui , δ/δpj are the variational derivatives and the square brackets at the
right-hand side should be understood as the equivalence class up to total divergen-
cies.
25
The property list is a lisp concept, see [21] for details.
 409

If the operators A1 , A2 are compatible, ie [A1 , A2 ] = 0, the expression (16.56)

must be a total derivative. This means that:
 
δA1 δA2 δA2 δA1
[A1 , A2 ] = 0 ⇔ E + j = 0. (16.57)
δuj δpj δu δpj

If A1 is an h-vector and A2 is a k-vector the formula (16.56) produces a (h+k−1)-

vector, or a C-differential operator with h + k − 1 arguments. If we would like to
check that this multivector is indeed a total divergence, we should apply the Euler
operator, and check that it is zero. This procedure is considerably simpler than the
analogue formula with operators (see for example [12]). All this is computed by
CDE:

schouten_bracket(biv1,biv2,tv12),

where biv1 and biv2 are bivectors, or C-differential operators with 2 arguments,
and tv12 is the result of the computation, which is a three-vector (it is automat-
ically declared to be a superfunction). Examples of this computation are given in
Section 16.12.18.

16.12.8 Computing linearization and its adjoint

Currently, CDE supports linearization of a vector function, or a C-differential op-

erator with 0 arguments. The computation is performed in odd coordinates.
Suppose that we would like to linearize the vector function that defines the (disper-
sionless) Boussinesq equation [13]:

ut − ux v − uvx − σvxxx = 0
(16.58)
vt − ux − vvx = 0

where σ is a constant. Then a jet space with independent variables x,t, dependent
variables u,v and odd variables in the same number as dependent variables p,q
must be created:

indep_var:={x,t}$
dep_var:={u,v}$
odd_var:={p,q}$
total_order:=8$
cde({indep_var,dep_var,odd_var,total_order},{})$
410 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The linearization of the above system and its adjoint are, respectively
 
Dt − vDx − vx −ux − uDx − σDxxx
`Bou = ,
−Dx Dt − vx − vDx
 
∗ −Dt + vDx Dx
`Bou =
uDx + σDxxx −Dt + vDx
Let us introduces the vector function whose zeros are the Boussinesq equation:

f_bou:={u_t - (u_x*v + u*v_x + sig*v_3x),

v_t - (u_x + v*v_x)};

The following command assigns to the identifier lbou the linearization C-

differential operator `Bou of the vector function f_bou

ell_function(f_bou,lbou);

moreover, a superfunction lbou_sf is also defined as the vector superfunction

corresponding to `Bou . Indeed, the following sequence of commands:

2: lbou_sf(1);

- p*v_x + p_t - p_x*v - q*u_x - q_3x*sig - q_x*u

3: lbou_sf(2);

- p_x - q*v_x + q_t - q_x*v

shows the vector superfunction corresponding to `Bou . To compute the value of the
(1, 1) component of the matrix `Bou applied to an argument psi do

lbou(1,1,psi);

In order to check that the result is correct one could define the linearization as a
C-differential operator and then check that the corresponding superfunctions are
the same:

mk_cdiffop(lbou2,1,{2},2);
for all phi let lbou2(1,1,phi)
= td(phi,t) - v*td(phi,x) - v_x*phi;
for all phi let lbou2(1,2,phi)
= - u_x*phi - u*td(phi,x) - sig*td(phi,x,3);
for all phi let lbou2(2,1,phi)
= - td(phi,x);
for all phi let lbou2(2,2,phi)
 411

= td(phi,t) - v*td(phi,x) - v_x*phi;

conv_cdiff2superfun(lbou2,lbou2_sf);
lbou2_sf(1) - lbou_sf(1);
lbou2_sf(2) - lbou_sf(2);

the result of the two last commands must be zero.

The formal adjoint of lbou can be computed and assigned to the identifier
lbou_star by the command

adjoint_cdiffop(lbou,lbou_star);

Again, the associated vector superfunction lbou_star_sf is computed, with

values

4: lbou_star_sf(1);

- p_t + p_x*v + q_x

5: lbou_star_sf(2);

p_3x*sig + p_x*u - q_t + q_x*v

Again, the above operator can be checked for correctness.

Once the linearization and its ajdoint are computed, in order to do computations
with symmetries and conservation laws such operator must be restricted to the
corresponding equation. This can be achieved with the following steps:

1. compute linearization of a PDE of the form F = 0 and its adjoint, and save
them in the form of a vector superfunction;

2. start a new computation with the given even PDE as a constraint on the (even)
jet space;

3. load the superfunctions of item 1;

4. restrict them to the even PDE.

Only the last step needs to be explained. If we are considering, eg the Boussinesq
equation, then ut and its differential consequences (ie the principal derivatives) are
not automatically expanded to the right-hand side of the equation and its differen-
tial consequences. At the moment this step is not fully automatic. More precisely,
only principal derivatives which appear as coefficients in total derivatives can be
replaced by their expression. The lists of such derivatives with the corresponding
412 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

expressions are repprincparam_der and repprincparam_odd (see Sec-

tion 16.12.3). They are in the format of REDUCE’s replacement list and can be
used in let-rules. If the linearization or its adjoint happen to depend on another
principal derivative this must be computed separately. A forthcoming release of
REDUCE will automatize this procedure.
However, note that for evolutionary equations this step is trivial, as the restriction
of linearization and its adjoint on the given PDE will only affect total derivatives
which are restricted by CDE to the PDE.

16.12.9 Higher symmetries

In this section we show the computation of (some) higher [2] (or generalized, [25])
symmetries of Burgers’equation B = ut − uxx + 2uux = 0.
We provide two ways to solve the equations for higher symmetries. The first pos-
sibility is to use dimensional analysis. The idea is that one can use the scale sym-
metries of Burgers’equation to assign “gradings” to each variable appearing in the
equation (in other words, one can use dimensional analisys). As a consequence,
one could try different ansatz for symmetries with polynomial generating funct-
ions. For example, it is possible to require that they are sum of monomials of given
degrees. This ansatz yields a simplification of the equations for symmetries, be-
cause it is possible to solve them in a “graded” way, i.e., it is possible to split them
into several equations made by the homogeneous components of the equation for
symmetries with respect to gradings.
In particular, Burgers’equation translates into the following dimensional equation:

[ut ] = [uxx ], [uxx ] = [2uux ].

By the rules [uz ] = [u] − [z] and [uv] = [u] + [v], and choosing [x] = −1, we
have [u] = 1 and [t] = −2. This will be used to generate the list of homogeneous
monomials of given grading to be used in the ansatz about the structure of the
generating function of the symmetries.
The file for the above computation is bur_hsy1.red and the results of the com-
putation are in results/bur_hsy1_res.red.
Another possibility to solve the equation for higher symmetries is to use a PDE
solver that is especially devoted to overdetermined systems, which is the distin-
guishing feature of systems coming from the symmetry analysis of PDEs. This ap-
proach is described below. The file for the above computation is bur_hsy2.red
and the results of the computation are in results/bur_hsy2_res.red.
 413

16.12.10 Setting up the jet space and the differential equation.

After loading CDE:

indep_var:={x,t}$
dep_var:={u}$
deg_indep_var:={-1,-2}$
deg_dep_var:={1}$
total_order:=10$

Here the new lists are scale degrees:

• deg_indep_var is the list of scale degrees of the independent variables;

• deg_dep_var is the list of scale degrees of the dependent variables;

We now give the equation and call CDE:

principal_der:={u_t}$
de:={u_2x+2*u*u_x}$
cde({indep_var,dep_var,{},total_order},
{principal_der,de,{},{}})$

16.12.11 Solving the problem via dimensional analysis.

Higher symmetries of the given equation are functions sym depending on paramet-
ric coordinates up to some jet space order. We assume that they are graded poly-
nomials of all parametric derivatives. In practice, we generate a linear combination
of graded monomials with arbitrary coefficients, then we plug it in the equation of
the problem and find conditions on the coefficients that fulfill the equation. To con-
struct a good ansatz, it is required to make several attempts with different gradings,
possibly including independent variables, etc.. For this reason, ansatz-constructing
functions are especially verbose. In order to use such functions they must be ini-
tialized with the following command:

cde_grading(deg_indep_var,deg_dep_var,{})$

Note the empty list at the end; it playe a role only for computations involving odd
variables.
We need one operator equ whose components will be the equation of higher sym-
metries and its consequences. Moreover, we need an operator c which will play
the role of a vector of constants, indexed by a counter ctel:

ctel:=0;
414 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

operator c,equ;

We prepare a list of variables ordered by scale degree:

l_grad_var:=der_deg_ordering(0,all_parametric_der)$

The function der_deg_ordering is defined in cde.red. It produces the

given list using the list all_parametric_der of all parametric derivatives of
the given equation up to the order total_order. The first two parameters can
assume the values 0 or 1 and say that we are considering even variables and that
the variables are of parametric type.
Then, due to the fact that all parametric variables have positive scale degree then
we prepare the list ansatz of all graded monomials of scale degree from 0 to 5

gradmon:=graded_mon(1,5,l_grad_var)$
gradmon:={1} . gradmon$
ansatz:=for each el in gradmon join el$

More precisely, the command graded_mon produces a list of monomials of de-

grees from i to j, formed from the list of graded variables l_grad_var; the
second command adds the zero-degree monomial; and the last command produces
a single list of all monomials.
Finally, we assume that the higher symmetry is a graded polynomial obtained from
the above monomials (so, it is independent of x and t!)

sym:=(for each el in ansatz sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

Next, we define the equation `B (sym) = 0. Here, `B stands for the linearization
(Section 16.12.8). A function sym that fulfills the above equation, on account of
B = 0, is an higher symmetry.
We cannot define the linearization as a C-differential operator in this way:

bur:={u_t - (2*u*u_x+u_2x)};
ell_function(bur,lbur);

as the linearization is performed with respect to parametric derivatives only! This

means that the linearization has to be computed beforehand in a free jet space, then
it may be used here.
So, the right way to go is

mk_cdiffop(lbur,1,{1},1);
for all phi let lbur(1,1,phi)
 415

= td(phi,t)-td(phi,x,2)-2*u*td(phi,x)-2*u_x*phi;

Note that for evolutionary equations the restriction of the linearization to the equat-
ion is equivalent to just restricting total derivatives, which is automatic in CDE.
The equation becomes

equ 1:=lbur(1,1,sym);

At this point we initialize the equation solver. This is a part of the CDIFF pack-
age called integrator.red (see the original documentation inside the folder
packages/cdiff in REDUCE’s source code). In our case the above package
will solve a large sparse linear system of algebraic equations on the coefficients of
sym.
The list of variables, to be passed to the equation solver:

vars:=append(indep_var,all_parametric_der);

The number of initial equation(s):

tel:=1;

Next command initializes the equation solver. It passes

• the equation vector equ togeher with its length tel (i.e., the total number
of equations);

• the list of variables with respect to which the system must not split the equat-
ions, i.e., variables with respect to which the unknowns are not polynomial.
In this case this list is just {};

• the constants’vector c, its length ctel, and the number of negative indexes
if any; just 0 in our example;

• the vector of free functions f that may appear in computations. Note that in
{f,0,0 } the second 0 stands for the length of the vector of free functions.
In this example there are no free functions, but the command needs the pres-
ence of at least a dummy argument, f in this case. There is also a last zero
which is the negative length of the vector f , just as for constants.

initialize_equations(equ,tel,{},{c,ctel,0},{f,0,0});

Run the procedure splitvars_opequ on the first component of equ in order

to obtain equations on coefficiens of each monomial.
416 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

tel:=splitvars_opequ(equ,1,1,vars);

Note that splitvars_opequ needs to know the indices of the first and the last
equation in equ, and here we have only one equation as equ(1). The output
tel is the final number of splitted equations, starting just after the initial equation
equ(1).
Next command tells the solver the total number of equations obtained after running
splitvars.

put_equations_used tel;

This command solves the equations for the coefficients. Note that we have to skip
the initial equations!

for i:=2:tel do integrate_equation i;

The output is written in the result file by the commands

off echo$
off nat$
out <<resname>>;
sym:=sym;
write ";end;";
shut <<resname>>;
on nat$
on echo$

The command off nat turns off writing in natural notation; results in this form
are better only for visualization, not for writing or for input into another computa-
tion. The command «resname» forces the evaluation of the variable resname
to its string value. The commands out and shut are for file opening and closing.
The command sym:=sym is evaluated only on the right-hand side.
One more example file is available; it concerns higher symmetries of the KdV
equation. In order to deal with symmetries explicitely depending on x and t
it is possible to use REDUCE and CDE commands in order to have sym =
x*(something of degree 3) + t*(something of degree 5) + (something of degree
2); this yields scale symmetries. Or we could use sym = x*(something of degree
1) + t*(something of degree 3) + (something of degree 0); this yields Galilean
boosts.
 417

16.12.12 Solving the problem using CRACK

CRACK is a PDE solver which is devoted mostly to the solution of overdeter-

mined PDE systems [30, 32]. Several mathematical problems have been solved by
the help of CRACK, like finding symmetries [29, 31] and conservation laws [28].
The aim of CDE is to provide a tool for computations with total derivatives, but it
can be used to compute symmetries too. In this subsection we show how to inter-
face CDE with CRACK in order to find higher (or generalized) symmetries for the
Burgers’equation. To do that, after loading CDE and introducing the equation, we
define the linearization of the equation lbur.
We introduce the new unknown function ‘ansatz’. We assume that the function
depends on parametric variables of order not higher than 3. The variables are
selected by the function selectvars of CDE as follows:

even_vars:=for i:=0:3 join

selectvars(0,i,dep_var,all_parametric_der)$

In the arguments of selectvars, 0 means that we want even variables, i

stands for the order of variables, dep_var stands for the dependent vari-
ables to be selected by the command (here we use all dependent variables),
all_parametric_der is the set of variables where the function will extract
the variables with the required properties. In the current example we wish to get
all higher symmetries depending on parametric variables of order not higher than
3.
The dependency of ansatz from the variables is given with the standard RE-
DUCE command depend:

for each el in even_vars do depend(ansatz,el)$

The equation to be solved is the equation lbur(ansatz)=0, hence we give the

command

total_eq:=lbur(1,1,ansatz)$

The above command will issue an error if the list {total_eq} depends on the
flag variable letop. In this case the computation has to be redone within a jet
space of higher order.
The equation ell_b(ansatz)=0 is polynomial with respect to the variables of
order higher than those appearing in ansatz. For this reason, its coefficients can
be put to zero independently. This is the reason why the PDEs that determine
symmetries are overdetermined. To tell this to CRACK, we issue the command

split_vars:=diffset(all_parametric_der,even_vars)$
418 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The list split_vars contains variables which are in the current CDE jet space
but not in even_vars.
Then, we load the package CRACK and get results.

load_package crack;
crack_results:=crack(total_eq,{},{ansatz},split_vars);

The results are in the variable crack_results:

{{{},
{ansatz=(2*c_12*u_x + 2*c_13*u*u_x + c_13*u_2x
+ 6*c_8*u**2*u_x + 6*c_8*u*u_2x + 2*c_8*u_3x
+ 6*c_8*u_x**2)/2},{c_8,c_13,c_12},
{}}}$

So, we have three symmetries; of course the generalized symmetry corresponds

to c_8. Remember to check always the output of CRACK to see if any of the
symbols c_n is indeed a free function depending on some of the variables, and not
just a constant.

16.12.13 Local conservation laws

In this section we will find (some) local conservation laws for the KdV equation
F = ut − uxxx + uux = 0. Concretely, we have to find non-trivial 1-forms
f = fx dx+ft dt on F = 0 such that df ¯ = 0 on F = 0. “Triviality” of conservation
laws is a delicate matter, for which we invite the reader to have a look in [2].
The files containing this example are kdv_lcl1,kdv_lcl2 and the correspond-
ing results and debug files.
We suppose that the conservation law has the form ω = fx dx + ft dt. Using the
same ansatz as in the previous example we assume

fx:=(for each el in ansatz sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

ft:=(for each el in ansatz sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

¯
Next we define the equation d(ω) = 0, where d¯ is the total exterior derivative
restricted to the equation.

equ 1:=td(fx,t)-td(ft,x)$

After solving the equation as in the above example we get

fx := c(3)*u_x + c(2)*u + c(1)$

 419

ft := (2*c(8) + 2*c(3)*u*u_x + 2*c(3)*u_3x + c(2)*u**2 +

2*c(2)*u_2x)/2$

Unfortunately it is clear that the conservation law corresponding to c(3) is trivial,

because it is just the KdV equation. Here this fact is evident; how to get rid of less
evident trivialities by an ‘automatic’ mechanism? We considered this problem in
the file kdv_lcl2, where we solved the equation

equ 1:=fx-td(f0,x);
equ 2:=ft-td(f0,t);

after having loaded the values fx and ft found by the previous program. In order
to do that we have to introduce two new counters:

operator cc,equ;
cctel:=0;

We make the following ansatz on f0:

f0:=(for each el in ansatz sum (cc(cctel:=cctel+1)*el))$

After solving the system, issuing the commands

fxnontriv := fx-td(f0,x);
ftnontriv := ft-td(f0,t);

we obtain

fxnontriv := c(2)*u$
ftnontriv := (c(2)*(u**2 + 2*u_2x))/2$

This mechanism can be easily generalized to situations in which the conservation

laws which are found by the program are difficult to treat by pen and paper. How-
ever, we will present another approach to the computation of conservation laws in
subsection 16.12.25.

16.12.14 Local Hamiltonian operators

In this section we will show how to compute local Hamiltonian operators for
Korteweg–de Vries, Boussinesq and Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equations. It is inter-
esting to note that we will adopt the same computational scheme for all equations,
even if the latter is not in evolutionary form and it has more than two independent
variables. This comes from a new mathematical theory which started in [12] for
evolution equations and was later extended to general differential equations in [14].
420 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.12.15 Korteweg–de Vries equation

Here we will find local Hamiltonian operators for the KdV equation ut = uxxx +
uux . A necessary condition for an operator to be Hamiltonian is that it sends
generating functions (or characteristics, according with [25]) of conservation laws
to higher (or generalized) symmetries. As it is proved in [12], this amounts at
solving `¯KdV (phi) = 0 over the equation

ut = uxxx + uux
pt = pxxx + upx
or, in geometric terminology, find the shadows of symmetries on the `∗ -covering
of the KdV equation, with the further condition that the shadows must be linear in
the p-variables. Note that the second equation (in odd variables!) is just the adjoint
of the linearization of the KdV equation applied to an odd variable.
The file containing this example is kdv_lho1.
We stress that the linearization `¯KdV (phi) = 0 is the equation

td(phi,t)-u*td(phi,x)-u_x*phi-td(phi,x,3)=0

but the total derivatives are lifted to the `∗ covering, hence they contain also deriva-
tives with respect to p’s. We can define a linearization operator lkdv as usual.
In order to produce an ansatz which is a superfunction of one odd variable (or a
linear function in odd variables) we produce two lists: the list l_grad_var of all
even variables collected by their gradings and a similar list l_grad_odd for odd
variables:

l_grad_var:=der_deg_ordering(0,all_parametric_der)$
l_grad_odd:={1} . der_deg_ordering(1,all_parametric_odd)$
gradmon:=graded_mon(1,10,l_grad_var)$
gradmon:={1} . gradmon$

We need a list of graded monomials which are linear in odd variables. The func-
tion mkalllinodd produces all monomials which are linear with respect to the
variables from l_grad_odd, have (monomial) coefficients from the variables in
l_grad_var, and have total scale degrees from 1 to 6. Such monomials are then
converted to the internal representation of odd variables.

linodd:=mkalllinodd(gradmon,l_grad_odd,1,6)$

Note that all odd variables have positive scale degrees thanks to our initial choice
deg_odd_var:=1;. Finally, the ansatz for local Hamiltonian operators:

sym:=(for each el in linext sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

 421

After having set

equ 1:=lkdv(1,1,sym);

and having initialized the equation solver as before, we do splitext

tel:=splitext_opequ(equ,1,1);

in order to split the polynomial equation with respect to the ext variables, then
splitvars

tel2:=splitvars_opequ(equ,2,tel,vars);

in order to split the resulting polynomial equation in a list of equations on the

coefficients of all monomials.
Now we are ready to solve all equations:

put_equations_used tel;
for i:=2:tel do integrate_equation i;
end;

Note that we want all equations to be solved!

The results are the two well-known Hamiltonian operators for the KdV. After inte-
gration the function sym becomes

sym := (c(5)*p*u_x + 2*c(5)*p_x*u +

3*c(5)*p_3x + 3*c(2)*p_x)/3$

Of course, the results correspond to the operators

p x → Dx ,
1 1
(3p3x + 2upx + ux p) → (3Dxxx + 2uDx + ux )
3 3
Note that each operator is multiplied by one arbitrary real constant, c(5) and
c(2).
The same problem can be approached using CRACK, as follows (file kdv_lho2.red).
An ansatz is constructed by the following instructions:

even_vars:=for i:=0:3 join

selectvars(0,i,dep_var,all_parametric_der)$
odd_vars:=for i:=0:3 join
selectvars(1,i,odd_var,all_parametric_odd)$
ext_vars:=replace_oddext(odd_vars)$
422 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ctemp:=0$
ansatz:=for each el in ext_vars sum
mkid(s,ctemp:=ctemp+1)*el$

Note that we have

ansatz := p*s1 + p_2x*s3 + p_3x*s4 + p_x*s2$

Indeed, we are looking for a third-order operator whose coefficients depend on

variables of order not higher than 3. This last property has to be introduced by

unk:=for i:=1:ctemp collect mkid(s,i)$

for each ell in unk do
for each el in even_vars do depend ell,el$

Then, we introduce the linearization (lifted on the cotangent covering)

operator ell_f$
for all sym let ell_f(sym)=
td(sym,t) - u*td(sym,x) - u_x*sym - td(sym,x,3)$

and the equation to be solved, together with the usual test that checks for the nedd
to enlarge the jet space:

total_eq:=ell_f(ansatz)$

Finally, we split the above equation by collecting all coefficients of odd variables:

system_eq:=splitext_list({total_eq})$

and we feed CRACK with the equations that consist in asking to the above coeffi-
cients to be zero:

load_package crack;
crack_results:=crack(system_eq,{},unk,
diffset(all_parametric_der,even_vars));

The results are the same as in the previous section:

crack_results := {{{},
{s4=(3*c_17)/2,s3=0,s2=c_16 + c_17*u,s1=(c_17*u_x)/2},
{c_17,c_16},
{}}}$
 423

16.12.16 Boussinesq equation

There is no conceptual difference when computing for systems of PDEs with re-
spect to the previous computations for scalar equations. We will look for Hamilto-
nian structures for the dispersionless Boussinesq equation (16.58).
We will proceed by dimensional analysis. Gradings can be taken as

[t] = −2, [x] = −1, [v] = 1, [u] = 2, [p] = 1, [q] = 2

where p, q are the two odd coordinates. We have the `∗Bou covering equation


 −pt + vpx + qx = 0
upx + σpxxx − qt + vqx = 0

u − ux v − uvx − σvxxx = 0
 t


vt − ux − vvx = 0

We have to find Hamiltonian operators as shadows of symmetries on the above

covering. At the level of source file (bou_lho1) the input data is:

indep_var:={x,t}$
dep_var:={u,v}$
odd_var:={p,q}$
deg_indep_var:={-1,-2}$
deg_dep_var:={2,1}$
deg_odd_var:={1,2}$
total_order:=8$
principal_der:={u_t,v_t}$
de:={u_x*v+u*v_x+sig*v_3x,u_x+v*v_x}$
principal_odd:={p_t,q_t}$
de_odd:={v*p_x+q_x,u*p_x+sig*p_3x+v*q_x}$

The ansatz for the components of the Hamiltonian operator, of scale degree be-
tween 1 and 6, is

linodd:=mkalllinodd(gradmon,l_grad_odd,1,6)$
phi1:=(for each el in linodd sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$
phi2:=(for each el in linodd sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

and the equation for shadows of symmetries is (lbou2 is taken from Sec-
tion 16.12.8)

equ 1:=lbou2(1,1,phi1) + lbou2(1,2,phi2);

equ 2:=lbou2(2,1,phi1) + lbou2(2,2,phi2);

424 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

After the usual procedures for decomposing polynomials we obtain three local
Hamiltonian operators:

phi1_odd := (2*c(31)*p*sig*v_3x + 2*c(31)*p*u*v_x

+ 2*c(31)*p*u_x*v + 6*c(31)*p_2x*sig*v_x
+ 4*c(31)*p_3x*sig*v + 6*c(31)*p_x*sig*v_2x
+ 4*c(31)*p_x*u*v + 2*c(31)*q*u_x + 4*c(31)*q_3x*sig
+ 4*c(31)*q_x*u + c(31)*q_x*v**2 + 2*c(16)*p*u_x
+ 4*c(16)*p_3x*sig + 4*c(16)*p_x*u
+ 2*c(16)*q_x*v + 2*c(10)*q_x)/2$

phi2_odd := (2*c(31)*p*u_x + 2*c(31)*p*v*v_x

+ 4*c(31)*p_3x*sig + 4*c(31)*p_x*u
+ c(31)*p_x*v**2 + 2*c(31)*q*v_x + 4*c(31)*q_x*v
+ 2*c(16)*p*v_x + 2*c(16)*p_x*v
+ 4*c(16)*q_x + 2*c(10)*p_x)/2$

There is a whole hierarchy of nonlocal Hamiltonian operators [12].

16.12.17 Kadomtsev–Petviashvili equation

There is no conceptual difference in symbolic computations of Hamiltonian oper-

ators for PDEs in 2 independent variables and in more than 2 independent variables,
regardless of the fact that the equation at hand is written in evolutionary form. As
a model example, we consider the KP equation
1
uyy = utx − u2x − uuxx − uxxxx . (16.59)
12
Proceeding as in the above examples we input the following data:

indep_var:={t,x,y}$
dep_var:={u}$
odd_var:={p}$
deg_indep_var:={-3,-2,-1}$
deg_dep_var:={2}$
deg_odd_var:={1}$
total_order:=6$
principal_der:={u_2y}$
de:={u_tx-u_x**2-u*u_2x-(1/12)*u_4x}$
principal_odd:={p_2y}$
de_odd:={p_tx-u*p_2x-(1/12)*p_4x}$

and look for Hamiltonian operators of scale degree between 1 and 5:

linodd:=mkalllinodd(gradmon,l_grad_odd,1,5)$
 425

phi:=(for each el in linodd sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

After solving the equation for shadows of symmetries in the cotangent covering

equ 1:=td(phi,y,2) - td(phi,x,t) + 2*u_x*td(phi,x)

+ u_2x*phi + u*td(phi,x,2) + (1/12)*td(phi,x,4);

we get the only local Hamiltonian operator

phi := c(13)*p_2x$

As far as we know there are no further local Hamiltonian operators.

Remark: the above Hamiltonian operator is already known in an evolutionary pre-
sentation of the KP equation [18]. Our mathematical theory of Hamiltonian oper-
ators for general differential equations [14] allows us to formulate and solve the
problem for any presentation of the KP equation. Change of coordinate formulae
could also be provided.

16.12.18 Examples of Schouten bracket of local Hamiltonian oper-

ators

Let F = 0 be a system of PDEs. Here F ∈ P , where P is the module (in the

algebraic sense) of vector functions P = {J r (n, m) → Rk }.
The Hamiltonian operators which have been computed in the previous Section are
differential operators sending generating functions of conservation laws into gen-
erating functions of symmetries for the above system of PDEs:

H : P̂ → κ (16.60)

• P̂ = {J r (n, m) → (Rk )∗ ⊗ ∧n T ∗ Rn } is the space of covector-valued den-

sities,

• κ = {J r (n, m) → Rm } is the space of generalized vector fields on jets;

generating functions of higher symmetries of the system of PDEs are ele-
ments of this space.

As the operators are mainly used to define a bracket operation and a Lie alge-
bra structure on conservation laws, two properties are required: skew-adjointness
H ∗ = −H (corresponding with skew-symmetry of the bracket) and [H, H] = 0
(corresponding with the Jacobi property of the bracket).
In order to compute the two properties we proceed as follows. Skew-adjointness
is checked by computing the adjoint and verifying that the sum with the initial
operator is zero.
426 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

In the case of evolutionary equations, P = κ, and Hamiltonian operators (16.60)

can also be interpreted as variational bivectors, ie

Ĥ : κ̂ × κ̂ → ∧n T ∗ Rn (16.61)

where the correspondence is given by

H(ψ) = (aijσ Dσ ψj ) → Ĥ(ψ1 , ψ2 ) = (aijσ Dσ ψ1 j ψ2 i ) (16.62)

In terms of the corresponding superfunctions:

H = aik σ pk σ → Ĥ = aik σ pk σ pi .

Note that the product pk σ pi is anticommutative since p’s are odd variables.
After that a C-differential operator of the type of H has been converted into a
bivector it is possible to apply the formulae (16.56) and (16.57) in order to compute
the Schouten bracket. This is what we will see in next section.

16.12.19 Bi-Hamiltonian structure of the KdV equation

We can do the above computations using KdV equation as a test case (see the file
kdv_lho3.red).
Let us load the above operators:

operator ham1;
for all psi1 let ham1(psi1)=td(psi1,x);
operator ham2;
for all psi2 let ham2(psi2)=
(1/3)*u_x*psi2 + td(psi2,x,3) + (2/3)*u*td(psi2,x);

We may convert the two operators into the corresponding superfunctions

conv_cdiff2superfun(ham1,sym1);
conv_cdiff2superfun(ham2,sym2);

The result of the conversion is

sym1(1) := {p_x};
sym2(2) := {(1/3)*p*u_x + p_3x + (2/3)*p_x*u};

Skew-adjointness is checked at once:

adjoint_cdiffop(ham1,ham1_star);
adjoint_cdiffop(ham2,ham2_star);
 427

ham1_star_sf(1)+sym1(1);
ham2_star_sf(1)+sym2(1);

and the result of the last two commands is zero.

Then we shall convert the two superfunctions into bivectors:

conv_genfun2biv(sym1_odd,biv1);
conv_genfun2biv(sym2_odd,biv2);

The output is:

biv1(1) := - ext(p,p_x);
biv2(1) := - (1/3)*( - 3*ext(p,p_3x) - 2*ext(p,p_x)*u);

Finally, the three Schouten brackets [Ĥi , Ĥj ] are computed, with i, j = 1, 2:

schouten_bracket(biv1,biv1,sb11);
schouten_bracket(biv1,biv2,sb12);
schouten_bracket(biv2,biv2,sb22);

the result are well-known lists of zeros.

16.12.20 Bi-Hamiltonian structure of the WDVV equation

This subsection refers to the the example file wdvv_biham1.red. The simplest
nontrivial case of the WDVV equations is the third-order Monge–Ampère equat-
2 −f
ion, fttt = fxxt xxx fxtt [4]. This PDE can be transformed into hydrodynamic
form,
at = bx , bt = cx , ct = (b2 − ac)x ,
via the change of variables a = fxxx , b = fxxt , c = fxtt . This system possesses
two Hamiltonian formulations [7]:
   
a δHi /δa
 b  = Ai  δHi /δb  , i = 1, 2
c t δHi /δc

with the homogeneous first-order Hamiltonian operator

 3 1

− 2 Dx 2 Dx a Dx b
Â1 =  12 aDx 12 (Dx b + bDx ) 3
2 cDx + cx

3 2 2
bDx 2 Dx c − cx (b − ac)Dx + Dx (b − ac)
428 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

R
with the Hamiltonian H1 = c dx, and the homogeneous third-order Hamiltonian
operator
 
0 0 Dx
A2 = D x  0 Dx −Dx a  Dx ,
Dx −aDx Dx b + bDx + aDx a
with the nonlocal Hamiltonian
Z  
1 −1 2

−1 −1
H2 = − a Dx b + Dx bDx c dx.
2
Both operators are of Dubrovin–Novikov type [5, 6]. This means that the operators
are homogeneous with respect to the grading |Dx | = 1. It follows that the operators
are form-invariant under point transformations of the dependent variables, ui =
ui (ũj ). Here and in what follows we will use the letters ui to denote the dependent
variables (a, b, c). Under such transformations, the coefficients of the operators
transform as differential-geometric objects.
The operator A1 has the general structure
A1 = g1ij Dx + Γij k
k ux

where the covariant metric g1 ij is flat, Γij is j ij

k = g1 Γsk (here g1 is the inverse matrix
that represent the contravariant metric induced by g1 ij ), and Γjsk are the usual
Christoffel symbols of g1 ij .
The operator A2 has the general structure
 
A2 = Dx g2ij Dx + cij k
k x Dx ,
u (16.63)

where the inverse g2 ij of the leading term transforms as a covariant pseudo-

Riemannian metric. From now on we drop the subscript 2 for the metric of A2 .
It was proved in [8] that, if we set cijk = giq gjp cpq
k , then
1
cijk = (gik,j − gij,k )
3
and the metric fulfills the following identity:
gmk,n + gkn,m + gmn,k = 0. (16.64)
This means that the metric is a Monge metric [8]. In particular, its coefficients are
quadratic in the variables ui . It is easy to input the two operators in CDE. Let us
start by A1 : we may define its entries one by one as follows

operator a1;

for all psi let a1(1,1,psi) = - (3/2)*td(psi,x);

for all psi let a1(1,2,psi) = (1/2)*td(a*psi,x);
...
 429

We could also use one specialized Reduce package for the computation of
the Christoffel symbols, like RedTen or GRG. Assuming that the operators
gamma_hi(i,j,k) have been defined equal to Γij k and computed in the sys-
tem using the inverse matrix gij of the leading coefficient contravariant metric26
 3 1 
−2 2a b
g ij =  12 a b 3
2c

3 2
b 2 c 2(b − ac)

then, provided we defined a list dep_var of the dependent variables, we could set

operator gamma_hi_con;
for all i,j let gamma_hi_con(i,j) =
(
for k:=1:3 sum gamma_hi(i,j,k)*mkid(part(dep_var,k),!_x)
)$

and

operator a1$
for all i,j,psi let a1(i,j,psi) =
gu1(i,j)*td(psi,x)+(for k:=1:3 sum gamma_hi_con(i,j)*psi
)$

The third order operator can be reconstructed as follows. Observe that the leading
contravariant metric is
 
0 0 1
g ij = 0 1 −a 
1 −a 2b + a2

Introduce the above matrix in REDUCE as gu3. Then set

gu3:=gl3**(-1)$

and define cijk as

operator c_lo$
for i:=1:3 do
for j:=1:3 do
for k:=1:3 do
<<
c_lo(i,j,k):=
26
Indeed in the example file wdvv_biham1.red there are procedures for computing all those
quantities.
430 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

(1/3)*(df(gl3(k,i),part(dep_var,j))
- df(gl3(j,i),part(dep_var,k)))$
>>$

Then define cij

k

templist:={}$
operator c_hi$
for i:=1:ncomp do
for j:=1:ncomp do
for k:=1:ncomp do
c_hi(i,j,k):=
<<
templist:=
for m:=1:ncomp join
for n:=1:ncomp collect
gu3(n,i)*gu3(m,j)*c_lo(m,n,k)$
templist:=part(templist,0):=plus
>>$

Introduce the contracted operator

operator c_hi_con$
for i:=1:ncomp do
for j:=1:ncomp do
c_hi_con(i,j):=
<<
templist:=for k:=1:ncomp collect
c_hi(i,j,k)*mkid(part(dep_var,k),!_x)$
templist:=part(templist,0):=plus
>>$

Finally, define the operator A2

operator aa2$
for all i,j,psi let aa2(i,j,psi) =
td(
gu3(i,j)*td(psi,x,2)+c_hi_con(i,j)*td(psi,x)
,x)$

Now, we can test the Hamiltonian property of A1 , A2 and their compatibility:

conv_cdiff2genfun(aa1,sym1)$
conv_cdiff2genfun(aa2,sym2)$
 431

conv_genfun2biv(sym1,biv1)$
conv_genfun2biv(sym2,biv2)$

schouten_bracket(biv1,biv1,sb11);
schouten_bracket(biv1,biv2,sb12);
schouten_bracket(biv2,biv2,sb22);

Needless to say, the result of the last three command is a list of zeroes.
We observe that the same software can be used to prove the bi-Hamiltonianity of a
6-component WDVV system [26].

16.12.21 Schouten bracket of multidimensional operators

The formulae (16.56), (16.57) hold also in the case of multidimensional operators,
ie operators with total derivatives in more than one independent variables. Here
we give one Hamiltonian operator H and we give two more variational bivectors
P1 , P2 ; all operators are of Dubrovin–Novikov type (homogeneous). We check the
compatibility by computing [H, P1 ] and [H, P2 ]. Such computations are standard
for the problem of computing the Hamiltonian cohomology of H.
This example has been provided by M. Casati. The file of the computation is
dn2d_sb1.red. The dependent variables are p1 , p2 .
Let us set
 
Dx 0
H= (16.65)
0 Dy
 11
P1 P112

P1 = (16.66)
P121 P122
where
∂g 2 ∂g ∂g ∂g
P111 =2 1
py Dx + 1 p2xy + 1 2 p2x p2y + 2 1 p1x p2y
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂ p
∂g ∂f ∂f
P121 = − f Dx2 + gDy2 + 2 p2y Dy − ( 1 p1x + 2 2 p2x )Dx
∂p ∂p ∂p
∂f ∂f ∂f
− 2 2 p2x p2x − 1 2 p1x p2x − 2 p22 x;
∂ p ∂p ∂p ∂p
∂f  ∂g ∂g 1 
P112 =f Dx2 − gDy2 + 1 p1x Dx − p2
y + 2 p Dy
∂p ∂p2 ∂p1 y
∂g ∂g ∂g
− 2 1 p1y p1y − 1 2 p1y p2y − 1 p12y ;
∂ p ∂p ∂p ∂p
∂f 1 ∂f 1 ∂f ∂f
P122 =2 2 px Dy + 2 px y + 1 2 p1x p1y + 2 2 p1x p2y ;
∂p ∂p ∂p ∂p ∂ p
432 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

and let P2 = P1T . This is implemented as follows:

mk_cdiffop(aa2,1,{2},2)$
for all psi let aa2(1,1,psi) =
2*df(g,p1)*p2_y*td(psi,x) + df(g,p1)*p2_xy*psi
+ df(g,p1,p2)*p2_x*p2_y*psi + df(g,p1,2)*p1_x*p2_y*psi;

for all psi let aa2(1,2,psi) =

f*td(psi,x,2) - g*td(psi,y,2) + df(f,p1)*p1_x*td(psi,x)
- (df(g,p2)*p2_y + 2*df(g,p1)*p1_y)*td(psi,y)
- df(g,p1,2)*p1_y*p1_y*psi - df(g,p1,p2)*p1_y*p2_y*psi
- df(g,p1)*p1_2y*psi;

for all psi let aa2(2,1,psi) =

- f*td(psi,x,2) + g*td(psi,y,2)
+ df(g,p2)*p2_y*td(psi,y)
- (df(f,p1)*p1_x+2*df(f,p2)*p2_x)*td(psi,x)
- df(f,p2,2)*p2_x*p2_x*psi - df(f,p1,p2)*p1_x*p2_x*psi
- df(f,p2)*p2_2x*psi;

for all psi let aa2(2,2,psi) =

2*df(f,p2)*p1_x*td(psi,y)
+ df(f,p2)*p1_xy*psi + df(f,p1,p2)*p1_x*p1_y*psi
+ df(f,p2,2)*p1_x*p2_y*psi;

mk_cdiffop(aa3,1,{2},2)$
for all psi let aa3(1,1,psi) = aa2(1,1,psi);
for all psi let aa3(1,2,psi) = aa2(2,1,psi);
for all psi let aa3(2,1,psi) = aa2(1,2,psi);
for all psi let aa3(2,2,psi) = aa2(2,2,psi);

Let us check the skew-adjointness of the above bivectors:

conv_cdiff2superfun(aa1,sym1)$
conv_cdiff2superfun(aa2,sym2)$
conv_cdiff2superfun(aa3,sym3)$

adjoint_cdiffop(aa1,aa1_star);
adjoint_cdiffop(aa2,aa2_star);
adjoint_cdiffop(aa3,aa3_star);

for i:=1:2 do write sym1(i) + aa1_star_sf(i);

for i:=1:2 do write sym2(i) + aa2_star_sf(i);
for i:=1:2 do write sym3(i) + aa3_star_sf(i);
 433

Of course the last three commands produce two zeros each.

Let us compute Schouten brackets.

conv_cdiff2superfun(aa1,sym1)$
conv_cdiff2superfun(aa2,sym2)$
conv_cdiff2superfun(aa3,sym3)$

conv_genfun2biv(sym1,biv1)$
conv_genfun2biv(sym2,biv2)$
conv_genfun2biv(sym3,biv3)$

schouten_bracket(biv1,biv1,sb11);
schouten_bracket(biv1,biv2,sb12);
schouten_bracket(biv1,biv3,sb13);

sb11(1) is trivially a list of zeros, while sb12(1) is nonzero and sb13(1) is

again zero.

More formulae are currently being implemented in the system, like symplecticity
and Nijenhuis condition for recursion operators [13]. Interested readers are warmly
invited to contact R. Vitolo for questions/feature requests.

16.12.22 Non-local operators

In this section we will show an experimental way to find nonlocal operators. The
word ‘experimental’ comes from the lack of a comprehensive mathematical theory
of nonlocal operators; in particular, it is still missing a theoretical framework for
Schouten brackets of nonlocal opeartors in the odd variable language.
In any case we will achieve the results by means of a covering of the cotangent
covering. Indeed, it can be proved that there is a 1 − 1 correspondence between
(higher) symmetries of the initial equation and conservation laws on the cotangent
covering. Such conservation laws provide new potential variables, hence a cover-
ing (see [2] for theoretical details on coverings).
In Section 16.12.25 we will also discuss a procedure for finding conservation laws
from their generating functions that is of independent interest.

16.12.23 Non-local Hamiltonian operators for the Korteweg–de Vries

equation

Here we will compute some nonlocal Hamiltonian operators for the KdV equation.
The result of the computation (without the details below) has been published in
434 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[12].
We have to solve equations of the type ddx(ct)-ddt(cx) as in 16.12.13. The
main difference is that we will attempt a solution on the `∗ -covering (see Subsec-
tion 16.12.14). For this reason, first of all we have to determine covering variables
with the usual mechanism of introducing them through conservation laws, this time
on the `∗ -covering.
As a first step, let us compute conservation laws on the `∗ -covering whose compo-
nents are linear in the p’s. This computation can be found in the file kdv_nlcl1
and related results and debug files.
The conservation laws that we are looking for are in 1 − 1 correspondence with
symmetries of the initial equation [12]. We will look for conservatoin laws which
correspond to Galilean boost, x-translation, t-translation at the same time. In the
case of 2 independent variables and 1 dependent variable, one could prove that one
component of such conservation laws can always be written as sym*p as follows:

c1x:=(t*u_x+1)*p$ % degree 1
c2x:=u_x*p$ % degree 4
c3x:=(u*u_x+u_3x)*p$ % degree 6

The second component must be found by solving an equation. To this aim we

produce the ansatz

c1t:=f1*p+f2*p_x+f3*p_2x$
% degree 6
c2t:=(for each el in linodd6 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$
% degree 8
c3t:=(for each el in linodd8 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

where we already introduced the sets linodd6 and linodd8 of 6-th and 8-th
degree monomials which are linear in odd variables (see the source code). For the
first conservation law solutions of the equation

equ 1:=td(c1t,x) - td(c1x,t);

are found by hand due to the presence of ‘t’ in the symmetry:

f3:=t*u_x+1$
f2:=-td(f3,x)$
f1:=u*f3+td(f3,x,2)$

We also have the equations

equ 2:=td(c2t,x)-td(c2x,t);
 435

equ 3:=td(c3t,x)-td(c3x,t);

They are solved in the usual way (see the source code of the example and the results
file kdv_nlcl1_res).
Now, we solve the equation for shadows of nonlocal symmetries in a covering of
the `∗ -covering (source file kdv_nlho1). We can produce such a covering by
introducing three new nonlocal (potential) variables ra,rb,rc. We are going to
look for non-local Hamiltonian operators depending linearly on one of these vari-
ables. To this aim we modify the odd part of the equation to include the components
of the above conservation laws as the derivatives of the new non-local variables r1,
r2, r3:

principal_odd:={p_t,r1_x,r1_t,r2_x,r2_t,r3_x,r3_t}$
de_odd:={u*p_x+p_3x,
p*(t*u_x + 1),
p*t*u*u_x + p*t*u_3x + p*u + p_2x*t*u_x + p_2x
- p_x*t*u_2x,
p*u_x,
p*u*u_x + p*u_3x + p_2x*u_x - p_x*u_2x,
p*(u*u_x + u_3x),
p*u**2*u_x + 2*p*u*u_3x + 3*p*u_2x*u_x + p*u_5x
+ p_2x*u*u_x + p_2x*u_3x - p_x*u*u_2x
- p_x*u_4x - p_x*u_x**2}$

The scale degree analysis of the local Hamiltonian operators of the KdV equation
leads to the formulation of the ansatz

phi:=(for each el in linodd sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

where linext is the list of graded mononials which are linear in odd variables
and have degree 7 (see the source file). The equation for shadows of nonlocal
symmetries in `∗ -covering

equ 1:=td(phi,t)-u*td(phi,x)-u_x*phi-td(phi,x,3);

is solved in the usual way, obtaining (in odd variables notation):

phi := (c(5)*(4*p*u*u_x + 3*p*u_3x + 18*p_2x*u_x

+ 12*p_3x*u + 9*p_5x + 4*p_x*u**2
+ 12*p_x*u_2x - r2*u_x))/4$

Higher non-local Hamiltonian operators could also be found [12]. The CRACK
approach also holds for non-local computations.
436 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.12.24 Non-local recursion operator for the Korteweg–de Vries

equation

Following the ideas in [12], a differential operator that sends symmetries into sym-
metries can be found as a shadow of symmetry on the `-covering of the KdV equat-
ion, with the further condition that the shadows must be linear in the covering
q-variables. The tangent covering of the KdV equation is

ut = uxxx + uux
qt = ux q + uqx + qxxx

and we have to solve the equation `¯KdV (phi) = 0, where `¯KdV means that the
linearization of the KdV equation is lifted over the tangent covering.
The file containing this example is kdv_ro1.red. The example closely follows
the computational scheme presented in [16].
Usually, recursion operators are non-local: operators of the form Dx−1 appear in
their expression. Geometrically we interpret this kind of operator as follows. We
introduce a conservation law on the cotangent covering of the form

ω = rt dx + rx dt

where rt = uq + qxx and rx = q. It has the remarkable feature of being linear

with respect to q-variables. A non-local variable r can be introduced as a potential
of ω, as rx = rx, rt = rt. A computation of shadows of symmetries on the system
of PDEs 

 ut = uxxx + uux
qt = ux q + uqx + qxxx

r = uq + qxx
 t


rx = q
yields, analogously to the previous computations,

2*c(5)*q*u + 3*c(5)*q_2x + c(5)*r*u_x + c(2)*q.

The operator q stands for the identity operator, which is (and must be!) always a
solution; the other solution corresponds to the Lenard–Magri operator

3Dxx + 2u + ux Dx−1 .

16.12.25 Non-local Hamiltonian-recursion operators for Plebanski

equation

The Plebanski (or second Heavenly) equation

F = utt uxx − u2tx + uxz + uty = 0 (16.67)

 437

is Lagrangian. This means that its linearization is self-adjoint: `F = `∗F , so that

the tangent and cotangent covering coincide, its odd equation being

`F (p) = pxz + pty − 2utx ptx + u2x p2t + u2t p2x = 0. (16.68)

It is not difficult to realize that the above equation can be written in explicit con-
servative form as

pxz + pty + utt pxx + uxx ptt − 2utx ptx

= Dx (pz + utt px − utx pt ) + Dt (py + uxx pt − utx px ) = 0,

thus the corresponding conservation law is

υ(1) = (py +uxx pt −utx px ) dx∧dy∧dz+(utx pt −pz −utt px ) dt∧dy∧dz. (16.69)

We can introduce a potential r for the above 2-component conservation law.

Namely, we can assume that

rx = py + uxx pt − utx px , rt = utx pt − pz − utt px . (16.70)

This is a new nonlocal variable for the (co)tangent covering of the Plebanski equat-
ion. We can load the Plebanski equation together with its nonlocal variable r as
follows:

indep_var:={t,x,y,z}$
dep_var:={u}$
odd_var:={p,r}$
deg_indep_var:={-1,-1,-4,-4}$
deg_dep_var:={1}$
deg_odd_var:={1,4}$
total_order:=6$
principal_der:={u_xz}$
de:={-u_ty+u_tx**2-u_2t*u_2x}$
% rhs of the equations that define the nonlocal variable
rt:= - p_z - u_2t*p_x + u_tx*p_t$
rx:= p_y + u_2x*p_t - u_tx*p_x$
% We add conservation laws as new nonlocal odd variables;
principal_odd:={p_xz,r_x,r_t}$
%
de_odd:={-p_ty+2*u_tx*p_tx-u_2x*p_2t-u_2t*p_2x,rx,rt}$

We can easily verify that the integrability condition for the new nonlocal variable
holds:

td(r,t,x) - td(r,x,t);
438 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

the result is 0.
Now, we look for nonlocal recursion operators in the tangent covering using the
new nonlocal odd variable r. We can load the equation exactly as before. We look
for recursion operators which depend on r (which has scale degree 4); we produce
the following ansatz for phi:

linodd:=mkalllinodd(gradmon,l_grad_odd,1,4)$
phi:=(for each el in linodd sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

then we solve the equation of shadows of symmetries:

equ 1:=td(phi,x,z)+td(phi,t,y)-2*u_tx*td(phi,t,x)
+u_2x*td(phi,t,2)+u_2t*td(phi,x,2)$

The solution is

phi := c(28)*r + c(1)*p

hence we obtain the identity operator p and the new nonlocal operator r. It can be
proved that changing coordinates to the evolutionary presentation yields the local
operator (which has a much more complex expression than the identity operator)
and one of the nonlocal operators of [?]. More details on this computation can be
found in [?].

16.12.26 Appendix: old versions of CDE

A short version history is provided here.

CDE 1.0 This version was published in October 2014. It was programmed in
REDUCE’s algebraic mode, so its capabilities were limited, and its speed was
severely affected by the systematic use of the package assist for manipulating
algebraic lists. Its features were:

1. CDE 1.0 is able to do standard computations in integrable systems like de-

termining systems for generalized symmetries and conservation laws.

2. CDE 1.0 is able to compute linear overdetermined systems of partial differ-

ential equations whose solutions are Hamiltonian operators.

3. CDE is able to compute Schouten brackets between bivectors. This can be

used eg to check Hamiltonianity of an operator, or the compatibility of two
operators.
 439

CDE 1.0 has never ben included in the official REDUCE distribution, and it is still
available at [1].

Bibliography

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[9] E.V. F ERAPONTOV, M.V. PAVLOV, R.F. V ITOLO, Towards the classifica-
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[10] E. Getzler, A Darboux theorem for Hamiltonian operators in the formal cal-
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[11] S. I GONIN , A. V ERBOVETSKY, R. V ITOLO : Variational Multivectors and

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[21] A.C. N ORMAN , R. V ITOLO, Inside Reduce, part of the official REDUCE
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[22] M.C. N UCCI, Interactive REDUCE programs for calculating classical, non-
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[23] M.C. N UCCI, Interactive REDUCE programs for calculating Lie point, non-
classical, Lie-Bäcklund, and approximate symmetries of differential equat-
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(1996) pp. 415–481.

[24] F. O LIVERI, R E L IE, REDUCE software and user guide, http://

mat521.unime.it/oliveri/.

[25] P. O LVER, Applications of Lie Groups to Partial Differential Equations, 2nd

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[26] M.V. PAVLOV, R.F. V ITOLO: On the bi-Hamiltonian geometry of the WDVV
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[27] G. S ACCOMANDI , R. V ITOLO: On the Mathematical and Geometrical

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[28] T. W OLF, A comparison of four approaches to the calculation of conservation

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[29] T. W OLF, APPLYSYM - a package for the application of Lie-symmetries,

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[30] T. W OLF, A. B RAND, Investigating DEs with CRACK and Related Pro-
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[32] T. W OLF, A. B RAND: CRACK, user guide, examples and documenta-

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442 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.13 CDIFF: A package for computations in geometry of

Differential Equations

Authors: P. Gragert, P.H.M. Kersten, G. Post and G. Roelofs.

Author of this Section: R. Vitolo.
We describe CDIFF, a Reduce package for computations in geometry of Differen-
tial Equations (DEs, for short) developed by P. Gragert, P.H.M. Kersten, G. Post
and G. Roelofs from the University of Twente, The Netherlands.
The package is part of the official REDUCE distribution at Sourceforge [1], but
it is also distributed on the Geometry of Differential Equations web site http:
//gdeq.org (GDEQ for short).
We start from an installation guide for Linux and Windows. Then we focus on con-
crete usage recipes for the computation of higher symmetries, conservation laws,
Hamiltonian and recursion operators for polynomial differential equations. All
programs discussed here are shipped together with this manual and can be found
at the GDEQ website. The mathematical theory on which computations are based
can be found in refs. [11, 12].
NOTE: The new REDUCE package CDE [14], also distributed on http://
gdeq.org, simplifies the use of CDIFF and extends its capabilities. Interested
users may read the manual of CDE where the same computations described here
for CDIFF are done in a simpler way, and further capabilities allow CDE to solve
a greater variety of problems.

16.13.1 Introduction

This brief guide refers to using CDIFF, a set of symbolic computation programs
devoted to computations in geometry of DEs and developed by P. Gragert, P.H.M.
Kersten, G. Post and G. Roelofs at the University of Twente, The Netherlands.
Initially, the development of the CDIFF packages was started by Gragert and Ker-
sten for symmetry computations in DEs, then they have been partly rewritten and
extended by Roelofs and Post. The CDIFF packages consist of 3 program files plus
a utility file; only the main three files are documented [7, 8, 9]. The CDIFF pack-
ages, as well as a copy of the documentation (including this manual) and several
example programs, can be found both at Sourceforge in the sources of REDUCE
[1] and in the Geometry of Differential Equations (GDEQ for short) web site [2].
The name of the packages, CDIFF, comes from the fact that the package is aimed
at defining differential operators in total derivatives and do computations involving
them. Such operators are called C-differential operators (see [11]).
The main motivation for writing this manual was that REDUCE 3.8 recently be-
 443

came free software, and can be downloaded here [1]. For this reason, we are able
to make our computations accessible to a wider public, also thanks to the inclusion
of CDIFF in the official REDUCE distribution. The readers are warmly invited
to send questions, comments, etc., both on the computations and on the technical
aspects of installation and configuration of REDUCE, to the author of the present
manual.
Acknowledgements. My warmest thanks are for Paul H.M. Kersten, who ex-
plained to me how to use the CDIFF packages for several computations of in-
terest in the Geometry of Differential Equations. I also would like to thank I.S.
Krasil’shchik and A.M. Verbovetsky for constant support and stimulating discus-
sions which led me to write this text.

16.13.2 Computing with CDIFF

In order to use CDIFF it is necessary to load the package by the command

load_package(cdiff);

All programs that we will discuss in this manual can be found inside the subfolder
examples in the folder which contains this manual. In order to run them just do

in "filename.red";

at the REDUCE command prompt.

There are some conventions that I adopted on writing programs which use CDIFF.

• Program files have the extension .red. This will load automatically the
reduce-ide mode in emacs (provided you made the installation steps de-
scribed in the reduce-ide guides).

• Program files have the following names:

equationname_typeofcomputation_version.red

where equationname stands for the shortened name of the equation (e.g.
Korteweg–de Vries is always indicated by KdV), typeofcomputation
stands for the type of geometric object which is computed with the given file,
for example symmetries, Hamiltonian operators, etc., version is a version
number.

• More specific information, like the date and more details on the computation
done in each version, are included as comment lines at the very beginning of
each file.
444 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Now we describe some examples of computations with CDIFF. The parts of exam-
ples which are shared between all examples are described only once. We stress that
all computations presented in this document are included in the official REDUCE
distribution and can be also downloaded at the GDEQ website [2]. The examples
can be run with REDUCE by typing in "program.red"; at the REDUCE
prompt, as explained above.
Remark. The mathematical theories on which the computations are based can be
found in [11, 12].

Higher symmetries

In this section we show the computation of (some) higher symmetries of Burgers’

equation B = ut −uxx +2uux = 0. The corresponding file is Burg_hsym_1.red
and the results of the computation are in Burg_hsym_1_res.red.
The idea underlying this computation is that one can use the scale symmetries of
Burgers’ equation to assign “gradings” to each variable appearing in the equation.
As a consequence, one could try different ansatz for symmetries with polynomial
generating function. For example, it is possible to require that they are sum of
monomials of given degrees. This ansatz yields a simplification of the equations
for symmetries, because it is possible to solve them in a “graded” way, i.e., it is
possible to split them into several equations made by the homogeneous components
of the equation for symmetries with respect to gradings.
In particular, Burgers’ equation translates into the following dimensional equation:

[ut ] = [uxx ], [uxx = 2uux ].

By the rules [uz ] = [u] − [z] and [uv] = [u] + [v], and choosing [x] = −1, we
have [u] = 1 and [t] = −2. This will be used to generate the list of homogeneous
monomials of given grading to be used in the ansatz about the structure of the
generating function of the symmetries.
The following instructions initialize the total derivatives. The first string is the
name of the vector field, the second item is the list of even variables (note that
u1, u2, ... are ux , uxx , . . . ), the third item is the list of odd (non-commuting)
variables (‘ext’ stands for ‘external’ like in external (wedge) product). Note that in
this example odd variables are not strictly needed, but it is better to insert some of
them for syntax reasons.

super_vectorfield(ddx,{x,t,u,u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6,u7,
u8,u9,u10,u11,u12,u13,u14,u15,u16,u17},
{ext 1,ext 2,ext 3,ext 4,ext 5,ext 6,ext 7,ext 8,ext 9,
ext 10,ext 11,ext 12,ext 13,ext 14,ext 15,ext 16,ext 17,
ext 18,ext 19,ext 20,ext 21,ext 22,ext 23,ext 24,ext 25,
 445

ext 26,ext 27,ext 28,ext 29,ext 30,ext 31,ext 32,ext 33,

ext 34,ext 35,ext 36,ext 37,ext 38,ext 39,ext 40,ext 41,
ext 42,ext 43,ext 44,ext 45,ext 46,ext 47,ext 48,ext 49,
ext 50,ext 51,ext 52,ext 53,ext 54,ext 55,ext 56,ext 57,
ext 58,ext 59,ext 60,ext 61,ext 62,ext 63,ext 64,ext 65,
ext 66,ext 67,ext 68,ext 69,ext 70,ext 71,ext 72,ext 73,
ext 74,ext 75,ext 76,ext 77,ext 78,ext 79,ext 80
});

super_vectorfield(ddt,{x,t,u,u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6,u7,
u8,u9,u10,u11,u12,u13,u14,u15,u16,u17},
{ext 1,ext 2,ext 3,ext 4,ext 5,ext 6,ext 7,ext 8,ext 9,
ext 10,ext 11,ext 12,ext 13,ext 14,ext 15,ext 16,ext 17,
ext 18,ext 19,ext 20,ext 21,ext 22,ext 23,ext 24,ext 25,
ext 26,ext 27,ext 28,ext 29,ext 30,ext 31,ext 32,ext 33,
ext 34,ext 35,ext 36,ext 37,ext 38,ext 39,ext 40,ext 41,
ext 42,ext 43,ext 44,ext 45,ext 46,ext 47,ext 48,ext 49,
ext 50,ext 51,ext 52,ext 53,ext 54,ext 55,ext 56,ext 57,
ext 58,ext 59,ext 60,ext 61,ext 62,ext 63,ext 64,ext 65,
ext 66,ext 67,ext 68,ext 69,ext 70,ext 71,ext 72,ext 73,
ext 74,ext 75,ext 76,ext 77,ext 78,ext 79,ext 80
});

Specification of the vectorfield ddx. The meaning of the first index is the par-
ity of variables. In particular here we have just even variables. The second in-
dex parametrizes the second item (list) in the super_vectorfield declara-
tion. More precisely, ddx(0,1) stands for ∂/∂x, ddx(0,2) stands for ∂/∂t,
ddx(0,3) stands for ∂/∂u, ddx(0,4) stands for ∂/∂ux , . . . , and all coordi-
nates x, t, ux , . . . , are treated as even coordinates. Note that ‘$’ suppresses the
output.

ddx(0,1):=1$
ddx(0,2):=0$
ddx(0,3):=u1$
ddx(0,4):=u2$
ddx(0,5):=u3$
ddx(0,6):=u4$
ddx(0,7):=u5$
ddx(0,8):=u6$
ddx(0,9):=u7$
ddx(0,10):=u8$
ddx(0,11):=u9$
ddx(0,12):=u10$
446 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ddx(0,13):=u11$
ddx(0,14):=u12$
ddx(0,15):=u13$
ddx(0,16):=u14$
ddx(0,17):=u15$
ddx(0,18):=u16$
ddx(0,19):=u17$
ddx(0,20):=letop$

The string letop is treated as a variable; if it appears during computations it is

likely that we went too close to the highest order variables that we defined in the
file. This could mean that we need to extend the operators and variable list. In
case of large output, one can search in it the string letop to check whether errors
occurred.
Specification of the vectorfield ddt. In the evolutionary case we never have more
than one time derivative, other derivatives are utxxx··· .

ddt(0,1):=0$
ddt(0,2):=1$
ddt(0,3):=ut$
ddt(0,4):=ut1$
ddt(0,5):=ut2$
ddt(0,6):=ut3$
ddt(0,7):=ut4$
ddt(0,8):=ut5$
ddt(0,9):=ut6$
ddt(0,10):=ut7$
ddt(0,11):=ut8$
ddt(0,12):=ut9$
ddt(0,13):=ut10$
ddt(0,14):=ut11$
ddt(0,15):=ut12$
ddt(0,16):=ut13$
ddt(0,17):=ut14$
ddt(0,18):=letop$
ddt(0,19):=letop$
sddt(0,20):=letop$

We now give the equation in the form one of the derivatives equated to a right-hand
side expression. The left-hand side derivative is called principal, and the remaining
derivatives are called parametric27 . For scalar evolutionary equations with two
independent variables internal variables are of the type (t, x, u, ux , uxx , . . .).
27
This terminology dates back to Riquier, see [13]
 447

ut:=u2+2*u*u1;

ut1:=ddx ut;
ut2:=ddx ut1;
ut3:=ddx ut2;
ut4:=ddx ut3;
ut5:=ddx ut4;
ut6:=ddx ut5;
ut7:=ddx ut6;
ut8:=ddx ut7;
ut9:=ddx ut8;
ut10:=ddx ut9;
ut11:=ddx ut10;
ut12:=ddx ut11;
ut13:=ddx ut12;
ut14:=ddx ut13;

Test for verifying the commutation of total derivatives. Highest order defined terms
may yield some letop.

operator ev;

for i:=1:17 do write ev(0,i):=ddt(ddx(0,i))-ddx(ddt(0,i));

This is the list of variables with respect to their grading, starting from degree one.

all_graded_der:={{u},{u1},{u2},{u3},{u4},{u5},
{u6},{u7},{u8},{u9},{u10},{u11},{u12},{u13},{u14},{u15},
{u16},{u17}};

This is the list of all monomials of degree 0, 1, 2, . . . which can be constructed from
the above list of elementary variables with their grading.

grd0:={1};
grd1:= mkvarlist1(1,1)$
grd2:= mkvarlist1(2,2)$
grd3:= mkvarlist1(3,3)$
grd4:= mkvarlist1(4,4)$
grd5:= mkvarlist1(5,5)$
grd6:= mkvarlist1(6,6)$
grd7:= mkvarlist1(7,7)$
grd8:= mkvarlist1(8,8)$
grd9:= mkvarlist1(9,9)$
grd10:= mkvarlist1(10,10)$
448 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

grd11:= mkvarlist1(11,11)$
grd12:= mkvarlist1(12,12)$
grd13:= mkvarlist1(13,13)$
grd14:= mkvarlist1(14,14)$
grd15:= mkvarlist1(15,15)$
grd16:= mkvarlist1(16,16)$

Initialize a counter ctel for arbitrary constants c; initialize equations:

operator c,equ;

ctel:=0;

We assume a generating function sym, independent of x and t, of degree ≤ 5.

sym:=
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd4 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd5 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

This is the equation `¯B (sym) = 0, where B = 0 is Burgers’ equation and sym is
the generating function. From now on all equations are arranged in a single vector
whose name is equ.

equ 1:=ddt(sym)-ddx(ddx(sym))-2*u*ddx(sym)-2*u1*sym ;

This is the list of variables, to be passed to the equation solver.

vars:={x,t,u,u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6,u7,u8,u9,u10,u11,
u12,u13,u14,u15,u16,u17};

This is the number of initial equation(s)

tel:=1;

The following procedure uses multi_coeff (from the package tools). It gets
all coefficients of monomials appearing in the initial equation(s). The coefficients
are put into the vector equ after the initial equations.

procedure splitvars i;
begin;
 449

ll:=multi_coeff(equ i,vars);
equ(tel:=tel+1):=first ll;
ll:=rest ll;
for each el in ll do equ(tel:=tel+1):=second el;
end;

This command initializes the equation solver. It passes

• the equation vector equ togeher with its length tel (i.e., the total number
of equations);

• the list of variables with respect to which the system must not split the equat-
ions, i.e., variables with respect to which the unknowns are not polynomial.
In this case this list is just {};

• the constants’vector c, its length ctel, and the number of negative indexes
if any; just 0 in our example;

• the vector of free functions f that may appear in computations. Note that in
{f,0,0 } the second 0 stands for the length of the vector of free functions.
In this example there are no free functions, but the command needs the pres-
ence of at least a dummy argument, f in this case. There is also a last zero
which is the negative length of the vector f , just as for constants.

initialize_equations(equ,tel,{},{c,ctel,0},{f,0,0});

Run the procedure splitvars in order to obtain equations on coefficiens of each

monomial.

splitvars 1;

Next command tells the solver the total number of equations obtained after running
splitvars.

put_equations_used tel;

It is worth to write down the equations for the coefficients.

for i:=2:tel do write equ i;

This command solves the equations for the coefficients. Note that we have to skip
the initial equations!

for i:=2:tel do integrate_equation i;

;end;
450 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

In the folder computations/NewTests/Higher_symmetries it is possi-

ble to find the following files:

Burg_hsym_1.red The above file, together with its results file.

KdV_hsym_1.red Higher symmetries of KdV, with the ansatz: deg(sym) ≤ 5.

KdV_hsym_2.red Higher symmetries of KdV, with the ansatz:

sym = x*(something of degree 3) + t*(something of degree 5)

+ (something of degree 2).

This yields scale symmetries.

KdV_hsym_3.red Higher symmetries of KdV, with the ansatz:

sym = x*(something of degree 1) + t*(something of degree 3)

+ (something of degree 0).

This yields Galilean boosts.

Local conservation laws

In this section we will find (some) local conservation laws for the KdV equation
F = ut − uxxx + uux = 0. Concretely, we have to find non-trivial 1-forms
f = fx dx+ft dt on F = 0 such that df ¯ = 0 on F = 0. “Triviality” of conservation
laws is a delicate matter, for which we invite the reader to have a look in [11].
The files containing this example is KdV_loc-cl_1.red, KdV_loc-cl_2.red
and the corresponding results files.
We make use of ddx and ddt, which in the even part are the same as in the previ-
ous example (subsection 16.13.2). After defining the total derivatives we prepare
the list of graded variables (recall that in KdV u is of degree 2):

all_graded_der:={{},{u},{u1},{u2},{u3},{u4},{u5},
{u6},{u7},{u8},{u9},{u10},{u11},{u12},{u13},{u14},
{u15},{u16},{u17}};

We make the ansatz

fx:=
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$
 451

ft:=
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd4 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd5 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

for the components of the conservation law. We have to solve the equation

equ 1:=ddt(fx)-ddx(ft);

the fact that ddx and ddt are expressed in internal coordinates on the equation
means that the objects that we consider are already restricted to the equation.
We shall split the equation in its graded summands with the procedure splitvars,
then solve it

initialize_equations(equ,tel,{},{c,ctel,0},{f,0,0});
splitvars 1;
pte tel;
for i:=2:tel do es i;
end;

As a result we get

fx := c(3)*u1 + c(2)*u + c(1)$

ft := (2*c(3)*u*u1 + 2*c(3)*u3 + c(2)*u**2 + 2*c(2)*u2)/2$

Unfortunately it is clear that the conservation law corresponding to c(3) is trivial,

because it is the total x-derivative of F ; its restriction on the infinite prolonga-
tion of the KdV is zero. Here this fact is evident; how to get rid of less evident
trivialities by an ‘automatic’ mechanism? We considered this problem in the file
KdV_loc-cl_2.red, where we solved the equation

equ 1:=fx-ddx(f0);
equ 2:=ft-ddt(f0);

after having loaded the values fx and ft found by the previous program. We make
the following ansatz on f0:

f0:=
(for each el in grd0 sum (cc(cctel:=cctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd1 sum (cc(cctel:=cctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd2 sum (cc(cctel:=cctel+1)*el))+
(for each el in grd3 sum (cc(cctel:=cctel+1)*el))$
452 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Note that this gives a grading which is compatible with the gradings of fx and ft.
After solving the system

initialize_equations(equ,tel,{},{cc,cctel,0},{f,0,0});
for i:=1:2 do begin splitvars i;end;
pte tel;
for i:=3:tel do es i;
end;

issuing the commands

fxnontriv := fx-ddx(f0);
ftnontriv := ft-ddt(f0);

we obtain

fxnontriv := c(2)*u + c(1)$

ftnontriv := (c(2)*(u**2 + 2*u2))/2$

This mechanism can be easily generalized to situations in which the conservation

laws which are found by the program are difficult to treat by pen and paper.

Local Hamiltonian operators

In this section we will find local Hamiltonian operators for the KdV equation ut =
uxxx + uux . Concretely, we have to solve `¯KdV (phi) = 0 over the equation

ut = uxxx + uux
pt = pxxx + upx
or, in geometric terminology, find the shadows of symmetries on the `∗ -covering
of the KdV equation. The reference paper for this type of computations is [12].
The file containing this example is KdV_Ham_1.red.
We make use of ddx and ddt, which in the even part are the same as in the previ-
ous example (subsection 16.13.2). We stress that the linearization `¯KdV (phi) = 0
is the equation

ddt(phi)-u*ddx(phi)-u1*phi-ddx(ddx(ddx(phi)))=0

but the total derivatives are lifted to the `∗ covering, hence they must contain also
derivatives with respect to p’s. This will be achieved by treating p variables as odd
and introducing the odd parts of ddx and ddt,

ddx(1,1):=0$
 453

ddx(1,2):=0$
ddx(1,3):=ext 4$
ddx(1,4):=ext 5$
ddx(1,5):=ext 6$
ddx(1,6):=ext 7$
ddx(1,7):=ext 8$
ddx(1,8):=ext 9$
ddx(1,9):=ext 10$
ddx(1,10):=ext 11$
ddx(1,11):=ext 12$
ddx(1,12):=ext 13$
ddx(1,13):=ext 14$
ddx(1,14):=ext 15$
ddx(1,15):=ext 16$
ddx(1,16):=ext 17$
ddx(1,17):=ext 18$
ddx(1,18):=ext 19$
ddx(1,19):=ext 20$
ddx(1,20):=letop$

In the above definition the first index ‘1’ says that we are dealing with odd vari-
ables, ext indicates anticommuting variables. Here, ext 3 is p0 , ext 4 is px ,
ext 5 is pxx , . . . so ddx(1,3):=ext 4 indicates px ∂/∂p, etc..
Now, remembering that the additional equation is again evolutionary, we can get
rid of pt by letting it be equal to ext 6 + u*ext 4, as follows:

ddt(1,1):=0$
ddt(1,2):=0$
ddt(1,3):=ext 6 + u*ext 4$
ddt(1,4):=ddx(ddt(1,3))$
ddt(1,5):=ddx(ddt(1,4))$
ddt(1,6):=ddx(ddt(1,5))$
ddt(1,7):=ddx(ddt(1,6))$
ddt(1,8):=ddx(ddt(1,7))$
ddt(1,9):=ddx(ddt(1,8))$
ddt(1,10):=ddx(ddt(1,9))$
ddt(1,11):=ddx(ddt(1,10))$
ddt(1,12):=ddx(ddt(1,11))$
ddt(1,13):=ddx(ddt(1,12))$
ddt(1,14):=ddx(ddt(1,13))$
ddt(1,15):=ddx(ddt(1,14))$
ddt(1,16):=ddx(ddt(1,15))$
ddt(1,17):=ddx(ddt(1,16))$
454 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ddt(1,18):=letop$
ddt(1,19):=letop$
ddt(1,20):=letop$

Let us make the following ansatz about the Hamiltonian operators:

phi:=
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+

(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+

(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+

(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+

(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+

(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 6

$

Note that we are looking for generating functions of shadows which are linear
with respect to p’s. Moreover, having set [p] = −2 we will look for solutions of
maximal possible degree +1.
After having set

equ 1:=ddt(phi)-u*ddx(phi)-u1*phi-ddx(ddx(ddx(phi)));
vars:={x,t,u,u1,u2,u3,u4,u5,u6,u7,u8,u9,u10,u11,u12,
u13,u14,u15,u16,u17};
tel:=1;

we define the procedures splitvars as in subsection 16.13.2 and splitext

as follows:

procedure splitext i;
begin;
ll:=operator_coeff(equ i,ext);
equ(tel:=tel+1):=first ll;
ll:=rest ll;
for each el in ll do equ(tel:=tel+1):=second el;
end;
 455

Then we initialize the equations:

initialize_equations(equ,tel,{},{c,ctel,0},{f,0,0});

do splitext

splitext 1;

then splitvars

tel1:=tel;
for i:=2:tel1 do begin splitvars i;equ i:=0;end;

Now we are ready to solve all equations:

put_equations_used tel;
for i:=2:tel do write equ i:=equ i;
pause;
for i:=2:tel do integrate_equation i;
end;

Note that we want all equations to be solved!

The results are the two well-known Hamiltonian operators for the KdV:

phi := c(4)*ext(4) + 3*c(3)*ext(6) + 2*c(3)*ext(4)*u

+ c(3)*ext(3)*u1$

Of course, the results correspond to the operators

ext(4) → Dx ,
3*c(3)*ext(6) + 2*c(3)*ext(4)*u + c(3)*ext(3)*u1 →
3Dxxx + 2uDx + ux

Note that each operator is multiplied by one arbitrary real constant, c(4) and
c(3).

Non-local Hamiltonian operators

In this section we will show an experimental way to find nonlocal Hamiltonian

operators for the KdV equation. The word ‘experimental’ comes from the lack of a
consistent mathematical theory. The result of the computation (without the details
below) has been published in [12].
We have to solve equations of the type ddx(ft)-ddt(fx) as in 16.13.2. The
456 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

main difference is that we will attempt a solution on the `∗ -covering (see Subsec-
tion 16.13.2). For this reason, first of all we have to determine covering variables
with the usual mechanism of introducing them through conservation laws, this time
on the `∗ -covering.
As a first step, let us compute conservation laws on the `∗ -covering whose
components are linear in the p’s. This computation can be found in the file
KdV_nloc-cl_1.red and related results file. When specifying odd variables
in ddx and ddt, we have something like

ddx(1,1):=0$
ddx(1,2):=0$
ddx(1,3):=ext 4$
ddx(1,4):=ext 5$
ddx(1,5):=ext 6$
ddx(1,6):=ext 7$
ddx(1,7):=ext 8$
ddx(1,8):=ext 9$
ddx(1,9):=ext 10$
ddx(1,10):=ext 11$
ddx(1,11):=ext 12$
ddx(1,12):=ext 13$
ddx(1,13):=ext 14$
ddx(1,14):=ext 15$
ddx(1,15):=ext 16$
ddx(1,16):=ext 17$
ddx(1,17):=ext 18$
ddx(1,18):=ext 19$
ddx(1,19):=ext 20$
ddx(1,20):=letop$
ddx(1,50):=(t*u1+1)*ext 3$ % degree -2
ddx(1,51):=u1*ext 3$ % degree +1
ddx(1,52):=(u*u1+u3)*ext 3$ % degree +3

and

ddt(1,1):=0$
ddt(1,2):=0$
ddt(1,3):=ext 6 + u*ext 4$
ddt(1,4):=ddx(ddt(1,3))$
ddt(1,5):=ddx(ddt(1,4))$
ddt(1,6):=ddx(ddt(1,5))$
ddt(1,7):=ddx(ddt(1,6))$
ddt(1,8):=ddx(ddt(1,7))$
 457

ddt(1,9):=ddx(ddt(1,8))$
ddt(1,10):=ddx(ddt(1,9))$
ddt(1,11):=ddx(ddt(1,10))$
ddt(1,12):=ddx(ddt(1,11))$
ddt(1,13):=ddx(ddt(1,12))$
ddt(1,14):=ddx(ddt(1,13))$
ddt(1,15):=ddx(ddt(1,14))$
ddt(1,16):=ddx(ddt(1,15))$
ddt(1,17):=ddx(ddt(1,16))$
ddt(1,18):=letop$
ddt(1,19):=letop$
ddt(1,20):=letop$
ddt(1,50):=f1*ext 3+f2*ext 4+f3*ext 5$
ddt(1,51):=f4*ext 3+f5*ext 4+f6*ext 5$
ddt(1,52):=f7*ext 3+f8*ext 4+f9*ext 5$

The variables corresponding to the numbers 50,51,52 here play a dummy role,
the coefficients of the corresponding vector are the unknown generating functions
of conservation laws on the `∗ -covering. More precisely, we look for conservation
laws of the form

fx= phi*ext 3
ft= f1*ext3+f2*ext4+f3*ext5

The ansatz is chosen because, first of all, ext 4 and ext 5 can be removed from
fx by adding a suitable total divergence (trivial conservation law); moreover it can
be proved that phi is a symmetry of KdV. We can write down the equations

equ 1:=ddx(ddt(1,50))-ddt(ddx(1,50));
equ 2:=ddx(ddt(1,51))-ddt(ddx(1,51));
equ 3:=ddx(ddt(1,52))-ddt(ddx(1,52));

However, the above choices make use of a symmetry which contains ‘t’ in the
generator. This would make automatic computations more tricky, but still possible.
In this case the solution of equ 1 has been found by hand and passed to the
program:

f3:=t*u1+1$
f1:=u*f3+ddx(ddx(f3))$
f2:=-ddx(f3)$

together with the ansatz on the coefficients for the other equations

f4:=(for each el in grd5 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

458 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

f5:=(for each el in grd4 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

f6:=(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

f7:=(for each el in grd7 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

f8:=(for each el in grd6 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$
f9:=(for each el in grd5 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))$

The previous ansatz keep into account the grading of the starting symmetry in
phi*ext 3. The resulting equations are solved in the usual way (see the example
file).
Now, we solve the equation for shadows of nonlocal symmetries in a covering of
the `∗ -covering. We can choose between three new nonlocal variables ra,rb,rc.
We are going to look for non-local Hamiltonian operators depending linearly on
one of these variables. Higher non-local Hamiltonian operators could be found by
introducing total derivatives of the r’s. As usual, the new variables are specified
through the components of the previously found conservation laws according with
the rule

ra_x=fx, ra_t=ft,

and analogously for the others. We define

ddx(1,50):=(t*u1+1)*ext 3$ % degree -2
ddx(1,51):=u1*ext 3$ % degree +1
ddx(1,52):=(u*u1+u3)*ext 3$ % degree +3

and

ddt(1,50) := ext(5)*t*u1 + ext(5) - ext(4)*t*u2

+ ext(3)*t*u*u1 + ext(3)*t*u3 + ext(3)*u$
ddt(1,51) := ext(5)*u1 - ext(4)*u2 + ext(3)*u*u1
+ ext(3)*u3$
ddt(1,52) := ext(5)*u*u1 + ext(5)*u3 - ext(4)*u*u2
- ext(4)*u1**2 - ext(4)*u4 + ext(3)*u**2*u1
+ 2*ext(3)*u*u3 + 3*ext(3)*u1*u2 + ext(3)*u5$

as it results from the computation of the conservation laws. The following ansatz
for the nonlocal Hamiltonian operator comes from the fact that local Hamiltonian
operators have gradings −1 and +1 when written in terms of p’s. So we are looking
for a nonlocal Hamiltonian operator of degree 3.

phi:=
(for each el in grd6 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 50+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 51+
 459

(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 52+

(for each el in grd5 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+

(for each el in grd4 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 6+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 7+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 8
$

As a solution, we obtain

phi := c(1)*(ext(51)*u1 - 9*ext(8) - 12*ext(6)*u

- 18*ext(5)*u1 - 4*ext(4)*u**2 - 12*ext(4)*u2
- 4*ext(3)*u*u1 - 3*ext(3)*u3)$

where ext51 stands for the nonlocal variable rb fulfilling

rb_x:=u1*ext 3$
rb_t:=ext(5)*u1 - ext(4)*u2 + ext(3)*u*u1 + ext(3)*u3$

Remark. In the file KdV_nloc-Ham_2.red it is possible to find another ansatz

for a non-local Hamiltonian operator of degree +5.

Computations for systems of PDEs

There is no conceptual difference when computing for systems of PDEs. We will

look for Hamiltonian structures for the following Boussinesq equation:

ut − ux v − uvx − σvxxx = 0
(16.71)
vt − ux − vvx = 0

where σ is a constant. This example also shows how to deal with jet spaces with
more than one dependent variable. Here gradings can be taken as

∂ ∂
[t] = −2, [x] = −1, [v] = 1, [u] = 2, [p] = [ ] = −2, [q] = [ ] = −1
∂u ∂v
where p, q are the two coordinates in the space of generating functions of conser-
vation laws.
The linearization of the above system and its adjoint are, respectively
   
Dt − vDx − vx −ux − uDx − σDxxx ∗ −Dt + vDx Dx
`Bou = , `Bou =
−Dx Dt − vx − vDx uDx + σDxxx −Dt + vDx
460 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

and lead to the `∗Bou covering equation



 −pt + vpx + qx = 0
upx + σpxxx − qt + vqx = 0

u − ux v − uvx − σvxxx = 0
 t


vt − ux − vvx = 0
We have to find shadows of symmetries on the above covering. Total derivatives
must be defined as follows:

super_vectorfield(ddx,{x,t,u,v,u1,v1,u2,v2,u3,v3,u4,v4,
u5,v5,u6,v6,u7,v7,u8,v8,u9,v9,u10,v10,u11,v11,u12,v12,
u13,v13,u14,v14,u15,v15,u16,v16,u17,v17},
{ext 1,ext 2,ext 3,ext 4,ext 5,ext 6,ext 7,ext 8,ext 9,
ext 10,ext 11,ext 12,ext 13,ext 14,ext 15,ext 16,ext 17,
ext 18,ext 19,ext 20,ext 21,ext 22,ext 23,ext 24,ext 25,
ext 26,ext 27,ext 28,ext 29,ext 30,ext 31,ext 32,ext 33,
ext 34,ext 35,ext 36,ext 37,ext 38,ext 39,ext 40,ext 41,
ext 42,ext 43,ext 44,ext 45,ext 46,ext 47,ext 48,ext 49,
ext 50,ext 51,ext 52,ext 53,ext 54,ext 55,ext 56,ext 57,
ext 58,ext 59,ext 60,ext 61,ext 62,ext 63,ext 64,ext 65,
ext 66,ext 67,ext 68,ext 69,ext 70,ext 71,ext 72,ext 73,
ext 74,ext 75,ext 76,ext 77,ext 78,ext 79,ext 80
});

super_vectorfield(ddt,{x,t,u,v,u1,v1,u2,v2,u3,v3,u4,v4,
u5,v5,u6,v6,u7,v7,u8,v8,u9,v9,u10,v10,u11,v11,u12,v12,
u13,v13,u14,v14,u15,v15,u16,v16,u17,v17},
{ext 1,ext 2,ext 3,ext 4,ext 5,ext 6,ext 7,ext 8,ext 9,
ext 10,ext 11,ext 12,ext 13,ext 14,ext 15,ext 16,ext 17,
ext 18,ext 19,ext 20,ext 21,ext 22,ext 23,ext 24,ext 25,
ext 26,ext 27,ext 28,ext 29,ext 30,ext 31,ext 32,ext 33,
ext 34,ext 35,ext 36,ext 37,ext 38,ext 39,ext 40,ext 41,
ext 42,ext 43,ext 44,ext 45,ext 46,ext 47,ext 48,ext 49,
ext 50,ext 51,ext 52,ext 53,ext 54,ext 55,ext 56,ext 57,
ext 58,ext 59,ext 60,ext 61,ext 62,ext 63,ext 64,ext 65,
ext 66,ext 67,ext 68,ext 69,ext 70,ext 71,ext 72,ext 73,
ext 74,ext 75,ext 76,ext 77,ext 78,ext 79,ext 80
});

In the list of coordinates we alternate derivatives of u and derivatives of v. The

same must be done for coefficients; for example,

ddx(0,1):=1$
ddx(0,2):=0$
 461

ddx(0,3):=u1$
ddx(0,4):=v1$
ddx(0,5):=u2$
ddx(0,6):=v2$
...

After specifying the equation

ut:=u1*v+u*v1+sig*v3;
vt:=u1+v*v1;

we define the (already introduced) time derivatives:

ut1:=ddx ut;
ut2:=ddx ut1;
ut3:=ddx ut2;
...
vt1:=ddx vt;
vt2:=ddx vt1;
vt3:=ddx vt2;
...

up to the required order (here the order can be stopped at 15). Odd variables p and q
must be specified with an appropriate length (here it is OK to stop at ddx(1,36)).
Recall to replace pt , qt with the internal coordinates of the covering:

ddt(1,1):=0$
ddt(1,2):=0$
ddt(1,3):=+v*ext 5+ext 6$
ddt(1,4):=u*ext 5+sig*ext 9+v*ext 6$
ddt(1,5):=ddx(ddt(1,3))$
...

The list of graded variables:

all_graded_der:={{v},{u,v1},{u1,v2},{u2,v3},{u3,v4},{u4,v5},
{u5,v6},{u6,v7},{u7,v8},{u8,v9},{u9,v10},{u10,v11},
{u11,v12},{u12,v13},{u13,v14},{u14,v15},{u15,v16},
{u16,v17},{u17}};

The ansatz for the components of the Hamiltonian operator is

phi1:=
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
462 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+

(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 6
$

phi2:=
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4
$

and the equation for shadows of symmetries is

equ 1:=ddt(phi1)-v*ddx(phi1)-v1*phi1-u1*phi2-u*ddx(phi2)
-sig*ddx(ddx(ddx(phi2)));
equ 2:=-ddx(phi1)-v*ddx(phi2)-v1*phi2+ddt(phi2);

After the usual procedures for decomposing polynomials we obtain the following
result:

phi1 := c(6)*ext(6)$
phi2 := c(6)*ext(5)$

which corresponds to the vector (Dx , Dx ). Extending the ansatz to

phi1:=
(for each el in grd3 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 7+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 9+
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 6+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 8
$

phi2:=
(for each el in grd2 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 3+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 5+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 7+
(for each el in grd1 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 4+
(for each el in grd0 sum (c(ctel:=ctel+1)*el))*ext 6
$

allows us to find a second (local) Hamiltonian operator

 463

phi1 := (c(3)*(2*ext(9)*sig + ext(6)*v + 2*ext(5)*u

+ ext(3)*u1))/2$
phi2 := (c(3)*(2*ext(6) + ext(5)*v + ext(3)*v1))/2$

There is one more higher local Hamiltonian operator, and a whole hierarchy of
nonlocal Hamiltonian operators [12].

Explosion of denominators and how to avoid it

Here we propose the computation of the repeated total derivative of a denominator.

This computation fills up the whole memory after some time, and can be used as a
kind of speed test for the system. The file is KdV_denom_1.red.
After having defined total derivatives on the KdV equation, run the following iter-
ation:

phi:=1/(u3+u*u1)$
for i:=1:100 do begin
phi:=ddx(phi)$
write i;
end;

The program shows the iteration number. At the 18th iteration the program uses
about 600MB of RAM, as shown by top run from another shell, and 100% of one
processor.
There is a simple way to avoid denominator explosion. The file is KdV_denom_2.red.
After having defined total derivatives with respect to x (on the KdV equation, for
example) consider in the same ddx a component with a sufficently high index
immediately after ‘letop’ (otherwise super_vectorfield does not work!),
say ddx(0,21), and think of it as being the coefficient to a vector of the type

aa21:=1/(u3+u*u1);

In this case, its coefficient must be

ddx(0,21):=-aa21**2*(u4+u1**2+u*u2)$

More particularly, here follows the detailed definition of ddx

ddx(0,1):=1$
ddx(0,2):=0$
ddx(0,3):=u1$
ddx(0,4):=u2$
464 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ddx(0,5):=u3$
ddx(0,6):=u4$
ddx(0,7):=u5$
ddx(0,8):=u6$
ddx(0,9):=u7$
ddx(0,10):=u8$
ddx(0,11):=u9$
ddx(0,12):=u10$
ddx(0,13):=u11$
ddx(0,14):=u12$
ddx(0,15):=u13$
ddx(0,16):=u14$
ddx(0,17):=u15$
ddx(0,18):=u16$
ddx(0,19):=u17$
ddx(0,20):=letop$
ddx(0,21):=-aa21**2*(u4+u1**2+u*u2)$

Now, suppose that we want to compute the 5th total derivative of phi. Write the
following code:

phi:=aa30;
for i:=1:5 do begin
phi:=ddx(phi)$
write i;
end;

The result is then a polynomial in the additional ‘denominator’ variable

phi := aa21**2*( - 120*aa21**4*u**5*u2**5

- 600*aa21**4*u**4*u1**2*u2**4 - 600*aa21**4*u**4*u2**4*u4
- 1200*aa21**4*u**3*u1**4*u2**3 - 2400*aa21**4*u**3*u1**2*u2**3*u4
- 1200*aa21**4*u**3*u2**3*u4**2 - 1200*aa21**4*u**2*u1**6*u2**2
- 3600*aa21**4*u**2*u1**4*u2**2*u4 - 3600*aa21**4*u**2*u1**2*u2**2*u4
- 1200*aa21**4*u**2*u2**2*u4**3 - 600*aa21**4*u*u1**8*u2
- 2400*aa21**4*u*u1**6*u2*u4 - 3600*aa21**4*u*u1**4*u2*u4**2
- 2400*aa21**4*u*u1**2*u2*u4**3 - 600*aa21**4*u*u2*u4**4
- 120*aa21**4*u1**10 - 600*aa21**4*u1**8*u4
- 1200*aa21**4*u1**6*u4**2 - 1200*aa21**4*u1**4*u4**3
- 600*aa21**4*u1**2*u4**4 - 120*aa21**4*u4**5
+ 240*aa21**3*u**4*u2**3*u3
+ 720*aa21**3*u**3*u1**2*u2**2*u3 + 720*aa21**3*u**3*u1*u2**4
+ 240*aa21**3*u**3*u2**3*u5 + 720*aa21**3*u**3*u2**2*u3*u4
+ 720*aa21**3*u**2*u1**4*u2*u3 + 2160*aa21**3*u**2*u1**3*u2**3
 465

+ 720*aa21**3*u**2*u1**2*u2**2*u5 + 1440*aa21**3*u**2*u1**2*u2*u3*u4
+ 2160*aa21**3*u**2*u1*u2**3*u4 + 720*aa21**3*u**2*u2**2*u4*u5
+ 720*aa21**3*u**2*u2*u3*u4**2 + 240*aa21**3*u*u1**6*u3
+ 2160*aa21**3*u*u1**5*u2**2 + 720*aa21**3*u*u1**4*u2*u5
+ 720*aa21**3*u*u1**4*u3*u4 + 4320*aa21**3*u*u1**3*u2**2*u4
+ 1440*aa21**3*u*u1**2*u2*u4*u5 + 720*aa21**3*u*u1**2*u3*u4**2
+ 2160*aa21**3*u*u1*u2**2*u4**2 + 720*aa21**3*u*u2*u4**2*u5
+ 240*aa21**3*u*u3*u4**3 + 720*aa21**3*u1**7*u2
+ 240*aa21**3*u1**6*u5
+ 2160*aa21**3*u1**5*u2*u4 + 720*aa21**3*u1**4*u4*u5
+ 2160*aa21**3*u1**3*u2*u4**2 + 720*aa21**3*u1**2*u4**2*u5
+ 720*aa21**3*u1*u2*u4**3 + 240*aa21**3*u4**3*u5
- 60*aa21**2*u**3*u2**2*u4 - 90*aa21**2*u**3*u2*u3**2
- 120*aa21**2*u**2*u1**2*u2*u4 - 90*aa21**2*u**2*u1**2*u3**2
- 780*aa21**2*u**2*u1*u2**2*u3 - 180*aa21**2*u**2*u2**4
- 60*aa21**2*u**2*u2**2*u6 - 180*aa21**2*u**2*u2*u3*u5
- 120*aa21**2*u**2*u2*u4**2 - 90*aa21**2*u**2*u3**2*u4
- 60*aa21**2*u*u1**4*u4 - 1020*aa21**2*u*u1**3*u2*u3
- 1170*aa21**2*u*u1**2*u2**3 - 120*aa21**2*u*u1**2*u2*u6
- 180*aa21**2*u*u1**2*u3*u5 - 120*aa21**2*u*u1**2*u4**2
- 540*aa21**2*u*u1*u2**2*u5 - 1020*aa21**2*u*u1*u2*u3*u4
- 360*aa21**2*u*u2**3*u4 - 120*aa21**2*u*u2*u4*u6
- 90*aa21**2*u*u2*u5**2 - 180*aa21**2*u*u3*u4*u5
- 60*aa21**2*u*u4**3 - 240*aa21**2*u1**5*u3
- 990*aa21**2*u1**4*u2**2 - 60*aa21**2*u1**4*u6
- 540*aa21**2*u1**3*u2*u5 - 480*aa21**2*u1**3*u3*u4
- 1170*aa21**2*u1**2*u2**2*u4 - 120*aa21**2*u1**2*u4*u6
- 90*aa21**2*u1**2*u5**2 - 540*aa21**2*u1*u2*u4*u5
- 240*aa21**2*u1*u3*u4**2 - 180*aa21**2*u2**2*u4**2
- 60*aa21**2*u4**2*u6 - 90*aa21**2*u4*u5**2
+ 10*aa21*u**2*u2*u5 + 20*aa21*u**2*u3*u4 + 10*aa21*u*u1**2*u5
+ 110*aa21*u*u1*u2*u4 + 80*aa21*u*u1*u3**2 + 160*aa21*u*u2**2*u3
+ 10*aa21*u*u2*u7 + 20*aa21*u*u3*u6 + 30*aa21*u*u4*u5
+ 50*aa21*u1**3*u4 + 340*aa21*u1**2*u2*u3 + 10*aa21*u1**2*u7
+ 180*aa21*u1*u2**3 + 60*aa21*u1*u2*u6 + 80*aa21*u1*u3*u5
+ 50*aa21*u1*u4**2 + 60*aa21*u2**2*u5 + 100*aa21*u2*u3*u4
+ 10*aa21*u4*u7 + 20*aa21*u5*u6 - u*u6 - 6*u1*u5 - 15*u2*u4
- 10*u3**2 - u8)$

where the value of aa21 can be replaced back in the expression.

466 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Bibliography

[1] Obtaining REDUCE: http://reduce-algebra.sourceforge.

net/.
[2] Geometry of Differential Equations web site: http://gdeq.org.
[3] notepad++: http://notepad-plus.sourceforge.net/
[4] List of text editors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
text_editors
[5] How to install emacs in Windows: http://www.cmc.
edu/math/alee/emacs/emacs.html. See also http:
//www.gnu.org/software/emacs/windows/ntemacs.html
[6] How to install REDUCE in Windows: http://reduce-algebra.
sourceforge.net/windows.html
[7] G.H.M. ROELOFS, The SUPER VECTORFIELD package for REDUCE.
Version 1.0, Memorandum 1099, Dept. Appl. Math., University of Twente,
1992. Available at http://gdeq.org.
[8] G.H.M. ROELOFS, The INTEGRATOR package for REDUCE. Version 1.0,
Memorandum 1100, Dept. Appl. Math., University of Twente, 1992. Avail-
able at http://gdeq.org.
[9] G.F. P OST, A manual for the package TOOLS 2.1, Memorandum 1331, Dept.
Appl. Math., University of Twente, 1996. Available at http://gdeq.org.
[10] REDUCE IDE for emacs: http://centaur.maths.qmul.ac.uk/
Emacs/REDUCE_IDE/
[11] A. V. B OCHAROV, V. N. C HETVERIKOV, S. V. D UZHIN , N. G.
K HOR0 KOVA , I. S. K RASIL0 SHCHIK , A. V. S AMOKHIN , Y U . N. T ORKHOV,
A. M. V ERBOVETSKY AND A. M. V INOGRADOV: Symmetries and Con-
servation Laws for Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics, I. S.
Krasil0 shchik and A. M. Vinogradov eds., Translations of Math. Monographs
182, Amer. Math. Soc. (1999).
[12] P.H.M. K ERSTEN , I.S. K RASIL’ SHCHIK , A.M. V ERBOVETSKY, Hamilto-
nian operators and `∗ -covering, Journal of Geometry and Physics 50 (2004),
273–302.
[13] M. M ARVAN, Sufficient set of integrability conditions of an orthonomic sys-
tem. Foundations of Computational Mathematics 9 (2009) 651–674.
[14] R. V ITOLO, CDE: a reduce package for computations in geometry of Differ-
ential Equations. Available at http://gdeq.org.
 467

16.14 CGB: Computing Comprehensive Gröbner Bases

Authors: Andreas Dolzmann, Thomas Sturm, and Winfried Neun

16.14.1 Introduction

Consider the ideal basis F = {ax, x + y}. Treating a as a parameter, the calling
sequence

torder({x,y},lex)$
groebner{a*x,x+y};

{x,y}

yields {x, y} as reduced Gröbner basis. This is, however, not correct under the spe-
cialization a = 0. The reduced Gröbner basis would then be {x + y}. Taking these
results together, we obtain C = {x + y, ax, ay}, which is correct wrt. all special-
izations for a including zero specializations. We call this set C a comprehensive
Gröbner basis (CGB).
The notion of a CGB and a corresponding algorithm has been introduced bei
Weispfenning [Wei92]. This algorithm works by performing case distinctions
wrt. parametric coefficient polynomials in order to find out what the head monomi-
als are under all possible specializations. It does thus not only determine a CGB, but
even classifies the contained polynomials wrt. the specializations they are relevant
for. If we keep the Gröbner bases for all cases separate and associate information
on the respective specializations with them, we obtain a Gröbner system. For our
example, the Gröbner system is the following;
 
a 6= 0 {x + y, ax, ay}
.
a=0 {x + y}

A CGB is obtained as the union of the single Gröbner bases in a Gröbner system.
It has also been shown that, on the other hand, a Gröbner system can easily be
reconstructed from a given CGB [Wei92].
The CGB package provides functions for computing both CGB’s and Gröbner sys-
tems, and for turning Gröbner systems into CGB’s.

16.14.2 Using the REDLOG Package

For managing the conditions occurring with the CGB computations, the CGB
package uses the package REDLOG implementing first-order formulas, [DS97a,
DS99], which is also part of the REDUCE distribution.
468 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.14.3 Term Ordering Mode

The CGB package uses the settings made with the function torder of the
GROEBNER package. This includes in particular the choice of the main vari-
ables. All variables not mentioned in the variable list argument of torder are
parameters. The only term ordering modes recognized by CGB are lex and
revgradlex.

16.14.4 CGB: Comprehensive Gröbner Basis

The function cgb expects a list F of expressions. It returns a CGB of F wrt. the
current torder setting.

Example

torder({x,y},lex)$
cgb{a*x+y,x+b*y};

{x + b*y,a*x + y,(a*b - 1)*y}

ws;

{b*y + x,

a*x + y,

y*(a*b - 1)}

Note that the basis returned by the cgb call has not undergone the standard eval-
uation process: The returned polynomials are ordered wrt. the chosen term order.
Reevaluation changes this as can be seen with the output of ws.

16.14.5 GSYS: Gröbner System

The function gsys follows the same calling conventions as cgb. It returns the
complete Gröbner system represented as a nested list
 
c1 , {g11 , . . . , g1n1 } , . . . , cm , {gm1 , . . . , g1nm } .

The ci are conditions in the parameters represented as quantifier-free REDLOG

formulas. Each choice of parameters will obey at least one of the ci . Whenever a
 469

choice of parameters obeys some ci , the corresponding {gi1 , . . . , gini } is a Gröbner

basis for this choice.

Example

torder({x,y},lex)$
gsys {a*x+y,x+b*y};

{{a*b - 1 <> 0 and a <> 0,

{a*x + y,x + b*y,(a*b - 1)*y}},

{a <> 0 and a*b - 1 = 0,

{a*x + y,x + b*y}},

{a = 0,{a*x + y,x + b*y}}}

As with the function cgb, the contained polynomials remain unevaluated.

Computing a Gröbner system is not harder than computing a CGB. In fact, cgb
also computes a Gröbner system and then turns it into a CGB.

Switch CGBGEN: Only the Generic Case

If the switch cgbgen is turned on, both gsys and cgb will assume all parametric
coefficients to be non-zero ignoring the other cases. For cgb this means that the re-
sult equals—up to auto-reduction—that of groebner. A call to gsys will return
this result as a single case including the assumptions made during the computation:

Example

torder({x,y},lex)$
on cgbgen;
gsys{a*x+y,x+b*y};

{{a*b - 1 <> 0 and a <> 0,

{a*x + y,x + b*y,(a*b - 1)*y}}}

off cgbgen;
470 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.14.6 GSYS2CGB: Gröbner System to CGB

The call gsys2cgb turns a given Gröbner system into a CGB by constructing the
union of the Gröbner bases of the single cases.

Example

torder({x,y},lex)$
gsys{a*x+y,x+b*y}$
gsys2cgb ws;

{x + b*y,a*x + y,(a*b - 1)*y}

16.14.7 Switch CGBREAL: Computing over the Real Numbers

All computations considered so far have taken place over the complex numbers,
more precisely, over algebraically closed fields. Over the real numbers, certain
branches of the CGB computation can become inconsitent though they are not in-
consistent over the complex numbers. Consider, e.g., a condition a2 + 1 = 0.
When turning on the switch cgbreal, all simplifications of conditions are per-
formed over the real numbers. The methods used for this are described in [DS97b].

Example

torder({x,y},lex)$
off cgbreal;
gsys {a*x+y,x-a*y};

2
{{a + 1 <> 0 and a <> 0,

2
{a*x + y,x - a*y,(a + 1)*y}},

2
{a <> 0 and a + 1 = 0,{a*x + y,x - a*y}},

{a = 0,{a*x + y,x - a*y}}}

on cgbreal;
gsys({a*x+y,x-a*y});
 471

{{a <> 0,

2
{a*x + y,x - a*y,(a + 1)*y}},

{a = 0,{a*x + y,x - a*y}}}

16.14.8 Switches

cgbreal Compute over the real numbers. See Section 16.14.7 for details.

cgbgs Gröbner simplification of the condition. The switch cgbgs can be turned
on for applying advanced algebraic simplification techniques to the condi-
tions. This will, in general, slow down the computation, but lead to a simpler
Gröbner system.

cgbstat Statistics of the CGB run. The switch cgbstat toggles the creation and
output of statistical information on the CGB run. The statistical information
is printed at the end of the run.

cgbfullred Full reduction. By default, the CGB functions perform full reductions
in contrast to pure top reductions. By turning off the switch cgbfullred,
reduction can be restricted to top reductions.

Bibliography

[DS97a] Andreas Dolzmann and Thomas Sturm. Redlog: Computer algebra

meets computer logic. ACM SIGSAM Bulletin, 31(2):2–9, June 1997.

[DS97b] Andreas Dolzmann and Thomas Sturm. Simplification of quantifier-

free formulae over ordered fields. Journal of Symbolic Computation,
24(2):209–231, August 1997.

[DS99] Andreas Dolzmann and Thomas Sturm. Redlog User Manual. FMI,
Universität Passau, D-94030 Passau, Germany, April 1999. Edition 2.0
for Version 2.0.

[Wei92] Volker Weispfenning. Comprehensive Gröbner bases. Journal of Symb-

olic Computation, 14:1–29, July 1992.
472 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.15 COMPACT: Package for compacting expressions

COMPACT is a package of functions for the reduction of a polynomial in the pres-

ence of side relations. COMPACT applies the side relations to the polynomial so
that an equivalent expression results with as few terms as possible. For example,
the evaluation of

compact(s*(1-sin x^2)+c*(1-cos x^2)+sin x^2+cos x^2,

{cos x^2+sin x^2=1});

yields the result

2 2
SIN(X) *C + COS(X) *S + 1 .

The switch TRCOMPACT can be used to trace the operation.

Author: Anthony C. Hearn.
 473

16.16 CRACK: Solving overdetermined systems of PDEs

or ODEs

CRACK is a package for solving overdetermined systems of partial or ordinary

differential equations (PDEs, ODEs). Examples of programs which make use
of CRACK (finding symmetries of ODEs/PDEs, first integrals, an equivalent La-
grangian or a "differential factorization" of ODEs) are included. The application
of symmetries is also possible by using the APPLYSYM package.
Authors: Andreas Brand, Thomas Wolf.
474 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.17 CVIT: Fast calculation of Dirac gamma matrix

traces

This package provides an alternative method for computing traces of Dirac gamma
matrices, based on an algorithm by Cvitanovich that treats gamma matrices as 3-j
symbols.
Authors: V.Ilyin, A.Kryukov, A.Rodionov, A.Taranov.

Abstract

In modern high energy physics the calculation of Feynman diagrams are still very
important. One of the difficulties of these calculations are trace calculations. So
the calculation of traces of Dirac’s γ-matrices were one of first task of computer al-
gebra systems. All available algorithms are based on the fact that gamma-matrices
constitute a basis of a Clifford algebra:

{Gm,Gn} = 2gmn.

We present the implementation of an alternative algorithm based on treating of

gamma-matrices as 3-j symbols (details may be found in [1,2]).
The program consists of 5 modules described below.
 475

MODULES CROSS REFERENCES

+--------+
| REDUCE |
|________| |ISIMP1
ISIMP2| +-----------------------+
+--->-----| RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE |
|_______________________|
CALC_SPUR| |REPLACE_BY_VECTOR
| |REPLACE_BY_VECTORP
| |GAMMA5P
^ V
+--------------+
| CVITMAPPING |
|______________|
^
|PRE-CALC-MAP
|CALC_MAP_TAR
|CALC_DENTAR
|
+-------------+
| INTERFIERZ |
|_____________|
| |MK-NUMR
| |STRAND-ALG-TOP
| ^
MAP-TO-STRAND| +------------+
INCIDENT1| | EVAL-MAPS |
| |____________|
^ |DELETEZ1
| |CONTRACT-STRAND
+----------------+ |COLOR-STRAND
| MAP-TO-STRAND |---->---+
|________________|

Requires of REDUCE version: 3.2, 3.3.

Module RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE

Author: A.P.Kryukov
Purpose:interface REDUCE and CVIT package
476 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE module is intended for connection of REDUCE

with main module of CVIT package. The main idea is to preserve standard RE-
DUCE syntax for high energy calculations. For realization of this we redefine
SYMBOLIC PROCEDURE ISIMP1 from HEPhys module of REDUCE system.
After loading CVIT package user may use switch CVIT which is ON by default.
If switch CVIT is OFF then calculations of Diracs matrices traces are performed
using standard REDUCE facilities. If CVIT switch is ON then CVIT package will
be active.
RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE module performs some primitive simplification
and control input data independently. For example it remove Gm Gm , check parity
of the number of Dirac matrices in each trace etc. There is one principal restriction
concerning G5-matrix. There are no closed form for trace in non-integer dimension
case when trace include G5-matrix. The next restriction is that if the space-time
dimension is integer then it must be even (2,4,6,...). If these and other restrictions
are violated then the user get corresponding error message. List of messages is
included.

LIST OF IMPORTED FUNCTIONS

-------------------------------------------------
Function From module
-------------------------------------------------
ISIMP2 HEPhys
CALC_SPUR CVITMAPPING
-------------------------------------------------

LIST OF EXPORTED FUNCTION

-------------------------------------------------
Function To module
-------------------------------------------------
ISIMP1 HEPhys (redefine)
REPLACE_BY_VECTOR EVAL_MAP
REPLACE_BY_VECTORP EVAL__MAP
GAMMA5P CVITMAPPING, EVAL_MAP
-------------------------------------------------

Module CVITMAPPING

Author: A.Ya.Rodionov
Purpose: graphs reduction

CVITMAPPING module is intended for diagrams calculation according to Cvi-

tanovic - Kennedy algorithm. The top function of this module CALC_SPUR
 477

is called from RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE interface module. The main idea

of the algorithm consists in diagram simplification according to rules (1.9’) and
(1.14) from [1]. The input data - trace of Diracs gamma matrices (G-matrices)
has a form of a list of identifiers lists with cyclic order. Some of identifiers may
be identical. In this case we assume summation over dummy indices. So trace
Sp(GbGr).Sp(GwGbGcGwGcGr) is represented as list ((b r) (w b c w c r)).
The first step is to transform the input data to “map” structure and then to reduce
the map to a “simple” one. This transformation is made by function TRANS-
FORM_MAP_ (top function). Transformation is made in three steps. At the first
step the input data are transformed to the internal form - a map (by function PRE-
PARE_MAP_). At the second step a map is subjected to Fierz transformations
(1.14) (function MK_SIMPLE_MAP_). At this step of optimization can be maid
(if switch CVITOP is on) by function MK_FIRZ_OP. In this case Fierzing starts
with linked vertices with minimal distance (number of vertices) between them. Af-
ter Fierz transformations map is further reduced by vertex simplification routine
MK_SIMPLE_VERTEX using (1.9’). Vertices reduced to primitive ones, that is to
vertices with three or less edges. This is the last (third) step in transformation from
input to internal data.
The next step is optional. If switch CVITBTR is on factorisation of bubble (func-
tion FIND_BUBBLES1) and triangle (function FIND_TRIANGLES1) submaps
is made. This factorisation is very efficient for “wheel” diagrams and unneces-
sary for “lattice” diagrams. Factorisation is made recursively by substituting com-
posed edges for bubbles and composed vertices for triangles. So check (function
SORT_ATLAS) must be done to test possibility of future marking procedure. If the
check fails then a new attempt to reorganize atlas (so we call complicated struc-
ture witch consists of MAP, COEFFicient and DENOMinator) is made. This cause
backtracking (but very seldom). Backtracking can be traced by turning on switch
CVITRACE. FIND_BUBLTR is the top function of this program’s branch.
Then atlases must be prepared (top function WORLD_FROM_ATLAS) for final
algebraic calculations. The resulted object called “world” consists of edges names
list (EDGELIST), their marking variants (VARIANTS) and WORLD1 structure.
WORLD1 structure differs from WORLD structure in one point. It contains MAP2
structure instead of MAP structure. MAP2 is very complicated structure and con-
sist of VARIANTS, marking plan and GSTRAND. (GSTRAND constructed by
PRE!-CALC!-MAP_ from INTERFIERZ module.) By marking we understand
marking of edges with numbers according to Cvitanovic - Kennedy algorithm.
The last step is performed by function CALC_WORLD. At this step algebraic
calculations are done. Two functions CALC_MAP_TAR and CALC_DENTAR
from INTERFIERZ module make algebraic expressions in the prefix form. This
expressions are further simplified by function REVAL. This is the REDUCE system
general function for algebraic expressions simplification. REVAL and SIMP!* are
the only REDUCE functions used in this module.
478 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

There are also some functions for printing several internal structures: PRINT_ATLAS,
PRINT_VERTEX, PRINT_EDGE, PRINT_COEFF, PRINT_DENOM. This func-
tions can be used for debugging.
If an error occur in module CVITMAPPING the error message “ERROR IN
MAP CREATING ROUTINES” is displayed. Error has number 55. The switch
CVITERROR allows to give full information about error: name of function where
error occurs and names and values of function’s arguments. If CVITERROR switch
is on and backtracking fails message about error in SORT_ATLAS function is
printed. The result of computation however will be correct because in this case
factorized structure is not used. This happens extremely seldom.

List of imported function

-------------------------------------------------
function from module
-------------------------------------------------
REVAL REDUCE
SIMP!* REDUCE
CALC_MAP_TAR INTERFIERZ
CALC_DENTAR INTERFIERZ
PRE!-CALC!-MAP_ INTERFIERZ
GAMMA5P RED_TO_CVIT_INTERFACE
-------------------------------------------------

List of exported function

-------------------------------------------------
function to module
-------------------------------------------------
CALC_SPUR REDUCE - CVIT interface
-------------------------------------------------

Data structure
WORLD ::= (EDGELIST,VARIANTS,WORLD1)
WORLD1 ::= (MAP2,COEFF,DENOM)
MAP2 ::= (MAPS,VARIANTS,PLAN)
MAPS ::= (EDGEPAIR . GSTRAND)
MAP1 ::= (EDGEPAIR . MAP)
MAP ::= list of VERTICES (unordered)
EDGEPAIR ::= (OLDEDGELIST . NEWEDGELIST)
COEFF ::= list of WORLDS (unordered)
ATLAS ::= (MAP,COEFF,DENOM)
GSTRAND ::= (STRAND*,MAP,TADPOLES,DELTAS)
VERTEX ::= list of EDGEs (with cyclic order)
EDGE ::= (NAME,PROPERTY,TYPE)
 479

NAME ::= ATOM

PROPERTY ::= (FIRSTPAIR . SECONDPAIR)
TYPE ::= T or NIL
------------------------------------------------
*Define in module MAP!-TO!-STRAND.

Modules INTERFIERZ, EVAL_MAPS, AND MAP-TO-STRAND.

Author: A.Taranov
Purpose: evaluate single Map

Module INTERFIERZ exports to module CVITMAPPING three functions: PRE-

CALC-MAP_, CALC-MAP_TAR, CALC-DENTAR.
Function PRE-CALC-MAP_ is used for preliminary processing of a map. It returns
a list of the form (STRAND NEWMAP TADEPOLES DELTAS) where STRAND
is strand structure described in MAP-TO-STRAND module. NEWMAP is a map
structure without “tadepoles” and “deltas”. “Tadepole” is a loop connected with
map with only one line (edge). “Delta” is a single line disconnected from a map.
TADEPOLES is a list of “tadepole” submaps. DELTAS is a list (CONS E1 E2)
where E1 and E2 are
Function CALC_MAP_TAR takes a list of the same form as returned by PRE-
CALC-MAP_, a-list, of the form (... edge . weight ... ) and returns a prefix form
of algebraic expression corresponding to the map numerator.
Function CALC-DENTAR returns a prefix form of algebraic expression corre-
sponding to the map denominator.
Module EVAL-MAP exports to module INTERFIERZ functions MK-NUMR and
STRAND-ALG-TOP.
Function MK-NUMR returns a prefix form for some combinatorial coefficient (Po-
hgammer symbol).
Function STRAND-ALG-TOP performs an actual computation of a prefix form
of algebraic expression corresponding to the map numerator. This computation is
based on a “strand” structure constructed from the “map” structure.
Module MAP-TO-STRAND exports functions MAP-TO-STRAND, INCIDENT1
to module INTERFIERZ and functions DELETEZ1, CONTRACT-STRAND,
COLOR-STRAND to module EVAL-MAPS.
Function INCIDENT1 is a selector in “strand” structure. DELETEZ1 performs
auxiliary optimization of “strand”. MAP-TO-STRAND transforms “map” to
“strand” structure. The latter is describe in program module.
480 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

CONTRACT-STRAND do strand vertex simplifications of “strand” and COLOR-

STRAND finishes strand generation.

Description of STRAND data structure.

STRAND ::=<LIST OF VERTEX>
VERTEX ::=<NAME> . (<LIST OF ROAD> <LIST OF ROAD>)
ROAD ::=<ID> . NUMBER
NAME ::=NUMBER

LIST OF MESSAGES

• CALC_SPUR: <vecdim> IS NOT EVEN SPACE-TIME DIMENSION The

dimension of space-time <vecdimis integer but not even. Only even numeric
dimensions are allowed.

• NOSPUR NOT YET IMPLEMENTED Attempt to calculate trace when

NOSPUR switch is on. This facility is not implemented now.

• G5 INVALID FOR VECDIM NEQ 4 Attempt to calculate trace with

gamma5-matrix for space-time dimension not equal to 4.

• CALC_SPUR: <expr> HAS NON-UNIT DENOMINATOR The <expr>

has non-unit denominator.

• THREE INDICES HAVE NAME <name> There are three indices with
equal names in evaluated expression.

List of switches
------------------------------------------------------------
switch default comment
------------------------------------------------------------
CVIT ON If it is on then use Kennedy-
Cvitanovic algorithm else use
standard facilities.
CVITOP OFF Fierz optimization switch
CVITBTR ON Bubbles and triangles
factorisation switch
CVITRACE OFF Backtracking tracing switch
------------------------------------------------------------

Functions cross references*.

CALC_SPUR
 481

|
+-->SIMP!* (REDUCE)
|
+-->CALC_SPUR0
|
|--->TRANSFORM_MAP_
| |
| |--->MK_SIMPLE_VERTEX
| +--->MK_SIMPLE_MAP_
| |
| +--->MK_SIMPLE_MAP_1
| |
| +--->MK_FIERS_OP
|
|--->WORLD_FROM_ATLAS
| |
| +--->CONSTR_WORLDS
| |
| +---->MK_WORLD1
| |
| +--->MAP_2_FROM_MAP_1
| |
| |--->MARK_EDGES
| +--->MAP_1_TO_STRAND
| |
| +-->PRE!-CALC!-MAP_
| (INTERFIRZ)
|
|--->CALC_WORLD
| |
| |--->CALC!-MAP_TAR (INTERFIRZ)
| |--->CALC!-DENTAR (INTERFIRZ)
| +--->REVAL (REDUCE)
|
+--->FIND_BUBLTR
|
+--->FIND_BUBLTR0
|
|--->SORT_ATLAS
+--->FIND_BUBLTR1
|
|--->FIND_BUBLES1
+--->FIND_TRIANGLES1
*Unmarked functions are from CVITMPPING module.
482 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

References

• 1. Ilyin V.A., Kryukov A.P., Rodionov A.Ya., Taranov A.Yu. Fast algorithm
for calculation of Diracs gamma-matrices traces. SIGSAM Bull., 1989, v.23,
no.4, pp.15-24.

• 2. Kennedy A.D. Phys.Rev., 1982, D26, p.1936.

Keywords

REDUCE, GAMMA-MATRIX, TRACE, SPACE-TIME DIMENSION, HIGH

ENERGY PHYSICS.
 483

16.18 DEFINT: A definite integration interface

This package finds the definite integral of an expression in a stated interval. It

uses several techniques, including an innovative approach based on the Meijer G-
function, and contour integration.
Authors: Kerry Gaskell, Stanley M. Kameny, Winfried Neun.

16.18.1 Introduction

This documentation describes part of REDUCE’s definite integration package that

is able to calculate the definite integrals of many functions, including several spe-
cial functions. There are other parts of this package, such as Stan Kameny’s code
for contour integration, that are not included here. The integration process de-
scribed here is not the more normal approach of initially calculating the indefinite
integral, but is instead the rather unusual idea of representing each function as a
Meijer G-function (a formal definition of the Meijer G-function can be found in
[1]), and then calculating the integral by using the following Meijer G integration
formula.

 !  !  !
Z ∞  (c )  (a )  (g )
 u  p  k
x α−1
Gst
uv σx  Gmn
pq ωx l/k
dx = kGij
kl ξ
 (dv )  (bq )  (hl )

0
(16.72)
The resulting Meijer G-function is then retransformed, either directly or via a
hypergeometric function simplification, to give the answer. A more detailed ac-
count of this theory can be found in [2].

16.18.2 Integration between zero and infinity

As an example, if one wishes to calculate the following integral

Z ∞
x−1 e−x sin(x) dx
0

then initially the correct Meijer G-functions are found, via a pattern matching pro-
cess, and are substituted into eq. 16.72 to give
 !  !
∞
√ x2
Z  .  ..
π x−1 G10 x G10 dx
 
01 02  1
0 0 4  20
484 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The cases for validity of the integral are then checked. If these are found to be
satisfactory then the formula is calculated and we obtain the following Meijer G-
function
 !
1
 1
G12 1 2

22 1
 2 0

This is reduced to the following hypergeometric function

1 3
2 F1 ( 2 , 1; 2 ; −1)

which is then calculated to give the correct answer of

π
4
The above formula (1) is also true for the integration of a single Meijer G-function
by replacing the second Meijer G-function with a trivial Meijer G-function.
A list of numerous particular Meijer G-functions is available in [1].

16.18.3 Integration over other ranges

Although the description so far has been limited to the computation of definite inte-
grals between 0 and infinity, it can also be extended to calculate integrals between
0 and some specific upper bound, and by further extension, integrals between any
two bounds. One approach is to use the Heaviside function, i.e.

Z ∞ Z 1
2 −x
x e H(1 − x) dx = x2 e−x dx
0 0

Another approach, again not involving the normal indefinite integration process,
again uses Meijer G-functions, this time by means of the following formula

 !  !
Z y  (a )  (a ..a , 1 − α, a
 u  1 n n+1 ..ap )
xα−1 Gmn
pq σx  dx = y α Gm n+1
p+1 q+1 σy 
0  (bv )  (b1 ..bm , −α, bm+1 ..bq )
(16.73)
For a more detailed look at the theory behind this see [2].
For example, if one wishes to calculate the following integral
Z y √
sin(2 x) dx
0
 485

then initially the correct Meijer G-function is found, by a pattern matching process,
and is substituted into eq. 16.73 to give
 !
Z y  ..
G10 x 1 dx

02
0  20

which then in turn gives

 !
 0
y G11 y dx

13 1
 2 −1 0

and returns the result

√ √
π J3/2 (2 y) y
y 1/4

16.18.4 Using the definite integration package

To use this package, you must first load it by the command

load_package defint;

Definite integration is then possible using the int command with the syntax:

INT(EXPRN:algebraic,VAR:kernel,LOW:algebraic,UP:algebraic)
:algebraic.

where LOW and UP are the lower and upper bounds respectively for the definite
integration of EXPRN with respect to VAR.

Examples
Z ∞
e−x dx
0

int(e^(-x),x,0,infinity);

Z ∞
xsin(1/x) dx
0
486 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

int(x*sin(1/x),x,0,infinity);

1
INT(X*SIN(---),X,0,INFINITY)
X

Z ∞
x2 cos(x) e−2x dx
0

int(x^2*cos(x)*e^(-2*x),x,0,infinity);

4
-----
125

Z ∞ Z 1
−1/2x
xe H(1 − x) dx = xe−1/2x dx
0 0

int(x*e^(-1/2x)*Heaviside(1-x),x,0,infinity);

2*(2*SQRT(E) - 3)
-------------------
SQRT(E)

Z 1
x log(1 + x) dx
0

int(x*log(1+x),x,0,1);

1
---
4

Z y
cos(2x) dx
0

int(cos(2x),x,y,2y);

SIN(4*Y) - SIN(2*Y)
---------------------
2
 487

16.18.5 Integral Transforms

A useful application of the definite integration package is in the calculation of

various integral transforms. The transforms available are as follows:

• Laplace transform

• Hankel transform

• Y-transform

• K-transform

• StruveH transform

• Fourier sine transform

• Fourier cosine transform

Laplace transform

The Laplace transform

R∞
f (s) = L {F(t)} = 0 e−st F (t) dt
can be calculated by using the laplace_transform command.
This requires as parameters

• the function to be integrated

• the integration variable.

For example
L {e−at }
is entered as

laplace_transform(e^(-a*x),x);

and returns the result

1
s+a
488 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Hankel transform

The Hankel transform

Z ∞ √
f (ω) = F (t) Jν (2 ωt) dt
0

can be calculated by using the hankel_transform command e.g.

hankel_transform(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

Y-transform

The Y-transform
Z ∞ √
f (ω) = F (t) Yν (2 ωt) dt
0

can be calculated by using the Y_transform command e.g.

Y_transform(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

K-transform

The K-transform
Z ∞ √
f (ω) = F (t) Kν (2 ωt) dt
0

can be calculated by using the K_transform command e.g.

K_transform(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

StruveH transform

The StruveH transform

 489

Z ∞ √
f (ω) = F (t) StruveH(ν, 2 ωt) dt
0

can be calculated by using the struveh_transform command e.g.

struveh_transform(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

Fourier sine transform

The Fourier sine transform

Z ∞
f (s) = F (t) sin(st) dt
0

can be calculated by using the fourier_sin command e.g.

fourier_sin(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

Fourier cosine transform

The Fourier cosine transform

Z ∞
f (s) = F (t) cos(st) dt
0

can be calculated by using the fourier_cos command e.g.

fourier_cos(f(x),x);

This is used in the same way as the laplace_transform command.

16.18.6 Additional Meijer G-function Definitions

The relevant Meijer G representation for any function is found by a pattern-

matching process which is carried out on a list of Meijer G-function definitions.
This list, although extensive, can never hope to be complete and therefore the user
may wish to add more definitions. Definitions can be added by adding the follow-
ing lines:
490 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

defint_choose(f(~x),~var => f1(n,x);

symbolic putv(mellin!-transforms!*,n,’
(() (m n p q) (ai) (bj) (C) (var)));

where f(x) is the new function, i = 1..p, j=1..q, C = a constant, var = variable, n =
an indexing number.
For example when considering cos(x) we have
Meijer G representation -
 !
√ x2  ..
π G10  1 dx

02
4 02

Internal definite integration package representation -

defint_choose(cos(~x),~var) => f1(3,x);

where 3 is the indexing number corresponding to the 3 in the following formula

symbolic putv(mellin!-transforms!*,3,’
(() (1 0 0 2) () (nil (quotient 1 2))
(sqrt pi) (quotient (expt x 2) 4)));

or the more interesting example of Jn (x):

Meijer G representation -
 !
x2  ..
G10 dx

02 n −n
4

2 2


Internal definite integration package representation -

defint_choose(besselj(~n,~x),~var) => f1(50,x,n);

symbolic putv(mellin!-transforms!*,50,’
((n) (1 0 0 2) () ((quotient n 2)
(minus quotient n 2)) 1
(quotient (expt x 2) 4)));

16.18.7 The print_conditions function

The required conditions for the validity of the transform integrals can be viewed
using the following command:
 491

print_conditions().

For example after calculating the following laplace transform

laplace_transform(x^k,x);

using the print_conditions command would produce

repart(sum(ai) - sum(bj)) + 1/2 (q + 1 - p)>(q - p) repart(s)

and ( - min(repart(bj))<repart(s))<1 - max(repart(ai))

or mod(arg(eta))=pi*delta

or ( - min(repart(bj))<repart(s))<1 - max(repart(ai))

or mod(arg(eta))<pi*delta

where
delta = s + t − u−v 2
eta = 1 − α(v − u) − µ − ρ
µ = qj=1 bj − pi=1 ai + p−q
P P
Pv Pu 2 +1
ρ = j=1 dj − i=1 ci + u−v 2 +1
s, t, u, v, p, q, α as in (1)

16.18.8 Tracing

A new switch TRDEFINT can be set to ON to print information about intermediate

steps of the calculation.

16.18.9 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Victor Adamchik whose implementation of the definite inte-
gration package for REDUCE is vital to this interface.

Bibliography

[1] A.P. Prudnikov, Yu.A. Brychkov and O.I. Marichev, Integrals and Series, Vol-
ume 3: More Special Functions Gordon and Breach Science Publishers (1990)
492 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[2] V.S. Adamchik and O.I. Marichev, The Algorithm for Calculating Integrals
of Hypergeometric Type Functions and its Realization in Reduce System from
ISSAC 90:Symbolic and Algebraic Computation Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company (1990)

[3] Yudell L. Luke, The Special Functions and their Approximations, Volume 1
Academic Press (1969).
 493

16.19 DESIR: Differential linear homogeneous equation

solutions in the neighborhood of irregular and reg-
ular singular points

This package enables the basis of formal solutions to be computed for an ordinary
homogeneous differential equation with polynomial coefficients over Q of any or-
der, in the neighborhood of zero (regular or irregular singular point, or ordinary
point).
Authors: C. Dicrescenzo, F. Richard-Jung, E. Tournier.

Differential linear homogenous Equation Solutions in the

neighbourhood of Irregular and Regular singular points

Version 3.1 - Septembre 89

Groupe de Calcul Formel de Grenoble

laboratoire TIM3

(C. Dicrescenzo, F. Richard-Jung, E. Tournier)

E-mail: [email protected]

16.19.1 INTRODUCTION

This software enables the basis of formal solutions to be computed for an ordinary
homogeneous differential equation with polynomial coefficients over Q of any or-
der, in the neighbourhood of zero ( regular or irregular singular point, or ordinary
point ).
Tools have been added to deal with equations with a polynomial right-hand side,
parameters and a singular point not to be found at zero.
This software can be used in two ways :

• direct ( DELIRE procedure )

• interactive ( DESIR procedure)

The basic procedure is the DELIRE procedure which enables the solutions of a
494 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

linear homogeneous differential equation to be computed in the neigh- bourhood

of zero.
The DESIR procedure is a procedure without argument whereby DELIRE can be
called without preliminary treatment to the data, that is to say, in an interactive au-
tonomous way. This procedure also proposes some transfor- mations on the initial
equation. This allows one to start comfortably with an equation which has a non
zero singular point, a polynomial right-hand side and parameters.
This document is a succint user manual. For more details on the underlying math-
ematics and the algorithms used, the reader can refer to :

E. Tournier : Solutions formelles d’equations differentielles - Le logiciel de cal-

cul formel DESIR.
These d’Etat de l’Universite Joseph Fourier (Grenoble - avril 87).

He will find more precision on use of parameters in :

F. Richard-Jung : Representation graphique de solutions d’equations differen-

tielles dans le champ complexe.
These de l’Universite Louis Pasteur (Strasbourg - septembre 88).

16.19.2 FORMS OF SOLUTIONS

We have tried to represent solutions in the simplest form possible. For that, we
have had to choose different forms according to the complexity of the equation
(parameters) and the later use we shall have of these solutions.
"general solution" = {......, { split_sol , cond },....}

cond = list of conditions or empty list (if there is no condition)

that parameters have to verify such that split_sol is in the
basis of solutions. In fact, if there are parameters, basis of
solutions can have different expressions according to the
values of parameters. ( Note : if cond={}, the list "general
solution" has one element only.)
split_sol = { q, ram, polysol, r }
( " split solution " enables precise information on the solu-
tion to be obtained immediately )

The variable in the differential operator being x, solutions are expressed in respect
to a new variable xt, which is a fractional power of x, in the following way :
 495

q : polynomial in 1/xt with complex coefficients

ram : xt = xram (1/ram is an integer)
polysol : polynomial in log(xt) with formal series in xt coefficients
r : root of a complex coefficient polynomial ("indicial equation").

"standard solution" = eqx xr∗ram polysolx

qx and polysolx are q and polysol expressions in which xt has been replaced by
xram
N.B. : the form of these solutions is simplified according to the nature of the point
zero.

- if 0 is a regular singular point : the series appearing in polysol are conver-

gent, ram = 1 and q = 0.

- if 0 is a regular point, we also have : polysol is constant in log(xt) (no

logarithmic terms).

16.19.3 INTERACTIVE USE

To call the procedure : desir();

solution:=desir();
The DESIR procedure computes formal solutions of a linear homogeneous differ-
ential equation in an interactive way.
In this equation the variable must be x.
The procedure requires the order and the coefficients of the equation, the names of
parameters if there are any, then if the user wants to transform this equation and
how ( for example to bring back a singular point to zero see procedures changehom,
changevar, changefonc - ).
This procedure DISPLAYS the solutions and RETURNS a list of general term {
lcoeff, {....,{ general_solution },....}}. The number of elements in this list is linked
to the number of transformations requested :
* lcoeff : list of coefficients of the differential equation
* general_solution : solution written in the general form

16.19.4 DIRECT USE

procedure delire(x, k, grille, lcoef f, param);

This procedure computes formal solutions of a linear homogeneous differential
equation with polynomial coefficients over Q and of any order, in the neighbor-
hood of zero, regular or irregular singular point. In fact it initializes the call of
496 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

the NEWTON procedure that is a recursive procedure (algorithm of NEWTON-

RAMIS-MALGRANGE)

x : variable
k : "number of desired terms".
For each formal series in xt appearing in polysol,
a0 + a1 xt + a2 xt2 + ... + an xtn + . . ., we compute the k + 1 first
coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , ak .
grille : the coefficients of the differential operator are polynomial in xgrille (in
general grille = 1)
lcoef f : list of coefficients of the differential operator (in increasing order of
differentiation)
param : list of parameters

This procedure RETURNS the list of general solutions.

16.19.5 USEFUL FUNCTIONS

Reading of equation coefficients

procedure lectabcoef( );
This procedure is called by DESIR to read the coefficients of an equation, in in-
creasing order of differentiation, but can be used independently.
reading of n : order of the equation.
reading of parameters (only if a variable other than x appears in the coefficients)
this procedure returns the list { lcoef f, param } made up of the list of coefficients
and the list of parameters (which can be empty).

Verification of results

procedure solvalide(solutions, solk, k);

This procedure enables the validity of the solution number solk in the list "solu-
tions" to be verified.
solutions = {lcoef f ,{....,{general_solution},....}} is any element of the list re-
turned by DESIR or is {lcoef f, sol} where sol is the list returned by DELIRE.
If we carry over the solution eqx xr∗ram polysolx in the equation, the result has the
form eqx xr∗ram reste, where reste is a polynomial in log(xt), with polynomial
coefficients in xt. This procedure computes the minimal valuation V of reste as
polynomial in xt, using k "number of desired terms" asked for at the call of DESIR
or DELIRE, and DISPLAYS the "theoretical" size order of the regular part of the
result : xram∗(r+v) .
 497

On the other hand, this procedure carries over the solution in the equation and
DISPLAYS the significative term of the result. This is of the form :

eqx xa polynomial(log(xt)), with a >= ram ∗ (r + v).

Finally this procedure RETURNS the complete result of the carry over of the solu-
tion in the equation.
This procedure cannot be used if the solution number solk is linked to a condition.

Writing of different forms of results

procedure standsol(solutions);
This procedure enables the simplified form of each solution to be obtained from
the list "solutions", {lcoef f ,{...,{general_solution},....}} which is one of the el-
ements of the list returned by DESIR, or {lcoef f, sol} where sol is the list returned
by DELIRE.
This procedure RETURNS a list of 3 elements : { lcoef f, solstand, solcond }
lcoef = list of differential equation coefficients
solstand = list of solutions written in standard form
solcond = list of conditional solutions that have not been written in
standard form. This solutions remain in general form.
This procedure has no meaning for "conditional" solutions. In case, a value has
to be given to the parameters, that can be done either by calling the procedure
SORPARAM that displays and returns these solutions in the standard form, either
by calling the procedure SOLPARAM which returns these solutions in general
form.
procedure sorsol(sol);
This procedure is called by DESIR to write the solution sol, given in general form,
in standard form with enumeration of different conditions (if there are any).
It can be used independently.

Writing of solutions after the choice of parameters

procedure sorparam(solutions, param);

This is an interactive procedure which displays the solutions evaluated : the value
of parameters is requested.
solutions : {lcoef f ,{....,{general_solution},....}}
param : list of parameters.
It returns the list formed of 2 elements :
498 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• list of evaluated coefficients of the equation

• list of standard solutions evaluated for the value of parameters.

procedure solparam(solutions, param, valparam);

This procedure evaluates the general solutions for the value of parameters given by
valparam and returns these solutions in general form.
solutions : {lcoef f ,{....,{general_solution},....}}
param : list of parameters
valparam : list of parameters values
It returns the list formed of 2 elements :

• list of evaluated coefficients of the equation

• list of solutions in general form, evaluated for the value of parameters.

Transformations

procedure changehom(lcoef f, x, secmember, id);

Differentiation of an equation with right-hand side.
lcoef f : list of coefficients of the equation
x : variable
secmember : right-hand side
id : order of the differentiation.
It returns the list of coefficients of the differentiated equation. It enables an equat-
ion with polynomial right-hand side to be transformed into a homogeneous equat-
ion by differentiating id times, id = degre(secmember) + 1.
procedure changevar(lcoef f, x, v, f ct);
Changing of variable in the homogeneous equation defined by the list,lcoeff of its
coefficients : the old variable x and the new variable v are linked by the relation
x = f ct(v).
It returns the list of coefficients in respect to the variable v of the new equation.
examples of use :

- translation enabling a rational singularity to be brought back to zero.

- x = 1/v brings the infinity to 0.

procedure changefonc(lcoef f, x, q, f ct);

Changing of unknown function in the homogeneous equation defined by the list
lcoeff of its coefficients :
 499

lcoef f : list of coefficients of the initial equation

x : variable
q : new unknown function
f ct : y being the unknown function y = f ct(q)
It returns the list of coefficients of the new equation.
Example of use :
this procedure enables the computation,in the neighbourhood of an irregular sin-
gularity, of the "reduced" equation associated to one of the slopes (the Newton
polygon having a null slope of no null length). This equation gives much informa-
tions on the associated divergent series.

Optional writing of intermediary results

switch trdesir : when it is ON, at each step of the Newton algorithm, a description
of the Newton polygon is displayed (it is possible to follow the break of slopes), and
at each call of the FROBENIUS procedure ( case of a null slope ) the corresponding
indicial equation is displayed.
By default, this switch is OFF.

16.19.6 LIMITATIONS

1. This DESIR version is limited to differential equations leading to indicial

equations of degree <= 3. To pass beyond this limit, a further version writ-
ten in the D5 environment of the computation with algebraic numbers has to
be used.

2. The computation of a basis of solutions for an equation depending on pa-

rameters is assured only when the indicial equations are of degree <= 2.
500 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.20 DFPART: Derivatives of generic functions

This package supports computations with total and partial derivatives of formal
function objects. Such computations can be useful in the context of differential
equations or power series expansions.
Author: Herbert Melenk.
The package DFPART supports computations with total and partial derivatives of
formal function objects. Such computations can be useful in the context of differ-
ential equations or power series expansions.

16.20.1 Generic Functions

A generic function is a symbol which represents a mathematical function. The

minimal information about a generic function function is the number of its argu-
ments. In order to facilitate the programming and for a better readable output this
package assumes that the arguments of a generic function have default names such
as f (x, y),q(rho, phi). A generic function is declared by prototype form in a state-
ment

GENERIC_FUNCTION hfnamei(harg1 i, harg2 i · · · hargn i);

where f name is the (new) name of a function and argi are symbols for its for-
mal arguments. In the following f name is referred to as “generic function",
arg1 , arg2 · · · argn as “generic arguments" and f name(arg1 , arg2 · · · argn ) as
“generic form". Examples:

generic_function f(x,y);
generic_function g(z);

After this declaration REDUCE knows that

• there are formal partial derivatives ∂f ∂f ∂g

∂x , ∂y ∂z and higher ones, while partial
derivatives of f and g with respect to other variables are assumed as zero,

• expressions of the type f (), g() are abbreviations for f (x, y), g(z),

• expressions of the type f (u, v) are abbreviations for

sub(x = u, y = v, f (x, y))
df (u,v) ∂f du ∂f dv
• a total derivative dw has to be computed as ∂x dw + ∂y dw
 501

16.20.2 Partial Derivatives

The operator DFP represents a partial derivative:

DFP(hexpri, hdfarg1 i, hdfarg2 i · · · hdfargn i);

where expr is a function expression and df argi are the differentiation variables.
Examples:

dfp(f(),{x,y});

∂2f
means ∂x∂y and

dfp(f(u,v),{x,y});
∂ f2
stands for ∂x∂y (u, v). For compatibility with the DF operator the differentiation
variables need not be entered in list form; instead the syntax of DF can be used,
where the function expression is followed by the differentiation variables, eventu-
ally with repetition numbers. Such forms are interenally converted to the above
form with a list as second parameter.
The expression expr can be a generic function with or without arguments, or an
arithmetic expression built from generic functions and other algebraic parts. In the
second case the standard differentiation rules are applied in order to reduce each
derivative expressions to a minimal form.
When the switch NAT is on partial derivatives of generic functions are printed in
∂2f ∂2f
standard index notation, that is fxy for ∂x∂y and fxy (u, v) for ∂x∂y (u, v). There-
fore single characters should be used for the arguments whenever possible. Exam-
ples:

generic_function f(x,y);
generic_function g(y);
dfp(f(),x,2);

F
XX

dfp(f()*g(),x,2);

F *G()
XX

dfp(f()*g(),x,y);
502 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

F *G() + F *G
XY X Y

The difference between partial and total derivatives is illustrated by the following
example:

generic_function h(x);
dfp(f(x,h(x))*g(h(x)),x);

F (X,H(X))*G(H(X))
X

df(f(x,h(x))*g(h(x)),x);

F (X,H(X))*G(H(X)) + F (X,H(X))*H (X)*G(H(X))

X Y X

+ G (H(X))*H (X)*F(X,H(X))
Y X

Cooperation of partial derivatives and Taylor series under a differential side relation
dq
dx = f (x, q):

load_package taylor;
operator q;
let df(q(~x),x) => f(x,q(x));
taylor(q(x0+h),h,0,3);

F (X0,Q(X0)) + F (X0,Q(X0))*F(X0,Q(X0))
X Y 2
Q(X0) + F(X0,Q(X0))*H + -----------------------------------------*H
2

+ (F (X0,Q(X0)) + F (X0,Q(X0))*F(X0,Q(X0))
XX XY

+ F (X0,Q(X0))*F (X0,Q(X0)) + F (X0,Q(X0))*F(X0,Q(X0))

X Y YX

2 2 3
+ F (X0,Q(X0))*F(X0,Q(X0)) + F (X0,Q(X0)) *F(X0,Q(X0)))/6*H
 503

YY Y

4
+ O(H )

Normally partial differentials are assumed as non-commutative

dfp(f(),x,y)-dfp(f(),y,x);

F - F
XY YX

However, a generic function can be declared to have globally interchangeable par-

tial derivatives using the declaration DFP_COMMUTE which takes the name of a
generic function or a generic function form as argument. For such a function dif-
ferentiation variables are rearranged corresponding to the sequence of the generic
variables.

generic_function q(x,y);
dfp_commute q(x,y);
dfp(q(),{x,y,y}) + dfp(q(),{y,x,y}) + dfp(q(),{y,y,x});

3*Q
XYY

If only a part of the derivatives commute, this has to be declared using the standard
REDUCE rule mechanism. Please note that then the derivative variables must be
written as list.

16.20.3 Substitutions

When a generic form or a DFP expression takes part in a substitution the following
steps are performed:

1. The substitutions are performed for the arguments. If the argument list is
empty the substitution is applied to the generic arguments of the function; if
these change, the resulting forms are used as new actual arguments. If the
generic function itself is not affected by the substitution, the process stops
here.

2. If the function name or the generic function form occurs as a left hand side
in the substitution list, it is replaced by the corresponding right hand side.
504 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

3. The new form is partially differentiated according to the list of partial deriva-
tive variables.

4. The (eventually modified) actual parameters are substituted into the form for
their corresponding generic variables. This substitution is done by name.

Examples:

generic_function f(x,y);
sub(y=10,f());

F(X,10)

sub(y=10,dfp(f(),x,2));

F (X,10)
XX

sub(y=10,dfp(f(y,y),x,2));

F (10,10)
XX

sub(f=x**3*y**3,dfp(f(),x,2));

3
6*X*Y

generic_function ff(y,z);
sub(f=ff,f(a,b));

FF(B,Z)

The dataset dfpart.tst contains more examples, including a complete applica-

tion for computing the coefficient equations for Runge-Kutta ODE solvers.
 505

16.21 DUMMY: Canonical form of expressions with dummy

variables

This package allows a user to find the canonical form of expressions involving
dummy variables. In that way, the simplification of polynomial expressions can be
fully done. The indeterminates are general operator objects endowed with as few
properties as possible. In that way the package may be used in a large spectrum of
applications.
Author: Alain Dresse.

16.21.1 Introduction

The possibility to handle dummy variables and to manipulate dummy summations

are important features in many applications. In particular, in theoretical physics,
the possibility to represent complicated expressions concisely and to realize sim-
plifications efficiently depend on both capabilities. However, when dummy vari-
ables are used, there are many more ways to express a given mathematical objects
since the names of dummy variables may be chosen almost arbitrarily. Therefore,
from the point of view of computer algebra the simplification problem is much
more difficult. Given a definite ordering, one is, at least, to find a representation
which is independent of the names chosen for the dummy variables otherwise,
simplifications are impossible. The package does handle any number of dummy
variables and summations present in expressions which are arbitrary multivariate
polynomials and which have operator objects eventually dependent on one (or sev-
eral) dummy variable(s) as some of their indeterminates. These operators have the
same generality as the one existing in REDUCE. They can be noncommutative,
anticommutative or commutative. They can have any kind of symmetry property.
Such polynomials will be called in the following dummy polynomials. Any mono-
mial of this kind will be called dummy monomial. For any such object, the package
allows to find a well defined normal form in one-to-one correspondance with it.
In section 2, the convention for writing dummy summations is explained and the
available declarations to introduce or suppress dummy variables are given.
In section 3, the commands allowing to give various algebraic properties to the
operators are described.
In section 4, the use of the function CANONICAL is explained and illustrated.
In section 5, a fairly complete set of references is given.
The use of DUMMY requires that the package ASSIST version 2.2 be available.
This is the case when REDUCE 3.6 is used. When loaded, ASSIST is automati-
cally loaded.
506 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.21.2 Dummy variables and dummy summations

A dummy variable (let us name it dv) is an identifier which runs from the integer
i1 to another integer i2 . To the extent that no definite space is defined, i1 and i2 are
assumed to be some integers which are the same for all dummy variables.
If f is any REDUCE operator, then the simplest dummy summation associated to
dv is the sum
Xi2
f (dv)
dv=i1

and is simply written as

f (dv).
No other rules govern the implicit summations. dv can appear as many times we
want since the operator f may depend on an arbitrary number of variables. So, the
package is potentially applicable to many contexts. For instance, it is possible to
add rules of the kind one encounters in tensor calculus.
Obviously, there are as many ways we want to express the same quantity. If the
name of another dummy variable is dum then the previous expression is written as
i2
X
f (dum)
dum=i1

and the computer algebra system should be able to find that the expression

f (dv) − f (dum);

is equal to 0. A very special case which is allowed is when f is the identity operator.
So, a generic dummy polynomial will be a sum of dummy monomials of the kind
Y
ci ∗ fi (dv1 , . . . , dvki , f r1 , . . . , f rli )
i

where dv1 , . . . , are dummy variables while f r1 , . . . , are ordinary or free variables.
To declare dummy variables, two commands are available:

• i.

dummy_base <idp>;

where idp is the name of any unassigned identifier.

• ii.

dummy_names <d>,<dp>,<dpp> ....;

 507

The first one declares idp1 , . . . , idpn as dummy variables i.e. all variables of
the form idpxxx where xxx is a number will be dummy variables, such as
idp1 , idp2 , . . . , idp23 . The second one gives special names for dummy variables.
All other identifiers which may appear are assumed to be free. However, there is a
restriction: named and base dummy variables cannot be declared simultaneously.
The above declarations are mutually exclusive. Here is an example showing that:

dummy_base dv; ==> dv

% dummy indices are dv1, dv2, dv3, ...

dummy_names i,j,k; ==>

***** The created dummy base dv must be cleared

When this is done, an expression like

op(dv1)*sin(dv2)*abs(i)*op(dv2)$

means a sum over dv1 , dv2 . To clear the dummy base, and to create the dummy
names i, j, k one is to do

clear_dummy_base; ==> t

dummy_names i,j,k; ==> t

% dummy indices are i,j,k.

When this is done, an expression like

op(dv1)*sin(dv2)*abs(x)*op(i)^3*op(dv2)$

means a sum over i. One should keep in mind that every application of the above
commands erases the previous ones. It is also possible to display the declared
dummy names using SHOW_DUMMY_NAMES:

show_dummy_names(); ==> {i,j,k}

To suppress all dummy variables one can enter

clear_dummy_names; clear_dummy_base;
508 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.21.3 The Operators and their Properties

All dummy variables should appear at first level as arguments of operators. For
instance, if i and j are dummy variables, the expression

rr:= op(i,j)-op(j,j)

is allowed but the expression

op(i,op(j)) - op(j,op(j))

is not allowed. This is because dummy variables are not detected if they appear
at a level larger than 1. Apart from that there is no restrictions. Operators may
be commutative, noncommutative or even anticommutative. Therefore they may
be elements of an algebra, they may be tensors, spinors, grassman variables, etc.
. . . By default they are assumed to be commutative and without symmetry proper-
ties. The REDUCE command NONCOM is taken into account and, in addition, the
command

anticom at1, at2;

makes the operators at1 and at2 anticommutative.

One can also give symmetry properties to them. The usual declarations SYMMETRIC
and ANTISYMMETRIC are taken into account. Moreover and most important
they can be endowed with a partial symmetry through the command SYMTREE.
Here are three illustrative examples for the r operator:

symtree (r,{!+, 1, 2, 3, 4});

symtree (r,{!*, 1, {!-, 2, 3, 4}});
symtree (r, {!+, {!-, 1, 2}, {!-, 3, 4}});

The first one makes the operator (fully) symmetric. The second one declares it
antisymmetric with respect to the three last indices. The symbols !*, !+ and !- at
the beginning of each list mean that the operator has no symmetry, is symmetric or
is antisymmetric with respect to the indices inside the list. Notice that the indices
are not denoted by their names but merely by their natural order of appearance. 1
means the first written argument of r, 2 its second argument etc. The first command
is equivalent to the declaration symmetric except that the number of indices of
r is restricted to 4 i.e. to the number declared in SYMTREE. In the second example
r is stated to have no symmetry with respect to the first index and is declared to
be antisymmetric with respect to the three last indices. In the third example, r is
made symmetric with respect to the interchange of the pairs of indices 1,2 and 3,4
respectively and is made antisymmetric separately within the pairs (1, 2) and (3, 4).
It is the symmetry of the Riemann tensor. The anticommutation property and the
 509

various symmetry properties may be suppressed by the commands REMANTICOM

and REMSYM. To eliminate partial symmetry properties one can also use SYMTREE
itself. For example, assuming that r has the Riemann symmetry, to eliminate it do

symtree (r,{!*, 1, 2, 3, 4});

However, notice that the number of indices remains fixed and equal to 4 while with
REMSYM it becomes again arbitrary.

16.21.4 The Function CANONICAL

CANONICAL is the most important functionality of the package. It can be applied

on any polynomial whether it is a dummy polynommial or not. It returns a normal
form uniquely determined from the current ordering of the system. If the poly-
nomial does not contain any dummy index, it is rewriten taking into account the
various operator properties or symmetries described above. For instance,

symtree (r, {!+, {!-, 1, 2}, {!-, 3, 4}});

aa:=r(x3,x4,x2,x1)$

canonical aa; ==> - r(x1,x2,x3,x4).

If it contains dummy indices, CANONICAL takes also into account the various
dummy summations, makes the relevant simplifications, eventually rename the
dummy indices and returns the resulting normal form. Here is a simple example:

operator at1,at2;
anticom at1,at2;

dummy_names i,j,k; ==> t

show_dummy_names(); ==> {i,j,k}

rr:=at1(i)*at2(k) -at2(k)*at1(i)$

canonical rr; => 2*at1(i)*at2(j)

It is important to notice, in the above example, that in addition to the summa-

tions over indices i and k, and of the anticommutativity property of the operators,
canonical has replaced the index k by the index j. This substitution is essen-
tial to get full simplification. Several other examples are given in the test file and,
510 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

there, the output of CANONICAL is explained.

As stated in the previous section, the dependence of operators on dummy indices
is limited to first level. An erroneous result will be generated if it is not the case as
the subsequent example illustrates:

operator op;

dummy_names i,j;

rr:=op(i,op(j))-op(j,op(j))$

canonical rr; ==> 0

Zero is obtained because, in the second term, CANONICAL has replaced j by i

but has left op(j) unchanged because it does not see the index j which is inside.
This fact has also the consequence that it is unable to simplify correctly (or at
all) expressions which contain some derivatives. For instance (i and j are dummy
indices):

aa:=df(op(x,i),x) -df(op(x,j),x)$

canonical aa; ==> df(op(x,i),x) - df(op(x,j),x)

instead of zero. A second limitation is that CANONICAL does not add anything
to the problem of simplifications when side relations (like Bianchi identities) are
present.

16.21.5 Bibliography
- Butler, G. and Lam, C. W. H., “A general backtrack algorithm for the
isomorphism problem of combinatorial objects", J. Symb. Comput. vol.1,
(1985) p.363-381.
- Butler, G. and Cannon, J. J., “Computing in Permutation and Matrix
Groups I: Normal Closure, Commutator Subgroups, Series", Math. Comp.
vol.39, number 60, (1982), p. 663-670.
- Butler, G., “Computing in Permutation and Matrix Groups II: Backtrack
Algorithm", Math. Comp. vol.39, number 160, (1982), p.671-680.
- Leon, J.S., “On an Algorithm for Finding a Base and a Strong Generating
Setfor a Group Given by Generating Permutations”, Math. Comp. vol.35,
(1980), p941-974.
- Leon, J. S., “Computing Automorphism Groups of Combinatorial Objects”,
Proc. LMS Symp. on Computational Group Theory, Durham, England,
editor: Atkinson, M. D., Academic Press, London, (1984).
 511

- Leon, J. S., “Permutation Group Algorithms Based on Partitions, I: Theory

and Algorithms”, J.Symb. Comput.vol.12, (1991) p. 533-583.
- Linton, Stephen Q., “Double Coset Enumeration”, J. Symb. Comput.,
vol.12, (1991) p. 415-426.
- McKay, B. D., “Computing Automorphism Groups and Canonical La-
bellings of Graphs”, Proc. Internat. Conf. on Combinatorial Theory, Lecture
Notes in Mathematics“ vol. 686, (1977), p.223-232, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
- Rodionov, A. Ya. and Taranov, A. Yu., “Combinatorial Aspects of Simpli-
fication of Algebraic Expression”, Proceedings of Eurocal 87, Lecture Notes
in Comp. Sci., vol. 378, (1989), p. 192.
- Sims, C. C., “Determining the Conjugacy Classes of a Permutation Group”,
Computers in Algebra and Number Theory, SIAM-AMS Proceedings, vol.
4, (1971), p. 191-195, editor G. Birckhoff and M. Hall Jr., Amer. Math.
Soc..
- Sims, C. C., “Computation with Permutation Groups”, Proc. of the Second
Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation, (1971), p. 23-28,
editor S. R. Petrick, Assoc. Comput. Mach., New York.
- Burnel A., Caprasse H., Dresse A., “ Computing the BRST operator used
in Quantization of Gauge Theories” IJMPC vol. 3, (1993) p.321-35.
- Caprasse H., “BRST charge and Poisson Algebras”, Discrete Mathematics
and Theoretical Computer Science, Special Issue: Lie Computations papers,
http://dmtcs.thomsonscience.com, (1997).
512 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.22 EXCALC: A differential geometry package

EXCALC is designed for easy use by all who are familiar with the calculus of Mod-
ern Differential Geometry. The program is currently able to handle scalar-valued
exterior forms, vectors and operations between them, as well as non-scalar valued
forms (indexed forms). It is thus an ideal tool for studying differential equations,
doing calculations in general relativity and field theories, or doing simple things
such as calculating the Laplacian of a tensor field for an arbitrary given frame.
Author: Eberhard Schrüfer.

Acknowledgments

This program was developed over several years. I would like to express my deep
gratitude to Dr. Anthony Hearn for his continuous interest in this work, and es-
pecially for his hospitality and support during a visit in 1984/85 at the RAND
Corporation, where substantial progress on this package could be achieved. The
Heinrich Hertz-Stiftung supported this visit. Many thanks are also due to Drs.
F.W. Hehl, University of Cologne, and J.D. McCrea, University College Dublin,
for their suggestions and work on testing this program.

16.22.1 Introduction

EXCALC is designed for easy use by all who are familiar with the calculus of
Modern Differential Geometry. Its syntax is kept as close as possible to standard
textbook notations. Therefore, no great experience in writing computer algebra
programs is required. It is almost possible to input to the computer the same as what
would have been written down for a hand-calculation. For example, the statement

f*x^y + u _| (y^z^x)

would be recognized by the program as a formula involving exterior products and

an inner product. The program is currently able to handle scalar-valued exterior
forms, vectors and operations between them, as well as non-scalar valued forms
(indexed forms). With this, it should be an ideal tool for studying differential
equations, doing calculations in general relativity and field theories, or doing such
simple things as calculating the Laplacian of a tensor field for an arbitrary given
frame. With the increasing popularity of this calculus, this program should have an
application in almost any field of physics and mathematics.
Since the program is completely embedded in REDUCE, all features and facilities
of REDUCE are available in a calculation. Even for those who are not quite com-
fortable in this calculus, there is a good chance of learning it by just playing with
 513

the program.
This is the last release of version 2. A much extended differential geometry pack-
age (which includes complete symbolic index simplification, tensors, mappings,
bundles and others) is under development.
Complaints and comments are appreciated and should be send to the author. If the
use of this program leads to a publication, this document should be cited, and a
copy of the article to the above address would be welcome.

16.22.2 Declarations

Geometrical objects like exterior forms or vectors are introduced to the system by
declaration commands. The declarations can appear anywhere in a program, but
must, of course, be made prior to the use of the object. Everything that has no
declaration is treated as a constant; therefore zero-forms must also be declared.
An exterior form is introduced by
PFORM < declaration1 >, < declaration2 >, . . . ;
where

< declaration > ::= < name > | < list of names >=< number > | < identifier > |
< expression >
< name > ::= < identifier > | < identifier >(< arguments >)

For example

pform u=k,v=4,f=0,w=dim-1;

declares U to be an exterior form of degree K, V to be a form of degree 4, F to be a

form of degree 0 (a function), and W to be a form of degree DIM-1.
If the exterior form should have indices, the declaration would be

pform curv(a,b)=2,chris(a,b)=1;

The names of the indices are arbitrary.

Exterior forms of the same degree can be grouped into lists to save typing.

pform {x,y,z}=0,{rho(k,l),u,v(k)}=1;

The declaration of vectors is similar. The command TVECTOR takes a list of

names.
TVECTOR < name1 >, < name2 >, . . . ;
514 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

For example, to declare X as a vector and COMM as a vector with two indices, one
would say

tvector x,comm(a,b);

If a declaration of an already existing name is made, the old declaration is removed,

and the new one is taken.
The exterior degree of a symbol or a general expression can be obtained with the
function
EXDEGREE < expression >;
Example:

exdegree(u + 3*chris(k,-k));

16.22.3 Exterior Multiplication

Exterior multiplication between exterior forms is carried out with the nary infix op-
erator ˆ (wedge). Factors are ordered according to the usual ordering in REDUCE
using the commutation rule for exterior products.
Example 10

pform u=1,v=1,w=k;

u^v;

U^V

v^u;

- U^V

u^u;

w^u^v;

K
( - 1) *U^V^W
 515

(3*u-a*w)^(w+5*v)^u;

A*(5*U^V^W - U^W^W)

It is possible to declare the dimension of the underlying space by

SPACEDIM < number > | < identifier >;
If an exterior product has a degree higher than the dimension of the space, it is
replaced by 0:

spacedim 4;

pform u=2,v=3;

u^v;

16.22.4 Partial Differentiation

Partial differentiation is denoted by the operator @. Its capability is the same as the
REDUCE DF operator.
Example 11

@(sin x,x);

COS(X)

@(f,x);

An identifier can be declared to be a function of certain variables. This is done

with the command FDOMAIN. The following would tell the partial differentiation
operator that F is a function of the variables X and Y and that H is a function of X.

fdomain f=f(x,y),h=h(x);

Applying @ to F and H would result in

@(x*f,x);
516 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

F + X*@ F
X

@(h,y);

The partial derivative symbol can also be an operator with a single argument. It
then represents a natural base element of a tangent vector.
Example 12

a*@ x + b*@ y;

A*@ + B*@
X Y

16.22.5 Exterior Differentiation

Exterior differentiation of exterior forms is carried out by the operator d. Products

are normally differentiated out, i.e.

pform x=0,y=k,z=m;

d(x * y);

X*d Y + d X^Y

d(r*y);

R*d Y

d(x*y^z);

K
( - 1) *X*Y^d Z + X*d Y^Z + d X^Y^Z

This expansion can be suppressed by the command NOXPND D.

noxpnd d;

d(y^z);
 517

d(Y^Z)

To obtain a canonical form for an exterior product when the expansion is switched
off, the operator D is shifted to the right if it appears in the leftmost place.

d y ^ z;

K
- ( - 1) *Y^d Z + d(Y^Z)

Expansion is performed again when the command XPND D is executed.

Functions which are implicitly defined by the FDOMAIN command are expanded
into partial derivatives:

pform x=0,y=0,z=0,f=0;

fdomain f=f(x,y);

d f;

@ F*d X + @ F*d Y
X Y

If an argument of an implicitly defined function has further dependencies the chain

rule will be applied e.g.

fdomain y=y(z);

d f;

@ F*d X + @ F*@ Y*d Z

X Y Z

Expansion into partial derivatives can be inhibited by NOXPND @ and enabled

again by XPND @.
The operator is of course aware of the rules that a repeated application always leads
to zero and that there is no exterior form of higher degree than the dimension of
the space.

d d x;
518 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

pform u=k;
spacedim k;

d u;

16.22.6 Inner Product

The inner product between a vector and an exterior form is represented by the
diphthong _| (underscore or-bar), which is the notation of many textbooks. If the
exterior form is an exterior product, the inner product is carried through any factor.

Example 13

pform x=0,y=k,z=m;

tvector u,v;

u _| (x*y^z);

K
X*(( - 1) *Y^U _| Z + U _| Y^Z)

In repeated applications of the inner product to the same exterior form the vector
arguments are ordered e.g.

(u+x*v) _| (u _| (3*z));

- 3*U _| V _| Z

The duality of natural base elements is also known by the system, i.e.

pform {x,y}=0;

(a*@ x+b*@(y)) _| (3*d x-d y);

3*A - B
 519

16.22.7 Lie Derivative

The Lie derivative can be taken between a vector and an exterior form or between
two vectors. It is represented by the infix operator |_ . In the case of Lie differen-
tiating, an exterior form by a vector, the Lie derivative is expressed through inner
products and exterior differentiations, i.e.

pform z=k;

tvector u;

u |_ z;

U _| d Z + d(U _| Z)

If the arguments of the Lie derivative are vectors, the vectors are ordered using the
anticommutivity property, and functions (zero forms) are differentiated out.
Example 14

tvector u,v;

v |_ u;

- U |_ V

pform x=0,y=0;

(x*u) |_ (y*v);

- U*Y*V _| d X + V*X*U _| d Y + X*Y*U |_ V

16.22.8 Hodge-* Duality Operator

The Hodge-* duality operator maps an exterior form of degree K to an exterior form
of degree N-K, where N is the dimension of the space. The double application
of the operator must lead back to the original exterior form up to a factor. The
following example shows how the factor is chosen here

spacedim n;
pform x=k;

# # x;
520 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2
(K + K*N)
( - 1) *X*SGN

The indeterminate SGN in the above example denotes the sign of the determinant
of the metric. It can be assigned a value or will be automatically set if more of
the metric structure is specified (via COFRAME), i.e. it is then set to g/|g|, where
g is the determinant of the metric. If the Hodge-* operator appears in an exterior
product of maximal degree as the leftmost factor, the Hodge-* is shifted to the right
according to

pform {x,y}=k;

# x ^ y;

2
(K + K*N)
( - 1) *X^# Y

More simplifications are performed if a coframe is defined.

16.22.9 Variational Derivative

The function VARDF returns as its value the variation of a given Lagrangian n-form
with respect to a specified exterior form (a field of the Lagrangian). In the shared
variable BNDEQ!*, the expression is stored that has to yield zero if integrated over
the boundary.
Syntax:
VARDF(< Lagrangian n-form >,< exterior form >)
Example 15

spacedim 4;

pform l=4,a=1,j=3;

l:=-1/2*d a ^ # d a - a^# j$ %Lagrangian of the e.m. field

vardf(l,a);

- (# J + d # d A) %Maxwell’s equations
 521

bndeq!*;

- ’A^# d A %Equation at the boundary

Restrictions:
In the current implementation, the Lagrangian must be built up by the fields and
the operations d, #, and @. Variation with respect to indexed quantities is currently
not allowed.
For the calculation of the conserved currents induced by symmetry operators (vec-
tor fields), the function NOETHER is provided. It has the syntax:
NOETHER(< Lagrangian n-form >,< field >,< symmetry generator >)
Example 16

pform l=4,a=1,f=2;

spacedim 4;

l := -1/2*d a^#d a; %Free Maxwell field;

tvector x; %An unspecified generator;

noether(l,a,x);

- 2*d(x _| a)^# d a + d a^x _| # d a - x _| d a^# d a

--------------------------------------------------------
2

The above expression would be the canonical energy momentum 3-forms of the
Maxwell field, if X is interpreted as a translation;

16.22.10 Handling of Indices

Exterior forms and vectors may have indices. On input, the indices are given as
arguments of the object. A positive argument denotes a superscript and a negative
argument a subscript. On output, the indexed quantity is displayed two dimension-
ally if NAT is on. Indices may be identifiers or numbers.
Example 17
522 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

pform om(k,l)=m,e(k)=1;

e(k)^e(-l);

K
E ^E
L

om(4,-2);

4
OM
2

In the current release, full simplification is performed only if an index range is

specified. It is hoped that this restriction can be removed soon. If the index range
(the values that the indices can obtain) is specified, the given expression is evalu-
ated for all possible index values, and the summation convention is understood.
Example 18

indexrange t,r,ph,z;

pform e(k)=1,s(k,l)=2;

w := e(k)*e(-k);

T R PH Z
W := E *E + E *E + E *E + E *E
T R PH Z

s(k,l):=e(k)^e(l);

T T
S := 0

R T T R
S := - E ^E

PH T T PH
S := - E ^E

.
 523

.
.

If the expression to be evaluated is not an assignment, the values of the expression

are displayed as an assignment to an indexed variable with name NS. This is done
only on output, i.e. no actual binding to the variable NS occurs.

e(k)^e(l);

T T
NS := 0

R T T R
NS := - E ^E
.
.
.

It should be noted, however, that the index positions on the variable NS can some-
times not be uniquely determined by the system (because of possible reorderings in
the expression). Generally it is advisable to use assignments to display complicated
expressions.
A range can also be assigned to individual index-names. For example, the declara-
tion

indexrange {k,l}={x,y,z},{u,v,w}={1,2};

would assign to the index identifiers k,l the range values x,y,z and to the index
identifiers u,v,w the range values 1,2. The use of an index identifier not listed in
previous indexrange statements has the range of the union of all given index ranges.
With the above example of an indexrange statement, the following index evalua-
tions would take place

pform w n=0;

w(k)*w(-k);

X Y Z
W *W + W *W + W *W
X Y Z
524 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

w(u)*w(-u);

1 2
W *W + W *W
1 2

w(r)*w(-r);

1 2 X Y Z
W *W + W *W + W *W + W *W + W *W
1 2 X Y Z

In certain cases, one would like to inhibit the summation over specified index
names, or at all. For this the command
NOSUM < indexname1 >, . . . ;
and the switch NOSUM are available. The command NOSUM has the effect that
summation is not performed over those indices which had been listed. The com-
mand RENOSUM enables summation again. The switch NOSUM, if on, inhibits any
summation.
It is possible to declare symmetry properties for an indexed quantity by the com-
mand INDEX_SYMMETRIES. A prototypical example is as follows

index_symmetries u(k,l,m,n): symmetric in {k,l},{m,n}

antisymmetric in {{k,l},{m,n}},
g(k,l),h(k,l): symmetric;

It declares the object u symmetric in the first two and last two indices and anti-
symmetric with respect to commutation of the given index pairs. If an object is
completely symmetric or antisymmetric, the indices need not to be given after the
corresponding keyword as shown above for g and h.
If applicable, this command should be issued, since great savings in memory and
execution time result. Only strict components are printed.
The commands symmetric and antisymmetric of earlier releases have no effect.

16.22.11 Metric Structures

A metric structure is defined in EXCALC by specifying a set of basis one-forms

(the coframe) together with the metric.
 525

Syntax:

COFRAME < identifier >< (index1 ) >=< expression1 >,

< identifier >< (index2 ) >=< expression2 >,
.
.
.
< identifier >< (indexn ) >=< expressionn >
WITH METRIC < name >=< expression >;

This statement automatically sets the dimension of the space and the index range.
The clause WITH METRIC can be omitted if the metric is Euclidean and the short-
hand WITH SIGNATURE < diagonal elements > can be used in the case
of a pseudo-Euclidean metric. The splitting of a metric structure in its metric ten-
sor coefficients and basis one-forms is completely arbitrary including the extremes
of an orthonormal frame and a coordinate frame.
Example 19

coframe e r=d r, e(ph)=r*d ph

with metric g=e(r)*e(r)+e(ph)*e(ph); %Polar coframe

coframe e(r)=d r,e(ph)=r*d(ph); %Same as before

coframe o(t)=d t, o x=d x

with signature -1,1; %A Lorentz coframe

coframe b(xi)=d xi, b(eta)=d eta %A lightcone coframe

with metric w=-1/2*(b(xi)*b(eta)+b(eta)*b(xi));

coframe e r=d r, e ph=d ph %Polar coordinate

with metric g=e r*e r+r**2*e ph*e ph; %basis

Individual elements of the metric can be accessed just by calling them with the
desired indices. The value of the determinant of the covariant metric is stored in
the variable DETM!*. The metric is not needed for lowering or raising of indices
as the system performs this automatically, i.e. no matter in what index position
values were assigned to an indexed quantity, the values can be retrieved for any
index position just by writing the indexed quantity with the desired indices.
Example 20
526 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

coframe e t=d t,e x=d x,e y=d y

with signature -1,1,1;

pform f(k,l)=0;

index_symmetries f(k,l): antisymmetric;

f(k,l) := 0$
f(-t,-x):=ex$ f(-x,-y):=b$
on nero;

f(k,-l);

X
NS := - EX
T

T
NS := - EX
X

Y
NS := - B
X

X
NS := B
Y

Any expression containing differentials of the coordinate functions will be trans-

formed into an expression of the basis one-forms.The system also knows how to
take the exterior derivative of the basis one-forms.
Example 21(Spherical coordinates)

coframe e(r)=d(r), e(th)=r*d(th), e(ph)=r*sin(th)*d(ph);

d r^d th;

R TH
(E ^E )/R

d(e(th));
 527

R TH
(E ^E )/R

pform f=0;

fdomain f=f(r,th,ph);

factor e;

on rat;

d f; %The "gradient" of F in spherical coordinates;

R TH PH
E *@ F + (E *@ F)/R + (E *@ F)/(R*SIN(TH))
R TH PH

The frame dual to the frame defined by the COFRAME command can be introduced
by FRAME command.
FRAME < identifier >;
This command causes the dual property to be recognized, and the tangent vectors
of the coordinate functions are replaced by the frame basis vectors.
Example 22

coframe b r=d r,b ph=r*d ph,e z=d z; %Cylindrical coframe;

frame x;

on nero;

x(-k) _| b(l);

R
NS := 1
R

PH
NS := 1
PH

Z
528 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

NS := 1
Z

x(-k) |_ x(-l); %The commutator of the dual frame;

NS := X /R
PH R PH

NS := ( - X )/R %i.e. it is not a coordinate base;

R PH PH

As a convenience, the frames can be displayed at any point in a program by the

command DISPLAYFRAME;.
The Hodge-* duality operator returns the explicitly constructed dual element if
applied to coframe base elements. The metric is properly taken into account.
The total antisymmetric Levi-Cevita tensor EPS is also available. The value of
EPS with an even permutation of the indices in a covariant position is taken to be
+1.

16.22.12 Riemannian Connections

The command RIEMANNCONX is provided for calculating the connection 1 forms.

The values are stored on the name given to RIEMANNCONX. This command is far
more efficient than calculating the connection from the differential of the basis
one-forms and using inner products.
Example 23(Calculate the connection 1-form and curvature 2-form on S(2))

coframe e th=r*d th,e ph=r*sin(th)*d ph;

riemannconx om;

om(k,-l); %Display the connection forms;

TH
NS := 0
TH

PH PH
 529

NS := (E *COS(TH))/(SIN(TH)*R)
TH

TH PH
NS := ( - E *COS(TH))/(SIN(TH)*R)
PH

PH
NS := 0
PH

pform curv(k,l)=2;

curv(k,-l):=d om(k,-l) + om(k,-m)^om(m-l);

%The curvature forms

TH
CURV := 0
TH

PH TH PH 2
CURV := ( - E ^E )/R
TH %Of course it was a sphere with
%radius R.

TH TH PH 2
CURV := (E ^E )/R
PH

PH
CURV := 0
PH

16.22.13 Killing Vectors

The command KILLING_VECTOR is provided for calculating the determining

system of partial differential equations of Killing vectors for a given metric struc-
ture provided by the coframe statement. The result is a list where the first entry is
a vector constructed from the identifier given to the command and the second entry
consists of a list of partial differential equations for the coefficients of this vector.
Example 24(Calculate the determining pde’s for a Killing vector of S(2))
530 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

coframe e th = d th,e ph = sin th*d ph;

killing_vector u;

ph th
{@ * u + @ *u ,
ph th

th
{@ (u ),
th

ph 2 th
@ (u )*sin(th) + @ (u ),
th ph

th ph
cos(th)*u + @ (u )*sin(th)}}
ph

16.22.14 Ordering and Structuring

The ordering of an exterior form or vector can be changed by the command

FORDER. In an expression, the first identifier or kernel in the arguments of
FORDER is ordered ahead of the second, and so on, and ordered ahead of all not
appearing as arguments. This ordering is done on the internal level and not only on
output. The execution of this statement can therefore have tremendous effects on
computation time and memory requirements. REMFORDER brings back standard
ordering for those elements that are listed as arguments.
An expression can be put in a more structured form by renaming a subexpression.
This is done with the command KEEP which has the syntax
KEEP < name1 >=< expression1 >,< name2 >=< expression2 >, . . .
The effect is that rules are set up for simplifying < name > without introducing its
definition in an expression. In an expression the system also tries by reordering to
generate as many instances of < name > as possible.
Example 25

pform x=0,y=0,z=0,f=0,j=3;
 531

keep j=d x^d y^d z;

j;

d j;

j^d x;

fdomain f=f(x);

d f^d y^d z;

@ F*J
X

The capabilities of KEEP are currently very limited. Only exterior products should
occur as righthand sides in KEEP.
532 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.22.15 Summary of Operators and Commands

Table 16.1 summarizes EXCALC commands and the page number they are defined
on.

ˆ Exterior Multiplication 514

@ Partial Differentiation 515
@ Tangent Vector 516
# Hodge-* Operator 519
_| Inner Product 518
|_ Lie Derivative 519
COFRAME Declaration of a coframe 525
d Exterior differentiation 516
DISPLAYFRAME Displays the frame 528
EPS Levi-Civita tensor 528
EXDEGREE Calculates the exterior degree of an expression 514
FDOMAIN Declaration of implicit dependencies 515
FORDER Ordering command 530
FRAME Declares the frame dual to the coframe 527
INDEXRANGE Declaration of indices 522
INDEX_SYMMETRIES Declares arbitrary index symmetry properties 524
KEEP Structuring command 530
KILLING_VECTOR Structuring command 529
METRIC Clause of COFRAME to specify a metric 525
NOETHER Calculates the Noether current 521
NOSUM Inhibits summation convention 524
NOXPND d Inhibits the use of product rule for d 516
NOXPND @ Inhibits expansion into partial derivatives 517
PFORM Declaration of exterior forms 513
REMFORDER Clears ordering 530
RENOSUM Enables summation convention 524
RIEMANNCONX Calculation of a Riemannian Connection 528
SIGNATURE Clause of COFRAME to specify a pseudo- 525
Euclidean metric
SPACEDIM Command to set the dimension of a space 515
TVECTOR Declaration of vectors 513
VARDF Variational derivative 520
XPND d Enables the use of product rule for d 517
(default)
XPND @ Enables expansion into partial derivatives 517
(default)

Table 16.1: EXCALC Command Summary

 533

16.22.16 Examples

The following examples should illustrate the use of EXCALC. It is not intended
to show the most efficient or most elegant way of stating the problems; rather the
variety of syntactic constructs are exemplified. The examples are on a test file
distributed with EXCALC.

% Problem: Calculate the PDE’s for the isovector of the heat equation.
% --------
% (c.f. B.K. Harrison, f.B. Estabrook, "Geometric Approach...",
% J. Math. Phys. 12, 653, 1971)

% The heat equation @ psi = @ psi is equivalent to the set of exterior

% xx t

% equations (with u=@ psi, y=@ psi):

% T x

pform {psi,u,x,y,t}=0,a=1,{da,b}=2;

a := d psi - u*d t - y*d x;

da := - d u^d t - d y^d x;

b := u*d x^d t - d y^d t;

% Now calculate the PDE’s for the isovector.

tvector v;

pform {vpsi,vt,vu,vx,vy}=0;
fdomain vpsi=vpsi(psi,t,u,x,y),vt=vt(psi,t,u,x,y),vu=vu(psi,t,u,x,y),
vx=vx(psi,t,u,x,y),vy=vy(psi,t,u,x,y);

v := vpsi*@ psi + vt*@ t + vu*@ u + vx*@ x + vy*@ y;

factor d;
on rat;

i1 := v |_ a - l*a;

pform o=1;

o := ot*d t + ox*d x + ou*d u + oy*d y;

534 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

fdomain f=f(psi,t,u,x,y);

i11 := v _| d a - l*a + d f;

let vx=-@(f,y),vt=-@(f,u),vu=@(f,t)+u*@(f,psi),vy=@(f,x)+y*@(f,psi),
vpsi=f-u*@(f,u)-y*@(f,y);

factor ^;

i2 := v |_ b - xi*b - o^a + zeta*da;

let ou=0,oy=@(f,u,psi),ox=-u*@(f,u,psi),
ot=@(f,x,psi)+u*@(f,y,psi)+y*@(f,psi,psi);

i2;

let zeta=-@(f,u,x)-@(f,u,y)*u-@(f,u,psi)*y;

i2;

let xi=-@(f,t,u)-u*@(f,u,psi)+@(f,x,y)+u*@(f,y,y)+y*@(f,y,psi)+@(f,psi);

i2;

let @(f,u,u)=0;

i2; % These PDE’s have to be solved.

clear a,da,b,v,i1,i11,o,i2,xi,t;
remfdomain f,vpsi,vt,vu,vx,vy;
clear @(f,u,u);

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate the integrability conditions for the system of PDE’s:
% (c.f. B.F. Schutz, "Geometrical Methods of Mathematical Physics"
% Cambridge University Press, 1984, p. 156)

% @ z /@ x + a1*z + b1*z = c1
% 1 1 2

% @ z /@ y + a2*z + b2*z = c2
% 1 1 2

% @ z /@ x + f1*z + g1*z = h1
% 2 1 2
 535

% @ z /@ y + f2*z + g2*z = h2
% 2 1 2 ;

pform w(k)=1,integ(k)=4,{z(k),x,y}=0,{a,b,c,f,g,h}=1,
{a1,a2,b1,b2,c1,c2,f1,f2,g1,g2,h1,h2}=0;

fdomain a1=a1(x,y),a2=a2(x,y),b1=b1(x,y),b2=b2(x,y),
c1=c1(x,y),c2=c2(x,y),f1=f1(x,y),f2=f2(x,y),
g1=g1(x,y),g2=g2(x,y),h1=h1(x,y),h2=h2(x,y);

a:=a1*d x+a2*d y$
b:=b1*d x+b2*d y$
c:=c1*d x+c2*d y$
f:=f1*d x+f2*d y$
g:=g1*d x+g2*d y$
h:=h1*d x+h2*d y$

% The equivalent exterior system:

factor d;
w(1) := d z(-1) + z(-1)*a + z(-2)*b - c;
w(2) := d z(-2) + z(-1)*f + z(-2)*g - h;
indexrange 1,2;
factor z;
% The integrability conditions:

integ(k) := d w(k) ^ w(1) ^ w(2);

clear a,b,c,f,g,h,x,y,w(k),integ(k),z(k);
remfdomain a1,a2,b1,c1,c2,f1,f2,g1,g2,h1,h2;

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate the PDE’s for the generators of the d-theta symmetries of
% the Lagrangian system of the planar Kepler problem.
% c.f. W.Sarlet, F.Cantrijn, Siam Review 23, 467, 1981
% Verify that time translation is a d-theta symmetry and calculate the
% corresponding integral.

pform {t,q(k),v(k),lam(k),tau,xi(k),eta(k)}=0,theta=1,f=0,
{l,glq(k),glv(k),glt}=0;

tvector gam,y;

indexrange 1,2;

fdomain tau=tau(t,q(k),v(k)),xi=xi(t,q(k),v(k)),f=f(t,q(k),v(k));
536 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

l := 1/2*(v(1)**2 + v(2)**2) + m/r$ % The Lagrangian.

pform r=0;
fdomain r=r(q(k));
let @(r,q 1)=q(1)/r,@(r,q 2)=q(2)/r,q(1)**2+q(2)**2=r**2;

lam(k) := -m*q(k)/r; % The force.

gam := @ t + v(k)*@(q(k)) + lam(k)*@(v(k))$

eta(k) := gam _| d xi(k) - v(k)*gam _| d tau$

y := tau*@ t + xi(k)*@(q(k)) + eta(k)*@(v(k))$ % Symmetry generator.

theta := l*d t + @(l,v(k))*(d q(k) - v(k)*d t)$

factor @;

s := y |_ theta - d f$

glq(k) := @(q k) _| s;
glv(k) := @(v k) _| s;
glt := @(t) _| s;

% Translation in time must generate a symmetry.

xi(k) := 0;
tau := 1;

glq k := glq k;
glv k := glv k;
glt;

% The corresponding integral is of course the energy.

integ := - y _| theta;

clear l,lam k,gam,eta k,y,theta,s,glq k,glv k,glt,t,q k,v k,tau,xi k;

remfdomain r,f,tau,xi;

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate the "gradient" and "Laplacian" of a function and the "curl"
% and "divergence" of a one-form in elliptic coordinates.

coframe e u = sqrt(cosh(v)**2 - sin(u)**2)*d u,

e v = sqrt(cosh(v)**2 - sin(u)**2)*d v,
e phi = cos u*sinh v*d phi;
 537

pform f=0;

fdomain f=f(u,v,phi);

factor e,^;
on rat,gcd;
order cosh v, sin u;
% The gradient:
d f;

factor @;
% The Laplacian:
# d # d f;

% Another way of calculating the Laplacian:

-#vardf(1/2*d f^#d f,f);

remfac @;

% Now calculate the "curl" and the "divergence" of a one-form.

pform w=1,a(k)=0;

fdomain a=a(u,v,phi);

w := a(-k)*e k;
% The curl:
x := # d w;

factor @;
% The divergence:
y := # d # w;

remfac @;
clear x,y,w,u,v,phi,e k,a k;
remfdomain a,f;

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate in a spherical coordinate system the Navier Stokes equations.

coframe e r=d r, e theta =r*d theta, e phi = r*sin theta *d phi;

frame x;

fdomain v=v(t,r,theta,phi),p=p(r,theta,phi);
538 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

pform v(k)=0,p=0,w=1;

% We first calculate the convective derivative.

w := v(-k)*e(k)$

factor e; on rat;

cdv := @(w,t) + (v(k)*x(-k)) |_ w - 1/2*d(v(k)*v(-k));

%next we calculate the viscous terms;

visc := nu*(d#d# w - #d#d w) + mu*d#d# w;

% Finally we add the pressure term and print the components of the
% whole equation.

pform nasteq=1,nast(k)=0;

nasteq := cdv - visc + 1/rho*d p$

factor @;

nast(-k) := x(-k) _| nasteq;

remfac @,e;

clear v k,x k,nast k,cdv,visc,p,w,nasteq,e k;

remfdomain p,v;

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate from the Lagrangian of a vibrating rod the equation of
% motion and show that the invariance under time translation leads
% to a conserved current.

pform {y,x,t,q,j}=0,lagr=2;

fdomain y=y(x,t),q=q(x),j=j(x);

factor ^;

lagr := 1/2*(rho*q*@(y,t)**2 - e*j*@(y,x,x)**2)*d x^d t;

vardf(lagr,y);

% The Lagrangian does not explicitly depend on time; therefore the

% vector field @ t generates a symmetry. The conserved current is
 539

pform c=1;
factor d;

c := noether(lagr,y,@ t);

% The exterior derivative of this must be zero or a multiple of the

% equation of motion (weak conservation law) to be a conserved current.

remfac d;

d c;

% i.e. it is a multiple of the equation of motion.

clear lagr,c,j,y,q;
remfdomain y,q,j;

% Problem:
% --------
% Show that the metric structure given by Eguchi and Hanson induces a
% self-dual curvature.
% c.f. T. Eguchi, P.B. Gilkey, A.J. Hanson, "Gravitation, Gauge Theories
% and Differential Geometry", Physics Reports 66, 213, 1980

for all x let cos(x)**2=1-sin(x)**2;

pform f=0,g=0;
fdomain f=f(r), g=g(r);

coframe o(r) = f*d r,

o(theta) = (r/2)*(sin(psi)*d theta - sin(theta)*cos(psi)*d phi),
o(phi) = (r/2)*(-cos(psi)*d theta - sin(theta)*sin(psi)*d phi),
o(psi) = (r/2)*g*(d psi + cos(theta)*d phi);

frame e;

pform gamma(a,b)=1,curv2(a,b)=2;
index_symmetries gamma(a,b),curv2(a,b): antisymmetric;

factor o;

gamma(-a,-b) := -(1/2)*( e(-a) _| (e(-c) _| (d o(-b)))

-e(-b) _| (e(-a) _| (d o(-c)))
+e(-c) _| (e(-b) _| (d o(-a))) )*o(c)$

curv2(-a,b) := d gamma(-a,b) + gamma(-c,b)^gamma(-a,c)$

540 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

let f=1/g,g=sqrt(1-(a/r)**4);

pform chck(k,l)=2;
index_symmetries chck(k,l): antisymmetric;

% The following has to be zero for a self-dual curvature.

chck(k,l) := 1/2*eps(k,l,m,n)*curv2(-m,-n) + curv2(k,l);

clear gamma(a,b),curv2(a,b),f,g,chck(a,b),o(k),e(k),r,phi,psi;
remfdomain f,g;

% Example: 6-dimensional FRW model with quadratic curvature terms in

% -------
% the Lagrangian (Lanczos and Gauss-Bonnet terms).
% cf. Henriques, Nuclear Physics, B277, 621 (1986)

for all x let cos(x)**2+sin(x)**2=1;

pform {r,s}=0;
fdomain r=r(t),s=s(t);

coframe o(t) = d t,
o(1) = r*d u/(1 + k*(u**2)/4),
o(2) = r*u*d theta/(1 + k*(u**2)/4),
o(3) = r*u*sin(theta)*d phi/(1 + k*(u**2)/4),
o(4) = s*d v1,
o(5) = s*sin(v1)*d v2
with metric g =-o(t)*o(t)+o(1)*o(1)+o(2)*o(2)+o(3)*o(3)
+o(4)*o(4)+o(5)*o(5);

frame e;

on nero; factor o,^;

riemannconx om;

pform curv(k,l)=2,{riemann(a,b,c,d),ricci(a,b),riccisc}=0;

index_symmetries curv(k,l): antisymmetric,

riemann(k,l,m,n): antisymmetric in {k,l},{m,n}
symmetric in {{k,l},{m,n}},
ricci(k,l): symmetric;

curv(k,l) := d om(k,l) + om(k,-m)^om(m,l);

riemann(a,b,c,d) := e(d) _| (e (c) _| curv(a,b));

 541

% The rest is done in the Ricci calculus language,

ricci(-a,-b) := riemann(c,-a,-d,-b)*g(-c,d);

riccisc := ricci(-a,-b)*g(a,b);

pform {laglanc,inv1,inv2} = 0;

index_symmetries riemc3(k,l),riemri(k,l),
hlang(k,l),einst(k,l): symmetric;

pform {riemc3(i,j),riemri(i,j)}=0;

riemc3(-i,-j) := riemann(-i,-k,-l,-m)*riemann(-j,k,l,m)$
inv1 := riemc3(-i,-j)*g(i,j);
riemri(-i,-j) := 2*riemann(-i,-k,-j,-l)*ricci(k,l)$
inv2 := ricci(-a,-b)*ricci(a,b);
laglanc := (1/2)*(inv1 - 4*inv2 + riccisc**2);

pform {einst(a,b),hlang(a,b)}=0;

hlang(-i,-j) := 2*(riemc3(-i,-j) - riemri(-i,-j) -

2*ricci(-i,-k)*ricci(-j,K) +
riccisc*ricci(-i,-j) - (1/2)*laglanc*g(-i,-j));

% The complete Einstein tensor:

einst(-i,-j) := (ricci(-i,-j) - (1/2)*riccisc*g(-i,-j))*alp1 +

hlang(-i,-j)*alp2$

alp1 := 1$
factor alp2;

einst(-i,-j) := einst(-i,-j);

clear o(k),e(k),riemc3(i,j),riemri(i,j),curv(k,l),riemann(a,b,c,d),
ricci(a,b),riccisc,t,u,v1,v2,theta,phi,r,om(k,l),einst(a,b),
hlang(a,b);

remfdomain r,s;

% Problem:
% --------
% Calculate for a given coframe and given torsion the Riemannian part and
% the torsion induced part of the connection. Calculate the curvature.

% For a more elaborate example see E.Schruefer, F.W. Hehl, J.D. McCrea,
% "Application of the REDUCE package EXCALC to the Poincare gauge field
542 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

% theory of gravity", GRG Journal, vol. 19, (1988) 197--218

pform {ff, gg}=0;

fdomain ff=ff(r), gg=gg(r);

coframe o(4) = d u + 2*b0*cos(theta)*d phi,

o(1) = ff*(d u + 2*b0*cos(theta)*d phi) + d r,
o(2) = gg*d theta,
o(3) = gg*sin(theta)*d phi
with metric g = -o(4)*o(1)-o(4)*o(1)+o(2)*o(2)+o(3)*o(3);

frame e;

pform {tor(a),gwt(a)}=2,gamma(a,b)=1,
{u1,u3,u5}=0;

index_symmetries gamma(a,b): antisymmetric;

fdomain u1=u1(r),u3=u3(r),u5=u5(r);

tor(4) := 0$

tor(1) := -u5*o(4)^o(1) - 2*u3*o(2)^o(3)$

tor(2) := u1*o(4)^o(2) + u3*o(4)^o(3)$

tor(3) := u1*o(4)^o(3) - u3*o(4)^o(2)$

gwt(-a) := d o(-a) - tor(-a)$

% The following is the combined connection.

% The Riemannian part could have equally well been calculated by the
% RIEMANNCONX statement.

gamma(-a,-b) := (1/2)*( e(-b) _| (e(-c) _| gwt(-a))

+e(-c) _| (e(-a) _| gwt(-b))
-e(-a) _| (e(-b) _| gwt(-c)) )*o(c);

pform curv(a,b)=2;
index_symmetries curv(a,b): antisymmetric;
factor ^;

curv(-a,b) := d gamma(-a,b) + gamma(-c,b)^gamma(-a,c);

clear o(k),e(k),curv(a,b),gamma(a,b),theta,phi,x,y,z,r,s,t,u,v,p,q,c,cs;
remfdomain u1,u3,u5,ff,gg;

showtime;
 543

end;
544 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.23 FIDE: Finite difference method for partial differ-

ential equations

This package performs automation of the process of numerically solving partial

differential equations systems (PDES) by means of computer algebra. For PDES
solving, the finite difference method is applied. The computer algebra system RE-
DUCE and the numerical programming language FORTRAN are used in the pre-
sented methodology. The main aim of this methodology is to speed up the process
of preparing numerical programs for solving PDES. This process is quite often,
especially for complicated systems, a tedious and time consuming task.
Documentation for this package is in plain text.
Author: Richard Liska.

16.23.1 Abstract

The FIDE package performs automation of the process of numerical solving par-
tial differential equations systems (PDES) by means of computer algebra. For
PDES solving finite difference method is applied. The computer algebra system
REDUCE and the numerical programming language FORTRAN are used in the
presented methodology. The main aim of this methodology is to speed up the
process of preparing numerical programs for solving PDES. This process is quite
often, especially for complicated systems, a tedious and time consuming task. In
the process one can find several stages in which computer algebra can be used
for performing routine analytical calculations, namely: transforming differential
equations into different coordinate systems, discretization of differential equations,
analysis of difference schemes and generation of numerical programs. The FIDE
package consists of the following modules:

EXPRES for transforming PDES into any orthogonal coordinate system.

IIMET for discretization of PDES by integro-interpolation method.

APPROX for determining the order of approximation of difference scheme.

CHARPOL for calculation of amplification matrix and characteristic polynomial

of difference scheme, which are needed in Fourier stability analysis.

HURWP for polynomial roots locating necessary in verifying the von Neumann
stability condition.

LINBAND for generating the block of FORTRAN code, which solves a system
of linear algebraic equations with band matrix appearing quite often in dif-
ference schemes.
 545

Version 1.1 of the FIDE package is the result of porting FIDE package to RE-
DUCE 3.4. In comparison with Version 1.0 some features has been changed in the
LINBAND module (possibility to interface several numerical libraries).
References ———-
[1] R. Liska, L. Drska: FIDE: A REDUCE package for automation of FInite dif-
ference method for solving pDE. In ISSAC ’90, Proceedings of the International
Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation, Ed. S. Watanabe, M. Na-
gata. p. 169-176, ACM Press, Addison Wesley, New York 1990.

16.23.2 EXPRES

A Module for Transforming Differential Operators and Equations into an Arbitrary

Orthogonal Coordinate System
This module makes it possible to express various scalar, vector, and tensor differ-
ential equations in any orthogonal coordinate system. All transformations needed
are executed automatically according to the coordinate system given by the user.
The module was implemented according to the similar MACSYMA module from
[1].

The specification of the coordinate system

The coordinate system is specified using the following statement:

SCALEFACTORS <d>,<tr 1>,...,<tr d>,<cor 1>,...,<cor d>;

<d> ::= 2 | 3 coordinate system dimension
<tr i> ::= "algebraic expression" the expression of the i-th
Cartesian coordinate in new
coordinates
<cor i> ::= "identifier" the i-th new coordinate

All evaluated quantities are transformed into the coordinate system set by the last
SCALEFACTORS statement. By default, if this statement is not applied, the three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system is employed. During the evaluation of
SCALEFACTORS statement the metric coefficients, i.e. scale factors SF(i), of a
defined coordinate system are computed and printed. If the WRCHRI switch is
ON, then the nonzero Christoffel symbols of the coordinate system are printed too.
By default the WRCHRI switch is OFF.
546 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The declaration of tensor quantities

Tensor quantities are represented by identifiers. The VECTORS declaration de-

clares the identifiers as vectors, the DYADS declaration declares the identifiers as
dyads. i.e. two-dimensional tensors, and the TENSOR declaration declares the
identifiers as tensor variables. The declarations have the following syntax:

<declaration> <id 1>,<id 2>,...,<id n>;

<declaration> ::= VECTORS | DYADS | TENSOR
<id i> ::= "identifier"

The value of the identifier V declared as vector in the two-dimensional coordinate

system is (V(1), V(2)), where V(i) are the components of vector V. The value of
the identifier T declared as a dyad is ((T(1,1), T(1,2)), (T(2,1), T(2,2))). The value
of the tensor variable can be any tensor (see below). Tensor variables can be used
only for a single coordinate system, after the coordinate system redefining by a
new SCALEFACTORS statement, the tensor variables have to be re-defined using
the assigning statement.

New infix operators

For four different products between the tensor quantities, new infix operators have
been introduced (in the explaining examples, a two-dimensional coordinate system,
vectors U, V, and dyads T, W are considered):

. - scalar product U.V = U(1)*V(1)+U(2)*V(2)

? - vector product U?V = U(1)*V(2)-U(2)*V(1)
& - outer product U&V = ((U(1)*V(1),U(1)*V(2)),
(U(2)*V(1),U(2)*V(2)))
# - double scalar product T#W = T(1,1)*W(1,1)+T(1,2)*W(1,2)
T(2,1)*W(2,1)+T(2,2)*W(2,2)

The other usual arithmetic infix operators +, -, *, ** can be used in all situations
that have sense (e.g. vector addition, a multiplication of a tensor by a scalar, etc.).

New prefix operators

New prefix operators have been introduced to express tensor quantities in its com-
ponents and the differential operators over the tensor quantities:

VECT - the explicit expression of a vector in its components

DYAD - the explicit expression of a dyad in its components

 547

GRAD - differential operator of gradient

DIV - differential operator of divergence

LAPL - Laplace’s differential operator

CURL - differential operator of curl

DIRDF - differential operator of the derivative in direction (1st argument is the

directional vector)

The results of the differential operators are written using the DIFF operator.
DIFF(<scalar>,<cor i>) expresses the derivative of <scalar> with respect to the
coordinate <cor i>. This operator is not further simplified. If the user wants to
make it simpler as common derivatives, he performs the following declaration:

FOR ALL X,Y LET DIFF(X,Y) = DF(X,Y); .

Then, however, we must realize that if the scalars or tensor quantities do not di-
rectly explicitly depend on the coordinates, their dependencies have to be declared
using the DEPEND statements, otherwise the derivative will be evaluated to zero.
The dependence of all vector or dyadic components (as dependence of the name of
vector or dyad) has to appear before VECTORS or DYADS declarations, otherwise
after these declarations one has to declare the dependencies of all components. For
formulating the explicit derivatives of tensor expressions, the differentiation oper-
ator DF can be used (e.g. the differentiation of a vector in its components).

Tensor expressions

Tensor expressions are the input into the EXPRES module and can have a variety
of forms. The output is then the formulation of the given tensor expression in
the specified coordinate system. The most general form of a tensor expression
<tensor> is described as follows (the conditions (d=i) represent the limitation on
the dimension of the coordinate system equalling i):

<tensor> ::= <scalar> | <vector> | <dyad>

<scalar> ::= "algebraic expression, can contain <scalars>" |
"tensor variable with scalar value" |
<vector 1>.<vector 2> | <dyad 1>#<dyad 2> |
(d=2)<vector 1>?<vector 2> | DIV <vector> |
LAPL <scalar> | (d=2) ROT <vector> |
DIRDF(<vector>,<scalar>)
<vector> ::= "identifier declared by VECTORS statement" |
"tensor variable with vector value" |
VECT(<scalar 1>,...,<scalar d>) | -<vector> |
548 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

<vector 1>+<vector 2> | <vector 1>-<vector 2> |

<scalar>*<vector> | <vector>/<scalar> |
<dyad>.<vector> | <vector>.<dyad> | (d=3)
<vector 1>?<vector 2> | (d=2) <vector>?<dyad> |
(d=2) <dyad>?<vector> | GRAD <scalar> |
DIV <dyad> | LAPL <vector> | (d=3) ROT <vector> |
DIRDF(<vector 1>,<vector 2>) | DF(<vector>,"usual
further arguments")
<dyad> ::= "identifier declared by DYADS statement" |
"tensor variable with dyadic value" |
DYAD((<scalar 11>,...,<scalar 1d>),...,(<scalar d1>,
...,<scalar dd>)) | -<dyad> | <dyad 1>+<dyad 2> |
<dyad 1>-<dyad 2> | <scalar>*<dyad> | <dyad>/<scalar>
| <dyad 1>.<dyad 2> | <vector 1>&<vector 2> |
(d=3) <vector>?<dyad> | (d=3) <dyad>?<vector> |
GRAD <vector> | DF(<dyad>,"usual further arguments")

Assigning statement

The assigning statement for tensor variables has a usual syntax, namely:

<tensor variable> := <tensor>

<tensor variable> ::= "identifier declared TENSOR" .

The assigning statement assigns the tensor variable the value of the given tensor
expression, formulated in the given coordinate system. After a change of the coor-
dinate system, the tensor variables have to be redefined.
References ———-
[1] M. C. Wirth, On the Automation of Computational Physics. PhDr Thesis. Re-
port UCRL-52996, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, 1980.

16.23.3 IIMET

A Module for Discretizing the Systems of Partial Differential Equations

This program module makes it possible to discretize the specified system of par-
tial differential equations using the integro-interpolation method, minimizing the
number of the used interpolations in each independent variable. It can be used
for non-linear systems and vector or tensor variables as well. The user specifies
the way of discretizing individual terms of differential equations, controls the dis-
cretization and obtains various difference schemes according to his own wish.
 549

Specification of the coordinates and the indices corresponding to them

The independent variables of differential equations will be called coordinates. The

names of the coordinates and the indices that will correspond to the particular coor-
dinates in the difference scheme are defined using the COORDINATES statement:

COORDINATES <coordinate 1>{,<coordinate i>} [ INTO

<index 1>{,<index i>}];
<coordinate i> ::= "identifier" - the name of the coordinate
<index i> ::= "identifier" - the name of the index

This statement specifies that the <coordinate i> will correspond to the <index i>.
A new COORDINATES statement cancels the definitions given by the preceding
COORDINATES statement. If the part [ INTO ... ] is not included in the statement,
the statement assigns the coordinates the indices I, J, K, L, M, N, respectively. If
it is included, the number of coordinates and the number of indices should be the
same.

2.2 Difference grids

In the discretization, orthogonal difference grids are employed. In addition to the

basic grid, called the integer one, there is another, the half-integer grid in each co-
ordinate, whose cellular boundary points lie in the centers of the cells of the integer
grid. The designation of the cellular separating points and centers is determined by
the CENTERGRID switch: if it is ON and the index in the given coordinate is I,
the centers of the grid cells are designated by indices I, I + 1,..., and the boundary
points of the cells by indices I + 1/2,..., if, on the contrary, the switch is OFF, the
cellular centers are designated by indices I + 1/2,..., and the boundary points by
indices I, I + 1,... (see Fig. 2.1).

ON CENTERGRID
I-1/2 I I+1/2 I+1 I+3/2
---|--------|--------|--------------|--------------|----
I I+1/2 I+1 I+3/2 I+2
OFF CENTERGRID

Figure 2.1 Types of grid

In the case of ON CENTERGRID, the indices i,i+1,i-1... thus designate the centers
of the cells of the integer grid and the boundary points of the cells of the half-integer
grid, and, similarly, in the case of OFF CENTERGRID, the boundaries of the cells
of the integer grid and the central points of the half-integer grid. The meaning
of the integer and half-integer grids depends on the CENTERGRID switch in the
550 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

described way. After the package is loaded, the CENTERGRID is ON. Obviously,
this switch is significant only for non-uniform grids with a variable size of each
cell. The grids can be uniform, i.e. with a constant cell size - the step of the grid.
The following statement:

GRID UNIFORM,<coordinate>{,<coordinate>};

defines uniform grids in all coordinates occurring in it. Those coordinates that do
not occur in the GRID UNIFORM statement are supposed to have non-uniform
grids. In the outputs, the grid step is designated by the identifier that is made by
putting the character H before the name of the coordinate. For a uniform grid,
this identifier (e.g. for the coordinate X the grid step HX) has the meaning of a
step of an integer or half-integer grids that are identical. For a non-uniform grid,
this identifier is an operator and has the meaning of a step of an integer grid, i.e.
the length of a cell whose center (in the case of ON CENTERGRID) or beginning
(in the case of OFF CENTERGRID) is designated by a single argument of this
operator. For each coordinate s designated by the identifier i, this step of the integer
non-uniform grid is defined as follows:

Hs(i+j) = s(i+j+1/2) - s(i+j-1/2) at ON CENTERGRID

Hs(i+j) = s(i+j+1) - s(i+j) at OFF CENTERGRID

for all integers j (s(k) designates the value of the coordinate s in the cellular bound-
ary point subscripted with the index k). The steps of the half-integer non-uniform
grid are not applied in outputs.

Declaring the dependence of functions on coordinates

In the system of partial differential equations, two types of functions, in other

words dependent variables can occur: namely, the given functions, whose values
are known before the given system is solved, and the sought functions, whose val-
ues are not available until the system of equations is solved. The functions can be
scalar, vector, or tensor, for vector or tensor functions the EXPRES module has to
be applied at the same time. The names of the functions employed in the given
system and their dependence on the coordinates are specified using the DEPEN-
DENCE statement.

DEPENDENCE <dependence>{,<dependence>};
<dependence> ::= <function>([<order>],<coordinate>{,
<coordinate>})
<function> ::= "identifier" - the name of the function
<order> ::= 1|2 tensor order of the function (the value of
the function is 1 - vector, 2 - dyad (two-
 551

dimensional tensor))

Every <dependence> in the statement determines on which <coordinates> the

<function> depends. If the tensor <order> of the function occurs in the <de-
pendence>, the <function> is declared as a vector or a dyad. If, however, the
<function> has been declared by the VECTORS and DYADS statements of the
EXPRES module, the user need not present the tensor <order>. By default, a func-
tion without any declaration is regarded as scalar. In the discretization, all scalar
components of tensor functions are replaced by identifiers that arise by putting suc-
cessively the function name and the individual indices of the given component (e.g.
the tensor component T(1,2), written in the EXPRES module as T(1,2), is repre-
sented by the identifier T12). Before the DEPENDENCE statement is executed,
the coordinates have to be defined using the COORDINATES statement. There
may be several DEPENDENCE statements. The DEPENDENCE statement can-
cels all preceding determinations of which grids are to be used for differentiating
the function or the equation for this function. These determinations can be either
defined by the ISGRID or GRIDEQ statements, or computed in the evaluation of
the IIM statement. The GIVEN statement:

GIVEN <function>{,<function>};

declares all functions included in it as given functions whose values are known to
the user or can be computed. The CLEARGIVEN statement:

CLEARGIVEN;

cancels all preceding GIVEN declarations. If the TWOGRID switch is ON, the
given functions can be differentiated both on the integer and the half-integer grids.
If the TWOGRID switch is OFF, any given function can be differentiated only on
one grid. After the package is loaded, the TWOGRID is ON.

Functions and difference grids

Every scalar function or scalar component of a vector or a dyadic function occur-

ring in the discretized system can be discretized in any of the coordinates either
on the integer or half-integer grid. One of the tasks of the IIMET module is to
find the optimum distribution of each of these dependent variables of the system
on the integer and half-integer grids in all variables so that the number of the per-
formed interpolations in the integro-interpolation method will be minimal. Using
the statement

SAME <function>{,<function>};
552 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

all functions given in one of these declarations will be discretized on the same
grids in all coordinates. In each SAME statement, at least one of these functions
in one SAME statement must be the sought one. If the given function occurs in
the SAME statement, it will be discretized only on one grid, regardless of the state
of the TWOGRID switch. If a vector or a dyadic function occurs in the SAME
statement, what has been said above relates to all its scalar components. There
are several SAME statements that can be presented. All SAME statements can be
canceled by the following statement:

CLEARSAME;

The SAME statement can be successfully used, for example, when the given func-
tion depends on the function sought in a complicated manner that cannot be in-
cluded either in the differential equation or in the difference scheme explicitly, and
when both the functions are desired to be discretized in the same points so that
the user will not be forced to execute the interpolation during the evaluation of the
given function. In some cases, it is convenient too to specify directly which vari-
able on which grid is to be discretized, for which case the ISGRID statement is
applied:

ISGRID <s-function>{,<s-function>};
<s-function> ::= <function>([<component>,]<s-grid>{,<s-grid>})
<s-grid> ::= <coordinate> .. <grid>,
<grid> ::= ONE | HALF designation of the integer
(ONE) and half-integer (HALF)
grids
<component> ::= <i-dim> | for the vector <function>
<i-dim>,<i-dim> for the dyadic <function>
it is not presented for the
scalar <function>
<i-dim> ::= *| "natural number from 1 to the space dimension
the space dimension is specified in the EXPRES
module by the SCALEFACTORS statement, * means all
components

The statement defines that the given functions or their components will be dis-
cretized in the specified coordinates on the specified grids, so that, for example,
the statement ISGRID U (X..ONE,Y..HALF), V(1,Z..ONE), T(*,1,X..HALF); de-
fines that scalar U will be discretized on the integer grid in the coordinate X, and
on the half-integer one in the coordinate Y, the first component of vector V will
be on the integer grid in the coordinate Z, and the first column of tensor T will be
on the half-integer grid in the coordinate X. The ISGRID statement can be applied
more times. The functions used in this statement have to be declared before by the
DEPENDENCE statement.
 553

Equations and difference grids

Every equation of the system of partial differential equations is an equation for

some sought function (specified in the IIM statement). The correspondence be-
tween the sought functions and the equations is mutually unambiguous. The
GRIDEQ statement makes it possible to determine on which grid an individual
equation will be discretized in some or all coordinates

GRIDEQ <g-function>{,<g-function>};
<g-function> ::= <function>(<s-grid>{,<s-grid>})

Every equation can be discretized in any coordinate either on the integer or half-
integer grid. This statement determines the discretization of the equations given by
the functions included in it in given coordinates, on given grids. The meaning of
the fact that an equation is discretized on a certain grid is as follows: index I used
in the DIFMATCH statements (discussed in the following section), specifying the
discretization of the basic terms, will be located in the center of the cell of this
grid, and indices I+1/2, I-1/2 from the DIFMATCH statement on the boundaries
of the cell of this grid. The actual name of the index in the given coordinate is
determined using the COORDINATES statement, and its location on the grid is set
by the CENTERGRID switch.

Discretization of basic terms

The discretization of a system of partial differential equations is executed succes-

sively in individual coordinates. In the discretization of an equation in one coor-
dinate, the equation is linearized into its basic terms first that will be discretized
independently then. If D is the designation for the discretization operator in the
coordinate x, this linearization obeys the following rules:

1. D(a+b) = D(a)+D(b)
2. D(-a) = -D(a)
3. D(p.a) = p.D(a) (p does not depend on the coordinate x)
4. D(a/p) = D(a)/p

The linearization lasts as long as some of these rules can be applied. The basic
terms that must be discretized after the linearization have then the forms of the
following quantities:

1. The actual coordinate in which the discretization is performed.

2. The sought function.

3. The given function.

554 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

4. The product of the quantities 1 - 7.

5. The quotient of the quantities 1 - 7.

6. The natural power of the quantities 1 - 7.

7. The derivative of the quantities 1 - 7 with respect to the actual coordinate.

The way of discretizing these basic terms, while the functions are on integer and
half-integer grids, is determined using the DIFMATCH statement:

DIFMATCH <coordinate>,<pattern term>,{{<grid specification>,}

<number of interpolations>, <discretized term>};
<coordinate> ::= ALL | "identifier" - the coordinate name from
the COORDINATES statement
<pattern term> ::= <pattern coordinate>|
<pattern sought function>|
<pattern given function>|<pattern term> *
<pattern term>|<pattern term> / <pattern term>|
<pattern term> ** <exponent>|
DIFF(<pattern term>,<pattern coordinate>[,<order
of derivative>])|
<declared operator>(<pattern term>{,<pattern term>})
<pattern coordinate> ::= X
<pattern sought function> ::= U | V | W
<pattern given function> ::= F | G
<exponent> ::= N | "integer greater than 1"
<order of derivative> ::= "integer greater than 2"
<grid specification> ::= <pattern function>=<grid>
<pattern function> ::= <pattern sought function>|
<pattern given function>
<number of interpolations> ::= "non-negative integer"
<discretized term> ::= <pattern operator>(<index expression>)|
"natural number"|DI|DIM1|DIP1|DIM2|DIP2|
<declared term> | - <discretized term> |
<discretized term> + <discretized term> |
<discretized term> * <discretized term> |
<discretized term> / <discretized term> |
(<discretized term>) |
<discretized term> **<exponent>
<pattern operator> ::= X | U | V | W | F | G
<index expression> ::= <pattern index> |
<pattern index> + <increment> |
<pattern index> - <increment>
<pattern index> ::= I
 555

<increment> = "rational number"

DIFCONST <declared term>{,<declared term>};
<declared term> ::= "identifier" - the constant parameter of
the difference scheme.
DIFFUNC <declared operator>{,<declared operator>};
<declared operator> ::= "identifier" - prefix operator, that can
appear in discretized equations (e.g. SIN).

The first parameter of the DIFMATCH statement determines the coordinate for
which the discretization defined in it is valid. If ALL is used, the discretization
will be valid for all coordinates, and this discretization is accepted when it has
been checked whether there has been no other discretization defined for the given
coordinate and the given pattern term. Each pattern sought function, occurring in
the pattern term, must be included in the specification of the grids. The pattern
given functions from the pattern term can occur in the grid specification, but in
some cases (see below) need not. In the grid specification the maximum number
of 3 pattern functions may occur. The discretization of each pattern term has to
be specified in all combinations of the pattern functions occurring in the grid spec-
ification, on the integer and half-integer grids, that is 2**n variants for the grid
specification with n pattern functions (n=0,1,2,3). The discretized term is the dis-
cretization of the pattern term in the pattern coordinate X in the point X(I) on the
pattern grid (see Fig. 2.2), and the pattern functions occurring in the grid specifi-
cation are in the discretized term on the respective grids from this specification (to
the discretized term corresponds the grid specification preceding it).

integer grid
X(I-1) X(I) X(I+1)
| DIM1 | DIP1 |
---|------|------|-------------|-------------|-----|-----|---
| DIM2 | DI | DIP2 |
X(I-3/2) X(I-1/2) X(I+1/2) X(I+3/2)
half-integer grid

Figure 2.2 Pattern grid

The pattern grid steps defined as

DIM2 = X(I - 1/2) - X(I - 3/2)

DIM1 = X(I) - X(I - 1)
DI = X(I + 1/2) - X(I - 1/2)
DIP1 = X(I + 1) - X(I)
DIP2 = X(I + 3/2) - X(I + 1/2)

can occur in the discretized term. In the integro-interpolation method, the dis-
556 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

cretized term is specified by the integral

<discretized term>=1/(X(I+1/2)-X(I-1/2))*DINT(X(I-1/2),X(I+1/2),
<pattern term>,X),

where DINT is operator of definite integration DINT(from, to, function, variable).

The number of interpolations determines how many interpolations were needed for
calculating this integral in the given discrete form (the function on the integer or
half-integer grid). If the integro-interpolation method is not used, the more conve-
nient is the distribution of the functions on the half-integer and integer grids, the
smaller number is chosen by the user. The parameters of the difference scheme
defined by the DIFCONST statement can occur in the discretized expression too
(for example, the implicit-explicit scheme on the implicit layer multiplied by the
constant C and on the explicit one by (1-C)). As a matter of fact, all DIFMATCH
statements create a base of pattern terms with the rules of how to discretize these
terms in individual coordinates under the assumption that the functions occurring
in the pattern terms are on the grids determined in the grid specification (all combi-
nations must be included). The DIFMATCH statement does not check whether the
discretized term is actually the discretization of the pattern term or whether in the
discretized term occur the functions from the grid specification on the grids given
by this specification. An example can be the following definition of the discretiza-
tion of the first and second derivatives of the sought function in the coordinate R
on a uniform grid:

DIFMATCH R,DIFF(U,X),U=ONE,2,(U(I+1)-U(I-1))/(2*DI);
U=HALF,0,(U(I+1/2)-U(I-1/2))/DI;
DIFMATCH R,DIFF(U,X,2),U=ONE,0,(U(I+1)-2*U(I)+U(I-1))/DI**2,
U=HALF,2,(U(I+3/2)-U(I+1/2)-U(I-1/2)+U(I-3/2))/(2*DI**2);

All DIFMATCH statements can be cleared by the statement

CLEARDIFMATCH;

After this statement user has to supply its own DIFMATCH statements. But now
back to the discretizing of the basic terms obtained by the linearization of the par-
tial differential equation, as mentioned at the beginning of this section. Using the
method of pattern matching, for each basic term a term representing its pattern is
found in the base of pattern terms (specified by the DIFMATCH statements). The
pattern matching obeys the following rules:

1. The pattern for the coordinate in which the discretization is executed is the
pattern coordinate X.

2. The pattern for the sought function is some pattern sought function, and this
 557

correspondence is mutually unambiguous.

3. The pattern for the given function is some pattern given function, or, in case
the EQFU switch is ON, some pattern sought function, and, again, the cor-
respondence of the pattern with the given function is mutually unambiguous
(after loading the EQFU switch is ON).

4. The pattern for the products of quantities is the product of the patterns of
these quantities, irrespective of their sequence.

5. The pattern for the quotient of quantities is the quotient of the patterns of
these quantities.

6. The pattern for the natural power of a quantity is the same power of the
pattern of this quantity or the power of this quantity with the pattern exponent
N.

7. The pattern for the derivative of a quantity with respect to the coordinate in
which the discretization is executed is the derivative of the pattern of this
quantity with respect to the pattern coordinate X of the same order of differ-
entiation.

8. The pattern for the sum of the quantities that have the same pattern with the
identical correspondence of functions and pattern functions is this common
pattern (so that it will not be necessary to multiply the parentheses during
discretizing the products in the second and further coordinates).

When matching the pattern of one basic term, the program finds the pattern term
and the functions corresponding to the pattern functions, maybe also the exponent
corresponding to the pattern exponent N. After determining on which grids the in-
dividual functions and the individual equations will be discretized, which will be
discussed in the next section, the program finds in the pattern term base the dis-
cretized term either with pattern functions on the same grids as are the functions
from the basic term corresponding to them in case that the given equation is differ-
entiated on the integer grid, or with pattern functions on inverse grids (an inverse
integer grid is a half-integer grid, and vice versa) compared with those used for
the functions from the basic term corresponding to them in case the given equation
is differentiated on the half-integer grid (the discretized term in the DIFMATCH
statement is expressed in the point X(I), i.e. on the integer grid, and holds for the
discretizing of the equation on the integer grid; with regard to the substitutions for
the pattern index I mentioned later, it is possible to proceed in this way and not nec-
essary to define the discretization in the points X(I+1/2) too, i.e. on the half-integer
grid). The program replaces in the thus obtained discretized term:

1. The pattern coordinate X with the particular coordinate s in which the dis-
cretization is actually performed.
558 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2. The pattern index I and the grid steps DIM2, DIM1, DI, DIP1, DIP2 with
the expression given in table 2.1 according to the state of the CENTERGRID
switch and to the fact whether the given equation is discretized on the integer
or half-integer grid (i is the index corresponding to the coordinate s according
to the COORDINATES statement, the grid steps were defined in section 2.2)

3. The pattern functions with the corresponding functions from the basic term
and, possibly, the pattern exponent with the corresponding exponent from
the basic term.

--------------------------------------------------------------------
| the equation discretized on |
| the integer grid | the half-integer grid |
| CENTERGRID |CENTERGRID|CENTERGRID| CENTERGRID |
| OFF | ON | OFF | ON |
|------------------------------------------------------------------|
| I | i | i+1/2 |
|----|-------------------------------------------------------------|
|DIM2|(Hs(i-2)+Hs(i-1))/2| Hs(i-1) |(Hs(i-1)+Hs(i))/2 |
|DIM1| Hs(i-1) | (Hs(i-1)+Hs(i))/2 | Hs(i) |
|DI |(Hs(i-1)+Hs(i))/2 | Hs(i) |(Hs(i)+Hs(i+1))/2 |
|DIP1| Hs(i) | (Hs(i)+Hs(i+1))/2 | Hs(i+1) |
|DIP2|(Hs(i)+Hs(i+1))/2 | Hs(i+1) |(Hs(i+1)+Hs(i+2))/2|
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Table 2.1 Values of the pattern index and

the pattern grid steps.

More details will be given now to the discretization of the given functions and its
specification. The given function may occur in the SAME statement, which makes
it bound with some sought function, in other words it can be discretized only on one
grid. This means that all basic terms, in which this function occurs, must have their
pattern terms in whose discretization definitions by the DIFMATCH statement the
pattern function corresponding to the mentioned given function has to occur in the
grid specification. If the given function does not occur in the SAME statement and
the TWOGRID switch is OFF, i.e. it can be discretized only on one grid again,
the same holds true. If, however, the given function does not occur in the SAME
statement and the TWOGRID switch is ON, i.e. it can be discretized simultane-
ously on the integer and the half-integer grids, then the basic terms of the equations
including this function have their pattern terms in whose discretization definitions
the pattern function corresponding to the mentioned given function need not occur
in the grid specification. If, however, in spite of all, this pattern function in the dis-
cretization definition does occur in the grid specification, it is the alternative with
a smaller number of interpolations occurring in the DIFMATCH statement that
 559

is selected for each particular basic term with a corresponding pattern (the given
function can be on the integer or half-integer grid). Before the discretization is exe-
cuted, it is necessary to define using the DIFMATCH statements the discretization
of all pattern terms that are the patterns of all basic terms of all equations appearing
in the discretized system in all coordinates. The fact that the pattern terms of the
basic terms of partial equations occur repeatedly in individual systems has made
it possible to create a library of the discretizations of the basic types of pattern
terms using the integro-interpolation method. This library is a component part of
the IIMET module (in its end) and makes work easier for those users who find
the pattern matching mechanism described here too difficult. New DIFMATCH
statements have to be created by those whose equations will contain a basic term
having no pattern in this library, or those who need another method to perform
the discretization. The described implemented algorithm of discretizing the basic
terms is sufficiently general to enable the use of a nearly arbitrary discretization on
orthogonal grids.

Discretization of a system of equations

All statements influencing the run of the discretization that one want use in this
run have to be executed before the discretization is initiated. The COORDI-
NATES, DEPENDENCE, and DIFMATCH statements have to occur in all appli-
cations. Further, if necessary, the GRID UNIFORM, GIVEN, ISGRID, GRIDEQ,
SAME, and DIFCONST statements can be used, or some of the CENTREGRID,
TWOGRID, EQFU, and FULLEQ switches can be set. Only then the discretization
of a system of partial differential equations can be started using the IIM statement:

IIM <array>{,<sought function>,<equation>};

<array> ::= "identifier" - the name of the array for storing
the result
<sought function> ::= "identifier" - the name of the function
whose behavior is described by the
equation
<equation> ::= <left side> = <right side>
<left side> ::= "algebraic expression" , the derivatives are
designated by the DIFF operator
<right side> ::= "algebraic expression"

Hence, in the IIM statement the name of the array in which the resulting difference
schemes will be stored, and the pair sought function - equation, which describes
this function, are specified. The meaning of the relation between the sought func-
tion and its equation during the discretization lies in the fact that the sought function
is preferred in its equation so that the interpolation is not, if possible, used in dis-
cretizing the terms of this equation that contain it. In the equations, the functions
560 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

and the coordinates appear as identifiers. The identifiers that have not been de-
clared as functions by the DEPENDENCE statement or as coordinates by the CO-
ORDINATES statement are considered constants independent of the coordinates.
The partial derivatives are expressed by the DIFF operator that has the same syntax
as the standard differentiation operator DF. The functions and the equations can
also have the vector or tensor character. If these non-scalar quantities are applied,
the EXPRES module has to be used together with the IIMET module, and also
non-scalar differential operators such as GRAD, DIV, etc. can be employed. The
sequence performed by the program in the discretization can be briefly summed up
in the following items:

1. If there are non-scalar functions or equations in a system of equations, they

are automatically converted into scalar quantities by means of the EXPRES
module.

2. In each equation, the terms containing derivatives are transferred to the left
side, and the other terms to the right side of the equation.

3. For each coordinate, with respect to the sequence in which they occur in the
COORDINATES statement, the following is executed:
a) It is determined on which grids all functions and all equations in the actual
coordinate will be discretized, and simultaneously the limits are kept result-
ing from the ISGRID, GRIDEQ, and SAME statements if they were used.
Such a distribution of functions and equations on the grids is selected among
all possible variants that ensures the minimum sum of all numbers of the
interpolations of the basic terms (specified by the DIFMATCH statement) of
all equations if the FULLEQ switch is ON, or of all left sides of the equat-
ions if the FULLEQ switch is OFF (after the loading the FULLEQ switch is
ON).
b) The discretization itself is executed, as specified by the DIFMATCH state-
ments.

4. If the array name is A, then if there is only one scalar equation in the IIM
statement, the discretized left side of this equation is stored in A(0) and the
discretized right side in A(1) (after the transfer mentioned in item 2), if there
are more scalar equations than one in the IIM statement, the discretization of
the left side of the i-th scalar equation is stored in A(i,0) and the discretiza-
tion of the right side in A(i,1).

The IIM statement can be used more times during one program run, and between its
calls, the discretizing process can be altered using other statements of this module.
 561

Error messages

The IIMET module provides error messages in the case of the user’s errors. Sim-
ilarly as in the REDUCE system, the error reporting is marked with five stars :
"*****" on the line start. Some error messages are identical with those of the
REDUCE system. Here are given some other error messages that require a more
detailed explanation:

***** Matching of X term not found

- the discretization of the pattern term that is the pattern of
the basic term printed on the place X has not been
defined (using the DIFMATCH statement)
***** Variable of type F not defined on grids in DIFMATCH
- in the definition of the discretizing of the pattern term
the given functions were not used in the grid
specification and are needed now
***** X Free vars not yet implemented
- in the grid specification in the DIFMATCH statement
more than 3 pattern functions were used
***** All grids not given for term X
- in the definition of the discretization of the pattern of
the basic term printed on the place X not all
necessary combinations of the grid specification
of the pattern functions were presented

16.23.4 APPROX

A Module for Determining the Precision Order of the Difference Scheme

This module makes it possible to determine the differential equation that is solved
by the given difference scheme, and to determine the order of accuracy of the
solution of this scheme in the grid steps in individual coordinates. The discrete
function values are expanded into the Taylor series in the specified point.

Specification of the coordinates and the indices corresponding to them

The COORDINATES statement, described in the IIMET module manual, speci-

fying the coordinates and the indices corresponding to them is the same for this
program module as well. It has the same meaning and syntax. The present module
version assumes a uniform grid in all coordinates. The grid step in the input dif-
ference schemes has to be designated by an identifier consisting of the character H
and the name of the coordinate, e.g. the step of the coordinate X is HX.
562 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Specification of the Taylor expansion

In the determining of the approximation order, all discrete values of the functions
are expanded into the Taylor series in all coordinates. In order to determine the
Taylor expansion, the program needs to know the point in which it performs this
expansion, and the number of terms in the Taylor series in individual coordinates.
The center of the Taylor expansion is specified by the CENTER statement and the
number of terms in the Taylor series in individual coordinates by the MAXORDER
statement:

CENTER <center>{,<center>};
<center> ::= <coordinate> = <increment>
<increment> ::= "rational number"
MAXORDER <order>{,<order>};
<order> ::= <coordinate> = <number of terms>
<number of terms> ::= "natural number"

The increment in the CENTER statement determines that the center of the Taylor
expansion in the given coordinate will be in the point specified by the index I +
<increment>, where I is the index corresponding to this coordinate, defined using
the COORDINATES statement, e.g. the following example

COORDINATE T,X INTO N,J;

CENTER T = 1/2, X = 1;
MAXORDER T = 2, X = 3;

specifies that the center of the Taylor expansion will be in the point (t(n+1/2),x(j+1))
and that until the second derivatives with respect to t (second powers of ht) and un-
til the third derivatives with respect to x (third powers of hx) the expansion will
be performed. The CENTER and MAXORDER statements can be placed only
after the COORDINATES statement. If the center of the Taylor expansion is not
defined in some coordinate, it is supposed to be in the point given by the index
of this coordinate (i.e. zero increment). If the number of the terms of the Taylor
expansion is not defined in some coordinate, the expansion is performed until the
third derivatives with respect to this coordinate.

Function declaration

All functions whose discrete values are to be expanded into the Taylor series must
be declared using the FUNCTIONS statement:

FUNCTIONS <name of function>{,<name of function>};

<name of function> ::= "identifier"
 563

In the specification of the difference scheme, the functions are used as operators
with one or more arguments, designating the discrete values of the functions. Each
argument is the sum of the coordinate index (from the COORDINATES statement)
and a rational number. If some index is omitted in the arguments of a function, this
functional value is supposed to lie in the point in which the Taylor expansion is
performed, as specified by the CENTER statement. In other words, if the COOR-
DINATES and CENTER statements, shown in the example in the previous section,
are valid, then it holds that U(N+1) = U(N+1,J+1) and U(J-1) = U(N+1/2,J-1). The
FUNCTIONS statement can declare both the sought and the known functions for
the expansion.

Order of accuracy determination

The order of accuracy of the difference scheme is determined by the APPROX

statement:

APPROX (<diff. scheme>);

<diff. scheme> ::= <l. side> = <r. side>
<l. (r.) side> ::= "algebraic expression"

In the difference scheme occur the functions in the form described in the preceding
section, the coordinate indices and the grid steps described in section 3.1, and the
other symbolic parameters of the difference scheme. The APPROX statement ex-
pands all discrete values of the functions declared in the FUNCTIONS statement
into the Taylor series in all coordinates (the point in which the Taylor expansion
is performed is specified by the CENTER statement, and the number of the ex-
pansion terms by the MAXORDER statement), substitutes the expansions into the
difference scheme, which gives a modified differential equation. The modified dif-
ferential equation, containing the grid steps too, is an equation that is really solved
by the difference scheme (into the given orders in the grid steps). The partial
differential equation, whose solution is approximated by the difference scheme, is
determined by replacing the grid steps by zeros and is displayed after the following
message:
"Difference scheme approximates differential equation"
Then the following message is displayed:
"with orders of approximation:"
and the lowest powers (except for zero) of the grid steps in all coordinates, occur-
ring in the modified differential equation are written. If the PRAPPROX switch
is ON, then the rest of the modified differential equation is printed. If this rest is
added to the left hand side of the approximated differential equation, one obtain
modified equation. By default the PRAPPROX switch is OFF. If the grid steps are
564 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

found in some denominator in the modified equation, i.e. with a negative exponent,
the following message is written, preceding the approximated differential equation:
"Reformulate difference scheme, grid steps remain in denominator"
and the approximated differential equation is not correctly determined (one of its
sides is zero). Generally, this message means that there is a term in the difference
scheme that is not a difference replacement of the derivative, i.e. the ratio of the
differences of the discrete function values and the discrete values of the coordinates
(the steps of the difference grid). The user, however, must realize that in some cases
such a term occurs purposefully in the difference scheme (e.g. on the grid boundary
to keep the scheme conservative).

16.23.5 CHARPOL

A Module for Calculating the Amplification Matrix and the Characteristic Polyno-
mial of the Difference Scheme
This program module is used for the first step of the stability analysis of the differ-
ence scheme using the Fourier method. It substitutes the Fourier components into
the difference scheme, calculates the amplification matrix of the scheme for tran-
sition from one time layer to another, and computes the characteristic polynomial
of this matrix.

Commands common with the IIMET module

The COORDINATES and GRID UNIFORM statements, described in the IIMET

module manual, are applied in this module as well, having the same meaning and
syntax. The time coordinate is assumed to be designated by the identifier T. The
present module version requires all coordinates to have uniform grids, i.e. to be
declared in the GRID UNIFORM statement. The grid step in the input difference
schemes has to be designated by the identifier consisting of the character H and the
name of the coordinate, e.g. the step of the time coordinate T is HT.

Function declaration

The UNFUNC statement declares the names of the sought functions used in the
difference scheme:

UNFUNC <function>{,<function>}
<function> ::= "identifier" - the name of the sought function

The functions are used in the difference schemes as operators with one or more
arguments for designating the discrete function values. Each argument is the sum
 565

of the index (from the COORDINATES statement) and a rational number. If some
index is omitted in the function arguments, this function value is supposed to lie in
the point specified only by this index, which means that, with the indices N and J
and the function U, it holds that U(N+1) = U(N+1,J) and U(J-1) = U(N,J-1). As
two-step (in time) difference schemes may be used only, the time index may occur
either completely alone in the arguments, or in the sum with a one.

Amplification matrix

The AMPMAT matrix operator computes the amplification matrix of a two-step

difference scheme. Its argument is an one column matrix of the dimension (1,k),
where k is the number of the equations of the difference scheme, that contains the
difference equations of this scheme as algebraic expressions equal to the difference
of the right and left sides of the difference equations. The value of the AMPMAT
matrix operator is the square amplification matrix of the dimension (k,k). During
the computation of the amplification matrix, two new identifiers are created for
each spatial coordinate. The identifier made up of the character K and the name
of the coordinate represents the wave number in this coordinate, and the identi-
fier made up of the character A and the name of the coordinate represents the
product of this wave number and the grid step in this coordinate divided by the
least common multiple of all denominators occurring in the scheme in the function
argument containing the index of this coordinate. On the output an equation is dis-
played defining the latter identifier. For example, if in the case of function U and
index J in the coordinate X the expression U(J+1/2) has been used in the scheme
(and, simultaneously, no denominator higher than 2 has occurred in the arguments
with J), the following equation is displayed: AX: = (KX*HX)/2. The definition
of these quantities As allows to express every sum occurring in the argument of
the exponentials as the sum of these quantities multiplied by integers, so that after
a transformation, the amplification matrix will contain only sin(As) and cos(As)
(for all spatial coordinates s). The AMPMAT operator performs these transforma-
tions automatically. If the PRFOURMAT switch is ON (after the loading it is ON),
the matrices H0 and H1 (the amplification matrix is equal to -H1**(-1)*H0) are
displayed during the evaluation of the AMPMAT operator. These matrices can be
used for finding a suitable substitution for the goniometric functions in the next
run for a greater simplification. The TCON matrix operator transforms the square
matrix into a Hermit-conjugate matrix, i.e. a transposed and complex conjugate
one. Its argument is the square matrix and its value is Hermit-conjugate matrix of
the argument. The Hermit-conjugate matrix is used for testing the normality and
unitarity of the amplification matrix in the determining of the sufficient stability
condition.
566 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Characteristic polynomial

The CHARPOL operator calculates the characteristic polynomial of the given

square matrix. The variable of the characteristic polynomial is designated by the
LAM identifier. The operator has one argument, the square matrix, and its value is
its characteristic polynomial in LAM.

Automatic denotation

Several statements and procedures are designed for automatic denotation of some
parts of algebraic expressions by identifiers. This denotation is namely useful when
we obtain very large expressions, which cannot fit into the available memory. We
can denote subparts of an expression from the previous step of calculation by iden-
tifiers, replace these subparts by these identifiers and continue the analytic calcu-
lation only with these identifiers. Every time we use this technique we have to
explicitly survive in processed expressions those algebraic quantities which will be
necessary in the following steps of calculation. The process of denotation and re-
placement is performed automatically and the algebraic values which are denoted
by these new identifiers can be written out at any time. We describe how this au-
tomatic denotation can be used. The statement DENOTID defines the beginning
letters of newly created identifiers. Its syntax is

DENOTID <id>;
<id> ::= "identifier"

After this statement the new identifiers created by the operators DENOTEPOL and
DENOTEMAT will begin with the letters of the identifier <id> used in this state-
ment. Without using any DENOTID statement all new identifiers will begin with
one letter A. We suggest to use this statement every time before using operators
DENOTEPOL or DENOTEMAT with some new identifier and to choose identi-
fiers used in this statement in such a way that the newly created identifiers are not
equal to any identifiers used in the expressions you are working with. The operator
DENOTEPOL has one argument, a polynomial in LAM, and denotes the real and
imaginary part of its coefficients by new identifiers. The real part of the j-th LAM
power coefficient is denoted by the identifier <id>R0j and the imaginary part by
<id>I0j, where <id> is the identifier used in the last DENOTID statement. The
denotation is done only for non-numeric coefficients. The value of this operator
is the polynomial in LAM with coefficients constructed from the new identifiers.
The algebraic expressions which are denoted by these identifiers are stored as LISP
data structure standard quotient in the LISP variable DENOTATION!* (assoc. list).
The operator DENOTEMAT has one argument, a matrix, and denotes the real and
imaginary parts of its elements. The real part of the (j,k) matrix element is denoted
by the identifier <id>Rjk and the imaginary part by <id>Ijk. The returned value of
 567

the operator is the original matrix with non-numeric elements replaced by <id>Rjk
+ I*<id>Ijk. Other matters are the same as for the DENOTEPOL operator. The
statement PRDENOT has the syntax

PRDENOT;

and writes from the variable DENOTATION!* the definitions of all new identifiers
introduced by the DENOTEPOL and DENOTEMAT operators since the last call of
CLEARDENOT statement (or program start) in the format defined by the present
setting of output control declarations and switches. The definitions are written in
the same order as they have been entered, so that the definitions of the first DE-
NOTEPOL or DENOTEMAT operators are written first. This order guarantees
that this statement can be utilized directly to generate a semantically correct nu-
merical program (the identifiers from the first denotation can appear in the second
one, etc.). The statement CLEARDENOT with the syntax

CLEARDENOT;

clears the variable DENOTATION!*, so that all denotations saved earlier by the
DENOTEPOL and DENOTEMAT operators in this variable are lost. The PRDE-
NOT statement succeeding this statement writes nothing.

16.23.6 HURWP

A Module for Polynomial Roots Locating

This module is used for verifying the stability of a polynomial, i.e. for verifying
if all roots of a polynomial lie in a unit circle with its center in the origin. By
investigating the characteristic polynomial of the difference scheme, the user can
determine the conditions of the stability of this scheme.

Conformal mapping

The HURW operator transforms a polynomial using the conformal mapping

LAM=(z+1)/(z-1). Its argument is a polynomial in LAM and its value is a trans-
formed polynomial in LAM (LAM=z). If P is a polynomial in LAM, then it holds:
all roots LAM1i of the polynomial P are in their absolute values smaller than one,
i.e. |LAM1i|<1, iff the real parts of all roots LAM2i of the HURW(P) polynomial
are negative, i.e. Re (LAM2i)<0. The elimination of the unit polynomial roots
(LAM=1), which has to occur before the conformal transformation is performed,
is made by the TROOT1 operator. The argument of this operator is a polynomial
in LAM and its value is a polynomial in LAM not having its root equal to one any
more. Mostly, the investigated polynomial has some more parameters. For some
568 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

special values of those parameters, the polynomial may have a unit root. During
the evaluation of the TROOT1 operator, the condition concerning the polynomial
parameters is displayed, and if it is fulfilled, the resulting polynomial has a unit
root.

Investigation of polynomial roots

The HURWITZP operator checks whether a polynomial is the Hurwitz polynomial,

i.e. whether all its roots have negative real parts. The argument of the HURWITZP
operator is a polynomial in LAM with real or complex coefficients, and its value
is YES if the argument is the Hurwitz polynomial. It is NO if the argument is
not the Hurwitz polynomial, and COND if it is the Hurwitz polynomial when the
conditions displayed by the HURWITZP operator during its analysis are fulfilled.
These conditions have the form of inequalities and contain algebraic expressions
made up of the polynomial coefficients. The conditions have to be valid either si-
multaneously, or they are designated and a proposition is created from them by the
AND and OR logic operators that has to be fulfilled (it is the condition concerning
the parameters occurring in the polynomial coefficient) by a polynomial to be the
Hurwitz one. This proposition is the sufficient condition, the necessary condition
is the fulfillment of all the inequalities displayed. If the HURWITZP operator is
called interactively, the user is directly asked if the inequalities are or are not valid.
The user responds "Y" if the displayed inequality is valid, "N" if it is not, and "?"
if he does not know whether the inequality is true or not.

16.23.7 LINBAND

A Module for Generating the Numeric Program for Solving a System of Linear
Algebraic Equations with Band Matrix
The LINBAND module generates the numeric program in the FORTRAN lan-
guage, which solves a system of linear algebraic equations with band matrix us-
ing the routine from the LINPACK, NAG ,IMSL or ESSL program library. As
input data only the system of equations is given to the program. Automatically, the
statements of the FORTRAN language are generated that fill the band matrix of
the system in the corresponding memory mode of chosen library, call the solving
routine, and assign the chosen variables to the solution of the system. The module
can be used for solving linear difference schemes often having the band matrix.

Program generation

The program in the FORTRAN language is generated by the GENLINBANDSOL

statement (the braces in this syntax definition occur directly in the program and do
 569

not have the usual meaning of the possibility of repetition, they designate REDUCE
lists):

GENLINBANDSOL (<n-lower>,<n-upper>,{<system>});
<n-lower> ::= "natural number"
<n-upper> ::= "natural number"
<system> ::= <part of system> | <part of system>,<system>
<part of system>::= {<variable>,<equation>} | <loop>
<variable> ::= "kernel"
<equation> ::= <left side> = <right side>
<left side> ::= "algebraic expression"
<right side> ::= "algebraic expression"
<loop> ::= {DO,{<parameter>,<from>,<to>,<step>},<c-system>}
<parameter> ::= "identifier"
<from> ::= <i-expression>
<to> ::= <i-expression>
<step> ::= <i-expression>
<i-expression> ::= "algebraic expression" with natural value
(evaluated in FORTRAN)
<c-system> ::= <part of c-system> | <part of c-system>,<c-
system>
<part of c-system> ::= {<variable>,<equation>}

The first and second argument of the GENLINBANDSOL statement specifies the
number of the lower (below the main diagonal) and the upper diagonals of the
band matrix of the system. The system of linear algebraic equations is specified
by means of lists expressed by braces in the REDUCE system. The variables of
the equation system can be identifiers, but most probably they are operators with an
argument or with arguments that are analogous to array in FORTRAN. The left side
of each equation has to be a linear combination of the system variables, the right
side, on the contrary, is not allowed to contain any variables of the system. The
sequence of the band matrix lines is given by the sequence of the equations, and
the sequence of the columns by the sequence of the variables in the list describing
the equation system. The meaning of the loop in the system list is similar to that of
the DO loop of the FORTRAN language. The individual variables and equations
described by the loop are obtained as follows:
1. <parameter> = <from>. 2. The <parameter> value is substituted into the vari-
ables and equations of the <c-system> loop, by which further variables and equat-
ions of the system are obtained. 3. <parameter> is increased by <step>. 4. If
<parameter> is less or equal <to>, then go to step 2, else all variables and equat-
ions described by the loop have already been obtained.
The variables and equations of the system included in the loop usually contain the
loop parameter, which mostly occur in the operator arguments in the REDUCE
570 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

language, or in the array indices in the FORTRAN language. If NL = <n-lower>,

NU = <n-upper>, and for some loop F = <from>, T = <to>, S = <step> and N is
the number of the equations in the loop <c-system>, it has to be true that

UP(NL/N) + UP(NU/N) < DOWN((T-F)/S)

where UP represents the rounding-off to a higher natural number, and DOWN the
rounding-off to a lower natural number. With regard to the fact that, for example,
the last variable before the loop is not required to equal the last variable from the
loop system, into which the loop parameter equal to F-S is substituted, when the
band matrix is being constructed, from the FORTRAN loop that corresponds to the
loop from the specification of the equation system, at least the first NL variables-
equations have to be moved to precede the FORTRAN loop, and at least the last
NU variables-equations have to be moved to follow this loop in order that the cor-
respondence of the system variables in this loop with the system variables before
and after this loop will be secured. And this move requires the above mentioned
condition to be fulfilled. As, in most cases, NL/N and NU/N are small with respect
to (T-F)/S, this condition does not represent any considerable constrain. The loop
parameters <from>, <to>, and <step> can be natural numbers or expressions that
must have natural values in the run of the FORTRAN program.

Choosing the numerical library

The user can choose the routines of which numerical library will be used in the
generated FORTRAN code. The supported numerical libraries are: LINPACK,
NAG, IMSL and ESSL (IBM Engineering and Scientific Subroutine Library) .
The routines DGBFA, DGBSL (band solver) and DGTSL (tridiagonal solver) are
used from the LINPACK library, the routines F01LBF, F04LDF (band solver) and
F01LEF, F04LEF (tridiagonal solver) are used from the NAG library, the routine
LEQT1B is used from the IMSL library and the routines DGBF, DGBS (band
solver) and DGTF, DGTS (tridiagonal solver) are used from the ESSL library. By
default the LINPACK library routines are used. The using of other libraries is con-
trolled by the switches NAG,IMSL and ESSL. All these switches are by default
OFF. If the switch IMSL is ON then the IMSL library routine is used. If the switch
IMSL is OFF and the switch NAG is ON then NAG library routines are used. If
the switches IMSL and NAG are OFF and the switch ESSL is ON then the ESSL
library is used. During generating the code using LINPACK, NAG or ESSL li-
braries the special routines are use for systems with tridiagonal matrices, because
tridiagonal solvers are faster than the band matrix solvers.
 571

Completion of the generated code

The GENLINBANDSOL statement generates a block of FORTRAN code ( a block

of statements of the FORTRAN language) that performs the solution of the given
system of linear algebraic equations. In order to be used, this block of code has to
be completed with some declarations and statements, thus getting a certain enve-
lope that enables it to be integrated into the main program. In order to be able to
work, the generated block of code has to be preceded by:

1. The declaration of arrays as described by the comments generated into the

FORTRAN code (near the calling of library routines)

2. The assigning the values to the integer variables describing the real dimen-
sions of used arrays (again as described in generated FORTRAN comments)

3. The filling of the variables that can occur in the loop parameters.

4. The filling or declaration of all variables and arrays occurring in the system
equations, except for the variables of the system of linear equations.

5. The definition of subroutine ERROUT the call to which is generated after

some routines found that the matrix is algorithmically singular

The mentioned envelope for the generated block can be created manually, or di-
rectly using the GENTRAN program package for generating numeric programs.
The LINBAND module itself uses the GENTRAN package, and the GENLIN-
BANDSOL statement can be applied directly in the input files of the GENTRAN
package (template processing). The GENTRAN package has to be loaded prior to
loading of the LINBAND module. The generated block of FORTRAN code has to
be linked with the routines from chosen numerical library.
References ———-
[1] R. Liska: Numerical Code Generation for Finite Difference Schemes Solving.
In IMACS World Congress on Computation and Applied Mathematics. Dublin,
July 22-26, 1991, Dublin,(In press).
572 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.24 FPS: Automatic calculation of formal power series

This package can expand a specific class of functions into their corresponding
Laurent-Puiseux series.
Authors: Wolfram Koepf and Winfried Neun.

16.24.1 Introduction

This package can expand functions of certain type into their corresponding
Laurent-Puiseux series as a sum of terms of the form
∞
X
ak (x − x0 )mk/n+s
k=0

where m is the ‘symmetry number’, s is the ‘shift number’, n is the ‘Puiseux

number’, and x0 is the ‘point of development’. The following types are supported:

• functions of ‘rational type’, which are either rational or have a rational

derivative of some order;

• functions of ‘hypergeometric type’ where a(k+m)/a(k) is a rational func-

tion for some integer m;

• functions of ‘explike type’ which satisfy a linear homogeneous differential

equation with constant coefficients.

The FPS package is an implementation of the method presented in [2]. The imple-
mentations of this package for M APLE (by D. Gruntz) and M ATHEMATICA (by W.
Koepf) served as guidelines for this one.
Numerous examples can be found in [3]–[4], most of which are contained in the test
file fps.tst. Many more examples can be found in the extensive bibliography
of Hansen [1].

16.24.2 REDUCE operator FPS

FPS(f,x,x0) tries to find a formal power series expansion for f with respect
to the variable x at the point of development x0. It also works for formal Lau-
rent (negative exponents) and Puiseux series (fractional exponents). If the third
argument is omitted, then x0:=0 is assumed.
Examples: FPS(asin(x)^2,x) results in
 573

2*k 2*k 2 2
x * 2 * factorial(k) *x
infsum(----------------------------,k,0,infinity)
factorial(2*k + 1)*(k + 1)

FPS(sin x,x,pi) gives

2*k k
( - pi + x) *( - 1) *( - pi + x)
infsum(------------------------------------,k,0,infinity)
factorial(2*k + 1)

and FPS(sqrt(2-x^2),x) yields

2*k
- x *sqrt(2)*factorial(2*k)
infsum(--------------------------------,k,0,infinity)
k 2
8 *factorial(k) *(2*k - 1)

Note: The result contains one or more infsum terms such that it does not interfere
with the REDUCE operatorP sum. In graphical oriented REDUCE interfaces this
operator results in the usual notation.
If possible, the output is given using factorials. In some cases, the use of the
Pochhammer symbol pochhammer(a,k):= a(a+1) · · · (a+k−1) is necessary.
The operator FPS uses the operator SimpleDE of the next section.
If an error message of type

Could not find the limit of:

occurs, you can set the corresponding limit yourself and try a recalculation. In the
computation of FPS(atan(cot(x)),x,0), REDUCE is not able to find the
value for the limit limit(atan(cot(x)),x,0) since the atan function is
multi-valued. One can choose the branch of atan such that this limit equals π/2
so that we may set

let limit(atan(cot(~x)),x,0)=>pi/2;

and a recalculation of FPS(atan(cot(x)),x,0) yields the output pi -

2*x which is the correct local series representation.
574 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.24.3 REDUCE operator SimpleDE

SimpleDE(f,x) tries to find a homogeneous linear differential equation with

polynomial coefficients for f with respect to x. Make sure that y is not a used
variable. The setting factor df; is recommended to receive a nicer output
form.
Examples: SimpleDE(asin(x)^2,x) then results in

2
df(y,x,3)*(x - 1) + 3*df(y,x,2)*x + df(y,x)

SimpleDE(exp(x^(1/3)),x) gives

2
27*df(y,x,3)*x + 54*df(y,x,2)*x + 6*df(y,x) - y

and SimpleDE(sqrt(2-x^2),x) yields

2
df(y,x)*(x - 2) - x*y

The depth for the search of a differential equation for f is controlled by the vari-
able fps_search_depth; higher values for fps_search_depth will in-
crease the chance to find the solution, but increases the complexity as well. The
default value for fps_search_depth is 5. For FPS(sin(x^(1/3)),x), or
SimpleDE(sin(x^(1/3)),x) e. g., a setting fps_search_depth:=6 is
necessary.
The output of the FPS package can be influenced by the switch tracefps. Set-
ting on tracefps causes various prints of intermediate results.

16.24.4 Problems in the current version

The handling of logarithmic singularities is not yet implemented.

The rational type implementation is not yet complete.
The support of special functions [5] will be part of the next version.

Bibliography

[1] E. R. Hansen, A table of series and products. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,

NJ, 1975.
 575

[2] Wolfram Koepf, Power Series in Computer Algebra, J. Symbolic Computation

13 (1992)

[3] Wolfram Koepf, Examples for the Algorithmic Calculation of Formal Puiseux,
Laurent and Power series, SIGSAM Bulletin 27, 1993, 20-32.

[4] Wolfram Koepf, Algorithmic development of power series. In: Artificial in-
telligence and symbolic mathematical computing, ed. by J. Calmet and J. A.
Campbell, International Conference AISMC-1, Karlsruhe, Germany, August
1992, Proceedings, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 737, Springer-Verlag,
Berlin–Heidelberg, 1993, 195–213.

[5] Wolfram Koepf, Algorithmic work with orthogonal polynomials and special
functions. Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum Berlin (ZIB), Preprint SC 94-5, 1994.
576 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.25 GCREF: A Graph Cross Referencer

This package reuses the code of the RCREF package to create a graph displaying
the interdependency of procedures in a Reduce source code file.
Authors: A. Dolzmann, T. Sturm.

16.25.1 Basic Usage

Similarly to the Reduce cross referencer, it is used via switches as follows:

load_package gcref;
on gcref;
in "<filename>.red";
off gcref;

At off gcref; the graph is printed to the screen in TGF format. To redirect this
output to a file, use the following:

load_package gcref;
on gcref;
in "<filename>.red";
out "<filename>.tgf";
off gcref;
shut "<filename>.tgf";

16.25.2 Shell Script "gcref"

There is a shell script "gcref" in this directory automizing this like

./gcref filename.red

"gcref" is configured to use CSL Reduce. To use PSL Reduce instead, set $RE-
DUCE in the environment. To use PSL by default, define

REDUCE=redpsl

in line 3 of "gcref".

16.25.3 Redering with yED

The obtained TGF file can be viewed with a graph editor. I recommend using the
free software yED, which is written in Java and available for many platforms.
 577

http://www.yworks.com/en/products_yed_about.html

Note that TGF is not suitable for storing rendering information. After opening the
TGF file with yED, the graph has to be rendered explicitly as follows:
* From menu "Layout" choose "Hierarchical Layout".
To resize the nodes to the procedure names
* from menu "Tools" choose "Fit Node to Label".
Feel free to experiment with yED and use other layout and layout options, which
might be suitable for your particular software.
For saving your particular layout at the end, use the GRAPHML format instead of
TGF.
578 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.26 GENTRAN: A code generation package

GENTRAN is an automatic code GENerator and TRANslator. It constructs com-

plete numerical programs based on sets of algorithmic specifications and symbolic
expressions. Formatted FORTRAN, RATFOR, PASCAL or C code can be gener-
ated through a series of interactive commands or under the control of a template
processing routine. Large expressions can be automatically segmented into subex-
pressions of manageable size, and a special file-handling mechanism maintains
stacks of open I/O channels to allow output to be sent to any number of files si-
multaneously and to facilitate recursive invocation of the whole code generation
process.
Author: Barbara L. Gates.
 579

16.27 GNUPLOT: Display of functions and surfaces

This package is an interface to the popular GNUPLOT package. It allows you to

display functions in 2D and surfaces in 3D on a variety of output devices including
X terminals, PC monitors, and postscript and Latex printer files.
NOTE: The GNUPLOT package may not be included in all versions of REDUCE.
Author: Herbert Melenk.

16.27.1 Introduction

The G NU P LOT system provides easy to use graphics output for curves or surfaces
which are defined by formulas and/or data sets. G NU P LOT supports a variety of
output devices such as VGA screen, postscript, picTEX, MS Windows.
The REDUCE G NU P LOT package lets one use the G NU P LOT graphical output
directly from inside REDUCE, either for the interactive display of curves/surfaces
or for the production of pictures on paper.

16.27.2 Command plot

Under REDUCE G NU P LOT is used as graphical output server, invoked by the com-
mand plot(...). This command can have a variable number of parameters:

• A function to plot; a function can be

– an expression with one unknown, e.g. u*sin(u)ˆ2.

– a list of expressions with one (identical) unknown, e.g. {sin(u),
cos(u)}.
– an expression with two unknowns, e.g. u*sin(u)ˆ2+sqrt(v).
– a list of expressions with two (identical) unknowns, e.g.
{x^2+y^2,x^2-y^2}.
– a parametic expression of the form point(<u>,<v>) or point(<u>,
<v>,<w>) where u,v,w are expressions which depend of one or two
parameters; if there is one parameter, the object describes a curve in the
plane (only u and v) or in 3D space; if there are two parameters, the
object describes a surface in 3D. The parameters are treated as inde-
pendent variables. Example: point(sin t,cos t,t/10).
– an equation with a symbol on the left-hand side and an expression
with one or two unknowns on the right-hand side, e.g. dome=
1/(xˆ2+yˆ2).
580 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

– an equation with an expression on the left-hand side and a zero on

right-hand side describing implicitly a one dimensional variety in the
plane (implicitly given curve), e.g. xˆ3 + x*yˆ2-9x = 0, or a
two-dimensional surface in 3-dimensional Euclidean space,
– an equation with an expression in two variables on the left-hand side
and a list of numbers on the right-hand side; the contour lines corre-
sponding to the given values are drawn, e.g.
xˆ3 - yˆ2 + x*y = {-2,-1,0,1,2}.
– a list of points in 2 or 3 dimensions, e.g. {{0,0},{0,1},{1,1}}
representing a curve,
– a list of lists of points in 2 or 3 dimensions e.g. {{{0,0},{0,1},{1,1}},
{{0,0},{0,1},{1,1}}} representing a family of curves.

• A range for a variable; this has the form variable=(lower_bound,..,

upper_bound) where lower_bound and upper_bound must be ex-
pressions which evaluate to numbers. If no range is specified the de-
fault ranges for independent variables are (−10 .. 10) and the range for
the dependent variable is set to maximum number of the G NU P LOT ex-
ecutable (using double floats on most IEEE machines). Additionally the
number of interval subdivisions can be assigned as a formal quotient
variable=(lower_bound .. upper_bound)/<it> where it is a
positive integer. E.g. (1 .. 5)/30 means the interval from 1 to 5 sub-
divided into 30 pieces of equal size. A subdivision parameter overrides the
value of the variable points for this variable.

• A plot option, either as fixed keyword, e.g. hidden3d or as equation e.g.

term=pictex; free texts such as titles and labels should be enclosed in
string quotes.

Please note that a blank has to be inserted between a number and a dot, otherwise
the REDUCE translator will be misled.
If a function is given as an equation the left-hand side is mainly used as a label for
the axis of the dependent variable.
In two dimensions, plot can be called with more than one explicit function; all
curves are drawn in one picture. However, all these must use the same independent
variable name. One of the functions can be a point set or a point set list. Normally
all functions and point sets are plotted by lines. A point set is drawn by points only
if functions and the point set are drawn in one picture.
The same applies to three dimensions with explicit functions. However, an implic-
itly given curve must be the sole object for one picture.
The functional expressions are evaluated in rounded mode. This is done auto-
matically, it is not necessary to turn on rounded mode explicitly.
 581

Examples:

plot(cos x);
plot(s=sin phi, phi=(-3 .. 3));
plot(sin phi, cos phi, phi=(-3 .. 3));
plot (cos sqrt(x^2 + y^2), x=(-3 .. 3), y=(-3 .. 3), hidden3d);
plot {{0,0},{0,1},{1,1},{0,0},{1,0},{0,1},{0.5,1.5},{1,1},{1,0}};

% parametric: screw

on rounded;
w := for j := 1:200 collect {1/j*sin j, 1/j*cos j, j/200}$
plot w;

% parametric: globe
dd := pi/15$
w := for u := dd step dd until pi-dd collect
for v := 0 step dd until 2pi collect
{sin(u)*cos(v), sin(u)*sin(v), cos(u)}$
plot w;

% implicit: superposition of polynomials

plot((x^2+y^2-9)*x*y = 0);

Piecewise-defined functions

A composed graph can be defined by a rule-based operator. In that case each rule
must contain a clause which restricts the rule application to numeric arguments,
e.g.

operator my_step1;
let {my_step1(~x) => -1 when numberp x and x<-pi/2,
my_step1(~x) => 1 when numberp x and x>pi/2,
my_step1(~x) => sin x
when numberp x and -pi/2<=x and x<=pi/2};
plot(my_step2(x));

Of course, such a rule may call a procedure:

procedure my_step3(x);
if x<-1 then -1 else if x>1 then 1 else x;
operator my_step2;
let my_step2(~x) => my_step3(x) when numberp x;
582 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

plot(my_step2(x));

The direct use of a produre with a numeric if clause is impossible.

Plot options

The following plot options are supported in the plot command:

• points=<integer>: the number of unconditionally computed data

points; for a grid pointsˆ2 grid points are used. The default value is
20. The value of points is used only for variables for which no individual
interval subdivision has been specified in the range specification.
• refine=<integer>: the maximum depth of adaptive interval intersec-
tions. The default is 8. A value 0 switches any refinement off. Note that a
high value may increase the computing time significantly.

Additional options

The following additional G NU P LOT options are supported in the plot command:

• title=name: the title (string) is put at the top of the picture.

• axes labels: xlabel="text1", ylabel="text2", and for surfaces
zlabel="text3". If omitted the axes are labeled by the independent
and dependent variable names from the expression. Note that xlabel,
ylabel, and zlabel here are used in the usual sense, x for the horizontal
and y for the vertical axis in 2-d and z for the perpendicular axis under 3-d
– these names do not refer to the variable names used in the expressions.

plot(1,x,(4*x^2-1)/2,(x*(12*x^2-5))/3, x=(-1 .. 1),

ylabel="L(x,n)", title="Legendre Polynomials");

• terminal=name: prepare output for device type name. Every instal-

lation uses a default terminal as output device; some installations support
additional devices such as printers; consult the original G NU P LOT docu-
mentation or the G NU P LOT Help for details.
• output="filename": redirect the output to a file.
• size="s_x,s_y": rescale the graph (not the window) where sx and sy
are scaling factors for the x- and y-sizes. Defaults are sx = 1, xz = 1. Note
that scaling factors greater than 1 will often cause the picture to be too big
for the window.
 583

plot(1/(x^2+y^2), x=(0.1 .. 5), y=(0.1 .. 5), size="0.7,1");

• view="r_x,r_z": set the viewpoint in 3 dimensions by turning the object

around the x or z axis; the values are degrees (integers). Defaults are rx =
60, rz = 30.

plot(1/(x^2+y^2), x=(0.1 .. 5), y=(0.1 .. 5), view="30,130");

• contour resp. nocontour: in 3 dimensions an additional contour map

is drawn (default: nocontour). Note that contour is an option which is
executed by G NU P LOT by interpolating the precomputed function values. If
you want to draw contour lines of a delicate formula, you had better use the
contour form of the REDUCE plot command.

• surface resp. nosurface: in 3 dimensions the surface is drawn, resp.

suppressed (default: surface).

• hidden3d: hidden line removal in 3 dimensions.

16.27.3 Paper output

The following example works for a PostScript printer. If your printer uses a differ-
ent communication, please find the correct setting for the terminal variable in
the G NU P LOT documentation.
For a PostScript printer, add the options terminal=postscript and output="filename"
to your plot command, e.g.

plot(sin x, x=(0 .. 10), terminal=postscript, output="sin.ps");

16.27.4 Mesh generation for implicit curves

The basic mesh for finding an implicitly-given curve, the x, y plane is subdivided
into an initial set of triangles. Those triangles which have an explicit zero point or
which have two points with different signs are refined by subdivision. A further re-
finement is performed for triangles which do not have exactly two zero neighbours
because such places may represent crossings, bifurcations, turning points or other
difficulties. The initial subdivision and the refinements are controlled by the option
points which is initially set to 20: the initial grid is refined unconditionally until
approximately points * points equally-distributed points in the x, y plane
have been generated.
The final mesh can be visualized in the picture by setting

on show_grid;
584 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.27.5 Mesh generation for surfaces

By default the functions are computed at predefined mesh points: the ranges are
divided by the number associated with the option points in both directions.
For two dimensions the given mesh is adaptively smoothed when the curves are
too coarse, especially if singularities are present. On the other hand refinement can
be rather time-consuming if used with complicated expressions. You can control it
with the option refine. At singularities the graph is interrupted.
In three dimensions no refinement is possible as G NU P LOT supports surfaces only
with a fixed regular grid. In the case of a singularity the near neighborhood is
tested; if a point there allows a function evaluation, its clipped value is used instead,
otherwise a zero is inserted.
When plotting surfaces in three dimensions you have the option of hidden line
removal. Because of an error in Gnuplot 3.2 the axes cannot be labeled correctly
when hidden3d is used ; therefore they aren’t labelled at all. Hidden line removal
is not available with point lists.

16.27.6 G NU P LOT operation

The command plotreset; deletes the current G NU P LOT output window. The
next call to plot will then open a new one.
If G NU P LOT is invoked directly by an output pipe (UNIX and Windows), an even-
tual error in the G NU P LOT data transmission might cause G NU P LOT to quit. As
REDUCE is unable to detect the broken pipe, you have to reset the plot system by
calling the command plotreset; explicitly. Afterwards new graphics output
can be produced.
Under Windows 3.1 and Windows NT, G NU P LOT has a text and a graph window.
If you don’t want to see the text window, iconify it and activate the option update
wgnuplot.ini from the graph window system menu - then the present screen
layout (including the graph window size) will be saved and the text windows will
come up iconified in future. You can also select some more features there and so
tailor the graphic output. Before you terminate REDUCE you should terminate
the graphic window by calling plotreset;. If you terminate REDUCE without
deleting the G NU P LOT windows, use the command button from the G NU P LOT text
window - it offers an exit function.

16.27.7 Saving G NU P LOT command sequences

GNUPLOT If you want to use the internal G NU P LOT command sequence more
than once (e.g. for producing a picture for a publication), you may set
 585

on trplot, plotkeep;

trplot causes all G NU P LOT commands to be written additionally to the actual

REDUCE output. Normally the data files are erased after calling G NU P LOT, how-
ever with plotkeep on the files are not erased.

16.27.8 Direct Call of G NU P LOT

G NU P LOT has a lot of facilities which are not accessed by the operators and pa-
rameters described above. Therefore genuine G NU P LOT commands can be sent by
REDUCE. Please consult the G NU P LOT manual for the available commands and
parameters. The general syntax for a G NU P LOT call inside REDUCE is

gnuplot(<cmd>,<p_1>,<p_2> ...)

where cmd is a command name and p1 , p2 , . . . are the parameters, inside REDUCE
separated by commas. The parameters are evaluated by REDUCE and then trans-
mitted to G NU P LOT in G NU P LOT syntax. Usually a drawing is built by a sequence
of commands which are buffered by REDUCE or the operating system. For termi-
nating and activating them use the REDUCE command plotshow. Example:

gnuplot(set,polar);
gnuplot(set,noparametric);
gnuplot(plot, x*sin x);
plotshow;

In this example the function expression is transferred literally to G NU P LOT, while

REDUCE is responsible for computing the function values when plot is called.
Note that G NU P LOT restrictions with respect to variable and function names have
to be taken into account when using this type of operation. Important: String
quotes are not transferred to the G NU P LOT executable; if the G NU P LOT syntax
needs string quotes, you must add doubled stringquotes inside the argument string,
e.g.

gnuplot(plot, """mydata""", "using 2:1");

16.27.9 Examples

The following are taken from a collection of sample plots (gnuplot.tst) and
a set of tests for plotting special functions. The pictures are made using the qt
G NU P LOT device and using the menu of the graphics window to export to PDF or
PNG.
586 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A simple plot for sin(1/x):

plot(sin(1/x), x=(-1 .. 1), y=(-3 .. 3));

REDUCE Plot
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
y

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x

Some implicitly-defined curves:

plot(x^3 + y^3 - 3*x*y = {0,1,2,3}, x=(-2.5 .. 2), y=(-5 .. 5));

REDUCE Plot
2

1.5

0.5

0
x

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6
y
 587

A test for hidden surfaces:

plot(cos sqrt(x^2 + y^2), x=(-3 .. 3), y=(-3 .. 3), hidden3d);

REDUCE Plot

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
z 0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

3
2
1
-3 0
-2
-1 -1 x
0
1 -2
y 2
3-3

This may be slow on some machines because of a delicate evaluation context:

plot(sinh(x*y)/sinh(2*x*y), hidden3d);
REDUCE Plot

0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
z 0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0

10

5
-10 0
-5 x
0 -5
y 5
-10
10
588 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

on rounded;
w:= {for j:=1 step 0.1 until 20 collect {1/j*sin j, 1/j*cos j, j},
for j:=1 step 0.1 until 20 collect
{(0.1+1/j)*sin j, (0.1+1/j)*cos j, j} }$
plot w;
REDUCE Plot

20
18
16
14
12
z 10
8
6
4
2
0

0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.4 0
-0.2
0 -0.2 y
0.2
0.4 -0.4
0.6
x 0.8
1-0.6

An example taken from: Cox, Little, O’Shea, Ideals, Varieties and Algorithms:

plot(point(3u+3u*v^2-u^3, 3v+3u^2*v-v^3, 3u^2-3v^2), hidden3d,

title="Enneper Surface");
Enneper Surface

300
200
100
z 0
-100
-200
-300

2500
2000
1500
1000
-2500-2000 500
0
-1500-1000 -500 y
-500 0 -1000
500 1000 -1500
x 15002000 -2000
-2500
2500
 589

The following examples use the specfn package to draw a collection of Cheby-
shev T polynomials and Bessel Y functions. The special function package has to
be loaded explicitely to make the operator ChebyshevT and BesselY available.

load_package specfn;
plot(chebyshevt(1,x), chebyshevt(2,x), chebyshevt(3,x),
chebyshevt(4,x), chebyshevt(5,x),
x=(-1 .. 1), title="Chebyshev t Polynomials");

Chebyshev t Polynomials
1

0.5

0
y

-0.5

-1
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
x

plot(bessely(0,x), bessely(1,x), bessely(2,x), x=(0.1 .. 10),

y=(-1 .. 1), title="Bessel functions of 2nd kind");

Bessel functions of 2nd kind

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2
y

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
590 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.28 GROEBNER: A Gröbner basis package

GROEBNER is a package for the computation of Gröbner Bases using the Buch-
berger algorithm and related methods for polynomial ideals and modules. It can be
used over a variety of different coefficient domains, and for different variable and
term orderings.
Gröbner Bases can be used for various purposes in commutative algebra, e.g. for
elimination of variables, converting surd expressions to implicit polynomial form,
computation of dimensions, solution of polynomial equation systems etc. The
package is also used internally by the SOLVE operator.
Authors: Herbert Melenk, H.M. Möller and Winfried Neun.
Gröbner bases are a valuable tool for solving problems in connection with multi-
variate polynomials, such as solving systems of algebraic equations and analyzing
polynomial ideals. For a definition of Gröbner bases, a survey of possible applica-
tions and further references, see [6]. Examples are given in [5], in [7] and also in
the test file for this package.
The groebner package calculates Gröbner bases using the Buchberger algorithm.
It can be used over a variety of different coefficient domains, and for different
variable and term orderings.
The current version of the package uses parts of a previous version, written by R.
Gebauer, A.C. Hearn, H. Kredel and H. M. Möller. The algorithms implemented
in the current version are documented in [10], [11], [15] and [12]. The operator
saturation has been implemented in July 2000 (Herbert Melenk).

16.28.1 Background

Variables, Domains and Polynomials

The various functions of the groebner package manipulate equations and/or poly-
nomials; equations are internally transformed into polynomials by forming the dif-
ference of left-hand side and right-hand side, if equations are given.
All manipulations take place in a ring of polynomials in some variables x1, . . . , xn
over a coefficient domain d:
d[x1, . . . , xn],
where d is a field or at least a ring without zero divisors. The set of variables
x1, . . . , xn can be given explicitly by the user or it is extracted automatically from
the input expressions.
All REDUCE kernels can play the role of “variables” in this context; examples are
 591

x y z22 sin(alpha) cos(alpha) c(1,2,3) c(1,3,2) farina4711

The domain d is the current REDUCE domain with those kernels adjoined that are
not members of the list of variables. So the elements of d may be complicated
polynomials themselves over kernels not in the list of variables; if, however, the
variables are extracted automatically from the input expressions, d is identical with
the current REDUCE domain. It is useful to regard kernels not being members of
the list of variables as “parameters”, e.g.

a ∗ x + (a − b) ∗ y ∗ ∗2 with “variables” {x, y}

and “parameters” a and b .

The exponents of groebner variables must be positive integers.

A groebner variable may not occur as a parameter (or part of a parameter) of
a coefficient function. This condition is tested in the beginning of the groebner
calculation; if it is violated, an error message occurs (with the variable name), and
the calculation is aborted. When the groebner package is called by solve, the test
is switched off internally.
The current version of the Buchberger algorithm has two internal modes, a field
mode and a ring mode. In the starting phase the algorithm analyzes the domain
type; if it recognizes d as being a ring it uses the ring mode, otherwise the field
mode is needed. Normally field calculations occur only if all coefficients are num-
bers and if the current REDUCE domain is a field (e.g. rational numbers, modular
numbers modulo a prime). In general, the ring mode is faster. When no specific
REDUCE domain is selected, the ring mode is used, even if the input formulas
contain fractional coefficients: they are multiplied by their common denominators
so that they become integer polynomials. Zeroes of the denominators are included
in the result list.

Term Ordering

In the theory of Gröbner bases, the terms of polynomials are considered as or-
dered. Several order modes are available in the current package, including the
basic modes:

lex, gradlex, revgradlex

All orderings are based on an ordering among the variables. For each pair of vari-
ables (a, b) an order relation must be defined, e.g. “a  b”. The greater sign 
does not represent a numerical relation among the variables; it can be interpreted
only in terms of formula representation: “a” will be placed in front of “b” or “a” is
more complicated than “b”.
592 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The sequence of variables constitutes this order base. So the notion of

{x1, x2, x3}

as a list of variables at the same time means

x1  x2  x3

with respect to the term order.

If terms (products of powers of variables) are compared with lex, that term is cho-
sen which has a greater variable or a higher degree if the greatest variable is the
first in both. With gradlex the sum of all exponents (the total degree) is compared
first, and if that does not lead to a decision, the lex method is taken for the final de-
cision. The revgradlex method also compares the total degree first, but afterward
it uses the lex method in the reverse direction; this is the method originally used
by Buchberger.
Example 26 with {x, y, z}:

lex:
x ∗ y ∗ ∗3  y ∗ ∗48 (heavier variable)
x ∗ ∗4 ∗ y ∗ ∗2  x ∗ ∗3 ∗ y ∗ ∗10 (higher degree in 1st variable)
gradlex:
y ∗ ∗3 ∗ z ∗ ∗4  x ∗ ∗3 ∗ y ∗ ∗3 (higher total degree)
x ∗ z  y ∗ ∗2 (equal total degree)
revgradlex:
y ∗ ∗3 ∗ z ∗ ∗4  x ∗ ∗3 ∗ y ∗ ∗3 (higher total degree)
x ∗ z  y ∗ ∗2 (equal total degree,
so reverse order of lex)

The formal description of the term order modes is similar to [14]; this description
regards only the exponents of a term, which are written as vectors of integers with
0 for exponents of a variable which does not occur:

(e) = (e1, . . . , en) representing x1 ∗ ∗e1 x2 ∗ ∗e2 · · · xn ∗ ∗en.

deg(e) is the sum over all elements of (e)
(e)  (l) ⇐⇒ (e) − (l)  (0) = (0, . . . , 0)

lex:
(e) > lex > (0) =⇒ ek > 0 and ej = 0 for j = 1, . . . , k − 1
gradlex:
(e) > gl > (0) =⇒ deg(e) > 0 or (e) > lex > (0)
revgradlex:
(e) > rgl > (0) =⇒ deg(e) > 0 or (e) < lex < (0)
 593

Note that the lex ordering is identical to the standard REDUCE kernel ordering,
when korder is set explicitly to the sequence of variables.
lex is the default term order mode in the groebner package.
It is beyond the scope of this manual to discuss the functionality of the term order
modes. See [7].
The list of variables is declared as an optional parameter of the torder statement
(see below). If this declaration is missing or if the empty list has been used, the
variables are extracted from the expressions automatically and the REDUCE sys-
tem order defines their sequence; this can be influenced by setting an explicit order
via the korder statement.
The result of a Gröbner calculation is algebraically correct only with respect to the
term order mode and the variable sequence which was in effect during the calcu-
lation. This is important if several calls to the groebner package are done with
the result of the first being the input of the second call. Therefore we recommend
that you declare the variable list and the order mode explicitly. Once declared it re-
mains valid until you enter a new torder statement. The operator gvars helps you
extract the variables from a given set of polynomials, if an automatic reordering
has been selected.

The Buchberger Algorithm

The Buchberger algorithm of the package is based on G EBAUER /M ÖLLER [11].

Extensions are documented in [16] and [12].

16.28.2 Loading of the Package

The following command loads the package into REDUCE (this syntax may vary
according to the implementation):

load_package groebner;

The package contains various operators, and switches for control over the reduction
process. These are discussed in the following.

16.28.3 The Basic Operators

Term Ordering Mode

torder (vl,m,[p1 , p2 , . . .]);

594 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where vl is a variable list (or the empty list if no variables are declared ex-
plicitly), m is the name of a term ordering mode lex, gradlex, revgradlex
(or another implemented mode) and [p1 , p2 , . . .] are additional parameters
for the term ordering mode (not needed for the basic modes).
torder sets variable set and the term ordering mode. The default mode is lex.
The previous description is returned as a list with corresponding elements.
Such a list can alternatively be passed as sole argument to torder.
If the variable list is empty or if the torder declaration is omitted, the auto-
matic variable extraction is activated.

gvars ({exp1, exp2, . . ., expn});

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expn} is a list of expressions or equations.
gvars extracts from the expressions {exp1, exp2, . . . , expn} the kernels,
which can play the role of variables for a Gröbner calculation. This can be
used e.g. in a torder declaration.

groebner: Calculation of a Gröbner Basis

groebner {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm};

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of expressions or equations.
groebner calculates the Gröbner basis of the given set of expressions with
respect to the current torder setting.
The Gröbner basis {1} means that the ideal generated by the input polynom-
ials is the whole polynomial ring, or equivalently, that the input polynomials
have no zeroes in common.
As a side effect, the sequence of variables is stored as a REDUCE list in the
shared variable

gvarslast.

This is important if the variables are reordered because of optimization: you

must set them afterwards explicitly as the current variable sequence if you
want to use the Gröbner basis in the sequel, e.g. for a preduce call. A
basis has the property “Gröbner” only with respect to the variable sequences
which had been active during its computation.

Example 27

torder({},lex)$
groebner{3*x**2*y + 2*x*y + y + 9*x**2 + 5*x - 3,
2*x**3*y - x*y - y + 6*x**3 - 2*x**2 - 3*x + 3,
 595

x**3*y + x**2*y + 3*x**3 + 2*x**2 };

2
{8*x - 2*y + 5*y + 3,

3 2
2*y - 3*y - 16*y + 21}

This example used the default system variable ordering, which was {x, y}. With
the other variable ordering, a different basis results:

torder({y,x},lex)$
groebner{3*x**2*y + 2*x*y + y + 9*x**2 + 5*x - 3,
2*x**3*y - x*y - y + 6*x**3 - 2*x**2 - 3*x + 3,
x**3*y + x**2*y + 3*x**3 + 2*x**2 };

2
{2*y + 2*x - 3*x - 6,

3 2
2*x - 5*x - 5*x}

Another basis yet again results with a different term ordering:

torder({x,y},revgradlex)$
groebner{3*x**2*y + 2*x*y + y + 9*x**2 + 5*x - 3,
2*x**3*y - x*y - y + 6*x**3 - 2*x**2 - 3*x + 3,
x**3*y + x**2*y + 3*x**3 + 2*x**2 };

2
{2*y - 5*y - 8*x - 3,

y*x - y + x + 3,

2
2*x + 2*y - 3*x - 6}

The operation of groebner can be controlled by the following switches:

groebopt – If set on, the sequence of variables is optimized with respect to execu-
tion speed; the algorithm involved is described in [5]; note that the final list
of variables is available in gvarslast.
An explicitly declared dependency supersedes the variable optimization. For
596 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

example

depend a, x, y;

guarantees that a will be placed in front of x and y. So groebopt can be used

even in cases where elimination of variables is desired.
By default groebopt is of f , conserving the original variable sequence.

groebf ullreduction – If set of f , the reduction steps during the

groebner operation are limited to the pure head term reduction; subsequent
terms are reduced otherwise.
By default groebf ullreduction is on.

gltbasis – If set on, the leading terms of the result basis are extracted. They are
collected in a basis of monomials, which is available as value of the global
variable with the name gltb.

glterms – If {exp1 , . . . , expm } contain parameters (symbols which are not mem-
ber of the variable list), the share variable glterms contains a list of expres-
sion which during the calculation were assumed to be nonzero. A Gröbner
basis is valid only under the assumption that all these expressions do not
vanish.

The following switches control the print output of groebner; by default all these
switches are set of f and nothing is printed.

groebstat – A summary of the computation is printed including the computing

time, the number of intermediate h–polynomials and the counters for the
hits of the criteria.

trgroeb – Includes groebstat and the printing of the intermediate h-polynomials.

trgroebs – Includes trgroeb and the printing of intermediate s–polynomials.

trgroeb1 – The internal pairlist is printed when modified.

Gzerodim?: Test of dim = 0

gzerodim!? bas
where bas is a Gröbner basis in the current setting. The result is nil, if bas is
the basis of an ideal of polynomials with more than finitely many common
zeros. If the ideal is zero dimensional, i. e. the polynomials of the ideal have
only finitely many zeros in common, the result is an integer k which is the
number of these common zeros (counted with multiplicities).
 597

gdimension, gindependent_sets: compute dimension and independent vari-

ables

The following operators can be used to compute the dimension and the independent
variable sets of an ideal which has the Gröbner basis bas with arbitrary term order:

gdimension bas

gindependent_sets bas gindependent_sets computes the maximal left indepen-

dent variable sets of the ideal, that are the variable sets which play the role
of free parameters in the current ideal basis. Each set is a list which is a
subset of the variable list. The result is a list of these sets. For an ideal with
dimension zero the list is empty. gdimension computes the dimension of the
ideal, which is the maximum length of the independent sets.

The switch groebopt plays no role in the algorithms gdimension and gindependent_sets.
It is set of f during the processing even if it is set on before. Its state is saved during
the processing.
The “Kredel-Weispfenning" algorithm is used (see [15], extended to general order-
ing in [4].

Conversion of a Gröbner Basis

glexconvert: Conversion of an Arbitrary Gröbner Basis of a Zero Dimen-

sional Ideal into a Lexical One

glexconvert ({exp, . . . , expm} [, {var1 . . . , varn}] [, maxdeg = mx]

[, newvars = {nv1, . . . , nvk}])
where {exp1, . . . , expm} is a Gröbner basis with {var1, . . . , varn} as vari-
ables in the current term order mode, mx is an integer, and {nv1, . . . , nvk}
is a subset of the basis variables. For this operator the source and target
variable sets must be specified explicitly.

glexconvert converts a basis of a zero-dimensional ideal (finite number of isolated

solutions) from arbitrary ordering into a basis under lex ordering. During the call
of glexconvert the original ordering of the input basis must be still active!
newvars defines the new variable sequence. If omitted, the original variable se-
quence is used. If only a subset of variables is specified here, the partial ideal basis
is evaluated. For the calculation of a univariate polynomial, newvars should be a
list with one element.
maxdeg is an upper limit for the degrees. The algorithm stops with an error mes-
sage, if this limit is reached.
598 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A warning occurs if the ideal is not zero dimensional.

glexconvert is an implementation of the FLGM algorithm by
FAUGÈRE, G IANNI, L AZARD and M ORA [10]. Often, the calculation of a Gröb-
ner basis with a graded ordering and subsequent conversion to lex is faster than a
direct lex calculation. Additionally, glexconvert can be used to transform a lex
basis into one with different variable sequence, and it supports the calculation of
a univariate polynomial. If the latter exists, the algorithm is even applicable in the
non zero-dimensional case, if such a polynomial exists. If the polynomial does not
exist, the algorithm computes until maxdeg has been reached.

torder({{w,p,z,t,s,b},gradlex)

g := groebner { f1 := 45*p + 35*s -165*b -36,

35*p + 40*z + 25*t - 27*s, 15*w + 25*p*s +30*z -18*t
-165*b**2, -9*w + 15*p*t + 20*z*s,
w*p + 2*z*t - 11*b**3, 99*w - 11*s*b +3*b**2,
b**2 + 33/50*b + 2673/10000};

g := {60000*w + 9500*b + 3969,

1800*p - 3100*b - 1377,

18000*z + 24500*b + 10287,

750*t - 1850*b + 81,

200*s - 500*b - 9,
2
10000*b + 6600*b + 2673}

glexconvert(g,{w,p,z,t,s,b},maxdeg=5,newvars={w});

2
100000000*w + 2780000*w + 416421

glexconvert(g,{w,p,z,t,s,b},maxdeg=5,newvars={p});

2
6000*p - 2360*p + 3051

groebner_walk: Conversion of a (General) Total Degree Basis into a Lex One

The algorithm groebner_walk convertes from an arbitrary polynomial system a
 599

graduated basis of the given variable sequence to a lex one of the same sequence.
The job is done by computing a sequence of Gröbner bases of correspondig mono-
mial ideals, lifting the original system each time. The algorithm has been described
(more generally) by [2],[3],[1] and [8]. groebner_walk should be only called, if
the direct calculation of a lex Gröbner base does not work. The computation of
groebner_walk includes some overhead (e. g. the computation divides poly-
nomials). Normally torder must be called before to define the variables and the
variable sorting. The reordering of variables makes no sense with groebner_walk;
so do not call groebner_walk with groebopt on!

groebner_walk g
where g is a polynomial ideal basis computed under gradlex or under
weighted with a one–element, non zero weight vector with only one ele-
ment, repeated for each variable. The result is a corresponding lex basis (if
that is computable), independet of the degree of the ideal (even for non zero
degree ideals). The variabe gvarslast is not set.

groebnerf : Factorizing Gröbner Bases

Background If Gröbner bases are computed in order to solve systems of equat-

ions or to find the common roots of systems of polynomials, the factorizing version
of the Buchberger algorithm can be used. The theoretical background is simple: if
a polynomial p can be represented as a product of two (or more) polynomials, e.g.
h = f ∗g, then h vanishes if and only if one of the factors vanishes. So if during the
calculation of a Gröbner basis h of the above form is detected, the whole problem
can be split into two (or more) disjoint branches. Each of the branches is simpler
than the complete problem; this saves computing time and space. The result of
this type of computation is a list of (partial) Gröbner bases; the solution set of the
original problem is the union of the solutions of the partial problems, ignoring the
multiplicity of an individual solution. If a branch results in a basis {1}, then there
is no common zero, i.e. no additional solution for the original problem, contributed
by this branch.

groebnerf Call The syntax of groebnerf is the same as for groebner.

groebnerf({exp1, exp2, . . . , expm}[, {}, {nz1, . . . nzk});

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a given list of expressions or equations, and

{nz1, . . . nzk} is an optional list of polynomials known to be non-zero.
groebnerf tries to separate polynomials into individual factors and to branch the
computation in a recursive manner (factorization tree). The result is a list of partial
Gröbner bases. If no factorization can be found or if all branches but one lead to
600 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

the trivial basis {1}, the result has only one basis; nevertheless it is a list of lists
of polynomials. If no solution is found, the result will be {{1}}. Multiplicities
(one factor with a higher power, the same partial basis twice) are deleted as early
as possible in order to speed up the calculation. The factorizing is controlled by
some switches.
As a side effect, the sequence of variables is stored as a REDUCE list in the shared
variable

gvarslast .

If gltbasis is on, a corresponding list of leading term bases is also produced and is
available in the variable gltb.
The third parameter of groebnerf allows one to declare some polynomials
nonzero. If any of these is found in a branch of the calculation the branch is can-
celled. This can be used to save a substantial amount of computing time. The
second parameter must be included as an empty list if the third parameter is to be
used.

torder({x,y},lex)$
groebnerf { 3*x**2*y + 2*x*y + y + 9*x**2 + 5*x = 3,
2*x**3*y - x*y - y + 6*x**3 - 2*x**2 - 3*x = -3,
x**3*y + x**2*y + 3*x**3 + 2*x**2 \};

{{y - 3,x},

2
{2*y + 2*x - 1,2*x - 5*x - 5}}

It is obvious here that the solutions of the equations can be read off immediately.
All switches from groebner are valid for groebnerf as well:

groebopt
gltbasis
groebf ullreduction
groebstat
trgroeb
trgroebs
rgroeb1

Additional switches for groebnerf :

 601

trgroebr – All intermediate partial basis are printed when detected.

By default trgroebr is off.

groebmonfac groebresmax groebrestriction

These variables are described in the following paragraphs.

Suppression of Monomial Factors The factorization in groebnerf is controlled

by the following switches and variables. The variable groebmonf ac is connected
to the handling of “monomial factors”. A monomial factor is a product of variable
powers occurring as a factor, e.g. x ∗ ∗2 ∗ y in x ∗ ∗3 ∗ y − 2 ∗ x ∗ ∗2 ∗ y ∗ ∗2. A
monomial factor represents a solution of the type “x = 0 or y = 0” with a certain
multiplicity. With groebnerf the multiplicity of monomial factors is lowered to
the value of the shared variable

groebmonf ac

which by default is 1 (= monomial factors remain present, but their multiplicity is

brought down). With

groebmonf ac := 0

the monomial factors are suppressed completely.

Limitation on the Number of Results The shared variable

groebresmax

controls the number of partial results. Its default value is 300. If groebresmax
partial results are calculated, the calculation is terminated. groebresmax counts
all branches, including those which are terminated (have been computed already),
give no contribution to the result (partial basis 1), or which are unified in the result
with other (partial) bases. So the resulting number may be much smaller. When
the limit of groeresmax is reached, a warning
GROEBRESMAX limit reached
is issued; this warning in any case has to be taken as a serious one. For "nor-
mal" calculations the groebresmax limit is not reached. groebresmax is a shared
variable (with an integer value); it can be set in the algebraic mode to a different
(positive integer) value.

Restriction of the Solution Space In some applications only a subset of the

complete solution set of a given set of equations is relevant, e.g. only nonnegative
602 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

values or positive definite values for the variables. A significant amount of com-
puting time can be saved if nonrelevant computation branches can be terminated
early.
Positivity: If a polynomial has no (strictly) positive zero, then every system con-
taining it has no nonnegative or strictly positive solution. Therefore, the Buch-
berger algorithm tests the coefficients of the polynomials for equal sign if re-
quested. For example, in 13 ∗ x + 15 ∗ y ∗ z can be zero with real nonnegative
values for x, y and z only if x = 0 and y = 0 or z = 0; this is a sort of “factoriza-
tion by restriction”. A polynomial 13 ∗ x + 15 ∗ y ∗ z + 20 never can vanish with
nonnegative real variable values.
Zero point: If any polynomial in an ideal has an absolute term, the ideal cannot
have the origin point as a common solution.
By setting the shared variable

groebrestriction

groebnerf is informed of the type of restriction the user wants to impose on the
solutions:

groebrestiction:=nonnegative;
only nonnegative real solutions are of interest

groebrestriction:=positive;
only nonnegative and nonzero solutions are of interest

groebrestriction:=zeropoint;
only solution sets which contain the point {0, 0, . . . , 0} are or interest.

If groebnerf detects a polynomial which formally conflicts with the restriction, it

either splits the calculation into separate branches, or, if a violation of the restric-
tion is determined, it cancels the actual calculation branch.

greduce, preduce: Reduction of Polynomials

Background Reduction of a polynomial “p” modulo a given sets of polynomials

“b” is done by the reduction algorithm incorporated in the Buchberger algorithm.
Informally it can be described for polynomials over a field as follows:
 603

loop1: % head term elimination

if there is one polynomial b in B such that the leading
term of p is a multiple of the leading term of P do
p := p − lt(p)/lt(b) ∗ b (the leading term vanishes)
do this loop as long as possible;
loop2: % elimination of subsequent terms
for each term s in p do
if there is one polynomial b in B such that s is a
multiple of the leading term of p do
p := p − s/lt(b) ∗ b (the term s vanishes)
do this loop as long as possible;

If the coefficients are taken from a ring without zero divisors we cannot divide by
each possible number like in the field case. But using that in the field case, c ∗ p is
reduced to c ∗ q, if p is reduced to q, for arbitrary numbers c, the reduction for the
ring case uses the least c which makes the (field) reduction for c ∗ p integer. The
result of this reduction is returned as (ring) reduction of p eventually after removing
the content, i.e. the greatest common divisor of the coefficients. The result of this
type of reduction is also called a pseudo reduction of p.

Reduction via Gröbner Basis Calculation

greduce(exp, {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm}]);

where exp is an expression, and {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number
of expressions or equations.
greduce first converts the list of expressions {exp1, . . . , expn} to a Gröbner basis,
and then reduces the given expression modulo that basis. An error results if the list
of expressions is inconsistent. The returned value is an expression representing the
reduced polynomial. As a side effect, greduce sets the variable gvarslast in the
same manner as groebner does.

Reduction with Respect to Arbitrary Polynomials

preduce(exp, {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm});

where expm is an expression, and {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number
of expressions or equations.
preduce reduces the given expression modulo the set {exp1, . . . , expm}. If this
set is a Gröbner basis, the obtained reduced expression is uniquely determined.
If not, then it depends on the subsequence of the single reduction steps (see 27).
preduce does not check whether {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a Gröbner basis in
the actual order. Therefore, if the expressions are a Gröbner basis calculated earlier
604 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

with a variable sequence given explicitly or modified by optimization, the proper

variable sequence and term order must be activated first.
Example 28(preduce called with a Gröbner basis):

torder({x,y},lex);
gb:=groebner{3*x**2*y + 2*x*y + y + 9*x**2 + 5*x - 3,
2*x**3*y - x*y - y + 6*x**3 - 2*x**2 - 3*x + 3,
x**3*y + x**2*y + 3*x**3 + 2*x**2}$
preduce (5*y**2 + 2*x**2*y + 5/2*x*y + 3/2*y
+ 8*x**2 + 3/2*x - 9/2, gb);

2
y

greduce_orders: Reduction with several term orders The shortest poly-

nomial with different polynomial term orders is computed with the operator
greduce_orders:

greduce_orders (exp, {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} [,{v1 ,v2 . . . vn }]);

where exp is an expression and {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any num-
ber of expressions or equations. The list of variables v1 , v2 . . . vn may be
omitted; if set, the variables must be a list.

The expression exp is reduced by greduce with the orders in the shared variable
gorders, which must be a list of term orders (if set). By default it is set to

{revgradlex, gradlex, lex}

The shortest polynomial is the result. The order with the shortest polynomial is
set to the shared variable gorder. A Gröbner basis of the system {exp1, exp2, . . . ,
expm} is computed for each element of orders. With the default setting gorder in
most cases will be set to revgradlex. If the variable set is given, these variables are
taken; otherwise all variables of the system {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} are extracted.
The Gröbner basis computations can take some time; if interrupted, the interme-
diate result of the reduction is set to the shared variable greduce_result, if one is
done already. However, this is not nesessarily the minimal form.
If the variable gorders should be set to orders with a parameter, the term oder has
to be replaced by a list; the first element is the term oder selected, followed by its
parameter(s), e.g.

orders := {{gradlexgradlex, 2}, {lexgradlex, 2}}

 605

Reduction Tree In some case not only are the results produced by greduce and
preduce of interest, but the reduction process is of some value too. If the switch

groebprot

is set on, groebner, greduce and preduce produce as a side effect a trace of their
work as a REDUCE list of equations in the shared variable

groebprotf ile.

Its value is a list of equations with a variable “candidate” playing the role of the
object to be reduced. The polynomials are cited as “poly1”, “poly2”, . . . . If read as
assignments, these equations form a program which leads from the reduction input
to its result. Note that, due to the pseudo reduction with a ring as the coefficient
domain, the input coefficients may be changed by global factors.
606 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Example 29
on groebprot $
preduce (5 ∗ y ∗ ∗2 + 2 ∗ x ∗ ∗2 ∗ y + 5/2 ∗ x ∗ y + 3/2 ∗ y + 8 ∗ x ∗ ∗2
+3/2 ∗ x − 9/2, gb);

2
y

groebprotfile;

2 2 2
{candidate=4*x *y + 16*x + 5*x*y + 3*x + 10*y + 3*y - 9,

2
poly1=8*x - 2*y + 5*y + 3,

3 2
poly2=2*y - 3*y - 16*y + 21,
candidate=2*candidate,
candidate= - x*y*poly1 + candidate,
candidate= - 4*x*poly1 + candidate,
candidate=4*candidate,

3
candidate= - y *poly1 + candidate,
candidate=2*candidate,

2
candidate= - 3*y *poly1 + candidate,
candidate=13*y*poly1 + candidate,
candidate=candidate + 6*poly1,

2
candidate= - 2*y *poly2 + candidate,
candidate= - y*poly2 + candidate,
candidate=candidate + 6*poly2}
 607

This means
5 3 3 9
16(5y 2 + 2x2 y + xy + y + 8x2 + x − ) =
2 2 2 2
(−8xy − 32x − 2y 3 − 3y 2 + 13y + 6)poly1
+(−2y 2 − 2y + 6)poly2 + y 2 .

Tracing with groebnert and preducet

Given a set of polynomials {f1 , . . . , fk } and their Gröbner basis {g1 , . . . , gl }, it is

well known that there are matrices of polynomials Cij and Dji such that
X X
fi = Cij gj and gj = Dji fi
j i

and these relations are needed explicitly sometimes. In B UCHBERGER [6], such
cases are described in the context of linear polynomial equations. The standard
technique for computing the above formulae is to perform Gröbner reductions,
keeping track of the computation in terms of the input data. In the current package
such calculations are performed with (an internally hidden) cofactor technique:
the user has to assign unique names to the input expressions and the arithmetic
combinations are done with the expressions and with their names simultaneously.
So the result is accompanied by an expression which relates it algebraically to the
input values.
There are two complementary operators with this feature: groebnert and preducet;
functionally they correspond to groebner and preduce. However, the sets of ex-
pressions here must be equations with unique single identifiers on their left side
and the lhs are interpreted as names of the expressions. Their results are sets of
equations (groebnert) or equations (preducet), where a lhs is the computed value,
while the rhs is its equivalent in terms of the input names.
Example 30
We calculate the Gröbner basis for an ellipse (named “p1” ) and a line (named
“p2” ); p2 is member of the basis immediately and so the corresponding first result
element is of a very simple form; the second member is a combination of p1 and
p2 as shown on the rhs of this equation:

gb1:=groebnert {p1=2*x**2+4*y**2-100,p2=2*x-y+1};

gb1 := {2*x - y + 1=p2,

2
9*y - 2*y - 199= - 2*x*p2 - y*p2 + 2*p1 + p2}

Example 31
608 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

We want to reduce the polynomial x**2 wrt the above Gröbner basis and need
knowledge about the reduction formula. We therefore extract the basis polynomials
from gb1, assign unique names to them (here g1, g2) and call preducet. The
polynomial to be reduced here is introduced with the name Q, which then appears
on the rhs of the result. If the name for the polynomial is omitted, its formal value
is used on the right side too.

gb2 := for k := 1:length gb1 collect

mkid(g,k) = lhs part(gb1,k)$
preducet (q=x**2,gb2);

- 16*y + 208= - 18*x*g1 - 9*y*g1 + 36*q + 9*g1 - g2

This output means

1 1 1 1 4 52
x2 = ( x + y − )g1 + g2 + (− y + ).
2 4 4 36 9 9

Example 32
If we reduce a polynomial which is member of the ideal, we consequently get a
result with lhs zero:

preducet(q=2*x**2+4*y**2-100,gb2);

0= - 2*x*g1 - y*g1 + 2*q + g1 - g2

This means
1 1 1
q = (x + y − )g1 + g2.
2 2 2
With these operators the matrices Cij and Dji are available implicitly, Dji as side
effect of groebnertT, cij by calls of preducet of fi wrt {gj }. The latter by defini-
tion will have the lhs zero and a rhs with linear fi .
If {1} is the Gröbner basis, the groebnert calculation gives a “proof”, showing,
how 1 can be computed as combination of the input polynomials.

Remark: Compared to the non-tracing algorithms, these operators are much

more time consuming. So they are applicable only on small sized problems.

Gröbner Bases for Modules

Given a polynomial ring, e.g. r = z[x1 · · · xk ] and an integer n > 1: the vectors
with n elements of r form a module under vector addition (= componentwise
 609

addition) and multiplication with elements of r. For a submodule given by a finite

basis a Gröbner basis can be computed, and the facilities of the groebner package
can be used except the operators groebnerf and groesolve.
The vectors are encoded using auxiliary variables which represent the unit vectors
in the module. E.g. using v1 , v2 , v3 the module element [x21 , 0, x1 − x2 ] is repre-
sented as x21 v1 + x1 v3 − x2 v3 . The use of v1 , v2 , v3 as unit vectors is set up by
assigning the set of auxiliary variables to the share variable gmodule, e.g.

gmodule := {v1,v2,v3};

After this declaration all monomials built from these variables are considered as an
algebraically independent basis of a vector space. However, you had best use them
only linearly. Once gmodule has been set, the auxiliary variables automatically
will be added to the end of each variable list (if they are not yet member there).
Example:

torder({x,y,v1,v2,v3},lex)$
gmodule := {v1,v2,v3}$
g:=groebner{x^2*v1 + y*v2,x*y*v1 - v3,2y*v1 + y*v3};

2
g := {x *v1 + y*v2,

2
x*v3 + y *v2,

3
y *v2 - 2*v3,

2*y*v1 + y*v3}

preduce((x+y)^3*v1,g);

1 3 2
- x*y*v2 - ---*y *v3 - 3*y *v2 + 3*y*v3
2

In many cases a total degree oriented term order will be adequate for computations
in modules, e.g. for all cases where the submodule membership is investigated.
However, arranging the auxiliary variables in an elimination oriented term order
can give interesting results. E.g.
610 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

p1:=(x-1)*(x^2-x+3)$ p2:=(x-1)*(x^2+x-5)$
gmodule := {v1,v2,v3};
torder({v1,x,v2,v3},lex)$
gb:=groebner {p1*v1+v2,p2*v1+v3};

gb := {30*v1*x - 30*v1 + x*v2 - x*v3 + 5*v2 - 3*v3,

2 2
x *v2 - x *v3 + x*v2 + x*v3 - 5*v2 - 3*v3}

g:=coeffn(first gb,v1,1);

g := 30*(x - 1)

c1:=coeffn(first gb,v2,1);

c1 := x + 5

c2:=coeffn(first gb,v3,1);

c2 := - x - 3

c1*p1 + c2*p2;

30*(x - 1)

Here two polynomials are entered as vectors [p1 , 1, 0] and [p2 , 0, 1]. Using a term
ordering such that the first dimension ranges highest and the other components low-
est, a classical cofactor computation is executed just as in the extended Euclidean
algorithm. Consequently the leading polynomial in the resulting basis shows the
greatest common divisor of p1 and p2 , found as a coefficient of v1 while the coef-
ficients of v2 and v3 are the cofactors c1 and c2 of the polynomials p1 and p2 with
the relation gcd(p1 , p2 ) = c1 p1 + c2 p2 .

Additional Orderings

Besides the basic orderings, there are ordering options that are used for special
purposes.

Separating the Variables into Groups It is often desirable to separate variables

and formal parameters in a system of polynomials. This can be done with a lex
 611

Gröbner basis. That however may be hard to compute as it does more separation
than necessary. The following orderings group the variables into two (or more)
sets, where inside each set a classical ordering acts, while the sets are handled via
their total degrees, which are compared in elimination style. So the Gröbner basis
will eliminate the members of the first set, if algebraically possible. torder here
gets an additional parameter which describe the grouping

torder (vl,gradlexgradlex, n)
torder (vl,gradlexrevgradlex,n)
torder (vl,lexgradlex, n)
torder (vl,lexrevgradlex, n)

Here the integer n is the number of variables in the first group and the names
combine the local ordering for the first and second group, e.g.

lexgradlex, 3 for {x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 }:

xi11 . . . xi55  xj11 . . . xj55
if (i1 , i2 , i3 ) lex (j1 , j2 , j3 )
or (i1 , i2 , i3 ) = (j1 , j2 , j3 )
and (i4 , i5 ) gradlex (j4 , j5 )

Note that in the second place there is no lex ordering available; that would not make
sense.

Weighted Ordering The statement

torder (vl,weighted, {n1 , n2 , n3 . . .}) ;

establishes a graduated ordering, where the exponents are first multiplied by the
given weights. If there are less weight values than variables, the weight 1 is added
automatically. If the weighted degree calculation is not decidable, a lex compari-
son follows.

Graded Ordering The statement

torder (vl,graded, {n1 , n2 , n3 . . .},order2 ) ;

establishes a graduated ordering, where the exponents are first multiplied by the
given weights. If there are less weight values than variables, the weight 1 is added
automatically. If the weighted degree calculation is not decidable, the term order
order2 specified in the following argument(s) is used. The ordering graded is
designed primarily for use with the operator dd_groebner.
612 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Matrix Ordering The statement

torder (vl,matrix, m) ;

where m is a matrix with integer elements and row length which corresponds to the
variable number. The exponents of each monomial form a vector; two monomials
are compared by multiplying their exponent vectors first with m and comparing
the resulting vector lexicographically. E.g. the unit matrix establishes the classical
lex term order mode, a matrix with a first row of ones followed by the rows of a
unit matrix corresponds to the gradlex ordering.
The matrix m must have at least as many rows as columns; a non–square matrix
contains redundant rows. The matrix must have full rank, and the top non–zero
element of each column must be positive.
The generality of the matrix based term order has its price: the computing time
spent in the term sorting is significantly higher than with the specialized term or-
ders. To overcome this problem, you can compile a matrix term order ; the com-
pilation reduces the computing time overhead significantly. If you set the switch
comp on, any new order matrix is compiled when any operator of the groebner
package accesses it for the first time. Alternatively you can compile a matrix ex-
plicitly

torder_compile(<n>,<m>);

where < n > is a name (an identifier) and < m > is a term order matrix.
torder_compile transforms the matrix into a LISP program, which is compiled
by the LISP compiler when comp is on or when you generate a fast loadable mod-
ule. Later you can activate the new term order by using the name < n > in a
torder statement as term ordering mode.

Gröbner Bases for Graded Homogeneous Systems

For a homogeneous system of polynomials under a term order graded, gradlex,

revgradlex or weighted a Gröbner Base can be computed with limiting the grade of
the intermediate s–polynomials:

dd_groebner (d1,d2,{p1 , p2 , . . .});

where d1 is a non–negative integer and d2 is an integer > d1 or “infinity". A pair

of polynomials is considered only if the grade of the lcm of their head terms is
between d1 and d2. See [4] for the mathematical background. For the term orders
graded or weighted the (first) weight vector is used for the grade computation.
Otherwise the total degree of a term is used.
 613

16.28.4 Ideal Decomposition & Equation System Solving

Based on the elementary Gröbner operations, the groebner package offers ad-
ditional operators, which allow the decomposition of an ideal or of a system of
equations down to the individual solutions.

Solutions Based on Lex Type Gröbner Bases

groesolve: Solution of a Set of Polynomial Equations The groesolve operator

incorporates a macro algorithm; lexical Gröbner bases are computed by groebnerf
and decomposed into simpler ones by ideal decomposition techniques; if alge-
braically possible, the problem is reduced to univariate polynomials which are
solved by solve; if rounded is on, numerical approximations are computed for
the roots of the univariate polynomials.

groesolve({exp1, exp2, . . . , expm}[, {var1, var2, . . . , varn}]);

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number of expressions or equations,

{var1, var2, . . . , varn} is an optional list of variables.
The result is a set of subsets. The subsets contain the solutions of the polynomial
equations. If there are only finitely many solutions, then each subset is a set of
expressions of triangular type {exp1, exp2, . . . , expn}, where exp1 depends only
on var1, exp2 depends only on var1 and var2 etc. until expn which depends
on var1, . . . , varn. This allows a successive determination of the solution com-
ponents. If there are infinitely many solutions, some subsets consist in less than
n expressions. By considering some of the variables as “free parameters”, these
subsets are usually again of triangular type.
Example 33(Intersubsections of a line with a circle):

groesolve({x ∗ ∗2 − y ∗ ∗2 − a, p ∗ x + q ∗ y + s}, {x, y});

2 2 2 2 2
{{x=(sqrt( - a*p + a*q + s )*q - p*s)/(p - q ),
2 2 2 2 2
y= - (sqrt( - a*p + a*q + s )*p - q*s)/(p - q )},
2 2 2 2 2
{x= - (sqrt( - a*p + a*q + s )*q + p*s)/(p - q ),
2 2 2 2 2
y=(sqrt( - a*p + a*q + s )*p + q*s)/(p - q )}}

If the system is zero–dimensional (has a number of isolated solutions), the algo-

rithm described in [13] is used, if the decomposition leaves a polynomial with
614 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

mixed leading term. Hillebrand has written the article and Möller was the tutor of
this job.
The reordering of the groesolve variables is controlled by the REDUCE switch
varopt. If varopt is on (which is the default of varopt), the variable sequence
is optimized (the variables are reordered). If varopt is of f , the given variable
sequence is taken (if no variables are given, the order of the REDUCE system
is taken instead). In general, the reordering of the variables makes the Gröbner
basis computation significantly faster. A variable dependency, declare by one (or
several) depend statements, is regarded (if varopt is on). The switch groebopt has
no meaning for groesolve; it is stored during its processing.

groepostproc: Postprocessing of a Gröbner Basis In many cases, it is difficult

to do the general Gröbner processing. If a Gröbner basis with a lex ordering is
calculated already (e.g., by very individual parameter settings), the solutions can
be derived from it by a call to groepostproc. groesolve is functionally equivalent
to a call to groebnerf and subsequent calls to groepostproc for each partial basis.

groepostproc({exp1, exp2, . . . , expm}[, {var1, var2, . . . , varn}]);

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number of expressions,

{var1, var2, . . . , varn} is an optional list of variables. The expressions must
be a lex Gröbner basis with the given variables; the ordering must be still active.
The result is the same as with groesolve.

groepostproc({x3**2 + x3 + x2 - 1,
x2*x3 + x1*x3 + x3 + x1*x2 + x1 + 2,
x2**2 + 2*x2 - 1,
x1**2 - 2},{x3,x2,x1});

{{x3= - sqrt(2),

x2=sqrt(2) - 1,

x1=sqrt(2)},

{x3=sqrt(2),

x2= - (sqrt(2) + 1),

x1= - sqrt(2)},

sqrt(4*sqrt(2) + 9) - 1
{x3=-------------------------,
 615

x2= - (sqrt(2) + 1),

x1=sqrt(2)},

- (sqrt(4*sqrt(2) + 9) + 1)
{x3=------------------------------,
2

x2= - (sqrt(2) + 1),

x1=sqrt(2)},

sqrt( - 4*sqrt(2) + 9) - 1
{x3=----------------------------,
2

x2=sqrt(2) - 1,

x1= - sqrt(2)},

- (sqrt( - 4*sqrt(2) + 9) + 1)
{x3=---------------------------------,
2

x2=sqrt(2) - 1,

x1= - sqrt(2)}}

Idealquotient: Quotient of an Ideal and an Expression Let i be an ideal and f

be a polynomial in the same variables. Then the algebraic quotient is defined by
i : f = {p | p ∗ f member of i} .
The ideal quotient i : f contains i and is obviously part of the whole polynomial
ring, i.e. contained in {1}. The case i : f = {1} is equivalent to f being a
member of i. The other extremal case, i : f = i, occurs, when f does not vanish
at any general zero of i. The explanation of the notion “general zero” introduced
by van der Waerden, however, is beyond the aim of this manual. The operation of
groesolve/groepostproc is based on nested ideal quotient calculations.
If i is given by a basis and f is given as an expression, the quotient can be calculated
by
idealquotient({exp1, . . . , expm}, exp);
616 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number of expressions or equations,

exp is a single expression or equation.
idealquotient calculates the algebraic quotient of the ideal i with the basis
{exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} and exp with respect to the variables given or extracted.
{exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is not necessarily a Gröbner basis. The result is the Gröb-
ner basis of the quotient.

Saturation: Saturation of an Ideal and an Expression The saturation op-

erator computes the quotient on an ideal and an arbitrary power of an expression
exp ∗ ∗n with arbitrary n. The call is

saturation({exp1, . . . , expm}, exp);

where {exp1, exp2, . . . , expm} is a list of any number of expressions or equations,

exp is a single expression or equation.
saturation calls idealquotient several times, until the result is stable, and returns
it.

Operators for Gröbner Bases in all Term Orderings

In some cases where no Gröbner basis with lexical ordering can be calculated, a
calculation with a total degree ordering is still possible. Then the Hilbert polyno-
mial gives information about the dimension of the solutions space and for finite sets
of solutions univariate polynomials can be calculated. The solutions of the equat-
ion system then is contained in the cross product of all solutions of all univariate
polynomials.

Hilbertpolynomial: Hilbert Polynomial of an Ideal This algorithm was con-

tributed by J OACHIM H OLLMAN, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm (pri-
vate communication).

hilbertpolynomial({exp1, . . . , expm}) ;
where {exp1, . . . , expm} is a list of any number of expressions or equations.
hilertpolynomial calculates the Hilbert polynomial of the ideal with basis
{exp1, . . . , expm} with respect to the variables given or extracted provided
the given term ordering is compatible with the degree, such as the gradlex-
or revgradlex-ordering. The term ordering of the basis must be active and
{exp1, . . ., expm} should be a Gröbner basis with respect to this ordering. The
Hilbert polynomial gives information about the cardinality of solutions of the sys-
tem {exp1, . . . , expm}: if the Hilbert polynomial is an integer, the system has
 617

only a discrete set of solutions and the polynomial is identical with the number
of solutions counted with their multiplicities. Otherwise the degree of the Hilbert
polynomial is the dimension of the solution space.
If the Hilbert polynomial is not a constant, it is constructed with the variable “x”
regardless of whether x is member of {var1, . . . , varn} or not. The value of this
polynomial at sufficiently large numbers “x” is the difference of the dimension of
the linear vector space of all polynomials of degree ≤ x minus the dimension of
the subspace of all polynomials of degree ≤ x which belong also to the ideal.
x must be an undefined variable or the value of x must be an undefined variable;
otherwise a warning is given and a new (generated) variable is taken instead.

Remark: The number of zeros in an ideal and the Hilbert polynomial depend
only on the leading terms of the Gröbner basis. So if a subsequent Hilbert calcu-
lation is planned, the Gröbner calculation should be performed with on gltbasis
and the value of gltb (or its elements in a groebnerf context) should be given to
hilbertpolynomial. In this manner, a lot of computing time can be saved in the
case of long calculations.

16.28.5 Calculations “by Hand”

The following operators support explicit calculations with polynomials in a dis-

tributive representation at the REDUCE top level. So they allow one to do Gröbner
type evaluations stepwise by separate calls. Note that the normal REDUCE arith-
metic can be used for arithmetic combinations of monomials and polynomials.

Representing Polynomials in Distributive Form

gsortp;
where p is a polynomial or a list of polynomials.
If p is a single polynomial, the result is a reordered version of p in the distributive
representation according to the variables and the current term order mode; if p
is a list, its members are converted into distributive representation and the result
is the list sorted by the term ordering of the leading terms; zero polynomials are
eliminated from the result.

torder({alpha,beta,gamma},lex);

dip := gsort(gamma*(alpha-1)**2*(beta+1)**2);
618 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2 2 2
dip := alpha *beta *gamma + 2*alpha *beta*gamma

2 2
+ alpha *gamma - 2*alpha*beta *gamma - 4*alpha*beta*gamma

2
- 2*alpha*gamma + beta *gamma + 2*beta*gamma + gamma

Splitting of a Polynomial into Leading Term and Reductum

gsplitp;
where p is a polynomial.
gsplit converts the polynomial p into distributive representation and splits it into
leading monomial and reductum. The result is a list with two elements, the leading
monomial and the reductum.

gslit dip;

2 2
{alpha *beta *gamma,

2 2 2
2*alpha *beta*gamma + alpha *gamma - 2*alpha*beta *gamma

2
- 4*alpha*beta*gamma - 2*alpha*gamma + beta *gamma

+ 2*beta*gamma + gamma}

Calculation of Buchberger’s S-polynomial

gspoly(p1, p2);
where p1 and p2 are polynomials.
gspoly calculates the s-polynomial from p1 and p2;
 619

Example for a complete calculation (taken from DAVENPORT ET AL . [9]):

torder({x,y,z},lex)$
g1 := x**3*y*z - x*z**2;
g2 := x*y**2*z - x*y*z;
g3 := x**2*y**2 - z;$

% first S-polynomial

g4 := gspoly(g2,g3);$

2 2
g4 := x *y*z - z

% next S-polynomial

p := gspoly(g2,g4); $

2 2
p := x *y*z - y*z

% and reducing, here only by g4

g5 := preduce(p,{g4});

2 2
g5 := - y*z + z

% last S-polynomial}

g6 := gspoly(g4,g5);

2 2 3
g6 := x *z - z

% and the final basis sorted descending

gsort{g2,g3,g4,g5,g6};

2 2
{x *y - z,

2 2
x *y*z - z ,
620 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2 2 3
x *z - z ,

2
x*y *z - x*y*z,

2 2
- y*z + z }

Bibliography

[1] Beatrice Amrhein and Oliver Gloor. The fractal walk. In Bruno Buchberger
an Franz Winkler, editor, Gröbner Bases and Applications, volume 251 of
LMS, pages 305 –322. Cambridge University Press, February 1998.

[2] Beatrice Amrhein, Oliver Gloor, and Wolfgang Kuechlin. How fast does
the walk run? In Alain Carriere and Louis Remy Oudin, editors, 5th Rhine
Workshop on Computer Algebra, volume PR 801/96, pages 8.1 – 8.9. Institut
Franco–Allemand de Recherches de Saint–Louis, January 1996.

[3] Beatrice Amrhein, Oliver Gloor, and Wolfgang Kuechlin. Walking faster. In
J. Calmet and C. Limongelli, editors, Design and Implementation of Symbolic
Computation Systems, volume 1128 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
pages 150 –161. Springer, 1996.

[4] Thomas Becker and Volker Weispfenning. Gröbner Bases. Springer, 1993.

[5] W. Boege, R. Gebauer, and H. Kredel. Some examples for solving systems of
algebraic equations by calculating Gröbner bases. J. Symbolic Computation,
2(1):83–98, March 1986.

[6] Bruno Buchberger. Gröbner bases: An algorithmic method in polynomial

ideal theory. In N. K. Bose, editor, Progress, directions and open problems in
multidimensional systems theory, pages 184–232. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1985.

[7] Bruno Buchberger. Applications of Gröbner bases in non-linear computa-

tional geometry. In R. Janssen, editor, Trends in Computer Algebra, pages
52–80. Berlin, Heidelberg, 1988.

[8] S. Collart, M. Kalkbrener, and D. Mall. Converting bases with the Gröbner
walk. J. Symbolic Computation, 24:465 – 469, 1997.

[9] James H. Davenport, Yves Siret, and Evelyne Tournier. Computer Algebra,
Systems and Algorithms for Algebraic Computation. Academic Press, 1989.
 621

[10] J. C. Faugère, P. Gianni, D. Lazard, and T. Mora. Efficient computation of

zero-dimensional Gröbner bases by change of ordering. Technical report,
1989.

[11] Rüdiger Gebauer and H. Michael Möller. On an installation of Buchberger’s

algorithm. J. Symbolic Computation, 6(2 and 3):275–286, 1988.

[12] A. Giovini, T. Mora, G. Niesi, L. Robbiano, and C. Traverso. One sugar cube,
please or selection strategies in the Buchberger algorithm. In Proc. of ISSAC
’91, pages 49–55, 1991.

[13] Dietmar Hillebrand. Triangulierung nulldimensionaler Ideale - Implemen-

tierung und Vergleich zweier Algorithmen - in German . Diplomarbeit im
Studiengang Mathematik der Universität Dortmund. Betreuer: Prof. Dr. H.
M. Möller. Technical report, 1999.

[14] Heinz Kredel. Admissible termorderings used in computer algebra systems.

SIGSAM Bulletin, 22(1):28–31, January 1988.

[15] Heinz Kredel and Volker Weispfenning. Computing dimension and inde-
pendent sets for polynomial ideals. J. Symbolic Computation, 6(1):231–247,
November 1988.

[16] Herbert Melenk, H. Michael Möller, and Winfried Neun. On Gröbner bases
computation on a supercomputer using REDUCE. Preprint SC 88-2, Konrad-
Zuse-Zentrum für Informationstechnik Berlin, January 1988.
622 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.29 GUARDIAN: Guarded Expressions in Practice

Computer algebra systems typically drop some degenerate cases when evaluating
expressions, e.g., x/x becomes 1 dropping the case x = 0. We claim that it is feasi-
ble in practice to compute also the degenerate cases yielding guarded expressions.
We work over real closed fields but our ideas about handling guarded expression
can be easily transferred to other situations. Using formulas as guards provides
a powerful tool for heuristically reducing the combinatorial explosion of cases:
equivalent, redundant, tautological, and contradictive cases can be detected by sim-
plification and quantifier elimination. Our approach allows to simplify the expres-
sions on the basis of simplification knowledge on the logical side. The method
described in this paper is implemented in the REDUCE package GUARDIAN.
Authors: Andreas Dolzmann and Thomas Sturm.

16.29.1 Introduction

It is meanwhile a well-known fact that evaluations obtained with the interactive use
of computer algebra systems (CAS) are not entirely correct in general. Typically,
some degenerate cases are dropped. Consider for instance the evaluation

x2
= x,
x
which is correct only if x 6= 0. The problem here is that CAS consider variables
to be transcendental elements. The user, in contrast, has in mind variables in the
sense of logic. In other words: The user does not think of rational functions but of
terms.
Next consider the valid expression
√ √
x + −x
.
x
It is meaningless over the reals. C AS often offer no choice than to interprete surds
over the complex numbers even if they distinguish between a real and a complex
mode.
Corless and Jeffrey [4] have examined the behavior of a number of CAS with such
input data. They come to the conclusion that simultaneous computation of all
cases is exemplary but not feasible due to the combinatorial explosion of cases
to be considered. Therefore, they suggest to ignore the degenerate cases but to
provide the assumptions to the user on request. We claim, in contrast, that it is in
fact feasible to compute all possible cases.
Our setting is as follows: Expressions are evaluated to guarded expressions con-
sisting of possibly several conventional expressions guarded by quantifier-free for-
 623

mulas. For the above examples, we would obtain

h √ √ i
x+ −x
 
x 6= 0 x , F x
.
As the second example illustrates, we are working in ordered fields, more precisely
in real closed fields. The handling of guarded expressions as described in this paper
can, however, be easily transferred to other situations.
Our approach can also deal with redundant guarded expressions, such as
 
T |x| − x
 x≥0 0 
x<0 −2x
which leads to algebraic simplification techniques based on logical simplification
as proposed by Davenport and Faure [5].
We use formulas over the language of ordered rings as guards. This provides pow-
erful tools for heuristically reducing the combinatorial explosion of cases: equiv-
alent, redundant, tautological, and contradictive cases can be detected by simplifi-
cation [6] and quantifier elimination [17, 3, 18, 15, 21, 20]. In certain situations,
√
we will allow the formulas also to contain extra functions such as · or | · |. Then
we take care that there is no quantifier elimination applied.
Simultaneous computation of several cases concerning certain expressions being
zero or not has been extensively investigated as dynamic evaluation [12, 10, 11, 2].
It has also been extended to real closed fields [9]. The idea behind the development
of these methods is of a more theoretical nature than to overcome the problems with
the interactive usage of CAS sketched above: one wishes to compute in algebraic
(or real) extension fields of the rationals. Guarded expressions occur naturally
when solving problems parametrically. Consider, e.g., the Gröbner systems used
during the computation of comprehensive Gröbner bases [19].
The algorithms described in this paper are implemented in the REDUCE package
GUARDIAN . It is based on the REDUCE [13, 16] package REDLOG [7, 8] imple-
menting a formula data type with corresponding algorithms, in particular including
simplification and quantifier elimination.

16.29.2 An outline of our method

Guarded expressions

A guarded expression is a scheme

 
γ0 t0

 γ1 t1 
 .. .. 
 . . 
γn tn
624 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where each γi is a quantifier-free formula, the guard, and each ti is an associated

conventional expression. The idea is that some ti is a valid interpretation iff γi
holds. Each pair (γi , ti ) is called a case.
The first case (γ0 , t0 ) is the generic case: t0 is the expression the system would
compute without our package, and γ0 is the corresponding guard.
The guards γi need neither exclude one another, nor do we require that they form
a complete case distinction. We shall, however, assume that all cases covered by a
guarded expression are already covered by the generic case; in other words:
n
^
(γi −→ γ0 ). (16.74)
i=1

Consider the following evaluation of |x| to a guarded expression:

 
T |x|
 x ≥ 0 x .
x < 0 −x

Here the non-generic cases already cover the whole domain. The generic case is
in some way redundant. It is just present for keeping track of the system’s default
behavior. Formally we have
n
_ 
γi ←→ γ0 . (16.75)
i=1

As an example for a non-redundant, i.e., necessary generic case we have the eval-
uation of the reciprocal x1 :
x 6= 0 x1 .
 

In every guarded expression, the generic case is explicitly marked as either neces-
sary or redundant. The corresponding tag is inherited during the evaluation process.
Unfortunately it can happen that guarded expressions satisfy (16.75) without being
tagged redundant, e.g., specialization of
 
T sin x
x=0 0

to x = 0 if the system cannot evaluate sin(0). This does not happen if one claims
for necessary generic cases to have, as the reciprocal above, no alternative cases at
all. Else, in the sequel “redundant generic case” has to be read as “tagged redun-
dant.”
With guarded expressions, the evaluation splits into two independent parts: Al-
gebraic evaluation and a subsequent simplification of the guarded expression ob-
tained.
 625

Guarding schemes

In the introduction we have seen that certain operators introduce case distinctions.
For this, with each operator f there is a guarding scheme associated providing
information on how to map f (t1 , . . . , tm ) to a guarded expression provided that
one does not have to care for the argument expressions t1 , . . . , tm . In the easiest
case, this is a rewrite rule

f (a1 , . . . , am ) → G(a1 , . . . , am ).

The actual terms t1 , . . . , tm are simply substituted for the formal symbols a1 ,
. . . , am into the generic guarded expression G(a1 , . . . , am ). We give some ex-
amples:
a1 h i
→ a2 6= 0 aa12
a2
√  √ 
a1 → a1 ≥ 0 a1
 
T sign(a1 )
 a1 > 0 1 
sign(a1 ) →   a1 = 0

0 
a1 < 0 −1
 
T |a1 |
|a1 | →  a1 ≥ 0 a1  (16.76)
a1 < 0 −a1

For functions of arbitrary arity, e.g., min or max, we formally assume infinitely
many operators of the same name. Technically, we associate a procedure parame-
terized with the number of arguments m that generates the corresponding rewrite
rule. As min_scheme(2) we obtain, e.g.,
 
T min(a1 , a2 )
min(a1 , a2 ) →  a1 ≤ a2 a1 , (16.77)
a2 ≤ a1 a2

while for higher arities there are more case distinctions necessary.
For later complexity analysis, we state the concept of a guarding scheme formally:
a guarding scheme for an m-ary operator f is a map

gschemef : Em → GE

where E is the set of expressions, and GE is the set of guarded expressions. This al-
lows to split f (t1 , . . . , tm ) in dependence on the form of the parameter expressions
t1 , . . . , tm .
626 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Algebraic evaluation

Evaluating conventional expressions The evaluation of conventional expres-

sions into guarded expressions is performed recursively: Constants c evaluate to
 
T c .
For the evaluation of f (e1 , . . . , em ) the argument expressions e1 , . . . , em are re-
cursively evaluated to guarded expressions
 
γi0 ti0
 γi1 ti1 
e0i =  . ..  for 1 ≤ i ≤ m. (16.78)
 
 . . . 
γini tini

Then the operator f is “moved inside” the e0i by combining all cases, technically a
simultaneous Cartesian product computation of both the sets of guards and the sets
of terms:
m
Y m
Y
Γ= {γi0 , . . . , γini }, T = {ti0 , . . . , tini }. (16.79)
i=1 i=1
This leads to the intermediate result
 
γ10 ∧ · · · ∧ γm0 f (t10 , . . . , tm0 )
 .. .. 

 . . 

 γ1n1 ∧ · · · ∧ γm0 f (t1n1 , . . . , tm0 ) 
 . (16.80)
 .. .. 
 . . 
γ1n1 ∧ · · · ∧ γmnm f (t1n1 , . . . , tmnm )
The new generic case is exactly the combination of the generic cases of the e0i . It
is redundant if at least one of these combined cases is redundant.
Next, all non-generic cases containing at least one redundant generic constituent
γi0 in their guard are deleted. The reason for this is that generic cases are only
used to keep track of the system default behavior. All other cases get the status of a
non-generic case even if they contain necessary generic constituents in their guard.
At this point, we apply the guarding scheme of f to all remaining expressions
f (t1i1 , . . . , tmim ) in the form (16.80) yielding a nested guarded expression
   
δ00 u00
 .. ..  
 Γ0

 . .  
 

 δ0k0 u0k0 

 .. ..
, (16.81)

 . .
   

 δN 0 uN 0 

 .. .
.
 ΓN  .
  
.  
δN kN uN kN
 627

which can be straightforwardly resolved to a guarded expression

 
Γ0 ∧ δ00 u00
 .. .. 

 . . 

 Γ0 ∧ δ0k u0k0 
 0 
.. ..
.
 

 . . 
 ΓN ∧ δN 0 uN 0

 
 .. .. 
 . . 
ΓN ∧ δN kN uN kN
This form is treated analogously to the form (16.80): The new
generic case
(Γ0 ∧ δ00 , u00 ) is redundant if at least one of Γ0 , f (t10 , . . . , tm0 ) and (δ00 , u00 )
is redundant. Among the non-generic cases all those containing redundant generic
constituents in their guard are deleted, and all those containing necessary generic
constituents in their guard get the status of an ordinary non-generic case.
Finally the standard evaluator of the system—reval in the case of REDUCE—
is applied to all contained expressions, which completes the algebraic part of the
evaluation.

Evaluating guarded expressions The previous section was concerned with the
evaluation of pure conventional expressions into guarded expressions. Our system
currently combines both conventional and guarded expressions. We are thus faced
with the problem of treating guarded subexpressions during evaluation.
When there is a guarded subexpression ei detected during evaluation, all contained
expressions are recursively evaluated to guarded expressions yielding a nested
guarded expression of the form (16.81). This is resolved as described above yield-
ing the evaluation subresult e0i .
As a special case, this explains how guarded expressions are (re)evaluated to
guarded expressions.

Example

We describe the evaluation of the expression min(x, |x|). The first argument e1 =
x evaluates recursively to
e01 = T x
 
(16.82)
with a necessary generic case. The nested x inside e2 = |x| evaluates to the same
form (16.82). For obtaining e02 , we apply the guarding scheme (16.76) of the abso-
lute value to the only term of (16.82) yielding
   
T |x|
 T  x ≥ 0 x  ,
x < 0 −x
628 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where the inner generic case is redundant. This form is resolved to

 
T∧T |x|
e02 =  T ∧ x ≥ 0 x 
T ∧ x < 0 −x
with a redundant generic case. The next step is the combination of cases by Carte-
sian product computation. We obtain
 
T ∧ (T ∧ T) min(x, |x|)
 T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0) min(x, x)  ,
T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0) min(x, −x)
which corresponds to (16.80) above. For the outer min, we apply the guarding
scheme (16.77) to all terms yielding the nested guarded expression
  
T min(x, |x|)

 T ∧ (T ∧ T)  x ≤ |x| x  
 
|x| ≤ x |x|
 
  

 T min(x, x) 

 T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)  x≤x x  ,
 

  x ≤ x x  


 T min(x, −x) 

 T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)  x ≤ −x x  
−x ≤ x −x
which is in turn resolved to
(T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ T min(x, |x|)
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ x ≤ |x| x 
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ |x| ≤ x |x| 
 

 (T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)) ∧ T min(x, x) 

 (T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)) ∧ x ≤ x x .
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)) ∧ x ≤ x x 
 

 (T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)) ∧ T min(x, −x) 

 (T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)) ∧ x ≤ −x x 
(T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)) ∧ −x ≤ x −x
From this, we delete the two non-generic cases obtained by combination with the
redundant generic case of the min. The final result of the algebraic evaluation step
is the following:
(T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ T min(x, |x|)
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ x ≤ |x| x 
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ T)) ∧ |x| ≤ x |x| 
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)) ∧ x ≤ x x . (16.83)
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ x ≥ 0)) ∧ x ≤ x x 
 
 (T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)) ∧ x ≤ −x x 
(T ∧ (T ∧ x < 0)) ∧ −x ≤ x −x
 629

Worst-case complexity

Our measure of complexity |G| for guarded expressions G is the number of con-
tained cases:  
 γ0 t0 

  γ1 t1  
..  = n + 1.
 
 .. 
 . . 

 γn tn 

As in Section 16.29.2, consider an m-ary operator f , guarded expression argu-

ments e01 , . . . , e0m as in equation (16.78), and the Cartesian product T as in equat-
ion (16.79). Then
X
|f (e01 , . . . , e0m )| ≤ |gschemef (t1 , . . . , tm )|
(t1 ,...,tm )∈T
≤ max |gschemef (t1 , . . . , tm )| · #T
(t1 ,...,tm )∈T
m
Y
= max |gschemef (t1 , . . . , tm )| · |e0j |
(t1 ,...,tm )∈T
j=1

m
≤ max |gschemef (t1 , . . . , tm )| · max |e0j | .
(t1 ,...,tm )∈T 1≤j≤m

In the important special case that the guarding scheme of f is a rewrite rule
f (a1 , . . . , am ) → G, the above complexity estimation simplifies to
m
Y
m
|f (e01 , . . . , e0m )| ≤ |G| · |e0j | ≤ |G| · max |e0j | .
1≤j≤m
j=1

In other words: |G| plays the role of a factor, which, however, depends on f , and
|f (e01 , . . . , e0m )| is polynomial in the size of the ei but exponential in the arity of f .

Simplification

In view of the increasing size of the guarded expressions coming into existence
with subsequent computations, it is indispensable to apply simplification strate-
gies. There are two different algorithms involved in the simplification of guarded
expressions:

1. A formula simplifier mapping quantifier-free formulas to equivalent simpler

ones.

2. Effective quantifier elimination for real closed fields over the language of
ordered rings.
630 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

It is not relevant, which simplifier and which quantifier elimination procedure is ac-
tually used. We use the formula simplifier described in [6]. Our quantifier elimina-
tion uses test point methods developed by Weispfenning [18, 15, 21]. It is restricted
to formulas obeying certain degree restrictions wrt. the quantified variables. As an
alternative, REDLOG provides an interface to Hong’s QEPCAD quantifier elimina-
tion package [14]. Compared to the simplification, the quantifier elimination is
more time consuming. It can be turned off by a switch.
The following simplification steps are applied in the given order:

Contraction of cases This is restricted to the non-generic cases of the considered

guarded expression. We contract different cases containing the same terms:
 
γ0 t0
 .. ..   
 . .  γ0 t0

 γi ti 
  .. .. 
 . . 
..  becomes  γ ∨ γ t  .
 
 .. 
 . .   i j i 

 γj ti 
 .. ..
  . .
.. ..
. .

Simplification of the guards The simplifier is applied to all guards replacing

them by simplified equivalents. Since our simplifier maps γ ∨ γ to γ, this together
with the contraction of cases takes care for the deletion of duplicate cases.

Keep one tautological case If the guard of some non-generic case becomes “T,”
we delete all other non-generic cases. Else, if quantifier elimination is turned on,
we try to detect a tautology by eliminating the universal closures ∀γ of the guards
γ. This quantifier elimination is also applied to the guards of generic cases. These
are, in case of success, simply replaced by “T” without deleting the case.

Remove contradictive cases A non-generic case is deleted if its guard has be-
come “F.” If quantifier elimination is turned on, we try to detect further contradic-
tive cases by eliminating the existential closure ∃γ for each guard γ. This quantifier
elimination is also applied to generic cases. In case of success they are not deleted
but their guards are replaced by “F.” Our assumption (16.74) allows then to delete
all non-generic cases.
 631

Example revisited

We turn back to the form (16.83) of our example min(x, |x|). Contraction of cases
with subsequent simplification automatically yields
 
T min(x, |x|)

 T x 
,
 |x| − x ≤ 0 |x| 
F −x

of which only the tautological non-generic case survives:

 
T min(x, |x|)
. (16.84)
T x

Output modes

An output mode determines which part of the information contained in the guarded
expressions is provided to the user. G UARDIAN knows the following output modes:

Matrix Output matrices in the style used throughout this paper. We have already
seen that these can become very large in general.

Generic case Output only the generic case.

Generic term Output only the generic term. Thus the output is exactly the same
as without the guardian package. If the condition of the generic case becomes “F,”
a warning “contradictive situation” is given. The computation can,
however, be continued.

Note that output modes are restrictions concerning only the output; internally the
system still computes with the complete guarded expressions.

A smart mode

Consider the evaluation result (16.84) of min(x, |x|). The generic term output
mode would output min(x, |x|), although more precise information could be given,
namely x. The problem is caused by the fact that generic cases are used to keep
track of the system’s default behavior. In this section we will describe an optional
smart mode with a different notion of generic case. To begin with, we show why
the problem can not be overcome by a “smart output mode.”
632 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Assume that there is an output mode which outputs x for (16.84). As the next
computation involving (16.84) consider division by y. This would result in
" #
y 6= 0 min(x,|x|)
y
x .
y 6= 0 y

Again, there are identic conditions for the generic case and some non-generic case,
and, again, the term belonging to the latter is simpler. Our mode would output xy .
Next, we apply the absolute value once more yielding
| min(x,|x|)|
 
y 6= 0 |y|
x
 xy ≥ 0 ∧ y 6= 0 .
 
y
−x
xy < 0 ∧ y 6= 0 y

Here, the condition of the generic case differs from all other conditions. We thus
have to output the generic term. For the user, the evaluation of | xy | results in
| min(x,|x|)|
|y| .
The smart mode can turn a non-generic case into a necessary generic one dropping
the original generic case and all other non-generic cases. Consider, e.g., (16.84),
where the conditions are equal, and the non-generic term is “simpler.”
In fact, the relevant relationship between the conditions is that the generic condition
implies the non-generic one. In other words: Some non-generic condition is not
more restrictive than the generic condition, and thus covers the whole domain of the
guarded expression. Note that from the implication and (16.74) we may conclude
that the cases are even equivalent.
Implication is heuristically checked by simplification. If this fails, quantifier elim-
ination provides a decision procedure. Note that our test point methods are in-
complete in this regard due to the degree restrictions. Also it cannot be applied
straightforwardly to guards containing operators that do not belong to the language
of ordered rings.
Whenever we happen to detect a relevant implication, we actually turn the cor-
responding non-generic case into the generic one. From our motivation of non-
generic cases, we may expect that non-generic expressions are generally more con-
venient than generic ones.

16.29.3 Examples

We give the results for the following computations as they are printed in the output
mode matrix providing the full information on the computation result. The reader
can derive himself what the output in the mode generic case or generic term would
be.
 633

• Smart mode or not:

1 h
1
i
= x + 1 6
= 0 x2 +2x+1 .
x2 + 2x + 1
The simplifier recognizes that the denominator is a square.
• Smart mode or not:
1 h
1
i
= T 2
x +2x+2 .
x2 + 2x + 2
Quantifier elimination recognizes the positive definiteness of the denomina-
tor.
• Smart mode: √  √ 
|x| − x= x≥0 − x+x .
The square root allows to forget about the negative branch of the absolute
value.
• Smart mode:
|x2 + 2x + 1| = T x2 + 2x + 1
 
.
The simplifier recognizes the positive semidefiniteness of the argument. R E -
DUCE itself recognizes squares within absolute values only in very special
cases such as |x2 |.
• Smart mode:
 
min x, max(x, y) = T x .
Note that REDUCE does not know any rules about nested minima and max-
ima.
• Smart mode:
 
min sign(x), −1 = T −1 .
• Smart mode or not:
 
T |x| − x
|x| − x =  x ≥ 0 0 .
x<0 −2x
This example is taken from [5].
• Smart mode or not:
p h p i
1 + x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 − 3) = T x4 y 2 + x2 y 4 − 3x2 y 2 + 1
The Motzkin polynomial is recognized to be positive semidefinite by quanti-
fier elimination.

The evaluation time for the last example is 119 ms on a SUN SPARC -4. This illus-
trates that efficiency is no problem with such interactive examples.
634 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.29.4 Outlook

This section describes possible extensions of the GUARDIAN. The extensions pro-
posed in Section 16.29.4 on simplification of terms and Section 16.29.4 on a back-
ground theory are clear from a theoretical point of view but not yet implemented.
Section 16.29.4 collects some ideas on the application of our ideas to the REDUCE
integrator. In this field, there is some more theoretical work necessary.

Simplification of terms

Consider the expression sign(x)x − |x|. It evaluates to the following guarded

expression:  
T −|x| + sign(x)x
 x 6= 0 0 .
x=0 −x
This suggests to substitute −x by 0 in the third case, which would in turn allow to
contract the two non-generic cases yielding
 
T −|x| + sign(x)x
.
T 0

In smart mode second case would then become the only generic case.
Generally, one would proceed as follows: If the guard is a conjunction containing
as toplevel equations
t1 = 0, . . . , tk = 0,
reduce the corresponding expression modulo the set of univariate linear polynom-
ials among t1 , . . . , tk .
A more general approach would reduce the expression modulo a Gröbner basis of
all the t1 , . . . , tk . This leads, however, to larger expressions in general.
One can also imagine to make use of non-conjunctive guards in the following way:

1. Compute a DNF of the guard.

2. Split the case into several cases corresponding to the conjunctions in the
DNF .

3. Simplify the terms.

4. Apply the standard simplification procedure to the resulting guarded expres-

sion. Note that it includes contraction of cases.

According to experiences with similar ideas in the “Gröbner simplifier” described

in [6], this should work well.
 635

Background theory

In practice one often computes with quantities guaranteed to lie in a certain range.
For instance, when computing an electrical resistance, one knows in advance that it
will not be negative. For such cases one would like to have some facility to provide
external information to the system. This can then be used to reduce the complexity
of the guarded expressions.
One would provide a function assert(ϕ), which asserts the formula ϕ to hold.
Successive applications of assert establish a background theory, which is a set of
formulas considered conjunctively. The information contained in the background
theory can be used with the guarded expression computation. The user must, how-
ever, not rely on all the background information to be actually used.
Technically, denote by Φ the (conjunctive) background theory. For the simplifica-
tion of the guards, we can make use of the fact that our simplifier is designed to
simplify wrt. a theory, cf. [6]. For proving that some guard γ is tautological, we
try to prove
∀(Φ −→ γ)
instead of ∀γ. Similarly, for proving that γ is contradictive, we try to disprove

∃(Φ ∧ γ).

Instead of proving ∀(γ1 −→ γ2 ) in smart mode, we try to prove

∀ (Φ ∧ γ1 ) −→ γ2 .

Independently, one can imagine to use a background theory for reducing the output
with the matrix output mode. For this, one simplifies each guard wrt. the theory
at the output stage treating contradictions and tautologies appropriately. Using the
theory for replacing all cases by one at output stage in a smart mode manner leads
once more to the problem of expressions or even guarded expressions “mysteri-
ously” getting more complicated. Applying the theory only at the output stage
makes it possible to implement a procedure unassert(ϕ) in a reasonable way.

Integration

C AS integrators make “mistakes” similar to those we have examined. Consider,

e.g., the typical result Z
1
xa dx = xa+1 .
a+1
It does not cover the case a = −1, for which one wishes to obtain
Z
x−1 dx = ln x.
636 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

This problem can also be solved by using guarded expressions for integration re-
sults.
Within the framework of this paper, we would have to associate a guarding scheme
to the integrator int. It is not hard to see that this cannot be done in a reasonable
way without putting as much knowledge into the scheme as into the integrator
itself. Thus for treating integration, one has to modify the integrator to provide
guarded expressions.
Next, we have to clarify what the guarded expression for the above integral would
look like. Since we know that the integral is defined for all interpretations of the
variables, our assumption (16.74) implies that the generic condition be “T.” We
obtain the guarded expression
 R a 
T x dx
 a 6= −1 1 a+1 
a+1 x .
a = −1 ln x

Note that the redundant generic case does not model the system’s current behavior.

Combining algebra with logic

Our method, in the described form, uses an already implemented algebraic evalu-
ator. In the previous section, we have seen that this point of view is not sufficient
for treating integration appropriately.
Also our approach runs into trouble with built-in knowledge such as
√
x2 = |x|, (16.85)
sign(|x|) = 1. (16.86)

Equation (16.85) introduces an absolute value operator within a non-generic term

without making a case distinction. Equation (16.86) is wrong when not considering
x transcendental. In contrast to the situation with reciprocals, our technique cannot
be used to avoid this “mistake.” We obtain
 
T 1
sign(|x|) =  x 6= 0 1 
x=0 0

yielding two different answers for x = 0.

We have already seen in the example Section 16.29.3 that the implementation of
knowledge such as (16.85) and (16.86) is usually quite ad hoc, and can be mostly
covered by using guarded expressions. This obesrvation gives rise to the following
question: When designing a new CAS based on guarded expressions, how should
the knowledge be distributed between the algebraic side and the logic side?
 637

16.29.5 Conclusions

Guarded expressions can be used to overcome well-known problems with interpret-

ing expressions as terms. We have explained in detail how to compute with guarded
expressions including several simplification techniques. Moreover we gain alge-
braic simplification power from the logical simplifications. Numerous examples
illustrate the power of our simplification methods. The largest part of our ideas
is efficiently implemented, and the software is published. The outlook on back-
ground theories and on the treatment of integration by guarded expressions points
on interesting future extensions.

Bibliography

[1] Bradford, R. Algebraic simplification of multiple valued functions. In Design

and Implementation of Symbolic Computation Systems (1992), J. Fitch, Ed.,
vol. 721 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Springer-Verlag, pp. 13–21.
Proceedings of the DISCO 92.

[2] Broadberry, P., Gómez-Díaz, T., and Watt, S. On the implementation of dy-
namic evaluation. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Symb-
olic and Algebraic Manipulation (ISSAC 95) (New York, N.Y., 1995), A. Lev-
elt, Ed., ACM Press, pp. 77–89.

[3] Collins, G. E. Quantifier elimination for the elementary theory of real closed
fields by cylindrical algebraic decomposition. In Automata Theory and For-
mal Languages. 2nd GI Conference (Berlin, Heidelberg, New York, May
1975), H. Brakhage, Ed., vol. 33 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science,
Gesellschaft für Informatik, Springer-Verlag, pp. 134–183.

[4] Corless, R. M., and Jeffrey, D. J. Well . . . it isn’t quite that simple. ACM
SIGSAM Bulletin 26, 3 (Aug. 1992), 2–6. Feature.

[5] Davenport, J. H., and Faure, C. The “unknown” in computer algebra. Pro-
grammirovanie 1, 1 (1994).

[6] Dolzmann, A., and Sturm, T. Simplification of quantifier-free formulas over

ordered fields. Technical Report MIP-9517, FMI, Universität Passau, D-
94030 Passau, Germany, Oct. 1995. To appear in the Journal of Symbolic
Computation.

[7] Dolzmann, A., and Sturm, T. Redlog—computer algebra meets computer

logic. Technical Report MIP-9603, FMI, Universität Passau, D-94030 Passau,
Germany, Feb. 1996.
638 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[8] Dolzmann, A., and Sturm, T. Redlog user manual. Technical Report MIP-
9616, FMI, Universität Passau, D-94030 Passau, Germany, Oct. 1996. Edi-
tion 1.0 for Version 1.0.

[9] Duval, D., and Gonzáles-Vega, L. Dynamic evaluation and real closure. In
Proceedings of the IMACS Symposium on Symbolic Computation (1993).

[10] Duval, D., and Reynaud, J.-C. Sketches and computation I: Basic definitions
and static evaluation. Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 4, 2
(1994), 185–238.

[11] Duval, D., and Reynaud, J.-C. Sketches and computation II: Dynamic eval-
uation and applications. Mathematical Structures in Computer Science 4, 2
(1994), 239–271.

[12] Gómez-Díaz, T. Examples of using dynamic constructible closure. In Pro-

ceedings of the IMACS Symposium on Symbolic Computation (1993).

[13] Hearn, A. C., and Fitch, J. P. Reduce User’s Manual for Version 3.6. RAND,
Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138, July 1995. RAND Publication CP78.

[14] Hong, H., Collins, G. E., Johnson, J. R., and Encarnacion, M. J. QEPCAD
interactive version 12. Kindly communicated to us by Hoon Hong, Sept.
1993.

[15] Loos, R., and Weispfenning, V. Applying linear quantifier elimination. The
Computer Journal 36, 5 (1993), 450–462. Special issue on computational
quantifier elimination.

[16] Melenk, H. Reduce symbolic mode primer. In REDUCE 3.6 User’s Guide
for UNIX. Konrad-Zuse-Institut, Berlin, 1995.

[17] Tarski, A. A decision method for elementary algebra and geometry. Tech.
rep., University of California, 1948. Second edn., rev. 1951.

[18] Weispfenning, V. The complexity of linear problems in fields. Journal of

Symbolic Computation 5, 1 (Feb. 1988), 3–27.

[19] Weispfenning, V. Comprehensive Gröbner bases. Journal of Symbolic Com-

putation 14 (July 1992), 1–29.

[20] Weispfenning, V. Quantifier elimination for real algebra—the cubic case.

In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic
Computation in Oxford (New York, July 1994), ACM Press, pp. 258–263.

[21] Weispfenning, V. Quantifier elimination for real algebra—the quadratic case

and beyond. To appear in AAECC.
 639

16.30 IDEALS: Arithmetic for polynomial ideals

This package implements the basic arithmetic for polynomial ideals by exploiting
the Gröbner bases package of REDUCE. In order to save computing time all inter-
mediate Gröbner bases are stored internally such that time consuming repetitions
are inhibited.
Author: Herbert Melenk.

16.30.1 Introduction

This package implements the basic arithmetic for polynomial ideals by exploiting
the Gröbner bases package of REDUCE. In order to save computing time all inter-
mediate Gröbner bases are stored internally such that time consuming repetitions
are inhibited. A uniform setting facilitates the access.

16.30.2 Initialization

Prior to any computation the set of variables has to be declared by calling the
operator I_setting . E.g. in order to initiate computations in the polynomial ring
Q[x, y, z] call

I_setting(x,y,z);

A subsequent call to I_setting allows one to select another set of variables; at the
same time the internal data structures are cleared in order to free memory resources.

16.30.3 Bases

An ideal is represented by a basis (set of polynomials) tagged with the symbol I,

e.g.

u := I(x*z-y**2, x**3-y*z);

Alternatively a list of polynomials can be used as input basis; however, all arith-
metic results will be presented in the above form. The operator ideal2list allows
one to convert an ideal basis into a conventional REDUCE list.

Operators

Because of syntactical restrictions in REDUCE, special operators have to be used

for ideal arithmetic:
640 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

.+ ideal sum (infix)

.* ideal product (infix)
.: ideal quotient (infix)
./ ideal quotient (infix)
.= ideal equality test (infix)
subset ideal inclusion test (infix)
intersection ideal intersection (prefix,binary)
member test for membership in an ideal
(infix: polynomial and ideal)
gb Groebner basis of an ideal (prefix, unary)
ideal2list convert ideal basis to polynomial list
(prefix,unary)

Example:

I(x+y,x^2) .* I(x-z);

2 2 2
I(X + X*Y - X*Z - Y*Z,X*Y - Y *Z)

The test operators return the values 1 (=true) or 0 (=false) such that they can be
used in REDUCE if − then − else statements directly.
The results of sum, product, quotient, intersction are ideals represented by their
Gröbner basis in the current setting and term order. The term order can be modified
using the operator torder from the Gröbner package. Note that ideal equality
cannot be tested with the REDUCE equal sign:

I(x,y) = I(y,x) is false

I(x,y) .= I(y,x) is true

16.30.4 Algorithms

The operators groebner, preduce and idealquotient of the REDUCE Gröbner

package support the basic algorithms:
GB(Iu1 , u2 ...) → groebner({u1 , u2 ...}, {x, ...})
p ∈ I1 → p = 0 mod I1
T
I1 : I(p) → (I1 I(p))/p elementwise
On top of these the Ideals package implements the following operations:
 641

I(u1 , u2 ...) + I(v1 , v2 ...) → GB(I(u1 , u2 ..., v1 , v2 ...))

I(u1 , u2 ...) ∗ I(v1 , v2 ...) → GB(I(u1 ∗ v1 , u1 ∗ v2, ..., u2 ∗ v1 , u2 ∗ v2 ...))
T T
I1 I2 → Q[x, ...] GBlex (t ∗ I1 + (1 − t) ∗ I2 , {t, x, ..})
T T
I1 : I(p1 , p2 , ...) → I1 : I(p1 ) I1 : I(p2 ) ...
I1 = I2 → GB(I1 ) = GB(I2 )
I1 ⊆ I2 → ui ∈ I2 ∀ ui ∈ I1 = I(u1 , u2 ...)

16.30.5 Examples

Please consult the file ideals.tst.

642 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.31 INEQ: Support for solving inequalities

This package supports the operator ineq_solve that tries to solves single in-
equalities and sets of coupled inequalities.
Author: Herbert Melenk.
The following types of systems are supported :

• only numeric coefficients (no parametric system),

• a linear system of mixed equations and <= – >= inequalities, applying the
method of Fourier and Motzkin 28 ,

• a univariate inequality with <=, >=, > or < operator and polynomial or
rational left–hand and right–hand sides, or a system of such inequalities with
only one variable.

For linear optimization problems please use the operator simplex of the L INALG
package (cf. section 16.37).
Syntax:

INEQ_SOLVE(hexpri [,hvli])

where <expr> is an inequality or a list of coupled inequalities and equations, and

the optional argument <vl> is a single variable (kernel) or a list of variables (ker-
nels). If not specified, they are extracted automatically from <expr>. For mul-
tivariate input an explicit variable list specifies the elimination sequence: the last
member is the most specific one.
An error message occurs if the input cannot be processed by the currently imple-
mented algorithms.
The result is a list. It is empty if the system has no feasible solution. Otherwise
the result presents the admissible ranges as set of equations where each variable
is equated to one expression or to an interval. The most specific variable is the
first one in the result list and each form contains only preceding variables (resolved
form). The interval limits can be formal max or min expressions. Algebraic num-
bers are encoded as rounded number approximations.
Examples:

ineq_solve({(2*x^2+x-1)/(x-1) >= (x+1/2)^2, x>0});

{x=(0 .. 0.326583),x=(1 .. 2.56777)}

28
described by G.B. Dantzig in Linear Programming and Extensions.
 643

reg:=
{a + b - c>=0, a - b + c>=0, - a + b + c>=0, 0>=0, 2>=0,
2*c - 2>=0, a - b + c>=0, a + b - c>=0, - a + b + c - 2>=0,
2>=0, 0>=0, 2*b - 2>=0, k + 1>=0, - a - b - c + k>=0,
- a - b - c + k + 2>=0, - 2*b + k>=0,
- 2*c + k>=0, a + b + c - k>=0,
2*b + 2*c - k - 2>=0, a + b + c - k>=0}$

ineq_solve (reg,{k,a,b,c});

{c=(1 .. infinity),

b=(1 .. infinity),

a=(max( - b + c,b - c) .. b + c - 2),

k=a + b + c}
644 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.32 INVBASE: A package for computing involutive

bases

Involutive bases are a new tool for solving problems in connection with multivari-
ate polynomials, such as solving systems of polynomial equations and analyzing
polynomial ideals. An involutive basis of polynomial ideal is nothing but a special
form of a redundant Gröbner basis. The construction of involutive bases reduces
the problem of solving polynomial systems to simple linear algebra.
Authors: A.Yu. Zharkov and Yu.A. Blinkov.

16.32.1 Introduction

Involutive bases are a new tool for solving problems in connection with multivari-
ate polynomials, such as solving systems of polynomial equations and analyzing
polynomial ideals, see [1]. An involutive basis of polynomial ideal is nothing but
a special form of a redundant Gröbner basis. The construction of involutive bases
reduces the problem of solving polynomial systems to simple linear algebra.
The INVBASE package 29 calculates involutive bases of polynomial ideals using
an algorithm described in [1] which may be considered as an alternative to the
well-known Buchberger algorithm [2]. The package can be used over a variety of
different coefficient domains, and for different variable and term orderings.
The algorithm implemented in the INVBASE package is proved to be valid for
any zero-dimensional ideal (finite number of solutions) as well as for positive-
dimensional ideals in generic form. However, the algorithm does not terminate
for “sparse” positive-dimensional systems. In order to stop the process we use
the maximum degree bound for the Gröbner bases of generic ideals in the total-
degree term ordering established in [3]. In this case, it is reasonable to call the
GROEBNER package with the answer of INVBASE as input information in order
to compute the reduced Gröbner basis under the same variable and term ordering.
Though the INVBASE package supports computing involutive bases in any admis-
sible term ordering, it is reasonable to compute them only for the total-degree term
orderings. The package includes a special algorithm for conversion of total-degree
involutive bases into the triangular bases in the lexicographical term ordering that is
desirable for finding solutions. Normally the sum of timings for these two compu-
tations is much less than the timing for direct computation of the lexicographical
involutive bases. As a rule, the result of the conversion algorithm is a reduced
Gröbner basis in the lexicographical term ordering. However, because of some
gaps in the current version of the algorithm, there may be rare situations when
the resulting triangular set does not possess the formal property of Gröbner bases.
Anyway, we recommend using the GROEBNER package with the result of the
29
The REDUCE implementation has been supported by the Konrad-Zuse-Zentrum Berlin
 645

conversion algorithm as input in order either to check the Gröbner bases property
or to transform the result into a lexicographical Gröbner basis.

16.32.2 The Basic Operators

Term Ordering

The following term order modes are available:

REV GRADLEX, GRADLEX, LEX

These modes have the same meaning as for the GROEBNER package.
All orderings are based on an ordering among the variables. For each pair of vari-
ables an order relation > must be defined, e.g. x > y. The term ordering mode as
well as the order of variables are set by the operator

IN V T ORDER < mode >, {x1 , ..., xn }

where < mode > is one of the term order modes listed above. The notion of
{x1 , ..., xn } as a list of variables at the same time means x1 > ... > xn .

Example 1.
IN V T ORDER REV GRADLEX, {x, y, z}
sets the reverse graduated term ordering based on the variable order x > y > z.
The operator IN V T ORDER may be omitted. The default term order mode is
REV GRADLEX and the default decreasing variable order is alphabetical (or,
more generally, the default REDUCE kernel order). Furthermore, the list of vari-
ables in the IN V T ORDER may be omitted. In this case the default variable
order is used.

Computing Involutive Bases

To compute the involutive basis of ideal generated by the set of polynomials

{p1 , ..., pm } one should type the command

IN V BASE {p1 , ..., pm }

where pi are polynomials in variables listed in the IN V T ORDER operator. If

some kernels in pi were not listed previously in the IN V T ORDER operator they
are considered as parameters, i.e. they are considered part of the coefficients of
polynomials. If IN V T ORDER was omitted, all the kernels in pi are considered
as variables with the default REDUCE kernel order.
The coefficients of polynomials pi may be integers as well as rational numbers (or,
646 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

accordingly, polynomials and rational functions in the parametric case). The com-
putations modulo prime numbers are also available. For this purpose one should
type the REDUCE commands

ON M ODU LAR; SET M OD p;

where p is a prime number.

The value of the IN V BASE function is a list of integer polynomials {g1 , ..., gn }
representing an involutive basis of a given ideal.
Example 2.

IN V T ORDER REV GRADLEX, {x, y, z};

g := IN V BASE {4 ∗ x ∗ ∗2 + x ∗ y ∗ ∗2 − z + 1/4, 2 ∗ x + y ∗ ∗2 ∗ z + 1/2,
x ∗ ∗2 ∗ z − 1/2 ∗ x − y ∗ ∗2};

The resulting involutive basis in the reverse graduate ordering is

g := { 8 ∗ x ∗ y ∗ z3 − 2 ∗ x ∗ y ∗ z2 + 4 ∗ y3 −
4 ∗ y ∗ z 2 + 16 ∗ x ∗ y + 17 ∗ y ∗ z − 4 ∗ y,
8 ∗ y 4 − 8 ∗ x ∗ z 2 − 256 ∗ y 2 + 2 ∗ x ∗ z + 64 ∗ z 2 − 96 ∗ x + 20 ∗ z − 9,
2 ∗ y 3 ∗ z + 4 ∗ x ∗ y + y,
8 ∗ x ∗ z 3 − 2 ∗ x ∗ z 2 + 4 ∗ y 2 − 4 ∗ z 2 + 16 ∗ x + 17 ∗ z − 4,
−4 ∗ y ∗ z 3 − 8 ∗ y 3 + 6 ∗ x ∗ y ∗ z + y ∗ z 2 − 36 ∗ x ∗ y − 8 ∗ y,
4 ∗ x ∗ y 2 + 32 ∗ y 2 − 8 ∗ z 2 + 12 ∗ x − 2 ∗ z + 1,
2 ∗ y 2 ∗ z + 4 ∗ x + 1,
−4 ∗ z 3 − 8 ∗ y 2 + 6 ∗ x ∗ z + z 2 − 36 ∗ x − 8,
8 ∗ x2 − 16 ∗ y 2 + 4 ∗ z 2 − 6 ∗ x − z }

To convert it into a lexicographical Gröbner basis one should type

h := IN V LEX g;

The result is

h := { 3976 ∗ x + 37104 ∗ z 6 − 600 ∗ z 5 + 2111 ∗ z 4 +

122062 ∗ z 3 + 232833 ∗ z 2 − 680336 ∗ z + 288814,
1988 ∗ y 2 − 76752 ∗ z 6 + 1272 ∗ z 5 − 4197 ∗ z 4 −
251555 ∗ z 3 − 481837 ∗ z 2 + 1407741 ∗ z − 595666,
16 ∗ z 7 − 8 ∗ z 6 + z 5 + 52 ∗ z 4 + 75 ∗ z 3 − 342 ∗ z 2 + 266 ∗ z − 60 }

In the case of “sparse” positive-dimensioned system when the involutive basis in

the sense of [1] does not exist, you get the error message

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ M AXIM U M DEGREE BOU N D EXCEEDED

 647

The resulting list of polynomials which is not an involutive basis is stored in the
share variable INVTEMPBASIS. In this case it is reasonable to call the GROEB-
NER package with the value of INVTEMPBASIS as input under the same variable
and term ordering.

Bibliography

[1] Zharkov A.Yu., Blinkov Yu.A. Involution Approach to Solving Systems of

Algebraic Equations. Proceedings of the IMACS ’93, 1993, 11-16.

[2] Buchberger B. Gröbner bases: an Algorithmic Method in Polynomial Ideal

Theory. In: (Bose N.K., ed.) Recent Trends in Multidimensional System The-
ory, Reidel, 1985.

[3] Lazard D. Gröbner Bases, Gaussian Elimination and Resolution of Systems

of Algebraic Equations. Proceedings of EUROCAL ’83. Lecture Notes in
Computer Science 162, Springer 1983, 146-157.
648 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.33 LALR: A parser generator

Author: Arthur Norman

This package provides a parser-generator, somewhat styled after yacc or the many
programs available for use with other languages. You present it with a phrase
structure grammar and it generates a set of tables that can then be used by the
function yyparse to read in material in the syntax that you specified. Internally
it uses a very well established technique known “LALR” which takes the grammar
are derives the description of a stack automaton that can accept it. Details of the
procedure can be found in standard books on compiler construction, such as the
one by Aho, Ullman Lam and Sethi.
At the time of writing this explanation the code is not in its final form, so this will
describe the current state and include a few notes on what might chaneg in the
future.
Building a parser is done in Reduce symbolic mode, so say "symbolic;" or
"lisp;" before starting your work.
To use the code here you use a function lalr_create_parser, giving it two
arguments. The first indicates precedence information and will be described later:
for now just pass the value nil. The second argument is a list of productions, and
the first one of these is taken to be the top-level target for the whole grammar.
Each production is in the form

(LHS ((rhs1.1 rhs1.2 ...) a1.1 a1.2 ...)

((rhs2.1 rhs2.1 ...) a2.1 a2.2 ...)
...)

which in regular publication style for grammars might be interpreted as meaning

LHS ⇒ rhs1,1 rhs1,2 . . . {a1,1 a1,2 . . .}

| rhs2,1 rhs2,2 . . . {a2,1 a2,2 . . .}
...
;

The various lines specify different options for what the left hand side (non-terminal
symbol) might correspond to, while the items within the braces are sematic actions
that get obeyed or evaluated when the production ruls is used.
Each LHS is treated as a non-terminal symbol and is specified as a simple name.
Note that by default the Reduce parser will be folding characters within names
to lower case and so it will be best to choose names for non-terminals that are
unambiguous even when case-folded, but I would like to establish a convention
that in source code they are written in capitals.
 649

The RHS items may be either non-terminals (identified because they are present
in the left hand side of some production) or terminals. Terminal symbols can be
specified in two different ways.
The lexer has built-in recipes that decode certain sequences of characters and return
the special markers for !:symbol, !:number, !:string, !:list for commonly used cases.
In these cases the variable yylval gets left set to associated data, so for instance in
the case of !:symbol it gets set to the particular symbol concerned. The token type
:list is used for Lisp or rlisp-like notation where the input contains ’expression or
‘expression so for instance the input ‘(a b c) leads to the lexer returning !:list and
yylvel being set to (backquote (a b c)). This treatment is specialised for handling
rlisp-like syntax.
Other terminals are indicated by writing a string. That may either consist of char-
acters that would otherwise form a symbol (ie a letter followed by letters, digits
and underscores) or a sequence of non-alphanumeric characters. In the latter case
if a sequence of three or more punctuation marks make up a terminal then all the
shorter prefixes of it will also be grouped to form single entities. So if "<–>" is a
terminal then ’<’, ’<-’ and ’<–’ will each by parsed as single tokens, and any of
them that are not used as terminals will be classified as !:symbol.
As well as terminals and non-terminals (which are writtent as symbols or strings)
it is possible to write one of
(OPT s1 s2 . . . ) 0 or 1 instances of the sequence s1, . . .
(STAR s1 s2 . . . ) 0, 1, 2, . . . instances.
(PLUS s1 s2 . . . ) 1, 2, 3, . . . instances.
(LIST sep s1 s2 . . . ) like (STAR s1 s2 . . . ) but with the single item
sep between each instance.
(LISTPLUS sep s1 . . . ) like (PLUS s2 . . . ) but with sep interleaved.
(OR s1 s2 . . . ) one or other of the tokens shown.
When the lexer processes input it will return a numeric code that identifies the type
of the item seen, so in a production one might write (!:symbol ":=" EXPRESSION)
and as it recognises the first two tokens the lexer will return a numeric code for
!:symbol (and set yylval to the actual symbol as seen) and then a numeric code
that it allocates for ":=". In the latter case it will also set yylval to the symbol
!:!= in case that is useful. Precedence can be set using lalr_precedence. See
examples below.

16.33.1 Limitations

1. Grammar rules and semantic actions are specified in fairly raw Lisp.
2. The lexer is hand-written and can not readily be reconfigured for use with
languages other than rlisp. For instance it has use of "!" as a character escape
built into it.
650 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.33.2 An example

% Here I set up a sample grammar

% S’ -> S
% S -> C C { }
% C -> "c" C { }
% | "d" { }
% This is example 4.42 from Aho, Sethi and Ullman’s Red Dragon book.
% It is example 4.54 in the more recent Purple book.
%
%
grammar := ’(
(s ((cc cc) ) % Use default semantic action here
)
(cc (("c" cc) (list ’c !$2)) % First production for C
(("d") ’d ) % Second production for C
))$

parsertables := lalr_create_parser(nil, grammar)$

<< lex_init();
yyparse() >>;
c c c d c d ;
 651

16.34 LAPLACE: Laplace transforms

This package can calculate ordinary and inverse Laplace transforms of expressions.
Documentation is in plain text.
Authors: C. Kazasov, M. Spiridonova, V. Tomov.

Reference: Christomir Kazasov, Laplace Transformations in REDUCE 3,

Proc. Eurocal ’87, Lecture Notes in Comp. Sci., Springer-Verlag
(1987) 132-133.

Some hints on how to use to use this package:

Syntax:

LAPLACE(< exp >, < var − s >, < var − t > )

INVLAP(< exp >, < var − s >, < var − t >)

where < exp > is the expression to be transformed, < var − s > is the source
variable (in most cases < exp > depends explicitly of this variable) and < var −
t > is the target variable. If < var − t > is omitted, the package uses an internal
variable lp!& or il!&, respectively.

The following switches can be used to control the transformations:

lmon: If on, sin, cos, sinh and cosh are converted by LAPLACE into
exponentials,
lhyp: If on, expressions e˜x are converted by INVLAP into hyperbolic
functions sinh and cosh,
ltrig: If on, expressions e˜x are converted by INVLAP into trigonometric
functions sin and cos.

The system can be extended by adding Laplace transformation rules for single
functions by rules or rule sets. In such a rule the source variable MUST be free,
the target variable MUST be il!& for LAPLACE and lp!& for INVLAP and the
third parameter should be omitted. Also rules for transforming derivatives are en-
tered in such a form.
652 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Examples:

let {laplace(log(~x),x) => -log(gam * il!&)/il!&,

invlap(log(gam * ~x)/x,x) => -log(lp!&)};

operator f;

let{

laplace(df(f(~x),x),x) => il!&*laplace(f(x),x) - sub(x=0,f(x)),

laplace(df(f(~x),x,~n),x) => il!&**n*laplace(f(x),x) -

for i:=n-1 step -1 until 0 sum

sub(x=0, df(f(x),x,n-1-i)) * il!&**i

when fixp n,

laplace(f(~x),x) = f(il!&)

};

Remarks about some functions:

The DELTA and GAMMA functions are known.

ONE is the name of the unit step function.
INTL is a parametrized integral function

intl(< expr >, < var >, 0, < obj.var >)

which means "Integral of < expr > wrt. < var > taken from 0 to < obj.var >",
e.g. intl(2∗y 2 , y, 0, x) which is formally a function in x.
We recommend reading the file LAPLACE.TST for a further introduction.
 653

16.35 LIE: Functions for the classification of real n-dimensional

Lie algebras

LIE is a package of functions for the classification of real n-dimensional Lie al-
gebras. It consists of two modules: liendmc1 and lie1234. With the help of the
functions in the liendmcl module, real n-dimensional Lie algebras L with a derived
algebra L(1) of dimension 1 can be classified.
Authors: Carsten and Franziska Schöbel.
LIE is a package of functions for the classification of real n-dimensional Lie alge-
bras. It consists of two modules: liendmc1 and lie1234.

liendmc1
With the help of the functions in this module real n-dimensional Lie algebras L
with a derived algebra L(1) of dimension 1 can be classified. L has to be defined
by its structure constants ckij in the basis {X1 , . . . , Xn } with [Xi , Xj ] = ckij Xk .
The user must define an ARRAY LIENSTRUCIN(n, n, n) with n being the dimen-
sion of the Lie algebra L. The structure constants LIENSTRUCIN(i, j, k):=ckij for
i < j should be given. Then the procedure LIENDIMCOM1 can be called. Its
syntax is:

LIENDIMCOM1(<number>).

<number> corresponds to the dimension n. The procedure simplifies the structure

of L performing real linear transformations. The returned value is a list of the form

(i) {LIE_ALGEBRA(2),COMMUTATIVE(n-2)} or
(ii) {HEISENBERG(k),COMMUTATIVE(n-k)}

with 3 ≤ k ≤ n, k odd.
The concepts correspond to the following theorem (LIE_ALGEBRA(2) → L2 ,
HEISENBERG(k) → Hk and COMMUTATIVE(n-k) → Cn−k ):
Theorem. Every real n-dimensional Lie algebra L with a 1-dimensional derived
algebra can be decomposed into one of the following forms:
(i) C(L) ∩ L(1) = {0} : L2 ⊕ Cn−2 or
(ii) C(L) ∩ L(1) = L(1) : Hk ⊕ Cn−k (k = 2r − 1, r ≥ 2), with
654 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1. C(L) = Cj ⊕ (L(1) ∩ C(L)) and dim Cj = j ,

2. L2 is generated by Y1 , Y2 with [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y1 ,
3. Hk is generated by {Y1 , . . . , Yk } with
[Y2 , Y3 ] = · · · = [Yk−1 , Yk ] = Y1 .
(cf. [2])
The returned list is also stored as LIE_LIST. The matrix LIENTRANS gives
the transformation from the given basis {X1 , . . . , Xn } into the standard basis
{Y1 , . . . , Yn }: Yj = (LIENTRANS)kj Xk .
A more detailed output can be obtained by turning on the switch TR_LIE:

ON TR_LIE;

before the procedure LIENDIMCOM1 is called.

The returned list could be an input for a data bank in which mathematical relevant
properties of the obtained Lie algebras are stored.

lie1234
This part of the package classifies real low-dimensional Lie algebras L of the di-
mension n :=dim L = 1, 2, 3, 4. L is also given by its structure constants ckij in
the basis {X1 , . . . , Xn } with [Xi , Xj ] = ckij Xk . An ARRAY LIESTRIN(n, n, n)
has to be defined and LIESTRIN(i, j, k):=ckij for i < j should be given. Then the
procedure LIECLASS can be performed whose syntax is:

LIECLASS(<number>).

<number> should be the dimension of the Lie algebra L. The procedure stepwise
simplifies the commutator relations of L using properties of invariance like the
dimension of the centre, of the derived algebra, unimodularity etc. The returned
value has the form:

{LIEALG(n),COMTAB(m)},

where m corresponds to the number of the standard form (basis: {Y1 , . . . , Yn }) in

an enumeration scheme. The corresponding enumeration schemes are listed below
(cf. [3],[1]). In case that the standard form in the enumeration scheme depends on
one (or two) parameter(s) p1 (and p2 ) the list is expanded to:

{LIEALG(n),COMTAB(m),p1,p2}.

This returned value is also stored as LIE_CLASS. The linear transformation from
the basis {X1 , . . . , Xn } into the basis of the standard form {Y1 , . . . , Yn } is given
by the matrix LIEMAT: Yj = (LIEMAT)kj Xk .
 655

By turning on the switch TR_LIE:

ON TR_LIE;

before the procedure LIECLASS is called the output contains not only the list
LIE_CLASS but also the non-vanishing commutator relations in the standard form.
By the value m and the parameters further examinations of the Lie algebra are pos-
sible, especially if in a data bank mathematical relevant properties of the enumer-
ated standard forms are stored.

Enumeration schemes for lie1234

returned list LIE_CLASS the corresponding commutator relations
LIEALG(1),COMTAB(0) commutative case
LIEALG(2),COMTAB(0) commutative case
LIEALG(2),COMTAB(1) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y2
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(0) commutative case
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(1) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y3
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(2) [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y3
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(3) [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y2
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(4) [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(5) [Y1 , Y3 ] = −Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(6) [Y1 , Y3 ] = −Y1 + p1 Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 , p1 6= 0
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(7) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y3 , [Y1 , Y3 ] = −Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(3),COMTAB(8) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y3 , [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(0) commutative case
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(1) [Y1 , Y4 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(2) [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(3) [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(4) [Y1 , Y3 ] = −Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 ,
[Y1 , Y4 ] = [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(5) [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 , [Y1 , Y4 ] = [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(6) [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y1 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = Y2
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(7) [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(8) [Y1 , Y4 ] = −Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(9) [Y1 , Y4 ] = −Y1 + p1 Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y1 , p1 6= 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(10) [Y1 , Y4 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(11) [Y1 , Y4 ] = Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y1
656 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

returned list LIE_CLASS the corresponding commutator relations

LIEALG(4),COMTAB(12) [Y1 , Y4 ] = Y1 + Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 + Y3 ,
[Y3 , Y4 ] = Y3
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(13) [Y1 , Y4 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = p1 Y2 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = p2 Y3 ,
p1 , p2 6= 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(14) [Y1 , Y4 ] = p1 Y1 + Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = −Y1 + p1 Y2 ,
[Y3 , Y4 ] = p2 Y3 , p2 6= 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(15) [Y1 , Y4 ] = p1 Y1 + Y2 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = p1 Y2 ,
[Y3 , Y4 ] = Y3 , p1 6= 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(16) [Y1 , Y4 ] = 2Y1 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 ,
[Y2 , Y4 ] = (1 + p1 )Y2 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = (1 − p1 )Y3 ,
p1 ≥ 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(17) [Y1 , Y4 ] = 2Y1 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 ,
[Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 − p1 Y3 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = p1 Y2 + Y3 ,
p1 6= 0
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(18) [Y1 , Y4 ] = 2Y1 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 ,
[Y2 , Y4 ] = Y2 + Y3 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = Y3
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(19) [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = Y3 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = Y2
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(20) [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1 , [Y2 , Y4 ] = −Y3 , [Y3 , Y4 ] = Y2
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(21) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y3 , [Y1 , Y3 ] = −Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1
LIEALG(4),COMTAB(22) [Y1 , Y2 ] = Y3 , [Y1 , Y3 ] = Y2 , [Y2 , Y3 ] = Y1

Bibliography

[1] M.A.H. MacCallum. On the classification of the real four-dimensional lie al-
gebras. 1979.

[2] C. Schoebel. Classification of real n-dimensional lie algebras with a low-

dimensional derived algebra. In Proc. Symposium on Mathematical Physics
’92, 1993.

[3] F. Schoebel. The symbolic classification of real four-dimensional lie algebras.

1992.
 657

16.36 LIMITS: A package for finding limits

This package loads automatically.

Author: Stanley L. Kameny.
LIMITS is a fast limit package for REDUCE for functions which are continuous
except for computable poles and singularities, based on some earlier work by Ian
Cohen and John P. Fitch. The Truncated Power Series package is used for non-
critical points, at which the value of the function is the constant term in the expan-
sion around that point. l’Hôpital’s rule is used in critical cases, with preprocessing
of ∞ − ∞ forms and reformatting of product forms in order to apply l’Hôpital’s
rule. A limited amount of bounded arithmetic is also employed where applicable.

16.36.1 Normal entry points

LIMIT(hEXPRN:algebraici, hVAR:kerneli, hLIMPOINT:algebraici) : algebraic

This is the standard way of calling limit, applying all of the methods. The result is
the limit of EXPRN as VAR approaches LIMPOINT.

16.36.2 Direction-dependent limits

LIMIT!+(hEXPRN:algebraici, hVAR:kerneli, hLIMPOINT:algebraici) : algebraic

LIMIT!-(hEXPRN:algebraici, hVAR:kerneli, hLIMPOINT:algebraici) : algebraic

If the limit depends upon the direction of approach to the LIMPOINT, the functions
LIMIT!+ and LIMIT!- may be used. They are defined by:

LIMIT!+ (LIMIT!-) (EXP,VAR,LIMPOINT) →LIMIT(EXP*,,0),

EXP*=sub(VAR=VAR+(-)2 ,EXP)
658 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.37 LINALG: Linear algebra package

This package provides a selection of functions that are useful in the world of linear
algebra.
Author: Matt Rebbeck.

16.37.1 Introduction

This package provides a selection of functions that are useful in the world of linear
algebra. These functions are described alphabetically in subsection 16.37.3 and are
labelled 16.37.3.1 to 16.37.3.53. They can be classified into four sections(n.b: the
numbers after the dots signify the function label in section 16.37.3).
Contributions to this package have been made by Walter Tietze (ZIB).

16.37.1.1 Basic matrix handling

add_columns ... 16.37.3.1 add_rows ... 16.37.3.2

add_to_columns ... 16.37.3.3 add_to_rows ... 16.37.3.4
augment_columns ... 16.37.3.5 char_poly ... 16.37.3.9
column_dim ... 16.37.3.12 copy_into ... 16.37.3.14
diagonal ... 16.37.3.15 extend ... 16.37.3.16
find_companion ... 16.37.3.17 get_columns ... 16.37.3.18
get_rows ... 16.37.3.19 hermitian_tp ... 16.37.3.21
matrix_augment ... 16.37.3.28 matrix_stack ... 16.37.3.30
minor ... 16.37.3.31 mult_columns ... 16.37.3.32
mult_rows ... 16.37.3.33 pivot ... 16.37.3.34
remove_columns ... 16.37.3.37 remove_rows ... 16.37.3.38
row_dim ... 16.37.3.39 rows_pivot ... 16.37.3.40
stack_rows ... 16.37.3.43 sub_matrix ... 16.37.3.44
swap_columns ... 16.37.3.46 swap_entries ... 16.37.3.47
swap_rows ... 16.37.3.48

16.37.1.2 Constructors

Functions that create matrices.

 659

band_matrix ... 16.37.3.6 block_matrix ... 16.37.3.7

char_matrix ... 16.37.3.8 coeff_matrix ... 16.37.3.11
companion ... 16.37.3.13 hessian ... 16.37.3.22
hilbert ... 16.37.3.23 mat_jacobian ... 16.37.3.24
jordan_block ... 16.37.3.25 make_identity ... 16.37.3.27
random_matrix ... 16.37.3.36 toeplitz ... 16.37.3.50
Vandermonde ... 16.37.3.52 Kronecker_Product ... 16.37.3.53

16.37.1.3 High level algorithms

char_poly ... 16.37.3.9 cholesky ... 16.37.3.10

gram_schmidt ... 16.37.3.20 lu_decom ... 16.37.3.26
pseudo_inverse ... 16.37.3.35 simplex ... 16.37.3.41
svd ... 16.37.3.45 triang_adjoint ... 16.37.3.51

There is a separate NORMFORM[1] package for computing the following matrix

normal forms in REDUCE:

smithex, smithex_int, frobenius, ratjordan, jordansymbolic, jordan.

16.37.1.4 Predicates

matrixp ... 16.37.3.29 squarep ... 16.37.3.42

symmetricp ... 16.37.3.49

Note on examples:

In the examples the matrix A will be

 
1 2 3
A = 4 5 6 
7 8 9

Notation

Throughout I is used to indicate the identity matrix and AT to indicate the trans-
pose of the matrix A.

16.37.2 Getting started

If you have not used matrices within REDUCE before then the following may be
helpful.
660 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Creating matrices

Initialisation of matrices takes the following syntax:

mat1 := mat((a,b,c),(d,e,f),(g,h,i));
will produce
 
a b c
mat1 := d e f 
g h i

Getting at the entries

The (i, j)th entry can be accessed by:

mat1(i,j);

Loading the linear_algebra package

The package is loaded by:

load_package linalg;

16.37.3 What’s available

16.37.3.1 add_columns, add_rows

Syntax:
add_columns(A,c1,c2,expr);
A :- a matrix.
c1, c2 :- positive integers.
expr :- a scalar expression.
Synopsis:
add_columns replaces column c2 of A by
expr ∗ column(A,c1) + column(A,c2).
add_rows performs the equivalent task on the rows of A.
 661

Examples:
 
1 x+2 3
add_columns(A, 1, 2, x) = 4 4 ∗ x + 5 6
7 7∗x+8 9
 
1 2 3
add_rows(A, 2, 3, 5) =  4 5 6 
27 33 39

Related functions:
add_to_columns, add_to_rows, mult_columns, mult_rows.

16.37.3.2 add_rows

See: add_columns.

16.37.3.3 add_to_columns, add_to_rows

Syntax:
add_to_columns(A,column_list,expr);
A :- a matrix.
column_list :- a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
expr :- a scalar expression.
Synopsis:
add_to_columns adds expr to each column specified in column_list of
A.
add_to_rows performs the equivalent task on the rows of A.

Examples:
 
11 12 3
add_to_columns(A, {1, 2}, 10) = 14 15 6
17 18 9
 
1 2 3
add_to_rows(A, 2, −x) = −x + 4 −x + 5 −x + 6
7 8 9

Related functions:
add_columns, add_rows, mult_rows, mult_columns.
662 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.37.3.4 add_to_rows

See: add_to_columns.

16.37.3.5 augment_columns, stack_rows

Syntax:
augment_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a matrix.
column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
augment_columns gets hold of the columns of A specified in col-
umn_list and sticks them together.
stack_rows performs the same task on rows of A.

Examples:
 
cc1 2
augment_columns(A, {1, 2}) =  4 5
7 8
 
1 2 3
stack_rows(A, {1, 3}) =
7 8 9

Related functions:
get_columns, get_rows, sub_matrix.

16.37.3.6 band_matrix

Syntax:
band_matrix(expr_list,square_size);
expr_list :- either a single scalar expression or a list of an odd num-
ber of scalar expressions.
square_size :- a positive integer.
Synopsis:
band_matrix creates a square matrix of dimension square_size. The
diagonal consists of the middle expr of the expr_list. The expressions to
the left of this fill the required number of sub-diagonals and the expressions
to the right the super-diagonals.
 663
 
y z 0 0 0 0
x y z 0 0 0
 
0 x y z 0 0
Examples: band_matrix({x, y, z}, 6) = 
0

 0 x y z 0
0 0 0 x y z
0 0 0 0 x y
Related functions:
diagonal.

16.37.3.7 block_matrix

Syntax:
block_matrix(r,c,matrix_list);
r, c :- positive integers.
matrix_list :- a list of matrices.
Synopsis:
block_matrix creates a matrix that consists of r × c matrices filled from
the matrix_list row-wise.

Examples:
     
1 0 5 22 33
B= , C= , D=
0 1 5 44 55
 
1 0 5 22 33
 0 1 5 44 55
block_matrix(2, 3, {B, C, D, D, C, B}) = 
22 33 5 1 0 


44 55 5 0 1

16.37.3.8 char_matrix

Syntax:
char_matrix(A, λ);
A :- a square matrix.
λ :- a symbol or algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
char_matrix creates the characteristic matrix C of A. This is C = λI −
A.
 
x − 1 −2 −3
Examples: char_matrix(A, x) =  −4 x − 5 −6 
−7 −8 x − 9
664 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Related functions:
char_poly.

16.37.3.9 char_poly

Syntax:
char_poly(A, λ);
A :- a square matrix.
λ :- a symbol or algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
char_poly finds the characteristic polynomial of A.
This is the determinant of λI − A.

Examples:
char_poly(A, x) = x3 − 15 ∗ x2 − 18 ∗ x

Related functions:
char_matrix.

16.37.3.10 cholesky

Syntax:
cholesky(A);
A :- a positive definite matrix containing numeric entries.

Synopsis:
cholesky computes the cholesky decomposition of A.
It returns {L, U} where L is a lower matrix, U is an upper matrix,
A = LU, and U = LT .

Examples:
 
1 1 0
F = 1 3 1
0 1 1
   
 1 √0
 0 1 √1 0 

cholesky(F) = 1 2 0  , 0
 2 √1 
2 

 0 √1
 √1 0 0 √1 
2 2 2

Related functions:
lu_decom.
 665

16.37.3.11 coeff_matrix

Syntax:
coeff_matrix({lin_eqn1 ,lin_eqn2 , ...,lin_eqnn }); 30
lin_eqn1 ,lin_eqn2 , . . . ,lin_eqnn :- linear equations. Can be of the
form equation = number or just
equation which is equivalent to
equation = 0.
Synopsis:
coeff_matrix creates the coefficient matrix C of the linear equations. It
returns {C, X , B} such that CX = B.

Examples:

coeff_matrix({x + y + 4 ∗ z = 10, y + x − z = 20, x + y + 4}) =

     
 4 1 1 z 10 
−1 1 1 , y  ,  20 
0 1 1 x −4
 

16.37.3.12 column_dim, row_dim

Syntax:
column_dim(A);
A :- a matrix.

Synopsis:
column_dim finds the column dimension of A.
row_dim finds the row dimension of A.

Examples:
column_dim(A) = 3

16.37.3.13 companion

Syntax:
companion(poly,x);
poly :- a monic univariate polynomial in x.
x :- the variable.
30
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
666 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Synopsis:
companion creates the companion matrix C of poly.
This is the square matrix of dimension n, where n is the degree of poly
w.r.t. x. The entries of C are: C(i, n) = −coeffn(poly, x, i − 1) for
i = 1, . . . , n, C(i, i − 1) = 1 for i = 2, . . . , n and the rest are 0.
 
0 0 0 −11
1 0 0 0 
Examples: companion(x4 + 17 ∗ x3 − 9 ∗ x2 + 11, x) =  0 1 0

9 
0 0 1 −17
Related functions:
find_companion.

16.37.3.14 copy_into

Syntax:
copy_into(A, B,r,c);
A, B :- matrices.
r, c :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
copy_into copies matrix A into B with A(1, 1) at B(r, c).
Examples:
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
G= 0

0 0 0
0 0 0 0
 
0 1 2 3
0 4 5 6
copy_into(A, G, 1, 2) = 
0

7 8 9
0 0 0 0

Related functions:
augment_columns, extend, matrix_augment, matrix_stack,
stack_rows, sub_matrix.

16.37.3.15 diagonal

Syntax:
diagonal({mat1 ,mat2 , ...,matn });31
31
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
 667

mat1 ,mat2 , . . . ,matn :- each can be either a scalar expr or a square

matrix.
Synopsis:
diagonal creates a matrix that contains the input on the diagonal.

Examples:
 
66 77
H=
88 99
 
1 2 3 0 0 0
4 5 6 0 0 0
 
7 8 9 0 0 0
diagonal({A, x, H}) = 
0

 0 0 x 0 0 
0 0 0 0 66 77
0 0 0 0 88 99

Related functions:
jordan_block.

16.37.3.16 extend

Syntax:
extend(A,r,c,expr);
A :- a matrix.
r, c :- positive integers.
expr :- algebraic expression or symbol.
Synopsis:
extend returns a copy of A that has been extended by r rows and c
columns. The new entries are made equal to expr.
 
1 2 3 x x
 4 5 6 x x
Examples: extend(A, 1, 2, x) =   7 8 9 x x


x x x x x
Related functions:
copy_into, matrix_augment, matrix_stack, remove_columns,
remove_rows.

16.37.3.17 find_companion

Syntax:
find_companion(A,x);
668 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A :- a matrix.
x :- the variable.
Synopsis:
Given a companion matrix, find_companion finds the polynomial from
which it was made.

Examples:
 
0 0 0 −11
1 0 0 0 
C= 0

1 0 9 
0 0 1 −17

find_companion(C, x) = x4 + 17 ∗ x3 − 9 ∗ x2 + 11

Related functions:
companion.

16.37.3.18 get_columns, get_rows

Syntax:
get_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a matrix.
c :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
get_columns removes the columns of A specified in column_list and
returns them as a list of column matrices.
get_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.

Examples:
   
 1 3 
get_columns(A, {1, 3}) = 4 , 6
7 9
 


get_rows(A, 2) = 4 5 6

Related functions:
augment_columns, stack_rows, sub_matrix.

16.37.3.19 get_rows

See: get_columns.
 669

16.37.3.20 gram_schmidt

Syntax:
gram_schmidt({vec1 ,vec2 , ...,vecn }); 32
vec1 ,vec2 , . . . ,vecn :- linearly-independent vectors. Each vector must
be written as a list, eg:{1,0,0}.
Synopsis:
gram_schmidt performs the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalisation on the in-
put vectors. It returns a list of orthogonal normalised vectors.

Examples:
gram_schmidt({{1,0,0},{1,1,0},{1,1,1}}) = {{1,0,0},{0,1,0},{0,0,1}}
√ √
1 2 2∗ 5 − 5
gram_schmidt({{1,2},{3,4}}) = {{ √ , √ }, { , }}
5 5 5 5

16.37.3.21 hermitian_tp

Syntax:
hermitian_tp(A);
A :- a matrix.

Synopsis:
hermitian_tp computes the hermitian transpose of A.
This is a matrix in which the (i, j)th entry is the conjugate of the (j, i)th
entry of A.

Examples:
 
i+1 i+2 i+3
J = 4 5 2 
1 i 0
 
−i + 1 4 1
hermitian_tp(J ) = −i + 2 5 −i
−i + 3 2 0

Related functions:
tp33 .
32
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
33
standard reduce call for the transpose of a matrix - see section 14.4.
670 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.37.3.22 hessian

Syntax:
hessian(expr,variable_list);
expr :- a scalar expression.
variable_list :- either a single variable or a list of variables.
Synopsis:
hessian computes the hessian matrix of expr w.r.t. the varibles in
variable_list.
This is an n × n matrix where n is the number of variables and the (i, j)th
entry is df(expr,variable_list(i),variable_list(j)).
 
0 0 0 0
0 2 z y 
Examples: hessian(x ∗ y ∗ z + x2 , {w, x, y, z}) = 
0 z 0 x


0 y x 0
Related functions:
df34 .

16.37.3.23 hilbert

Syntax:
hilbert(square_size,expr);
square_size :- a positive integer.
expr :- an algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
hilbert computes the square hilbert matrix of dimension square_size.
This is the symmetric matrix in which the (i, j)th entry is 1/(i + j − expr).
−1 −1 −1
 
x+y−2 x+y−3 x+y−4
 −1 −1 −1 
Examples: hilbert(3, y + x) =  x+y−3 x+y−4 x+y−5 
−1 −1 −1
x+y−4 x+y−5 x+y−6

16.37.3.24 jacobian

Syntax:
mat_jacobian(expr_list,variable_list);
34
standard reduce call for differentiation - see section 7.8.
 671

expr_list :- either a single algebraic expression or a list of algebraic

expressions.
variable_list :- either a single variable or a list of variables.
Synopsis:
mat_jacobian computes the jacobian matrix of expr_list w.r.t.
variable_list.
This is a matrix whose (i, j)th entry is df(expr_list(i),variable_list(j)).
The matrix is n × m where n is the number of variables and m the number
of expressions.
Examples:
mat_jacobian({x4 , x ∗ y 2 , x ∗ y ∗ z 3 },{w, x, y, z}) =

0 4 ∗ x3
 
0 0
0 y2 2∗x∗y 0 
0 y∗z 3 x∗z 3 3∗x∗y∗z 2

Related functions:
hessian, df35 .
NOTE: The function mat_jacobian used to be called just "jacobian"
however us of that name was in conflict with another Reduce package.

16.37.3.25 jordan_block

Syntax:
jordan_block(expr,square_size);
expr :- an algebraic expression or symbol.
square_size :- a positive integer.
Synopsis:
jordan_block computes the square jordan block matrix J of dimension
square_size.
The entries of J are: J (i, i) = expr for i = 1, . . . , n, J (i, i + 1) = 1 for
i = 1, . . . , n − 1, and all other entries are 0.
 
x 1 0 0 0
0 x 1 0 0
 
Examples: jordan_block(x,5) =  0 0 x 1 0

0 0 0 x 1
0 0 0 0 x
Related functions:
diagonal, companion.
35
standard reduce call for differentiation - see REDUCE User’s Manual[2].
672 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.37.3.26 lu_decom

Syntax:
lu_decom(A);
A :- a matrix containing either numeric entries or imaginary entries
with numeric coefficients.
Synopsis:
lu_decom performs LU decomposition on A, ie: it returns {L, U} where
L is a lower diagonal matrix, U an upper diagonal matrix and A = LU.
Caution: The algorithm used can swap the rows of A during the calculation.
This means that LU does not equal A but a row equivalent of it. Due to this,
lu_decom returns {L, U,vec}. The call convert(A,vec) will return
the matrix that has been decomposed, ie: LU = convert(A,vec).
 
1 3 5
Examples: K = −4 3 7
8 6 4

    
 8 0 0 1 0.75 0.5 
lu := lu_decom(K) = −4 6 0  , 0 1 1.5 , [ 3 2 3 ]
1 2.25 1.1251 0 0 1
 

 
8 6 4
first lu * second lu = −4 3 7
1 3 5
 
8 6 4
convert(K,third lu) = −4
 3 7
1 3 5

 
i+1 i+2 i+3
P= 4 5 2 
1 i 0

 
 1 0 0
lu := lu_decom(P) =  4 −4 ∗ i + 5 0 ,
i+1 3 0.41463 ∗ i + 2.26829

  
1 i 0 
0 1 0.19512 ∗ i + 0.24390 , [ 3 2 3 ]
0 0 1

 673

 
1 i 0
first lu * second lu =  4 5 2 
i+1 i+2 i+3
 
1 i 0
convert(P, thirdlu) =  4 5 2 
i+1 i+2 i+3

Related functions:
cholesky.

16.37.3.27 make_identity

Syntax:
make_identity(square_size);
square_size :- a positive integer.

Synopsis:
make_identity creates the identity matrix of dimension square_size.
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Examples: make_identity(4) =  0 0 1 0


0 0 0 1
Related functions:
diagonal.

16.37.3.28 matrix_augment, matrix_stack

Syntax:
matrix_augment({mat1 ,mat2 , ...,matn });36
mat1 ,mat2 , . . . ,matn :- matrices.

Synopsis:
matrix_augment sticks the matrices in matrix_list together hori-
zontally.
matrix_stack sticks the matrices in matrix_list together vertically.
36
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
674 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Examples:
 
1 2 3 1 2 3
matrix_augment({A, A}) = 4
 4 6 4 5 6
7 8 9 7 8 9
 
1 2 3
4 5 6
 
7 8 9
matrix_stack({A, A}) = 
1 2

 3
4 5 6
7 8 9

Related functions:
augment_columns, stack_rows, sub_matrix.

16.37.3.29 matrixp

Syntax:
matrixp(test_input);
test_input :- anything you like.

Synopsis:
matrixp is a boolean function that returns t if the input is a matrix and nil
otherwise.

Examples:
matrixp(A) = t
matrixp(doodlesackbanana) = nil

Related functions:
squarep, symmetricp.

16.37.3.30 matrix_stack

See: matrix_augment.

16.37.3.31 minor

Syntax:
minor(A,r,c);
A :- a matrix.
r, c :- positive integers.
 675

Synopsis:
minor computes the (r, c)th minor of A.
This is created by removing the rth row and the cth column from A.
 
4 5
Examples: minor(A, 1, 3) =
7 8
Related functions:
remove_columns, remove_rows.

16.37.3.32 mult_columns, mult_rows

Syntax:
mult_columns(A,column_list,expr);
A :- a matrix.
column_list :- a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
expr :- an algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
mult_columns returns a copy of A in which the columns specified in
column_list have been multiplied by expr.
mult_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.
Examples:
 
x 2 3∗x
mult_columns(A, {1, 3}, x) = 4 ∗ x 5 6 ∗ x
7∗x 8 9∗x
 
1 2 3
mult_rows(A, 2, 10) = 40 50 60
7 8 9

Related functions:
add_to_columns, add_to_rows.

16.37.3.33 mult_rows

See: mult_columns.

16.37.3.34 pivot

Syntax:
pivot(A,r,c);
676 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A :- a matrix.
r, c :- positive integers such that A(r, c) 6= 0.
Synopsis:
pivot pivots A about its (r, c)th entry.
To do this, multiples of the r’th row are added to every other row in the
matrix.
This means that the c’th column will be 0 except for the (r,c)’th entry.
 
−1 −0.5 0
Examples: pivot(A, 2, 3) =  4 5 6
1 0.5 0
Related functions:
rows_pivot.

16.37.3.35 pseudo_inverse

Syntax:
pseudo_inverse(A);
A :- a matrix containing only real numeric entries.
Synopsis:
pseudo_inverse, also known as the Moore-Penrose inverse, computes
the pseudo inverse of A.
Given the singular value decomposition of A, i.e: A = UΣV T , then the
pseudo inverse A† is defined by A† = VΣ† U T . For the diagonal matrix
Σ, the pseudoinverse Σ† is computed by taking the reciprocal of only the
nonzero diagonal elements.
If A is square and non-singular, then A† = A. In general, however,
AA† A = A, and A† AA† = A† .
Perhaps more importantly, A† solves the following least-squares problem:
given a rectangular matrix A and a vector b, find the x minimizing kAx−bk2 ,
and which, in addition, has minimum `2 (euclidean) Norm, kxk2 . This x is
A† b.
Examples:
 
  −0.2 0.1
1 2 3 4 −0.05 0.05 
R= , pseudo_inverse(R) =  
9 8 7 6  0.1 0 
0.25 −0.05

Related functions:
svd.
 677

16.37.3.36 random_matrix

Syntax:
random_matrix(r,c,limit);
r, c, limit :- positive integers.

Synopsis:
random_matrix creates an r × c matrix with random entries in the range
−limit < entry < limit.

Switches:
imaginary :- if on, then matrix entries are x + iy where −limit <
x, y < limit.
not_negative :- if on then 0 < entry < limit. In the imaginary case
we have 0 < x, y < limit.
only_integer :- if on then each entry is an integer. In the imaginary
case x, y are integers.
symmetric :- if on then the matrix is symmetric.
upper_matrix :- if on then the matrix is upper triangular.
lower_matrix :- if on then the matrix is lower triangular.
Examples:
 
−4.729721 6.987047 7.521383
random_matrix(3, 3, 10) = −5.224177 5.797709 −4.321952
−9.418455 −9.94318 −0.730980

on only_integer, not_negative, upper_matrix, imaginary;

 
2∗i+5 3∗i+7 7∗i+3 6
 0 2 ∗ i + 5 5 ∗ i + 1 2 ∗ i + 1
random_matrix(4, 4, 10) =  
 0 0 8 i 
0 0 0 5∗i+9

16.37.3.37 remove_columns, remove_rows

Syntax:
remove_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a matrix.
column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
remove_columns removes the columns specified in column_list from A.
remove_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.
678 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Examples:
 
1 3
remove_columns(A, 2) = 4 6
7 9


remove_rows(A, {1, 3}) = 4 5 6

Related functions:
minor.

16.37.3.38 remove_rows

See: remove_columns.

16.37.3.39 row_dim

See: column_dim.

16.37.3.40 rows_pivot

Syntax:
rows_pivot(A,r,c,{row_list});
A :- a matrix.
r,c :- positive integers such that A(r,c) neq 0.
row_list :- positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
rows_pivot performs the same task as pivot but applies the pivot only
to the rows specified in row_list.

Examples:
 
1 2 3
4 5 6
 
N =
7 8 9

1 2 3
4 5 6
 
1 2 3
 4 5 6 
 
rows_pivot(N , 2, 3, {4, 5})  7
= 8 9  
 −0.75 0 0.75 
−0.375 0 0.375
 679

Related functions:
pivot.

16.37.3.41 simplex

Syntax:
simplex(max/min,objective function,{linear inequalities},[{bounds}]);
max/min :- either max or min (signifying maximise and
minimise).
objective function :- the function you are maximising or minimising.
linear inequalities :- the constraint inequalities. Each one must be of
the form sum of variables (<=, =, >=) num-
ber.
bounds :- bounds on the variables as specified for the LP
file format. Each bound is of one of the forms
l ≤ v, v ≤ u, or l ≤ v ≤ u, where v is a
variable and l, u are numbers or infinity or
-infinity
Synopsis:
simplex applies the revised simplex algorithm to find the optimal(either
maximum or minimum) value of the objective function under the linear in-
equality constraints.
It returns {optimal value,{ values of variables at this optimal}}.
The {bounds} argument is optional and admissible only when the switch
fastsimplex is on, which is the default.
Without a {bounds} argument, the algorithm implies that all the variables
are non-negative.

Examples: simplex(max,x+y,{x>=10,y>=20,x+y<=25});

***** Error in simplex: Problem has no feasible solution.

simplex(max,10x+5y+5.5z,{5x+3z<=200,x+0.1y+0.5z<=12,
0.1x+0.2y+0.3z<=9, 30x+10y+50z<=1500});

{525.0,{x=40.0,y=25.0,z=0}}

16.37.3.42 squarep

Syntax:
squarep(A);
680 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A :- a matrix.

Synopsis:
squarep is a boolean function that returns t if the matrix is square and nil
otherwise.

Examples:


L= 1 3 5

squarep(A) = t

squarep(L) = nil

Related functions:
matrixp, symmetricp.

16.37.3.43 stack_rows

See: augment_columns.

16.37.3.44 sub_matrix

Syntax:
sub_matrix(A,row_list,column_list);
A :- a matrix.
row_list, column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive in-
tegers.
Synopsis:
sub_matrix produces the matrix consisting of the intersection of the rows
specified in row_list and the columns specified in column_list.
 
2 3
Examples: sub_matrix(A, {1, 3}, {2, 3}) =
8 9
Related functions:
augment_columns, stack_rows.

16.37.3.45 svd (singular value decomposition)

Syntax:
svd(A);
A :- a matrix containing only real numeric entries.
 681

Synopsis:
svd computes the singular value decomposition of A. If A is an m × n real
matrix of (column) rank r, svd returns the 3-element list {U, Σ, V} where
A = UΣV T .
Let k = min(m, n). Then U is m × k, V is n × k, and and Σ =
diag(σ1 , . . . , σk ), where σi ≥ 0 are the singular values of A; only r of
these are non-zero. The singular values are the non-negative square roots of
the eigenvalues of AT A.
U and V are such that UU T = VV T = V T V = Ik .
Note: there are a number of different definitions of SVD in the literature, in
some of which Σ is square and U and V rectangular, as here, but in others U
and V are square, and Σ is rectangular.

Examples:
 
1 3
Q = −4 3
3 6
 
 0.0236042 0.419897  
4.83288 0
svd(Q) = −0.969049 0.232684 ,
 ,
0 7.52618
0.245739 0.877237

 
0.959473 0.281799
−0.281799 0.959473
   
0.959473 0.281799 4.83288 0
svd(TP(Q)) = , ,
−0.281799 0.959473 0 7.52618
 
0.0236042 0.419897 
−0.969049 0.232684
0.245739 0.877237


16.37.3.46 swap_columns, swap_rows

Syntax:
swap_columns(A,c1,c2);
A :- a matrix.
c1,c1 :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
swap_columns swaps column c1 of A with column c2.
swap_rows performs the same task on 2 rows of A.
682 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES
 
1 3 2
Examples: swap_columns(A, 2, 3) = 4 6 5
7 9 8
Related functions:
swap_entries.

16.37.3.47 swap_entries

Syntax:
swap_entries(A,{r1,c1},{r2,c2});
A :- a matrix.
r1,c1,r2,c2 :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
swap_entries swaps A(r1,c1) with A(r2,c2).
 
9 2 3
Examples: swap_entries(A, {1, 1}, {3, 3}) = 4 5 6
7 8 1
Related functions:
swap_columns, swap_rows.

16.37.3.48 swap_rows

See: swap_columns.

16.37.3.49 symmetricp

Syntax:
symmetricp(A);
A :- a matrix.
Synopsis:
symmetricp is a boolean function that returns t if the matrix is symmetric
and nil otherwise.
Examples:
 
1 2
M=
2 1

symmetricp(A) = nil

symmetricp(M) = t
 683

Related functions:
matrixp, squarep.

16.37.3.50 toeplitz

Syntax:
toeplitz({expr1 ,expr2 , ...,exprn }); 37
expr1 ,expr2 , . . . ,exprn :- algebraic expressions.

Synopsis:
toeplitz creates the toeplitz matrix from the expression list.
This is a square symmetric matrix in which the first expression is placed on
the diagonal and the i’th expression is placed on the (i-1)’th sub and super
diagonals.
It has dimension n where n is the number of expressions.
 
w x y z
x w x y 
Examples: toeplitz({w, x, y, z}) =  y x w x


z y x w

16.37.3.51 triang_adjoint

Syntax:
triang_adjoint(A);
A :- a matrix.

Synopsis: triang_adjoint computes the triangularizing adjoint F of matrix

A due to the algorithm of Arne Storjohann. F is lower triangular matrix and
the resulting matrix T of F ∗ A = T is upper triangular with the property
that the i-th entry in the diagonal of T is the determinant of the principal i-th
submatrix of the matrix A.

Examples:
 
1 0 0
triang_adjoint(A) = −4 1 0 
−3 6 −3
 
1 2 3
F ∗ A = 0 −3 −6
0 0 0
37
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
684 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.37.3.52 Vandermonde

Syntax:
vandermonde({expr1 ,expr2 , . . . ,exprn }); 38
expr1 ,expr2 , . . . ,exprn :- algebraic expressions.
Synopsis:
Vandermonde creates the Vandermonde matrix from the expression list.
(j−1)
This is the square matrix in which the (i, j)th entry is expri . It has
dimension n, where n is the number of expressions.
x2
 
1 x
Examples: vandermonde({x, 2 ∗ y, 3 ∗ z}) = 1 2 ∗ y 4 ∗ y 2 
1 3 ∗ z 9 ∗ z2

16.37.3.53 kronecker_product

Syntax:
kronecker_product(M1 , M2 )
M1 , M2 :- Matrices
Synopsis:
kronecker_product creates a matrix containing the Kronecker product
(also called direct product or tensor product) of its arguments.
Examples: a1 := mat((1,2),(3,4),(5,6))$
a2 := mat((1,1,1),(2,z,2),(3,3,3))$
kronecker_product(a1,a2);

1 1 1 2 2 2
 
2
 z 2 4 2∗z 4 
3 3 3 6 6 6
 
3 3 3 4 4 4 
 
6 3∗z 6 8 4∗z 8
 
9 9 9 12 12 12
 
5 5 5 6 6 6
 
10 5 ∗ z 10 12 6 ∗ z 12
15 15 15 18 18 18

16.37.4 Fast Linear Algebra

By turning the fast_la switch on, the speed of the following functions will be
increased:
38
If you’re feeling lazy then the {}’s can be omitted.
 685

add_columns add_rows augment_columns column_dim

copy_into make_identity matrix_augment matrix_stack
minor mult_column mult_row pivot
remove_columns remove_rows rows_pivot squarep
stack_rows sub_matrix swap_columns swap_entries
swap_rows symmetricp
The increase in speed will be insignificant unless you are making a significant num-
ber(i.e: thousands) of calls. When using this switch, error checking is minimised.
This means that illegal input may give strange error messages. Beware.

16.37.5 Acknowledgments

Many of the ideas for this package came from the Maple[3] Linalg package [4].
The algorithms for cholesky, lu_decom, and svd are taken from the book
Linear Algebra - J.H. Wilkinson & C. Reinsch[5].
The gram_schmidt code comes from Karin Gatermann’s Symmetry package[6]
for REDUCE.

Bibliography

[1] Matt Rebbeck: NORMFORM: A REDUCE package for the computation of

various matrix normal forms. ZIB, Berlin. (1993)

[2] Anthony C. Hearn: REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6. RAND (1995)

[3] Bruce W. Char. . . [et al.]: Maple (Computer Program). Springer-Verlag (1991)

[4] Linalg - a linear algebra package for Maple[3].

[5] J. H. Wilkinson & C. Reinsch: Linear Algebra (volume II). Springer-Verlag

(1971)

[6] Karin Gatermann: Symmetry: A REDUCE package for the computation of

linear representations of groups. ZIB, Berlin. (1992)
686 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.38 LISTVECOPS: Vector operations on lists

Author: Eberhard Schrüfer

This package implements vector operations on lists.. Addition, multiplication, di-
vision, and exponentiation work elementwise. For example, after

A := {a1,a2,a3,a4};
B := {b1,b2,b3,b4};

c*A will simplify to {c*a1,..,c*a4}, A + B to {a1+b1,...,a4+b4},

and A*B to {a1*b1,...,a4*b4}. Linear operations work as expected:

c1*A + c2*B;

{a1*c1 + b1*c2,

a2*c1 + b2*c2,

a3*c1 + b3*c2,

a4*c1 + b4*c2}

A division and an exponentation example:

{a,b,c}/{3,g,5};

a b c
{---,---,---}
3 g 5

ws^3;

3 3 3
a b c
{----,----,-----}
27 3 125
g

The new operator *. (ldot) implements the dot product:

{a,b,c,d} *. {5,7,9,11/d};

5*a + 7*b + 9*c + 11

 687

For accessing list elements, the new operator _ (lnth) can be used instead of the
PART operator:

l := {1,{2,3},4}$

lnth(l,3);

l _2*3;

{6,9}

l _2 _2;

It can also be used to modify a list (unlike PART, which returns a modified list):

part(l,2,2):=three;

{1,{2,three},4}

l;

{1,{2,3},4}

l _ 2 _2 :=three;

three

l;

{1,{2,three},4}

Operators are distributed over lists:

a *. log b;

log(b1)*a1 + log(b2)*a2 + log(b3)*a3 + log(b4)*a4

df({sin x*y,x^3*cos y},x,2,y);

{ - sin(x), - 6*sin(y)*x}
688 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

int({sin x,cos x},x);

{ - cos(x),sin(x)}

By using the keyword listproc, an algebraic procedure can be declared to return a

list:

listproc spat3(u,v,w);
begin scalar x,y;
x := u *. w;
y := u *. v;
return v*x - w*y
end;
 689

16.39 LPDO: Linear Partial Differential Operators

Author: Thomas Sturm

16.39.1 Introduction

Consider the field F = Q(x1 , . . . , xn ) of rational functions and a set ∆ =

{∂x1 ,. . . , ∂xn } of commuting derivations acting on F . That is, for all ∂xi , ∂xj ∈ ∆
and all f , g ∈ F the following properties are satisfied:

∂xi (f + g) = ∂xi (f ) + ∂xi (g),

∂xi (f · g) = f · ∂xi (g) + ∂xi (f ) · g, (16.87)
∂xi (∂xj (f )) = ∂xj (∂xi (f )). (16.88)

Consider now the set F [∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn ], where the derivations are used as variables.
This set forms a non-commutative linear partial differential operator ring with
pointwise addition, and multiplication defined as follows: For f ∈ F and ∂xi ,
∂xj ∈ ∆ we have for any g ∈ F that

(f ∂xi )(g) = f · ∂xi (g),

(∂xi f )(g) = ∂xi (f · g), (16.89)
(∂xi ∂xj )(g) = ∂xi (∂xj (g)). (16.90)

Here “ · ” denotes the multiplication in F . From (16.90) and (16.88) it follows that
∂xi ∂xj = ∂xj ∂xi , and using (16.89) and (16.87) the following commutator can be
proved:

∂xi f = f ∂xi + ∂xi (f ).

A linear partial differential operator (LPDO) of order k is an element

X
D = aj ∂ j ∈ F [∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn ]
|j|≤k

Pn |j| ≤ k specifies the set jof all jtuples

in canonical form. Here the expression of the
form j = (j1 , . . . , jn ) ∈ N with i=1 ji ≤ k, and we define ∂ = ∂x1 · · · ∂xjnn .
n 1

A factorization of D is a non-trivial decomposition

D = D1 · · · Dr ∈ F [∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn ]

into multiplicative factors, each of which is an LPDO Di of order greater than 0 and
less than k. If such a factorization exists, then D is called reducible or factorable,
else irreducible.
690 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

For the purpose of factorization it is helpful to temporarily consider as regular

commutative polynomials certain summands of the LPDO under consideration.
Consider a commutative polynomial ring over F in new indeterminates y1 , . . . , yn .
Adopting the notational conventions above, for m ≤ k the symbol of D of order m
is defined as
X
Symm (D) = aj y j ∈ F [y1 , . . . , yn ].
|j|=m

For m = k we obtain as a special case the symbol Sym(D) of D.

16.39.2 Operators

16.39.2.1 partial

There is a unary operator partial(·) denoting ∂.

hpartial-termi → partial ( hidi )

16.39.2.2 ***

There is a binary operator *** for the non-commutative multiplication involving

partials ∂x . All expressions involving *** are implicitly transformed into LPDOs,
i.e., into the following normal form:

hnormalized-lpdoi → hnormalized-moni [ + hnormalized-lpdoi ]

hnormalized-moni → hF-elementi [ *** hpartial-termprodi ]
hpartial-termprodi → hpartial-termi [ *** hpartial-termprodi ]

The summands of the normalized-lpdo are ordered in some canonical way. As an

example consider

input: a()***partial(y)***b()***partial(x);

(a()*b()) *** partial(x) *** partial(y) + (a()*diff(b(),y,1)) *** partial(x)

Here the F-elements are polynomials, where the unknowns are of the type constant-
operator denoting functions from F :

hconstant-operatori → hidi ( )

We do not admit division of such constant operators since we cannot exclude that
such a constant operator denotes 0.
 691

The operator notation on the one hand emphasizes the fact that the denoted el-
ements are functions. On the other hand it distinguishes a() from the variable
a of a rational function, which specifically denotes the corresponding projection.
Consider e.g.

input: (x+y)***partial(y)***(x-y)***partial(x);

2 2
(x - y ) *** partial(x) *** partial(y) + ( - x - y) *** partial(x)

Here we use as F-elements specific elements from F = Q(x, y).

16.39.2.3 diff

In our example with constant operators, the transformation into normal form in-
troduces a formal derivative operation diff(·,·,·), which cannot be evaluated.
Notice that we do not use the Reduce operator df(·,·,·) here, which for technical
reasons cannot smoothly handle our constant operators.
In our second example with rational functions as F-elements, derivative occurring
with commutation can be computed such that diff does not occur in the output.

16.39.3 Shapes of F-elements

Besides the generic computations with constant operators, we provide a mechanism

to globally fix a certain shape for F-elements and to expand constant operators
according to that shape.

16.39.3.1 lpdoset

We give an example for a shape that fixes all constant operators to denote generic
bivariate affine linear functions:

input: d := (a()+b())***partial(x1)***partial(x2)**2;

2
d := (a() + b()) *** partial(x1) *** partial(x2)

input: lpdoset {!#10*x1+!#01*x2+!#00,x1,x2};

{-1}

input: d;

2
692 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

(a00 + a01*x2 + a10*x1 + b00 + b01*x2 + b10*x1) *** partial(x1) *** partial(x2)

Notice that the placeholder # must be escaped with !, which is a general conven-
tion for Rlisp/Reduce. Notice that lpdoset returns the old shape and that {-1}
denotes the default state that there is no shape selected.

16.39.3.2 lpdoweyl

The command lpdoweyl {n,x1,x2,...} creates a shape for generic poly-

nomials of total degree n in variables x1, x2, . . . .

input: lpdoweyl(2,x1,x2);

2 2
{#_00_ + #_01_*x2 + #_02_*x2 + #_10_*x1 + #_11_*x1*x2 + #_20_*x1 ,x1,x2}

input: lpdoset ws;

{#10*x1 + #01*x2 + #00,x1,x2}

input: d;

2 2
(a_00_ + a_01_*x2 + a_02_*x2 + a_10_*x1 + a_11_*x1*x2 + a_20_*x1 + b_00_

2 2
+ b_01_*x2 + b_02_*x2 + b_10_*x1 + b_11_*x1*x2 + b_20_*x1 ) *** partial(x1)

2
*** partial(x2)

16.39.4 Commands

16.39.4.1 General

lpdoord The order of an lpdo:

input: lpdoord((a()+b())***partial(x1)***partial(x2)**2+3***partial(x1));

lpdoptl Returns the list of derivations (partials) occurring in its argument

LPDO d.

input: lpdoptl(a()***partial(x1)***partial(x2)+partial(x4)+diff(a(),x3,1));

{partial(x1),partial(x2),partial(x4)}
 693

That is the smallest set {. . . , ∂xi , . . . } such that d is defined in F [. . . , ∂xi , . . . ].

Notice that formal derivatives are not derivations in that sense.

lpdogp Given a starting symbol a, a list of variables l, and a degree n,

lpdogp(a,l,n) generates a generic (commutative) polynomial of degree n in
variables l with coefficients generated from the starting symbol a:

input: lpdogp(a,{x1,x2},2);

2 2
a_00_ + a_01_*x2 + a_02_*x2 + a_10_*x1 + a_11_*x1*x2 + a_20_*x1

lpdogdp Given a starting symbol a, a list of variables l, and a degree n,

lpdogp(a,l,n) generates a generic differential polynomial of degree n in vari-
ables l with coefficients generated from the starting symbol a:

input: lpdogdp(a,{x1,x2},2);

2 2
a_20_ *** partial(x1) + a_02_ *** partial(x2)

+ a_11_ *** partial(x1) *** partial(x2) + a_10_ *** partial(x1)

+ a_01_ *** partial(x2) + a_00_

16.39.4.2 Symbols

lpdosym The symbol of an lpdo. That is the differential monomial of highest

order with the partials replaced by corresponding commutative variables:

input: lpdosym((a()+b())***partial(x1)***partial(x2)**2+3***partial(x1));

2
y_x1_*y_x2_ *(a() + b())

More generally, one can use a second optional arguments to specify a the order of
a different differential monomial to form the symbol of:

input: lpdosym((a()+b())***partial(x1)***partial(x2)**2+3***partial(x1),1);

3*y_x1_

Finally, a third optional argument can be used to specify an alternative starting sym-
bol for the commutative variable, which is y by default. Altogether, the optional
arguments default like lpdosym(·)=lpdosym(·,lpdoord(·),y).
694 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

lpdosym2dp This converts a symbol obtained via lpdosym back into an

LPDO resulting in the corresponding differential monomial of the original LPDO.

input: d := a()***partial(x1)***partial(x2)+partial(x3)$

input: s := lpdosym d;

s := a()*y_x1_*y_x2_

input: lpdosym2dp s;

a() *** partial(x1) *** partial(x2)

In analogy to lpdosym there is an optional argument for specifying an alternative

starting symbol for the commutative variable, which is y by default.

lpdos Given LPDOs p, q and m ∈ N the function lpdos(p,q,m) computes

the commutative polynomial
n
!
X X
Sm = pi ∂i (qj ) + p0 qj y j .
|j|=m i=1
|j|<k

This is useful for the factorization of LPDOs.

input: p := a()***partial(x1)+b()$

input: q := c()***partial(x1)+d()***partial(x2)$

input: lpdos(p,q,1);

a()*diff(c(),x1,1)*y_x1_ + a()*diff(d(),x1,1)*y_x2_ + b()*c()*y_x1_

+ b()*d()*y_x2_

16.39.4.3 Factorization

lpdofactorize Factorize the argument LPDO d. The ground field F must

be fixed via lpdoset. The result is a list of lists {. . . , (Ai , Li ), . . . }. Ai is is
genrally the identifiers true, which indicates reducibility. The respective Li is a
list of two differential polynomial factors, the first of which has order 1.

input: bk := (partial(x)+partial(y)+(a10-a01)/2) ***

(partial(x)-partial(y)+(a10+a01)/2);

2 2
bk := partial(x) - partial(y) + a10 *** partial(x) + a01 *** partial(y)
 695

2 2
- a01 + a10
+ ----------------
4

input: lpdoset lpdoweyl(1,x,y);

{#_00_ + #_01_*y + #_10_*x,x,y}

input: lpdofactorize bk;

{{true,

a01 - a10
{ - partial(x) - partial(y) + -----------,
2

- a01 - a10
- partial(x) + partial(y) + --------------}}}
2

If the result is the empty list, then this guarantees that there is no approximate fac-
torization possible. In general it is possible to obtain several sample factorizations.
Note, however, that the result does not provide a complete list of possible factor-
izations with a left factor of order 1 but only at least one such sample factorization
in case of reducibility.
Furthermore, the procedure might fail due to polynomial degrees exceeding cer-
tain bounds for the extended quantifier elimination by virtual substitution used in-
ternally. In this case there is the identifier failed returned. This must not be
confused with the empty list indicating irreducibility as described above.
Besides

1. the LPDO d,

lpdofactorizex accepts several optional arguments:

2. An LPDO of order 1, which serves as a template for the left (linear) factor.
The default is a generic linear LPDO with generic coefficient functions ac-
cording from the ground field specified via lpdoset. The principle idea is
to support the factorization by guessing that certain differential monomials
are not present.

3. An LPDO of order ord(d)−1, which serves as a template for the right factor.
Similarly to the previous argument the default is fully generic.
696 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

lpdofac This is a low-level entry point to the factorization lpdofactorize.

It accepts the same arguments as lpdofactorize. It generates factorization
conditions as a quite large first-order formula over the reals. This can be passed to
extended quantifier elimination. For example, consider bk as in the example for
lpdofactorize above:

input: faccond := lpdofac bk$

input: rlqea faccond;

{{true,

a01 - a10
{p_00_00_ = -----------,
2

p_00_01_ = 0, p_00_10_ = 0, p_01_00_ = -1, p_01_01_ = 0, p_01_10_ = 0,

p_10_00_ = -1, p_10_01_ = 0, p_10_10_ = 0,

- a01 - a10
q_00_00_ = --------------,
2

q_00_01_ = 0, q_00_10_ = 0, q_01_00_ = 1, q_01_01_ = 0, q_01_10_ = 0,

q_10_00_ = -1, q_10_01_ = 0, q_10_10_ = 0}}}

The result of the extended quantifier elimination provides coefficient values for
generic factor polynomials p and q. These are automatically interpreted and con-
verted into differential polynomials by lpdofactorize.

16.39.4.4 Approximate Factorization

lpdofactorizex Approximately factorize the argument LPDO d. The

ground field F must be fixed via lpdoset. The result is a list of lists
{. . . , (Ai , Li ), . . . }. Each Ai is quantifier-free formula possibly containing a vari-
able epsilon, which describes the precision of corresponding factorization Li .
Li is a list containing two factors, the first of which is linear.

input: off lpdocoeffnorm$

input: lpdoset lpdoweyl(0,x1,x2)$

input: f2 := partial(x1)***partial(x2) + 1$

input: lpdofactorizex f2;

 697

{{epsilon - 1 >= 0,{partial(x1),partial(x2)}},

{epsilon - 1 >= 0,{partial(x2),partial(x1)}}}

If the result is the empty list, then this guarantees that there is no approximate
factorization possible. In our example we happen to obtain two possible factor-
izations. Note, however, that the result in general does not provide a complete
list of factorizations with a left factor of order 1 but only at least one such sample
factorization.
Furthermore, the procedure might fail due to polynomial degrees exceeding certain
bounds for the extended quantifier elimination by virtual substitution used inter-
nally. If this happens, the corresponding Ai will contain existential quantifiers ex,
and Li will be meaningless.
Da sollte besser ein failed kommen ...
The first of the two subresults above has the semantics that ∂x1 ∂x2 is an approxi-
mate factorization of f2 for all ε ≥ 1. Formally, ||f2 − ∂x1 ∂x2 || ≤ ε for all ε ≥ 1,
which is equivalent to ||f2 − ∂x1 ∂x2 || ≤ 1. That is, 1 is an upper bound for the ap-
proximation error over R2 . Where there are two possible choices for the seminorm
|| · ||:

1. ...

2. ...

explain switch lpdocoeffnorm ...

Besides

1. the LPDO d,

lpdofactorizex accepts several optional arguments:

2. A Boolean combination ψ of equations, negated equations, and (possibly

strict) ordering constraints. This ψ describes a (semialgebraic) region over
which to factorize approximately. The default is true specifying the entire
Rn . It is possible to choose ψ parametrically. Then the parameters will in
general occur in the conditions Ai in the result.

3., 4. An LPDO of order 1, which serves as a template for the left (linear) factor,
and an LPDO of order ord(d) − 1, which serves as a template for the right
factor. See the documentation of lpdofactorize for defaults and details.

5. A bound ε for describing the desired precision for approximate factoriza-

tion. The default is the symbol epsilon, i.e., a symbolic choice such that
698 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

the optimal choice (with respect to parameters in ψ) is obtained during fac-

torization. It is possible to fix ε ∈ Q. This does, however, not considerably
simplify the factorization process in most cases.

input: f3 := partial(x1) *** partial(x2) + x1$

input: psi1 := 0<=x1<=1 and 0<=x2<=1$

input: lpdofactorizex(f3,psi1,a()***partial(x1),b()***partial(x2));

{{epsilon - 1 >= 0,{partial(x1),partial(x2)}}}

lpdofacx This is a low-level entry point to the factorization lpdofactorizex.

It is analogous to lpdofac for lpdofactorize; see the documentation there
for details.

lpdohrect

lpdohcirc
 699

16.40 MODSR: Modular solve and roots

This package supports solve (M_SOLVE) and roots (M_ROOTS) operators for
modular polynomials and modular polynomial systems. The moduli need not be
primes. M_SOLVE requires a modulus to be set. M_ROOTS takes the modulus as
a second argument. For example:

on modular; setmod 8;
m_solve(2x=4); -> {{X=2},{X=6}}
m_solve({x^2-y^3=3});
-> {{X=0,Y=5}, {X=2,Y=1}, {X=4,Y=5}, {X=6,Y=1}}
m_solve({x=2,x^2-y^3=3}); -> {{X=2,Y=1}}
off modular;
m_roots(x^2-1,8); -> {1,3,5,7}
m_roots(x^3-x,7); -> {0,1,6}

The operator legendre_symbol(a,p) denotes the Legendre symbol

 
a p−1
≡a 2 (mod p)
p

which, by its very definition can only have one of the values {−1, 0, 1}.
There is no further documentation for this package.
Author: Herbert Melenk.
700 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.41 MRVLIMIT: A new exp-log limits package

Author: Neil Langmead

This package was written when the author was a placement student at ZIB Berlin.

16.41.1 The Exp-Log Limits package

This package arises from the PhD thesis of Dominik Gruntz, of the ETH Zürich.
He developed a new algorithm to compute limits of "exp-log" functions. Many of
the examples he gave were unable to be computed by the present limits package in
REDUCE, the simplest example being the following, whose limit is obviously 0:

load limits;

limit(x^7/e^x,x,infinity);

7
x
limit(----,x,infinity)
x
e

This particular problem arises, because L’Hopital’s rule for the computation of
∞
indefinite forms (such as 0/0, or ∞ ) can only be applied in a CAS a finite num-
ber of times, and in REDUCE, this number is 3. Applied 7 times to the above
problem would have yielded the correct answer 0. The new algorithm solves this
particular problem, and enables the computation of many more limit calculations
in REDUCE. We first define the domain in which we work, and then give a state-
ment of the main algorithm that is used in this package.

Definition:
Let <[x] be the ring of polynomials in x with real coefficients, and let f be an
element in this ring. The field which is obtained from <[x] by closing it under the
operations f → exp(f ) and f → log |f | is called the L- field (or logarithmico-
exponential field, or field of exp-log functions for short).

Hardy proved that every L function is ultimately continuous, of constant sign,

monotonic, and tends to ±∞ or to a finite real constant as x → +∞.
Here are some examples of exp-log functions, which the package is able to deal
 701

with:

f (x) = ex ∗ log(log(x))

log(log(x + e−x ))
f (x) =
ex2 + log(log(x))

f (x) = log(x)log(x)

f (x) = ex∗log(x)

16.41.2 The Algorithm

A complete statement of the algorithm now follows: Let f be a log-exp function in

x, whose limit we wish to compute as x → x0 . The main steps of the algorithm to
do this are as follows:

• Determine the set Ω of the most rapidly varying subexpressions of f (x).

Limits may have to be computed recursively at this stage.

• Choose an expression ω such that ω > 0, limx→∞ ω = 0 and ω is in the same

comparability class as any element of Ω. Rewrite the other expressions in Ω
as A(x)ω c , where A(x) only contains subexpressions in lower comparability
classes than Ω.

• Let f (ω) be the function obtained from f (x) by replacing all elements of Ω
by their representation in terms of ω. Consider all expressions independent
of ω as constants and compute the leading term of the power series of f(ω)
around ω = 0+

• If the leading exponent e0 > 0, then the limit is 0, and we stop. If the leading
exponent e0 < 0 then the limit is ±∞. The sign is defined by the sign of the
leading coefficient c0 . If the leading exponent e0 = 0 then the limit is the
limit of the leading coeficient c0 . If c0 6∈ C, where C = Const(L), the set of
exp-log constants, we apply the same algorithm recursively on c0 .

The algorithm to compute the most rapidly varying subset (the mrv set) of a func-
tion f is given below:

procedure mrv(f)
if (not (depend(f,x))) → return ({})
else if f = x → return({x})
else if f = gh → return(max(mrv(g),mrv(h)))
else if f = g + h → return(max(mrv(g),mrv(h)))
else if f = g c and c ∈ C → return(mrv(g))
702 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

else if f = log(g) → return(mrv(g))

else if f = eg →
if limx→∞ g = ±∞ →
return(max({eg }, mrv(g)))
else → return mrv(g)
end

The function max() computes the maximum of the two sets of expressions. Max()
compares two elements of its argument sets and returns the set which is in the
higher comparability class or the union of both if they have the same order of vari-
ation.

For further details, proofs and explanations of the algorithm, please consult [Grn96].
For example, we have

mrv(ex ) = {ex }
mrv(log(log(log(x + x2 + x3 )))) = {x}
mrv(x) = {x}
mrv(ex + e−x + x2 + x log(x)) = {ex , e−x }
−x
mrv(ee ) = {e−x }

16.41.2.1 Mrv_limit Examples

Consider the following in REDUCE:

mrv_limit(e^x,x,infinity);

infinity

mrv_limit(1/log(x),x,infinity);

b:=e^x*(e^(1/x-e^-x)-e^(1/x));

-1 - x
x + x - e
b := e * (e - 1)

mrv_limit(b,x,infinity);
 703

-1

-1
ex:= - log(log(log(log(x))) + log(x)) *log(x)

*(log(log(x)) - log(log(log(x)) + log(x)));

- log(x)*(log(log(x)) - log(log(log(x)) + log(x)))

ex:= -----------------------------------------------------
log(log(log(log(x))) + log(x))

off mcd;

mrv_limit(ex,x,infinity);

(log(x+e^-x)+log(1/x))/(log(x)*e^x);

- x -1 -1 - x
e * log(x) * (log(x ) + log(e + x));

mrv_limit(ws,x,infinity);

mrv_limit((log(x)*e^-x)/e^(log(x)+e^(x^2)),x,infinity);

16.41.3 The tracing facility

The package provides a means of tracing the mrv_limit function at its main steps,
and is intended to help the user if he encounters problems. Messages are displayed
informing the user which Taylor expansion is being computed, all recursive calls
are listed, and the value returned by the mrv function is given. This information
is displayed when a switch tracelimit is on. This is off by default, but can be
704 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

switched on with the command

on tracelimit;

For a more complete examination of the workings of the algorithm, the user could
also try the command

tr mrv_limit;

This is not recommended, as the amount of information returned is often huge and
difficult to wade through. Here is a simple example in REDUCE:

Loading image file: /silo/cons/reduce35/Alpha/binary/redu37a.img

REDUCE Development Version, 4-Nov-96 ...

1: load mrvlimit;

2: on tracelimit;

3: mrv_limit(e^x,x,infinity);

mrv_f is {x}

x
After move_up, f is e

-1
performing taylor on: ww

-1
series expansion is ww

-1
series is ww

exponent list is {expt,-1}

leading exponent e0 is {expt,-1}

x
mrv_f is {e }

h is x
 705

mrv_f is {x}

x
After move_up, f is e

-1
performing taylor on: ww

-1
series expansion is ww

-1
series is ww

exponent list is {expt,-1}

leading exponent e0 is {expt,-1}

- x
small has been changed to e

-1
After substitution to ww, f is ww

-1
performing taylor on: ww

-1
series expansion is ww

-1
series is ww

exponent list is {expt,-1}

leading exponent e0 is {expt,-1}

infinity

Note that, due to the recursiveness of the functions mrv and mrv_limit, many
706 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

calls to each function are made, and information is given on all calls when the
tracelimit switch is on.

Bibliography

[Grn96] Gruntz, Dominik, On Computing Limits in a Symbolik Manipulation Sys-

tem,
PhD Thesis, ETH Zürich

[Red36] Hearn, Anthony C. and Fitch, John F. REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6,
RAND Corporation, 1995

16.42 NCPOLY: Non–commutative polynomial ideals

This package allows the user to set up automatically a consistent environment for
computing in an algebra where the non–commutativity is defined by Lie-bracket
commutators. The package uses the REDUCE noncom mechanism for elementary
polynomial arithmetic; the commutator rules are automatically computed from the
Lie brackets.
Authors: Herbert Melenk and Joachim Apel.

16.42.1 Introduction

REDUCE supports a very general mechanism for computing with objects under a
non–commutative multiplication, where commutator relations must be introduced
explicitly by rule sets when needed. The package NCPOLY allows you to set
up automatically a consistent environment for computing in an algebra where the
non–commutativity is defined by Lie-bracket commutators. The package uses the
REDUCE noncom mechanism for elementary polynomial arithmetic; the commu-
tator rules are automatically computed from the Lie brackets. You can perform
polynomial arithmetic directly, including division and factorization. Additionally
NCPOLY supports computations in a one sided ideal (left or right), especially one
sided Gröbner bases and polynomial reduction.

16.42.2 Setup, Cleanup

Before the computations can start the environment for a non–commutative compu-
tation must be defined by a call to nc_setup:

nc_setup(<vars>[,<comms>][,<dir>]);
 707

where
< vars > is a list of variables; these must include the non–commutative quantities.
< comms > is a list of equations <u>*<v> - <v>*<u>=<rh> where < u >
and < v > are members of < vars >, and < rh > is a polynomial.
< dir > is either lef t or right selecting a left or a right one sided ideal. The initial
direction is lef t.
nc_setup generates from < comms > the necessary rules to support an algebra
where all monomials are ordered corresponding to the given variable sequence.
All pairs of variables which are not explicitly covered in the commutator set are
considered as commutative and the corresponding rules are also activated.
The second parameter in nc_setup may be omitted if the operator is called for
the second time, e.g. with a reordered variable sequence. In such a case the last
commutator set is used again.
Remarks:

• The variables need not be declared noncom - nc_setup performs all neces-
sary declarations.

• The variables need not be formal operator expressions; nc_setup encapsu-

lates a variable x internally as nc!*(!_x) expressions anyway where the
operator nc!∗ keeps the noncom property.

• The commands order and korder should be avoided because nc_setup sets
these such that the computation results are printed in the correct term order.

Example:

nc_setup({KK,NN,k,n},
{NN*n-n*NN= NN, KK*k-k*KK= KK});

NN*n; -> NN*n

n*NN; -> NN*n - NN
nc_setup({k,n,KK,NN});
NN*n - NN -> n*NN;

Here KK, N N, k, n are non–commutative variables where the commutators are

described as [N N, n] = N N , [KK, k] = KK.
The current term order must be compatible with the commutators: the product
< u > ∗ < v > must precede all terms on the right hand side < rh > under the
current term order. Consequently
708 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• the maximal degree of < u > or < v > in < rh > is 1,

• in a total degree ordering the total degree of < rh > may be not higher than
1,

• in an elimination degree order (e.g. lex) all variables in < rh > must be
below the minimum of < u > and < v >.

• If < rh > does not contain any variables or has at most < u > or < v >,
any term order can be selected.

If you want to use the non–commutative variables or results from non–commutative

computations later in commutative operations it might be necessary to switch off
the non–commutative evaluation mode because not all operators in REDUCE are
prepared for that environment. In such a case use the command

nc_cleanup;

without parameters. It removes all internal rules and definitions which nc_setup
had introduced. To reactive non–commutative call nc_setup again.

16.42.3 Left and right ideals

A (polynomial) left ideal L is defined by the axioms

u ∈ L, v ∈ L =⇒ u + v ∈ L
u ∈ L =⇒ k ∗ u ∈ L for an arbitrary polynomial k
where “*” is the non–commutative multiplication. Correspondingly, a right ideal
R is defined by
u ∈ R, v ∈ R =⇒ u + v ∈ R
u ∈ R =⇒ u ∗ k ∈ R for an arbitrary polynomial k

16.42.4 Gröbner bases

When a non–commutative environment has been set up by nc_setup, a basis for

a left or right polynomial ideal can be transformed into a Gröbner basis by the
operator nc_groebner:

nc_groebner(<plist>);

Note that the variable set and variable sequence must be defined before in the
nc_setup call. The term order for the Gröbner calculation can be set by using the
torder declaration. The internal steps of the Gröbner calculation can be watched
 709

by setting the switches trgroeb (=list all internal basis polynomials) or trgroebs
(=list additionally the S-polynomials) 39 .
For details about torder, trgroeb and trgroebs see the REDUCE GROEBNER
manual.

2: nc_setup({k,n,NN,KK},{NN*n-n*NN=NN,KK*k-k*KK=KK},left);

3: p1 := (n-k+1)*NN - (n+1);

p1 := - k*nn + n*nn - n + nn - 1

4: p2 := (k+1)*KK -(n-k);

p2 := k*kk + k - n + kk

5: nc_groebner ({p1,p2});

{k*nn - n*nn + n - nn + 1,

k*kk + k - n + kk,

n*nn*kk - n*kk - n + nn*kk - kk - 1}

Important: Do not use the operators of the GROEBNER package directly as they
would not consider the non–commutative multiplication.

16.42.5 Left or right polynomial division

The operator nc_divide computes the one sided quotient and remainder of two
polynomials:

nc_divide(<p1>,<p2>);

The result is a list with quotient and remainder. The division is performed as a
pseudo–division, multiplying < p1 > by coefficients if necessary. The result {<
q >, < r >} is defined by the relation
< c > ∗ < p1 >=< q > ∗ < p2 > + < r > for direction lef t and
< c > ∗ < p1 >=< p2 > ∗ < q > + < r > for direction right,
39
The command lisp(!*trgroebfull:=t); causes additionally all elementary polynomial
operations to be printed.
710 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where < c > is an expression that does not contain any of the ideal variables, and
the leading term of < r > is lower than the leading term of < p2 > according to
the actual term order.

16.42.6 Left or right polynomial reduction

For the computation of the one sided remainder of a polynomial modulo a given
set of other polynomials the operator nc_preduce may be used:

nc_preduce(<polynomial>,<plist>);

The result of the reduction is unique (canonical) if and only if < plist > is a one
sided Gröbner basis. Then the computation is at the same time an ideal membership
test: if the result is zero, the polynomial is member of the ideal, otherwise not.

16.42.7 Factorization

16.42.7.1 Technique

Polynomials in a non–commutative ring cannot be factored using the ordinary fac-

torize command of REDUCE. Instead one of the operators of this section must be
used:

nc_factorize(<polynomial>);

The result is a list of factors of < polynomial >. A list with the input expression
is returned if it is irreducible.
As non–commutative factorization is not unique, there is an additional operator
which computes all possible factorizations

nc_factorize_all(<polynomial>);

The result is a list of factor decompositions of < polynomial >. If there are no
factors at all the result list has only one member which is a list containing the input
polynomial.

16.42.7.2 Control of the factorization

In contrast to factoring in commutative polynomial rings, the non–commutative

factorization is rather time consuming. Therefore two additional operators allow
you to reduce the amount of computing time when you look only for isolated fac-
 711

tors in special context, e.g. factors with a limited degree or factors which contain
only explicitly specified variables:

left_factor(<polynomial>[,<deg>[,<vars>]])
right_factor(<polynomial>[,<deg>[,<vars>]])
left_factors(<polynomial>[,<deg>[,<vars>]])
right_factors(<polynomial>[,<deg>[,<vars>]])

where < polynomial > is the form under investigation, < vars > is an optional
list of variables which must appear in the factor, and < deg > is an optional
integer degree bound for the total degree of the factor, a zero for an unbounded
search, or a monomial (product of powers of the variables) where each exponent is
an individual degree bound for its base variable; unmentioned variables are allowed
in arbitrary degree. The operators ∗_f actor stop when they have found one factor,
while the operators ∗_f actors select all one–sided factors within the given range.
If there is no factor of the desired type, an empty list is returned by ∗_f actors
while the routines ∗_f actor return the input polynomial.

16.42.7.3 Time of the factorization

The share variable nc_f actor_time sets an upper limit for the time to be spent
for a call to the non–commutative factorizer. If the value is a positive integer,
a factorization is terminated with an error message as soon as the time limit is
reached. The time units are milliseconds.

16.42.7.4 Usage of SOLVE

The factorizer internally uses solve, which is controlled by the REDUCE switch
varopt. This switch (which per default is set on) allows, to reorder the variable
sequence, which is favourable for the normal system. It should be avoided to set
varopt of f , when using the non–commutative factorizer, unless very small poly-
nomials are used.

16.42.8 Output of expressions

It is often desirable to have the commutative parts (coefficients) in a non–

commutative operation condensed by factorization. The operator

nc_compact(<polynomial>)

collects the coefficients to the powers of the lowest possible non-commutative vari-
able.
712 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

load ncpoly;

nc_setup({n,NN},{NN*n-n*NN=NN})$
p1 := n**4 + n**2*nn + 4*n**2 + 4*n*nn + 4*nn + 4;

4 2 2
p1 := n + n *nn + 4*n + 4*n*nn + 4*nn + 4

nc_compact p1;

2 2 2
(n + 2) + (n + 2) *nn
 713

16.43 NORMFORM: Computation of matrix normal forms

This package contains routines for computing the following normal forms of ma-
trices:

• smithex_int

• smithex

• frobenius

• ratjordan

• jordansymbolic

• jordan.

Author: Matt Rebbeck.

16.43.1 Introduction

When are two given matrices similar? Similar matrices have the same trace, deter-
minant, characteristic polynomial, and eigenvalues, but the matrices
   
0 1 0 0
U= and V =
0 0 0 0

are the same in all four of the above but are not similar. Otherwise there could exist
a nonsingular N ∈M2 (the set of all 2 × 2 matrices) such that U = N VN −1 =
N 0 N −1 = 0 , which is a contradiction since U 6= 0 .
Two matrices can look very different but still be similar. One approach to deter-
mining whether two given matrices are similar is to compute the normal form of
them. If both matrices reduce to the same normal form they must be similar.
NORMFORM is a package for computing the following normal forms of matrices:

- smithex
- smithex_int
- frobenius
- ratjordan
- jordansymbolic
- jordan

The package is loaded by load_package normform;

714 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

By default all calculations are carried out in Q (the rational numbers). For
smithex, frobenius, ratjordan, jordansymbolic, and jordan, this
field can be extended. Details are given in the respective sections.
The frobenius, ratjordan, and jordansymbolic normal forms can also
be computed in a modular base. Again, details are given in the respective sections.
The algorithms for each routine are contained in the source code.
NORMFORM has been converted from the normform and Normform packages
written by T.M.L. Mulders and A.H.M. Levelt. These have been implemented
in Maple [4].

16.43.2 Smith normal form

Function
smithex(A, x) computes the Smith normal form S of the matrix A.
It returns {S, P, P −1 } where S, P, and P −1 are such that PSP −1 = A.
A is a rectangular matrix of univariate polynomials in x.
x is the variable name.

Field extensions
Calculations are performed in Q. To extend this field the ARNUM package
can be used. For details see subsection 16.43.8.

Synopsis: • The Smith normal form S of an n by m matrix A with univariate

polynomial entries in x over a field F is computed. That is, the poly-
nomials are then regarded as elements of the Euclidean domain F(x).
• The Smith normal form is a diagonal matrix S where:
– rank(A) = number of nonzero rows (columns) of S.
– S(i, i) is a monic polynomial for 0 < i ≤ rank(A).
– S(i, i) divides S(i + 1, i + 1) for 0 < i < rank(A).
– S(i, i) is the greatest common divisor of all i by i minors of A.
Hence, if we have the case that n = m, as well as rank(A) = n, then
n
Y det(A)
S(i, i) = .
lcoeff(det(A), x)
i=1

• The Smith normal form is obtained by doing elementary row and col-
umn operations. This includes interchanging rows (columns), multi-
plying through a row (column) by −1, and adding integral multiples of
one row (column) to another.
 715

• Although the rank and determinant can be easily obtained from S, this
is not an efficient method for computing these quantities except that this
may yield a partial factorization of det(A) without doing any explicit
factorizations.

Example:
load_package normform;
 
x x+1
A=
0 3 ∗ x2
     
1 0 1 0 x x+1
smithex(A, x) = , ,
0 x3 3 ∗ x2 1 −3 −3

16.43.3 smithex_int

Function
Given an n by m rectangular matrix A that contains only integer entries,
smithex_int(A) computes the Smith normal form S of A.
It returns {S, P, P −1 } where S, P, and P −1 are such that PSP −1 = A.

Synopsis • The Smith normal form S of an n by m matrix A with integer

entries is computed.
• The Smith normal form is a diagonal matrix S where:
– rank(A) = number of nonzero rows (columns) of S.
– sign(S(i, i)) = 1 for 0 < i ≤ rank(A).
– S(i, i) divides S(i + 1, i + 1) for 0 < i < rank(A).
– S(i, i) is the greatest common divisor of all i by i minors of A.
Hence, if we have the case that n = m, as well as rank(A) = n, then
n
Y
|det(A)| = S(i, i).
i=1

• The Smith normal form is obtained by doing elementary row and col-
umn operations. This includes interchanging rows (columns), multi-
plying through a row (column) by −1, and adding integral multiples of
one row (column) to another.

Example
716 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

load_package normform;
 
9 −36 30
A = −36 192 −180
30 −180 180
     
 3 0 0 −17 −5 −4 1 −24 30 
smithex_int(A) = 0 12 0  ,  64 19 15  , −1 25 −30
0 0 60 −50 −15 −12 0 −1 1
 

16.43.4 frobenius

Function
frobenius(A) computes the Frobenius normal form F of the matrix A.
It returns {F, P, P −1 } where F, P, and P −1 are such that PF P −1 = A.
A is a square matrix.

Field extensions
Calculations are performed in Q. To extend this field the ARNUM package
can be used. For details see subsection 16.43.8

Modular arithmetic
frobenius can be calculated in a modular base. For details see subsection
16.43.9.

Synopsis • F has the following structure:

 
Cp1
 Cp2 
F =
 
.. 
 . 
Cpk

where the C(pi )’s are companion matrices associated with polynomials
p1 , p2 , . . . , pk , with the property that pi divides pi+1 for i = 1 . . . k −1.
All unmarked entries are zero.
• The Frobenius normal form defined in this way is unique (ie: if we
require that pi divides pi+1 as above).

Example
 717

load_package normform;
−x2 +y 2 +y −x2 +x+y 2 −y
!
y y
A= −x2 −x+y 2 +y −x2 +x+y 2 −y
y y

frobenius(A) =
x∗(x2 −x−y 2 +y) −x2 +y 2 +y −x2 +y 2 +y
( ! ! !)
0 y 1 y 1 x2 +x−y 2 −y
−2∗x2 +x+2∗y 2
, −x2 −x+y 2 +y
, −y
1 y 0 y
0 x2 +x−y 2 −y

16.43.5 ratjordan

Function
ratjordan(A) computes the rational Jordan normal form R of the matrix
A.
It returns {R, P, P −1 } where R, P, and P −1 are such that PRP −1 = A.
A is a square matrix.

Field extensions
Calculations are performed in Q. To extend this field the ARNUM package
can be used. For details see subsection 16.43.8.

Modular arithmetic
ratjordan can be calculated in a modular base. For details see subsection
16.43.9.

Synopsis • R has the following structure:

 
r11

 r12 

 .. 
 . 
R= 

 r21 


 r22 

..
.

The rij ’s have the following shape:

 
C(p) I

 C(p) I 

rij = 
 . .. ... 

 
 C(p) I 
C(p)
718 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where there are eij times C(p) blocks along the diagonal and C(p) is
the companion matrix associated with the irreducible polynomial p. All
unmarked entries are zero.
Example
load_package normform;
 
x+y 5
A=
y x2

ratjordan(A) =
−(x+y)
( ! ! !)
0 −x3 − x2 ∗ y + 5 ∗ y 1 x+y 1 y
, , 1
1 x2 + x + y 0 y 0 y

16.43.6 jordansymbolic

Function
jordansymbolic(A) computes the Jordan normal form J of the matrix
A.
It returns {J , L, P, P −1 }, where J , P, and P −1 are such that PJ P −1 =
A. L = {ll, ξ}, where ξ is a name and ll is a list of irreducible factors of
p(ξ).
A is a square matrix.
Field extensions
Calculations are performed in Q. To extend this field the ARNUM package
can be used. For details see subsection 16.43.8.
Modular arithmetic
jordansymbolic can be calculated in a modular base. For details see
subsection 16.43.9.
Extras
If using xr, the X interface for REDUCE, the appearance of the output can
be improved by setting the switch looking_good to on. This converts
all lambda to ξ and improves the indexing, e.g., lambda12 ⇒ ξ12 . The
example below shows the output when this switch is on.
Synopsis • A Jordan block k (λ) is a k by k upper triangular matrix of the
form:  
λ 1
 λ 1 
 
k (λ) = 
 .. .. 
 . . 

 λ 1
λ
 719

There are k − 1 terms “+1” in the superdiagonal; the scalar λ appears

k times on the main diagonal. All other matrix entries are zero, and
1 (λ) = (λ).
• A Jordan matrix J ∈ Mn (the set of all n by n matrices) is a direct
sum of jordan blocks
 
n1 (λ1 )
 n2 (λ2 ) 
J =  , n1 + n2 + · · · + nk = n
 
..
 . 
nk (λk )
in which the orders ni may not be distinct and the values λi need not
be distinct.
• Here λ is a zero of the characteristic polynomial p of A. If p does
not split completely, symbolic names are chosen for the missing zeroes
of p. If, by some means, one knows such missing zeroes, they can
be substituted for the symbolic names. For this, jordansymbolic
actually returns {J , L, P, P −1 }. J is the Jordan normal form of A
(using symbolic names if necessary). L = {ll , ξ}, where ξ is a name
and ll is a list of irreducible factors of p(ξ). If symbolic names are used
then ξij is a zero of lli . P and P −1 are as above.
Example
load_package normform;
on looking_good;
 
1 y
A=
y2 3

jordansymbolic(A) =
 
ξ11 0
, −y 3 + ξ 2 − 4 ∗ ξ + 3 , ξ ,

0 ξ12
ξ11 −2 ξ11 +y 3 −1
! !)
ξ11 − 3 ξ12 − 3 2∗(y 3 −1) 2∗y 2 ∗(y 3 +1)
, ξ12 −2 ξ12 +y 3 −1
y2 y2 2∗(y 3 −1) 2∗y 2 ∗(y 3 +1)

solve(-yˆ3+xiˆ2-4*xi+3,xi);
p p
{ξ = y 3 + 1 + 2, ξ = − y 3 + 1 + 2}
J = sub({xi(1,1)=sqrt(yˆ3+1)+2, xi(1,2)=-sqrt(yˆ3+1)+2},
first jordansymbolic (A))
p !
y3 + 1 + 2 0
J = p
0 − y3 + 1 + 2
For a similar example ot this in standard REDUCE (ie: not using xr), see
the normform.rlg file.
720 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.43.7 jordan

Function
jordan(A) computes the Jordan normal form J of the matrix A.
It returns {J , P, P −1 }, where J , P, and P −1 are such that PJ P −1 = A.
A is a square matrix.
Field extensions
Calculations are performed in Q. To extend this field the ARNUM package
can be used. For details see subsection 16.43.8.
Note
In certain polynomial cases the switch fullroots is turned on to compute
the zeroes. This can lead to the calculation taking a long time, as well as the
output being very large. In this case a message
***** WARNING: fullroots turned on. May take a while.
will be printed. It may be better to kill the calculation and compute
jordansymbolic instead.
Synopsis • The Jordan normal form J with entries in an algebraic extension
of Q is computed.
• A Jordan block k (λ) is a k by k upper triangular matrix of the form:
 
λ 1
 λ 1 
 
k (λ) = 
 .. .. 
 . . 

 λ 1
λ
There are k − 1 terms “+1” in the superdiagonal; the scalar λ appears
k times on the main diagonal. All other matrix entries are zero, and
1 (λ) = (λ).
• A Jordan matrix J ∈ Mn (the set of all n by n matrices) is a direct
sum of jordan blocks.
 
n1 (λ1 )
 n2 (λ2 ) 
J =  , n1 + n2 + · · · + nk = n
 
..
 . 
nk (λk )
in which the orders ni may not be distinct and the values λi need not
be distinct.
• Here λ is a zero of the characteristic polynomial p of A. The zeroes of
the characteristic polynomial are computed exactly, if possible. Other-
wise they are approximated by floating point numbers.
 721

Example
load_package normform;

−9 −21 −15 4 2 0
 
−10 21 −14 4 2 0
 
 −8 16 −11 4 2 0
A= −6

 12 −9 3 3 0
 −4 8 −6 0 5 0
−2 4 −3 0 1 3

J = first jordan(A);
 
3 0 0 0 0 0
0 3 0 0 0 0 
 
0 0 1 1 0 0 
J =
0

 0 0 1 0 0  
0 0 0 0 i+2 0 
0 0 0 0 0 −i + 2

16.43.8 Algebraic extensions: Using the ARNUM package

The package is loaded by the command load_package arnum;. The alge-

braic field Q can now
√ be extended. For example, defpoly sqrt2**2-2; will
extend it to include 2 (defined here by sqrt2). The ARNUM package was writ-
ten by Eberhard Schrüfer and is described in section 16.3.

16.43.8.1 Example

load_package normform;
load_package arnum;
defpoly sqrt2**2-2;
722 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES
√
(sqrt2 now changed to 2 for looks!)
 √ √ √ 
4 ∗ √2 − 6 −4 ∗ √2 + 7 −3 ∗ √2 + 6
A = 3 ∗ 2√− 6 −3 ∗ 2√ + 7 −3 ∗ 2√+ 6
3∗ 2 1−3∗ 2 −2 ∗ 2
√ 
 2 √0 0
ratjordan(A) =  0 2 0
√
,
0 0 −3 ∗ 2 + 1

 √ √ √ 
−21∗ 2+18
7 ∗ 2 − 6 2∗ 31 2−49
31
 √ √ √ 
3 ∗ 2 − 6 21∗ 2−18 −21∗ 2+18  ,
31 √31
√ √
 
−3∗ 2+24 3∗ 2−24
3∗ 2+1 31 31
 √ 
0 √2+1 1√ 
−1 4 ∗ 2 + 9 4 ∗ 2
√
−1 − 16 ∗ 2 + 1 1


16.43.9 Modular arithmetic

Calculations can be performed in a modular base by setting the switch modular

to on. The base can then be set by setmod p; (p a prime). The normal form will
then have entries in Z/pZ.
By also switching on balanced_mod the output will be shown using a symmetric
modular representation.
Information on this modular manipulation can be found in chapter 9.

16.43.9.1 Example

load_package normform;
on modular;
setmod 23;
 
10 18
A=
17 20

jordansymbolic(A) =
     
18 0 15 9 1 14
, {{λ + 5, λ + 11} , λ} , ,
0 12 22 1 1 15
 723

on balanced_mod;

jordansymbolic(A) =
     
−5 0 −8 9 1 −9
, {{λ + 5, λ + 11} , λ} , ,
0 −11 −1 1 1 −8

Bibliography

[1] T.M.L.Mulders and A.H.M. Levelt: The Maple normform and Normform pack-
ages. (1993)

[2] T.M.L.Mulders: Algoritmen in De Algebra, A Seminar on Algebraic Algo-

rithms, Nigmegen. (1993)

[3] Roger A. Horn and Charles A. Johnson: Matrix Analysis. Cambridge Univer-
sity Press (1990)

[4] Bruce W. Chat. . . [et al.]: Maple (Computer Program). Springer-Verlag (1991)

[5] Anthony C. Hearn: REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6. RAND (1995)

724 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.44 NUMERIC: Solving numerical problems

This package implements basic algorithms of numerical analysis. These include:

• solution of algebraic equations by Newton’s method

num_solve({sin x=cos y, x + y = 1},{x=1,y=2})

• solution of ordinary differential equations

num_odesolve(df(y,x)=y,y=1,x=(0 .. 1), iterations=5)

• bounds of a function over an interval

bounds(sin x+x,x=(1 .. 2));

• minimizing a function (Fletcher Reeves steepest descent)

num_min(sin(x)+x/5, x);

• Chebyshev curve fitting

chebyshev_fit(sin x/x,x=(1 .. 3),5);

• numerical quadrature

num_int(sin x,x=(0 .. pi));

Author: Herbert Melenk.

The NUMERIC package implements some numerical (approximative) algorithms
for REDUCE, based on the REDUCE rounded mode arithmetic. These algorithms
are implemented for standard cases. They should not be called for ill-conditioned
problems; please use standard mathematical libraries for these.

16.44.1 Syntax

16.44.1.1 Intervals, Starting Points

Intervals are generally coded as lower bound and upper bound connected by the
operator ‘..’, usually associated to a variable in an equation. E.g.

x= (2.5 .. 3.5)
 725

means that the variable x is taken in the range from 2.5 up to 3.5. Note, that the
bounds can be algebraic expressions, which, however, must evaluate to numeric
results. In cases where an interval is returned as the result, the lower and upper
bounds can be extracted by the PART operator as the first and second part respec-
tively. A starting point is specified by an equation with a numeric righthand side,
e.g.

x=3.0

If for multivariate applications several coordinates must be specified by intervals or

as a starting point, these specifications can be collected in one parameter (which is
then a list) or they can be given as separate parameters alternatively. The list form is
more appropriate when the parameters are built from other REDUCE calculations
in an automatic style, while the flat form is more convenient for direct interactive
input.

16.44.1.2 Accuracy Control

The keyword parameters accuracy = a and iterations = i, where a and i must be

positive integer numbers, control the iterative algorithms: the iteration is continued
until the local error is below 10−a ; if that is impossible within i steps, the iteration
is terminated with an error message. The values reached so far are then returned as
the result.

16.44.1.3 tracing

Normally the algorithms produce only a minimum of printed output during their
operation. In cases of an unsuccessful or unexpected long operation a trace of the
iteration can be printed by setting

on trnumeric;

16.44.2 Minima

The Fletcher Reeves version of the steepest descent algorithms is used to find
the minimum of a function of one or more variables. The function must have
continuous partial derivatives with respect to all variables. The starting point of
the search can be specified; if not, random values are taken instead. The steepest
descent algorithms in general find only local minima.
Syntax:

NUM_MIN (exp, var1 [= val1 ][, var2 [= val2 ] . . .]

726 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])

or
NUM_MIN (exp, {var1 [= val1 ][, var2 [= val2 ] . . .]}
[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])
where exp is a function expression,
var1 , var2 , . . . are the variables in exp and val1 , val2 , . . . are the (optional)
start values.
NUM_MIN tries to find the next local minimum along the descending path
starting at the given point. The result is a list with the minimum function
value as first element followed by a list of equations, where the variables are
equated to the coordinates of the result point.

Examples:

num_min(sin(x)+x/5, x);

{4.9489585606,{X=29.643767785}}

num_min(sin(x)+x/5, x=0);

{ - 1.3342267466,{X= - 1.7721582671}}

% Rosenbrock function (well known as hard to minimize).

fktn := 100*(x1**2-x2)**2 + (1-x1)**2;
num_min(fktn, x1=-1.2, x2=1, iterations=200);

{0.00000021870228295,{X1=0.99953284494,X2=0.99906807238}}

16.44.3 Roots of Functions/ Solutions of Equations

An adaptively damped Newton iteration is used to find an approximative zero of

a function, a function vector or the solution of an equation or an equation sys-
tem. Equations are internally converted to a difference of lhs and rhs such that
the Newton method (=zero detection) can be applied. The expressions must have
continuous derivatives for all variables. A starting point for the iteration can be
given. If not given, random values are taken instead. If the number of forms is not
equal to the number of variables, the Newton method cannot be applied. Then the
minimum of the sum of absolute squares is located instead.
With ON COMPLEX solutions with imaginary parts can be found, if either the
expression(s) or the starting point contain a nonzero imaginary part.
 727

Syntax:

NUM_SOLVE (exp1 , var1 [= val1 ][, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])

or

NUM_SOLVE ({exp1 , . . . , expn }, var1 [= val1 ], . . . , varn [= valn ]

[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])

or

NUM_SOLVE ({exp1 , . . . , expn }, {var1 [= val1 ], . . . , varn [= valn ]}

[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])

where exp1 , . . . , expn are function expressions,
var1 , . . . , varn are the variables,
val1 , . . . , valn are optional start values.
NUM_SOLVE tries to find a zero/solution of the expression(s). Result is a
list of equations, where the variables are equated to the coordinates of the
result point.
The Jacobian matrix is stored as a side effect in the shared variable JACO-
BIAN.

Example:

num_solve({sin x=cos y, x + y = 1},{x=1,y=2});

{X= - 1.8561957251,Y=2.856195584}

jacobian;

[COS(X) SIN(Y)]
[ ]
[ 1 1 ]

16.44.4 Integrals

For the numerical evaluation of univariate integrals over a finite interval the fol-
lowing strategy is used:

1. If the function has an antiderivative in close form which is bounded in the

integration interval, this is used.
728 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2. Otherwise a Chebyshev approximation is computed, starting with order 20,

eventually up to order 80. If that is recognized as sufficiently convergent
it is used for computing the integral by directly integrating the coefficient
sequence.

3. If none of these methods is successful, an adaptive multilevel quadrature

algorithm is used.

For multivariate integrals only the adaptive quadrature is used. This algorithm tol-
erates isolated singularities. The value iterations here limits the number of local
interval intersection levels. Accuracy is a measure for the relative total discretiza-
tion error (comparison of order 1 and order 2 approximations).
Syntax:

NUM_INT (exp, var1 = (l1 ..u1 )[, var2 = (l2 ..u2 ) . . .]

[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])

where exp is the function to be integrated,
var1 , var2 , . . . are the integration variables,
l1 , l2 , . . . are the lower bounds,
u1 , u2 , . . . are the upper bounds.
Result is the value of the integral.

Example:

num_int(sin x,x=(0 .. pi));

2.0000010334

16.44.5 Ordinary Differential Equations

A Runge-Kutta method of order 3 finds an approximate graph for the solution of a

ordinary differential equation real initial value problem.
Syntax:

NUM_ODESOLVE (exp,depvar = dv,indepvar=(f rom..to)

[, accuracy = a][, iterations = i])
where
exp is the differential expression/equation,
 729

depvar is an identifier representing the dependent variable (function to be

found),
indepvar is an identifier representing the independent variable,
exp is an equation (or an expression implicitly set to zero) which contains
the first derivative of depvar wrt indepvar,
f rom is the starting point of integration,
to is the endpoint of integration (allowed to be below f rom),
dv is the initial value of depvar in the point indepvar = f rom.
The ODE exp is converted into an explicit form, which then is used for a
Runge Kutta iteration over the given range. The number of steps is controlled
by the value of i (default: 20). If the steps are too coarse to reach the desired
accuracy in the neighborhood of the starting point, the number is increased
automatically.
Result is a list of pairs, each representing a point of the approximate solution
of the ODE problem.

Example:

num_odesolve(df(y,x)=y,y=1,x=(0 .. 1), iterations=5);

{{0.0,1.0},{0.2,1.2214},{0.4,1.49181796},{0.6,1.8221064563},

{0.8,2.2255208258},{1.0,2.7182511366}}

Remarks:

– If in exp the differential is not isolated on the lefthand side, please ensure
that the dependent variable is explicitly declared using a DEPEND statement,
e.g.

depend y,x;

otherwise the formal derivative will be computed to zero by REDUCE.

– The REDUCE package SOLVE is used to convert the form into an explicit
ODE. If that process fails or has no unique result, the evaluation is stopped
with an error message.
730 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.44.6 Bounds of a Function

Upper and lower bounds of a real valued function over an interval or a rectangu-
lar multivariate domain are computed by the operator BOUNDS. The algorithmic
basis is the computation with inequalities: starting from the interval(s) of the vari-
ables, the bounds are propagated in the expression using the rules for inequality
computation. Some knowledge about the behavior of special functions like ABS,
SIN, COS, EXP, LOG, fractional exponentials etc. is integrated and can be eval-
uated if the operator BOUNDS is called with rounded mode on (otherwise only
algebraic evaluation rules are available).
If BOUNDS finds a singularity within an interval, the evaluation is stopped with
an error message indicating the problem part of the expression.
Syntax:

BOUNDS (exp, var1 = (l1 ..u1 )[, var2 = (l2 ..u2 ) . . .])

BOUNDS (exp, {var1 = (l1 ..u1 )[, var2 = (l2 ..u2 ) . . .]})
where exp is the function to be investigated,
var1 , var2 , . . . are the variables of exp,
l1 , l2 , . . . and u1 , u2 , . . . specify the area (intervals).
BOU N DS computes upper and lower bounds for the expression in the
given area. An interval is returned.

Example:

bounds(sin x,x=(1 .. 2));

{-1,1}

on rounded;
bounds(sin x,x=(1 .. 2));

0.84147098481 .. 1

bounds(x**2+x,x=(-0.5 .. 0.5));

- 0.25 .. 0.75
 731

16.44.7 Chebyshev Curve Fitting

The operator family Chebyshev_ . . . implements approximation and evaluation of

(a,b)
functions by the Chebyshev method. Let Tn (x) be the Chebyshev polynomial
of order n transformed to the interval (a, b). Then a function f (x) can be approxi-
mated in (a, b) by a series
(a,b)
f (x) ≈ N
P
i=0 ci Ti (x)
The operator Chebyshev_f it computes this approximation and returns a list,
which has as first element the sum expressed as a polynomial and as second element
the sequence of Chebyshev coefficients ci . Chebyshev_df and Chebyshev_int
transform a Chebyshev coefficient list into the coefficients of the corresponding
derivative or integral respectively. For evaluating a Chebyshev approximation at a
given point in the basic interval the operator Chebyshev_eval can be used. Note
that Chebyshev_eval is based on a recurrence relation which is in general more
stable than a direct evaluation of the complete polynomial.

CHEBYSHEV_FIT (f cn, var = (lo..hi), n)

CHEBYSHEV_EVAL (coef f s, var = (lo..hi), var = pt)

CHEBYSHEV_DF (coef f s, var = (lo..hi))

CHEBYSHEV_INT (coef f s, var = (lo..hi))

where f cn is an algebraic expression (the function to be fitted), var is the
variable of f cn, lo and hi are numerical real values which describe an in-
terval (lo < hi), n is the approximation order,an integer > 0, set to 20 if
missing, pt is a numerical value in the interval and coef f s is a series of
Chebyshev coefficients, computed by one of CHEBY SHEV _COEF F ,
_DF or _IN T .

Example:

on rounded;

w:=chebyshev_fit(sin x/x,x=(1 .. 3),5);

3 2
w := {0.03824*x - 0.2398*x + 0.06514*x + 0.9778,

{0.8991,-0.4066,-0.005198,0.009464,-0.00009511}}

chebyshev_eval(second w, x=(1 .. 3), x=2.1);

732 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

0.4111

16.44.8 General Curve Fitting

The operator N U M _F IT finds for a set of points the linear combination of a

given set of functions (function basis) which approximates the points best under
the objective of the least squares criterion (minimum of the sum of the squares of
the deviation). The solution is found as zero of the gradient vector of the sum of
squared errors.
Syntax:

NUM_FIT (vals, basis, var = pts)

where vals is a list of numeric values,
var is a variable used for the approximation,
pts is a list of coordinate values which correspond to var,
basis is a set of functions varying in var which is used for the approxima-
tion.

The result is a list containing as first element the function which approximates the
given values, and as second element a list of coefficients which were used to build
this function from the basis.
Example:

% approximate a set of factorials by a polynomial

pts:=for i:=1 step 1 until 5 collect i$
vals:=for i:=1 step 1 until 5 collect
for j:=1:i product j$

num_fit(vals,{1,x,x**2},x=pts);

2
{14.571428571*X - 61.428571429*X + 54.6,{54.6,

- 61.428571429,14.571428571}}

num_fit(vals,{1,x,x**2,x**3,x**4},x=pts);
 733

4 3
{2.2083333234*X - 20.249999879*X

2
+ 67.791666154*X - 93.749999133*X

+ 44.999999525,

{44.999999525, - 93.749999133,67.791666154,

- 20.249999879,2.2083333234}}

16.44.9 Function Bases

The following procedures compute sets of functions e.g. to be used for approxima-
tion. All procedures have two parameters, the expression to be used as variable
(an identifier in most cases) and the order of the desired system. The functions are
not scaled to a specific interval, but the variable can be accompanied by a scale
factor and/or a translation in order to map the generic interval of orthogonality to
another (e.g. (x − 1/2) ∗ 2pi). The result is a function list with ascending order,
such that the first element is the function of order zero and (for the polynomial
systems) the function of order n is the n + 1-th element.

monomial_base(x,n) {1,x,...,x**n}
trigonometric_base(x,n) {1,sin x,cos x,sin(2x),cos(2x)...}
Bernstein_base(x,n) Bernstein polynomials
Legendre_base(x,n) Legendre polynomials
Laguerre_base(x,n) Laguerre polynomials
Hermite_base(x,n) Hermite polynomials
Chebyshev_base_T(x,n) Chebyshev polynomials first kind
Chebyshev_base_U(x,n) Chebyshev polynomials second kind

Example:

Bernstein_base(x,5);

5 4 3 2
{ - X + 5*X - 10*X + 10*X - 5*X + 1,
734 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

4 3 2
5*X*(X - 4*X + 6*X - 4*X + 1),

2 3 2
10*X *( - X + 3*X - 3*X + 1),

3 2
10*X *(X - 2*X + 1),

4
5*X *( - X + 1),

5
X }
 735

16.45 ODESOLVE:
Ordinary differential equations solver

The ODESOLVE package is a solver for ordinary differential equations. At the

present time it has very limited capabilities. It can handle only a single scalar
equation presented as an algebraic expression or equation, and it can solve only
first-order equations of simple types, linear equations with constant coefficients and
Euler equations. These solvable types are exactly those for which Lie symmetry
techniques give no useful information. For example, the evaluation of

depend(y,x);
odesolve(df(y,x)=x**2+e**x,y,x);

yields the result

X 3
3*E + 3*ARBCONST(1) + X
{Y=---------------------------}
3

Main Author: Malcolm A.H. MacCallum.

Other contributors: Francis Wright, Alan Barnes.

16.45.1 Introduction

ODESolve 1+ is an experimental project to update and enhance the ordinary dif-

ferential equation (ODE) solver (odesolve) that has been distributed as a stand-
ard component of REDUCE [2, 4, 3] for about 10 years. ODESolve 1+ is intended
to provide a strict superset of the facilities provided by odesolve. This document
describes a substantial re-implementation of previous versions of ODESolve 1+
that now includes almost none of the original odesolve code. This version is
targeted at REDUCE 3.7 or later, and will not run in earlier versions. This project
is being conducted partly under the auspices of the European CATHODE project
[1]. Various test files, including three versions based on a published review of ODE
solvers [7], are included in the ODESolve 1+ distribution. For further background
see [10], which describes version 1.03. See also [11].
ODESolve 1+ is intended to implement some solution techniques itself (i.e. most
of the simple and well known techniques [12]) and to provide an automatic inter-
face to other more sophisticated solvers, such as PSODE [5, 6, 8] and CRACK [9],
to handle cases where simple techniques fail. It is also intended to provide a uni-
fied interface to other special solvers, such as Laplace transforms, series solutions
and numerical methods, under user request. Although none of these extensions
736 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

is explicitly implemented yet, a general extension interface is implemented (see

§16.45.6).
The main motivation behind ODESolve 1+ is pragmatic. It is intended to meet
user expectations, to have an easy user interface that normally does the right thing
automatically, and to return solutions in the form that the user wants and ex-
pects. Quite a lot of development effort has been directed toward this aim. Hence,
ODESolve 1+ solves common text-book special cases in preference to esoteric
pathological special cases, and it endeavours to simplify solutions into convenient
forms.

16.45.2 Installation

The file odesolve.in inputs the full set of source files that are required to im-
plement ODESolve 1+ assuming that the current directory is the ODESolve 1+
source directory. Hence, ODESolve 1+ can be run without compiling it in any im-
plementation of REDUCE 3.7 by starting REDUCE in the ODESolve 1+ source
directory and entering the statement

1: in "odesolve.in"$

However, the recommended procedure is to compile it by starting REDUCE in the

ODESolve 1+ source directory and entering the statements

1: faslout odesolve;
2: in "odesolve.in"$
3: faslend;

In CSL-REDUCE, this will work only if you have write access to the REDUCE
image file (reduce.img), so you may need to set up a private copy first. In
PSL-REDUCE, you may need to move the compiled image file odesolve.b to
a directory in your PSL load path, such as the main fasl directory. Please refer
to the documentation for your implementation of REDUCE for details. Once a
compiled version of ODESolve 1+ has been correctly installed, it can be loaded
by entering the REDUCE statement

1: load_package odesolve;

A string describing the current version of ODESolve 1+ is assigned to the

algebraic-mode variable odesolve_version, which can be evaluated to check
what version is actually in use.
In versions of REDUCE derived from the development source after 22 September
2000, use of the normal algebraic-mode odesolve operator causes the package to
 737

autoload. However, the ODESolve 1+ global switches are not declared, and the
symbolic mode interface provided for backward compatibility with the previous
version is not defined, until after the package has loaded. The former is not a huge
problem because all ODESolve switches can be accessed as optional arguments,
and the backward compatibility interface should probably not be used in new code
anyway.

16.45.3 User interface

The principal interface is via the operator odesolve. (It also has a synonym
called dsolve to make porting of examples from Maple easier, but it does not
accept general Maple syntax!) For purposes of description I will refer to the de-
pendent variable as “y” and the independent variable as “x”, but of course the
names are arbitrary. The general input syntax is

odesolve(ode, y, x, conditions, options);

All arguments except the first are optional. This is possible because, if necessary,
ODESolve 1+ attempts to deduce the dependent and independent variables used
and to make any necessary DEPEND declarations. Messages are output to indicate
any assumptions or dependence declarations that are made. Here is an example of
what is probably the shortest possible valid input:

odesolve(df(y,x));

*** Dependent var(s) assumed to be y

*** Independent var assumed to be x

*** depend y , x

{y=arbconst(1)}

Output of ODESolve 1+ messages is controlled by the standard REDUCE switch

msg.

16.45.3.1 Specifying the ODE and its variables

The first argument (ode) is required, and must be either an ODE or a variable (or
expression) that evaluates to an ODE. Automatic dependence declaration works
only when the ODE is input directly as an argument to the odesolve operator.
Here, “ODE” means an equation or expression containing one or more derivatives
of y with respect to x. Derivatives of y with respect to other variables are not
738 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

allowed because ODESolve 1+ does not solve partial differential equations, and
symbolic derivatives of variables other than y are treated as symbolic constants.
An expression is implicitly equated to zero, as is usual in equation solvers.
The independent variable may be either an operator that explicitly depends on the
independent variable, e.g. y(x) (as required in Maple), or a simple variable that is
declared (by the user or automatically by ODESolve 1+) to depend on the inde-
pendent variable. If the independent variable is an operator then it may depend on
parameters as well as the independent variable. Variables may be simple identifiers
or, more generally, REDUCE “kernels”, e.g.

operator x, y;
odesolve(df(y(x(a),b),x(a)) = 0);

*** Dependent var(s) assumed to be y(x(a),b)

*** Independent var assumed to be x(a)

{y(x(a),b)=arbconst(1)}

The order in which arguments are given must be preserved, but arguments may
be omitted, except that if x is specified then y must also be specified, although an
empty list {} can be used as a “place-holder” to represent “no specified argument”.
Variables are distinguished from options by requiring that if a variable is specified
then it must appear in the ODE, otherwise it is assumed to be an option.
Generally in REDUCE it is not recommended to use the identifier t as a variable,
since it is reserved in Lisp. However, it is very common practice in applied mathe-
matics to use it as a variable to represent time, and for that reason ODESolve 1+
provides special support to allow it as either the independent or a dependent vari-
able. But, of course, its use may still cause trouble in other parts of REDUCE!

16.45.3.2 Specifying conditions

If specified, the “conditions” argument must take the form of an (unordered) list of
(unordered lists of) equations with either y, x, or a derivative of y on the left. A
single list of conditions need not be contained within an outer list. Combinations
of conditions are allowed. Conditions within one (inner) list all relate to the same
x value. For example:

Boundary conditions:
{{y=y0, x=x0}, {y=y1, x=x1}, ...}

Initial conditions:
{x=x0, y=y0, df(y,x)=dy0, ...}
 739

Combined conditions:
{{y=y0, x=x0}, {df(y,x)=dy1, x=x1}, {df(y,x)=dy2, y=y2, x=x2}, ...}

Here is an example of boundary conditions:

odesolve(df(y,x,2) = y, y, x, {{x = 0, y = A}, {x = 1, y = B}});

2*x 2*x 2
- e *a + e *b*e + a*e - b*e
{y=-----------------------------------}
x 2 x
e *e - e

Here is an example of initial conditions:

odesolve(df(y,x,2) = y, y, x, {x = 0, y = A, df(y,x) = B});

2*x 2*x
e * a + e *b + a - b
{y=-------------------------}
x
2*e

Here is an example of combined conditions:

odesolve(df(y,x,2) = y, y, x, {{x=0, y=A}, {x=1, df(y,x)=B}});

2*x 2*x 2
e *a + e *b*e + a*e - b*e
{y=--------------------------------}
x 2 x
e *e + e

Boundary conditions on the values of y at various values of x may also be speci-

fied by replacing the variables by equations with single values or matching lists of
values on the right, of the form

y = y0, x = x0

or

y = {y0, y1, ...}, x = {x0, x2, ...}

For example
740 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

odesolve(df(y,x) = y, y = A, x = 0);

x
{y=e *a}

odesolve(df(y,x,2) = y, y = {A, B}, x = {0, 1});

2*x 2*x 2
- e *a + e *b*e + a*e - b*e
{y=-----------------------------------}
x 2 x
e *e - e

16.45.3.3 Specifying options and defaults

The final arguments may be one or more of the option identifiers listed in the table
below, which take precedence over the default settings. All options can also be
specified on the right of equations with the identifier “output” on the left, e.g. “out-
put = basis”. This facility if provided mainly for compatibility with other systems
such as Maple, although it also allows options to be distinguished from variables
in case of ambiguity. Some options can be specified on the left of equations that
assign special values to the option. Currently, only “trode” and its synonyms can
be assigned the value 1 to give an increased level of tracing.
The following switches set default options – they are all off by default. Options set
locally using option arguments override the defaults set by switches.

Switch Option Effect on solution

odesolve_explicit explicit fully explicit
odesolve_expand expand expand roots of unity
odesolve_full full fully explicit and expanded
odesolve_implicit implicit implicit instead of parametric
algint turn on algint
odesolve_noint noint turn off selected integrations
odesolve_verbose verbose display ODE and conditions
odesolve_basis basis output basis solution for linear ODE
trode
trode trace turn on algorithm tracing
tracing
odesolve_fast fast turn off heuristics
odesolve_check check turn on solution checking

An “explicit” solution is an equation with y isolated on the left whereas an “im-

plicit” solution is an equation that determines y as one or more of its solutions. A
 741

“parametric” solution expresses both x and y in terms of some additional param-

eter. Some solution techniques naturally produce an explicit solution, but some
produce either an implicit or a parametric solution. The “explicit” option causes
ODESolve 1+ to attempt to convert solutions to explicit form, whereas the “im-
plicit” option causes ODESolve 1+ to attempt to convert parametric solutions
(only) to implicit form (by eliminating the parameter). These solution conversions
may be slow or may fail in complicated cases.
ODESolve 1+ introduces two operators used in solutions: root_of_unity
and plus_or_minus, the latter being a special case of the former, i.e. a sec-
ond root of unity. These operators carry a tag that associates the same root of unity
when it appears in more than one place in a solution (cf. the standard root_of
operator). The “expand” option expands a single solution expressed in terms of
these operators into a set of solutions that do not involve them. ODESolve 1+
also introduces two operators expand_roots_of_unity [which should per-
haps be named expand_root_of_unity] and expand_plus_or_minus,
that are used internally to perform the expansion described above, and can be used
explicitly.
The “algint” option turns on “algebraic integration” locally only within ODESolve 1+.
It also loads the algint package if necessary. Algint allows ODESolve 1+ to
solve some ODEs for which the standard REDUCE integrator hangs (i.e. takes an
extremely long time to return). If the resulting solution contains unevaluated inte-
grals then the algint switch should be turned on outside ODESolve 1+ before the
solution is re-evaluated, otherwise the standard integrator may well hang again!
For some ODEs, the algint option leads to better solutions than the standard RE-
DUCE integrator.
Alternatively, the “noint” option prevents REDUCE from attempting to evaluate
the integrals that arise in some solution techniques. If ODESolve 1+ takes too
long to return a result then you might try adding this option to see if it helps
solve this particular ODE, as illustrated in the test files. This option is provided
to speed up the computation of solutions that contain integrals that cannot be eval-
uated, because in some cases REDUCE can spend a long time trying to evaluate
such integrals before returning them unevaluated. This only affects integrals eval-
uated within the ODESolve 1+ operator. If a solution containing an unevaluated
integral that was returned using the “noint” option is re-evaluated, it may again
take REDUCE a very long time to fail to evaluate the integral, so considerable
caution is recommended! (A global switch called “noint” is also installed when
ODESolve 1+ is loaded, and can be turned on to prevent REDUCE from attempt-
ing to evaluate any integrals. But this effect may be very confusing, so this switch
should be used only with extreme care. If you turn it on and then forget, you may
wonder why REDUCE seems unable to evaluate even trivial integrals!)
The “verbose” option causes ODESolve 1+ to display the ODE, variables and
conditions as it sees them internally, after pre-processing. This is intended for use
742 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

in demonstrations and possibly for debugging, and not really for general users.
The “basis” option causes ODESolve 1+ to output the general solutions of linear
ODEs in basis format (explained below). Special solutions (of ODEs with condi-
tions) and solutions of nonlinear ODEs are not affected.
The “trode” (or “trace” or “tracing”) option turns on tracing of the algorithms used
by ODESolve 1+. It reports its classification of the ODE and any intermediate
results that it computes, such as a chain of progressively simpler (in some sense)
ODEs that finally leads to a solution. Tracing can produce a lot of output, e.g. see
the test log file “zimmer.rlg”. The option “trode = 1” or the global assign-
ment “!*trode := 1” causes ODESolve 1+ to report every test that it tries
in its classification process, producing even more tracing output. This is probably
most useful for debugging, but it may give the curious user further insight into the
operation of ODESolve 1+.
The “fast” option disables all non-deterministic solution techniques (including
most of those for nonlinear ODEs of order > 1). It may be most useful if
ODESolve 1+ is used as a subroutine, including calling it recursively in a hook.
It makes ODESolve 1+ behave like the odesolve distributed with REDUCE
versions up to and including 3.7, and so does not affect the odesolve.tst file.
The “fast” option causes ODESolve 1+ to return no solution fast in cases where,
by default, if would return either a solution or no solution (perhaps much) more
slowly. Solution of sufficiently simple “deterministically-solvable” ODEs is unaf-
fected.
The “check” option turns on checking of the solution. This checking is performed
by code that is largely independent of the solver, so as to perform a genuinely
independent check. It is not turned on by default so as to avoid the computa-
tional overhead, which is currently of the order of 30%. A check is made that
each component solution satisfies the ODE and that a general solution contains
at least enough arbitrary constants, or equivalently that a basis solution contains
enough basis functions. Otherwise, warning messages are output. It is possible
that ODESolve 1+ may fail to verify a solution because the automatic simplifica-
tion fails, which indicates a failure in the checker rather than in the solver. This
option is not yet well tested; please report any checking failures to me (FJW).
In some cases, in particular when an implicit solution contains an unevaluated in-
tegral, the checker may need to differentiate an integral with respect to a variable
other than the integration variable. In order to do this, it turns on the differentiator
switch “allowdfint” globally. [I hope that this setting will eventually become the
default.] In some cases, in particular in symbolic solutions of Clairaut ODEs, the
checker may need to differentiate a composition of operators using the chain rule.
In order to do this, it turns on the differentiator switch “expanddf” locally only.
Although the code to support both these differentiator facilities has been in RE-
DUCE for a while, they both require patches that are currently only applied when
 743

ODESolve 1+ is loaded. [I hope that these patches will eventually become part of
REDUCE itself.]

16.45.4 Output syntax

If ODESolve 1+ is successful it outputs a list of sub-solutions that together rep-

resent the solution of the input ODE. Each sub-solution is either an equation that
defines a branch of the solution, explicitly or implicitly, or it is a list of equations
that define a branch of the solution parametrically in the form {y = G(p), x =
F (p), p}. Here p is the parameter, which is actually represented in terms of an
operator called arbparam which has an integer argument to distinguish it from
other unrelated parameters, as usual for arbitrary values in REDUCE.
A general solution will contain a number of arbitrary constants represented by an
operator called arbconst with an integer argument to distinguish it from other
unrelated arbitrary constants. A special solution resulting from applying conditions
will contain fewer (usually no) arbitrary constants.
The general solution of a linear ODE in basis format is a list consisting of a list of
basis functions for the solution space of the reduced ODE followed by a particular
solution if the input ODE had a y-independent “driver” term, i.e. was not reduced
(which is sometimes ambiguously called “homogeneous”). The particular solution
is normally omitted if it is zero. The dependent variable y does not appear in a
basis solution. The linear solver uses basis solutions internally.
Currently, there are cases where ODESolve 1+ cannot solve a linear ODE using
its linear solution techniques, in which case it will try nonlinear techniques. These
may generate a solution that is not (obviously) a linear combination of basis so-
lutions. In this case, if a basis solution has been requested, ODESolve 1+ will
report that it cannot separate the nonlinear combination, which it will return as the
default linear combination solution.
If ODESolve 1+ fails to solve the ODE then it will return a list containing the in-
put ODE (always in the form of a differential expression equated to 0). At present,
ODESolve 1+ does not return partial solutions. If it fails to solve any part of the
problem then it regards this as complete failure. (You can probably see if this has
happened by turning on algorithm tracing.)

16.45.5 Solution techniques

The ODESolve 1+ interface module pre-processes the problem and applies any
conditions to the solution. The other modules deal with the actual solution.
ODESolve 1+ first classifies the input ODE according to whether it is linear or
nonlinear and calls the appropriate solver. An ODE that consists of a product of
744 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

linear factors is regarded as nonlinear. The second main classification is based on

whether the input ODE is of first or higher degree.
Solution proceeds essentially by trying to reduce nonlinear ODEs to linear ones,
and to reduce higher order ODEs to first order ODEs. Only simple linear ODEs and
simple first-order nonlinear ODEs can be solved directly. This approach involves
considerable recursion within ODESolve 1+.
If all solution techniques fail then ODESolve 1+ attempts to factorize the deriva-
tive of the whole ODE, which sometimes leads to a solution.

16.45.5.1 Linear solution techniques

ODESolve 1+ splits every linear ODE into a “reduced ODE” and a “driver” term.
The driver is the component of the ODE that is independent of y, the reduced ODE
is the component of the ODE that depends on y, and the sign convention is such
that the ODE can be written in the form “reduced ODE = driver”. The reduced
ODE is then split into a list of “ODE coefficients”.
The linear solver now determines the order of the ODE. If it is 1 then the ODE
is immediately solved using an integrating factor (if necessary). For a higher or-
der linear ODE, ODESolve 1+ considers a sequence of progressively more com-
plicated solution techniques. For most purposes, the ODE is made “monic” by
dividing through by the coefficient of the highest order derivative. This puts the
ODE into a standard form and effectively deals with arbitrary overall algebraic
factors that would otherwise confuse the solution process. (Hence, there is no need
to perform explicit algebraic factorization on linear ODEs.) The only situation in
which the original non-monic form of the ODE is considered is when checking for
exactness, which may depend critically on otherwise irrelevant overall factors.
If the ODE has constant coefficients then it can (in principle) be solved using ele-
mentary “D-operator” techniques in terms of exponentials via an auxiliary equat-
ion. However, this works only if the polynomial auxiliary equation can be solved.
Assuming that it can and there is a driver term, ODESolve 1+ tries to use a
method based on inverse “D-operator” techniques that involves repeated integra-
tion of products of the solutions of the reduced ODE with the driver. Experience
(by Malcolm MacCallum) suggests that this normally gives the most satisfactory
form of solution if the integrals can be evaluated. If any integral fails to evaluate,
the more general method of “variation of parameters”, based on the Wronskian of
the solution set of the reduced ODE, is used instead. This involves only a single
integral and so can never lead to nested unevaluated integrals.
If the ODE has non-constant coefficients then it may be of Euler (sometimes am-
biguously called “homogeneous”) type, which can be trivially reduced to an ODE
with constant coefficients. A shift in x is accommodated in this process. Next it
is tested for exactness, which leads to a first integral that is an ODE of order one
 745

lower. After that it is tested for the explicit absence of y and low order derivatives,
which allows trivial order reduction. Then the monic ODE is tested for exactness,
and if that fails and the original ODE was non-monic then the original form is
tested for exactness.
Finally, pattern matching is used to seek a solution involving special functions,
such as Bessel functions. Currently, this is implemented only for second-order
ODEs satisfied by Bessel and Airy-integral functions. It could easily be extended
to other orders and other special functions. Shifts in x could also be accommodated
in the pattern matching. [Work to enhance this component of ODESolve 1+ is
currently in progress.]
If all linear techniques fail then ODESolve 1+ currently calls the variable inter-
change routine (described below), which takes it into the nonlinear solver. Occa-
sionally, this is successful in producing some, although not necessarily the best,
solution of a linear ODE.

16.45.5.2 Nonlinear solution techniques

In order to handle trivial nonlinearity, ODESolve 1+ first factorizes the ODE al-
gebraically, solves each factor that depends on y and then merges the resulting
solutions. Other factors are ignored, but a warning is output unless they are purely
numerical.
If all attempts at solution fail then ODESolve 1+ checks whether the original (un-
factored) ODE was exact, because factorization could destroy exactness. Currently,
ODESolve 1+ handles only first and second order nonlinear exact ODEs.
A version of the main solver applied to each algebraic factor branches depending
on whether the ODE factor is linear or nonlinear, and the nonlinear solver branches
depending on whether the order is 1 or higher and calls one of the solvers described
in the next two sections. If that solver fails, ODESolve 1+ checks for exactness (of
the factor). If that fails, it checks whether only a single order derivative is involved
and tries to solve algebraically for that. If successful, this decomposes the ODE
into components that are, in some sense, simpler and may be solvable. (However,
in some cases these components are algebraically very complicated examples of
simple types of ODE that the integrator cannot in practice handle, and it can take a
very long time before returning an unevaluated integral.)
If all else fails, ODESolve 1+ interchanges the dependent and independent vari-
ables and calls the top-level solver recursively. It keeps a list of all ODEs that have
entered the top-level solver in order to break infinite loops that could arise if the
solution of the variable-interchanged ODE fails.
746 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

First-order nonlinear solution techniques If the ODE is a first-degree poly-

nomial in the derivative then ODESolve 1+ represents it in terms of the “gra-
dient”, which is a function of x and y such that the ODE can be written as
“dy/dx = gradient”. It then checks in sequence for the following special types
of ODE, each of which it can (in principle) solve:

Separable The gradient has the form f (x)g(y), leading immediately to a solution
by quadrature, i.e. the solution can be immediately written in terms of indef-
inite integrals. (This is considered to be a solution of the ODE, regardless of
whether the integrals can be evaluated.) The solver recognises both explicit
and implicit dependence when detecting separable form.
Quasi-separable The gradient has the form f (y + kx), which is (trivially) sepa-
rable after a linear transformation. It arises as a special case of the “quasi-
homogeneous” case below, but is better treated earlier as a case in its own
right.
Homogeneous The gradient has the form f (y/x), which is algebraically homoge-
neous. A substitution of the form “y = vx” leads to a first-order linear ODE
that is (in principle) immediately solvable.
Quasi-homogeneous The gradient has the form f ( aa21 x+b
x+b1 y+c1
2 y+c2
), which is homo-
geneous after a linear transformation.
Bernoulli The gradient has the form P (x)y + Q(x)y n , in which case the ODE is
a first-order linear ODE for y 1−n .
Riccati The gradient has the form a(x)y 2 + b(x)y + c(x), in which case the ODE
can be transformed into a linear second-order ODE that may be solvable.

If the ODE is not first-degree then it may be linear in either x or y. Solving by

taking advantage of this leads to a parametric solution of the original ODE, in
which the parameter corresponds to y 0 . It may then be possible to eliminate the
parameter to give either an implicit or explicit solution.
An ODE is “solvable for y” if it can be put into the form y = f (x, y 0 ). Differenti-
ating with respect to x leads to a first-order ODE for y 0 (x), which may be easier to
solve than the original ODE. The special case that y = xF (y 0 ) + G(y 0 ) is called a
Lagrange (or d’Alembert) ODE. Differentiating with respect to x leads to a first-
order linear ODE for x(y 0 ). The even more special case that y = xy 0 + G(y 0 ),
which may arise in the equivalent implicit form F (xy 0 − y) = G(y 0 ), is called a
Clairaut ODE. The general solution is given by replacing y 0 by an arbitrary con-
stant, and it may be possible to obtain a singular solution by differentiating and
solving the resulting factors simultaneously with the original ODE.
An ODE is “solvable for x” if it can be put into the form x = f (y, y 0 ). Differenti-
ating with respect to y leads to a first-order ODE for y 0 (y), which may be easier to
solve than the original ODE.
 747

Currently, ODESolve 1+ recognises the above forms only if the ODE manifestly
has the specified form and does not try very hard to actually solve for x or y, which
perhaps it should!

Higher-order nonlinear solution techniques The techniques used here are all
special cases of Lie symmetry analysis, which is not yet applied in any general
way.
Higher-order nonlinear ODEs are passed through a number of “simplifier” filters
that are applied in succession, regardless of whether the previous filter simplifies
the ODE or not. Currently, the first filter tests for the explicit absence of y and
low order derivatives, which allows trivial order reduction. The second filter tests
whether the ODE manifestly depends on x + k for some constant k, in which case
it shifts x to remove k.
After that, ODESolve 1+ tests for each of the following special forms in sequence.
The sequence used here is important, because the classification is not unique, so it
is important to try the most useful classification first.

Autonomous An ODE is autonomous if it does not depend explicitly on x, in

which case it can be reduced to an ODE in y 0 of order one lower.

Scale invariant or equidimensional in x An ODE is scale invariant if it is invari-

ant under the transformation x → ax, y → ap y, where a is an arbitrary
indeterminate and p is a constant to be determined. It can be reduced to an
autonomous ODE, and thence to an ODE of order one lower. The special
case p = 0 is called equidimensional in x. It is the nonlinear generalization
of the (reduced) linear Euler ODE.

Equidimensional in y An ODE is equidimensional in y if it is invariant under the

transformation y → ay. An exponential transformation of y leads to an
ODE of the same order that may be “more linear” and so easier to solve,
but there is no guarantee of this. All (reduced) linear ODEs are trivially
equidimensional in y.

The recursive nature of ODESolve 1+, especially the thread described in this sec-
tion, can lead to complicated “arbitrary constant expressions”. Arbitrary constants
must be included at the point where an ODE is solved by quadrature. Further
processing of such a solution, as may happen when a recursive solution stack is
unwound, can lead to arbitrary constant expressions that should be re-written as
simple arbitrary constants. There is some simple code included to perform this
arbitrary constant simplification, but it is rudimentary and not entirely successful.
748 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.45.6 Extension interface

The idea is that the ODESolve extension interface allows any user to add solution
techniques without needing to edit and recompile the main source code, and (in
principle) without needing to be intimately familiar with the internal operation of
ODESolve 1+.
The extension interface consists of a number of “hooks” at various critical places
within ODESolve 1+. These hooks are modelled in part on the hook mechanism
used to extend and customize the Emacs editor, which is a large Lisp-based system
with a structure similar to that of REDUCE . Each ODESolve 1+ hook is an
identifier which can be defined to be a function (i.e. a procedure), or have assigned
to it (in symbolic mode) a function name or a (symbolic mode) list of function
names. The function should be written to accept the arguments specified for the
particular hook, and it should return either a solution to the specified class of ODE
in the specified form or nil.
If a hook returns a non-nil value then that value is used by ODESolve 1+ as the
solution of the ODE at that stage of the solution process. [If the ODE being solved
was generated internally by ODESolve 1+ or conditions are imposed then the so-
lution will be re-processed before being finally returned by ODESolve 1+.] If a
hook returns nil then it is ignored and ODESolve 1+ proceeds as if the hook func-
tion had not been called at all. This is the same mechanism that it used internally by
ODESolve 1+ to run sub-solvers. If a hook evaluates to a list of function names
then they are applied in turn to the hook arguments until a non-nil value is returned
and this is the value of the hook; otherwise the hook returns nil. The same code
is used to run all hooks and it checks that an identifier is the name of a function
before it tries to apply it; otherwise the identifier is ignored. However, the hook
code does not perform any other checks, so errors within functions run by hooks
will probably terminate ODESolve 1+ and errors in the return value will probably
cause fatal errors later in ODESolve 1+. Such errors are user errors rather than
ODESolve 1+ errors!
Hooks are defined in pairs which are inserted before and after critical stages of the
solver, which currently means the general ODE solver, the nonlinear ODE solver,
and the solver for linear ODEs of order greater than one (on the grounds that solv-
ing first order linear ODEs is trivial and the standard ODESolve 1+ code should
always suffice). The precise interface definition is as follows.
A reference to an “algebraic expression” implies that the REDUCE representation
is a prefix or pseudo-prefix form. A reference to a “variable” means an identifier
(and never a more general kernel). The “order” of an ODE is always an explicit
positive integer. The return value of a hook function must always be either nil or
an algebraic-mode list (which must be represented as a prefix form). Since the
input and output of hook functions uses prefix forms (and never standard quotient
forms), hook functions can equally well be written in either algebraic or symbolic
 749

mode, and in fact ODESolve 1+ uses a mixture internally. (An algebraic-mode

procedure can return nil by returning nothing. The integer zero is not equivalent to
nil in the context of ODESolve 1+ hooks.)

Hook names: ODESolve_Before_Hook, ODESolve_After_Hook.

Run before and after: The general ODE solver.

Arguments: 3

1. The ODE in the form of an algebraic expression with no denominator

that must be made identically zero by the solution.
2. The dependent variable.
3. The independent variable.

Return value: A list of equations exactly as returned by ODESolve 1+ itself.

Hook names: ODESolve_Before_Non_Hook, ODESolve_After_Non_Hook.

Run before and after: The nonlinear ODE solver.

Arguments: 4

1. The ODE in the form of an algebraic expression with no denominator

that must be made identically zero by the solution.
2. The dependent variable.
3. The independent variable.
4. The order of the ODE.

Return value: A list of equations exactly as returned by ODESolve 1+ itself.

750 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Hook names: ODESolve_Before_Lin_Hook, ODESolve_After_Lin_Hook.

Run before and after: The general linear ODE solver.

Arguments: 6

1. A list of the coefficient functions of the “reduced ODE”, i.e. the co-
efficients of the different orders (including zero) of derivatives of the
dependent variable, each in the form of an algebraic expression, in low
to high derivative order. [In general the ODE will not be “monic” so
the leading (i.e. last) coefficient function will not be 1. Hence, the ODE
may contain an essentially irrelevant overall algebraic factor.]
2. The “driver” term, i.e. the term involving only the independent variable,
in the form of an algebraic expression. The sign convention is such that
“reduced ODE = driver”.
3. The dependent variable.
4. The independent variable.
5. The (maximum) order (> 1) of the ODE.
6. The minimum order derivative present.

Return value: A list consisting of a basis for the solution space of the reduced
ODE and optionally a particular integral of the full ODE. This list does not
contain any equations, and the dependent variable never appears in it. The
particular integral may be omitted if it is zero. The basis is itself a list of
algebraic expressions in the independent variable. (Hence the return value is
always a list and its first element is also always a list.)

Hook names: ODESolve_Before_Non1Grad_Hook,

ODESolve_After_Non1Grad_Hook.

Run before and after: The solver for first-order first-degree nonlinear (“gradi-
ent”) ODEs, which can be expressed in the form dy/dx = gradient(y, x).

Arguments: 3

1. The “gradient”, which is an algebraic expression involving (in general)

the dependent and independent variables, to which the ODE equates
the derivative.
2. The dependent variable.
3. The independent variable.

Return value: A list of equations exactly as returned by ODESolve 1+ itself. (In

this case the list should normally contain precisely one equation.)
 751

The file extend.tst contains a very simple test and demonstration of the oper-
ation of the first three classes of hook.
This extension interface is experimental and subject to change. Please check the
version of this document (or the source code) for the version of ODESolve 1+
you are actually running.

16.45.7 Change log

27 February 1999 Version 1.06 frozen.

13 July 2000 Version 1.061 added an extension interface.

8 August 2000 Version 1.062 added the “fast” option.

21 September 2000 Version 1.063 added the “trace”, “check” and “algint” opt-
ions, the “Non1Grad” hooks, handling of implicit dependence in separable
ODEs, and handling of the general class of quasi-homogeneous ODEs.

28 September 2000 Version 1.064 added support for using ‘t’ as a variable and re-
placed the version identification output by the odesolve_version vari-
able.

14 August 2001 Version 1.065 fixed obscure bugs in the first-order nonlinear ODE
handler and the arbitrary constant simplifier, and revised some tracing mes-
sages slightly.

16.45.8 Planned developments

• Extend special-function solutions and allow shifts in x.

• Improve solution of linear ODEs, by (a) using linearity more generally to

solve as “CF + PI”, (b) finding at least polynomial solutions of ODEs with
polynomial coefficients, (c) implementing non-trivial reduction of order.

• Improve recognition of exact ODEs, and add some support for more general
use of integrating factors.

• Add a “classify” option, that turns on trode but avoids any actual solution, to
report all possible (?) top-level classifications.

• Improve arbconst and arbparam simplification.

• Add more standard elementary techniques and more general techniques such
as Lie symmetry, Prelle-Singer, etc.
752 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• Improve integration support, preferably to remove the need for the “noint”
option.

• Solve systems of ODEs, including under- and over-determined ODEs and

systems. Link to CRACK (Wolf) and/or DiffGrob2 (Mansfield)?

• Move more of the implementation to symbolic-mode code.

Bibliography

[1] CATHODE (Computer Algebra Tools for Handling Ordinary Dif-

ferential Equations) http://www-lmc.imag.fr/CATHODE/,
http://www-lmc.imag.fr/CATHODE2/.

[2] A. C. Hearn and J. P. Fitch (ed.), REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6, RAND Pub-
lication CP78 (Rev. 7/95), RAND, Santa Monica, CA 90407-2138, USA
(1995).

[3] M. A. H. MacCallum, An Ordinary Differential Equation Solver for RE-

DUCE, Proc. ISSAC ’88, ed. P. Gianni, Lecture Notes in Computer Science
358, Springer-Verlag (1989), 196–205.

[4] M. A. H. MacCallum, ODESOLVE, LATEX file

reduce/doc/odesolve.tex distributed with REDUCE 3.6.
The first part of this document is included in the printed REDUCE User’s
Manual 3.6 [2], 345–346.

[5] Y.-K. Man, Algorithmic Solution of ODEs and Symbolic Summation using
Computer Algebra, PhD Thesis, School of Mathematical Sciences, Queen
Mary and Westfield College, University of London (July 1994).

[6] Y.-K. Man and M. A. H. MacCallum, A Rational Approach to the Prelle-

Singer Algorithm, J. Symbolic Computation, 24 (1997), 31–43.

[7] F. Postel and P. Zimmermann, A Review of the ODE Solvers of A X -

IOM , D ERIVE , M APLE, M ATHEMATICA , M ACSYMA , M U PAD and R E -
DUCE , Proceedings of the 5th Rhine Workshop on Computer Alge-
bra, April 1-3, 1996, Saint-Louis, France. Specific references are to
the version dated April 11, 1996. The latest version of this review,
together with log files for each of the systems, is available from
http://www.loria.fr/~zimmerma/ComputerAlgebra/.

[8] M. J. Prelle and M. F. Singer, Elementary First Integrals of Differential Equat-

ions, Trans. AMS 279 (1983), 215–229.
 753

[9] T. Wolf and A. Brand, The Computer Algebra Package CRACK for Investi-
gating PDEs, LATEX file reduce/doc/crack.tex distributed with RE-
DUCE 3.6. A shorter document is included in the printed REDUCE User’s
Manual 3.6 [2], 241–244.

[10] F. J. Wright, An Enhanced ODE Solver for REDUCE. Programmirovanie No

3 (1997), 5–22, in Russian, and Programming and Computer Software No 3
(1997), in English.

[11] F. J. Wright, Design and Implementation of ODESolve 1+ : An Enhanced

REDUCE ODE Solver. CATHODE Workshop Report, Marseilles, May 1999,
CATHODE (1999).
http://centaur.maths.qmw.ac.uk/Papers/Marseilles/.

[12] D. Zwillinger, Handbook of Differential Equations, Academic Press. (Second

edition 1992.)
754 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.46 ORTHOVEC: Manipulation of scalars and vectors

ORTHOVEC is a collection of REDUCE procedures and operations which provide

a simple-to-use environment for the manipulation of scalars and vectors. Opera-
tions include addition, subtraction, dot and cross products, division, modulus, div,
grad, curl, laplacian, differentiation, integration, and Taylor expansion.
Author: James W. Eastwood.
Version 2 is summarized in [2]. It differs from the original ([1]) in revised notation
and extended capabilities.

16.46.1 Introduction

The revised version of ORTHOVEC[2] is, like the original[1], a collection of RE-
DUCE procedures and operators designed to simplify the machine aided manip-
ulation of vectors and vector expansions frequently met in many areas of applied
mathematics. The revisions have been introduced for two reasons: firstly, to add
extra capabilities missing from the original and secondly, to tidy up input and out-
put to make the package easier to use.
The changes from Version 1 include:

1. merging of scalar and vector unary and binary operators, +, −, ∗, /

2. extensions of the definitions of division and exponentiation to vectors

3. new vector dependency procedures

4. application of l’Hôpital’s rule in limits and Taylor expansions

5. a new component selector operator

6. algebraic mode output of LISP vector components

The LISP vector primitives are again used to store vectors, although with the in-
troduction of LIST types in algebraic mode in REDUCE 3.4, the implementation
may have been more simply achieved using lists to store vector components.
The philosophy used in Version 2 follows that used in the original: namely, alge-
braic mode is used wherever possible. The view is taken that some computational
inefficiencies are acceptable if it allows coding to be intelligible to (and thence
adaptable by) users other than LISP experts familiar with the internal workings of
REDUCE.
Procedures and operators in ORTHOVEC fall into the five classes: initialisation,
input-output, algebraic operations, differential operations and integral operations.
 755

Definitions are given in the following sections, and a summary of the procedure
names and their meanings are give in Table 1. The final section discusses test
examples.

16.46.2 Initialisation

The procedure VSTART initialises ORTHOVEC. It may be called after OR-

THOVEC has been INputted (or LOADed if a fast load version has been made)
to reset coordinates. VSTART provides a menu of standard coordinate systems:-

1. cartesian (x, y, z) = (x, y, z)

2. cylindrical (r, θ, z) = (r, th, z)

3. spherical (r, θ, φ) = (r, th, ph)

4. general (u1 , u2 , u3 ) = (u1, u2, u3)

5. others

which the user selects by number. Selecting options (1)-(4) automatically sets up
the coordinates and scale factors. Selection option (5) shows the user how to select
another coordinate system. If VSTART is not called, then the default cartesian co-
ordinates are used. ORTHOVEC may be re-initialised to a new coordinate system
at any time during a given REDUCE session by typing

VSTART $.

16.46.3 Input-Output

ORTHOVEC assumes all quantities are either scalars or 3 component vectors. To

define a vector a with components (c1 , c2 , c3 ) use the procedure SVEC as follows

a := svec(c1, c2, c3);

The standard REDUCE output for vectors when using the terminator “;” is to list
the three components inside square brackets [· · · ], with each component in prefix
form. A replacement for the standard REDUCE procedure MAPRIN is included in
the package to change the output of LISP vector components to algebraic notation.
The procedure VOUT (which returns the value of its argument) can be used to give
labelled output of components in algebraic form: e.g.,

b := svec (sin(x)**2, y**2, z)$

vout(b)$
756 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The operator _ can be used to select a particular component (1, 2 or 3) for output
e.g.

b_1 ;

16.46.4 Algebraic Operations

Six infix operators, sum, difference, quotient, times, exponentiation and cross prod-
uct, and four prefix operators, plus, minus, reciprocal and modulus are defined in
ORTHOVEC. These operators can take suitable combinations of scalar and vector
arguments, and in the case of scalar arguments reduce to the usual definitions of
+, −, ∗, /, etc.
The operators are represented by symbols

+, -, /, *, ^, ><

The composite >< is an attempt to represent the cross product symbol × in ASCII
characters. If we let v be a vector and s be a scalar, then valid combinations
of arguments of the procedures and operators and the type of the result are as
summarised below. The notation used is
result :=procedure(left argument, right argument) or
result :=(left operand) operator (right operand) .
 757

Vector Addition
v := VECTORPLUS(v) or v := +v
s := VECTORPLUS(s) or s := +s
v := VECTORADD(v,v) or v := v+v
s := VECTORADD(s,s) or s := s+s
Vector Subtraction
v := VECTORMINUS(v) or v := -v
s := VECTORMINUS(s) or s := -s
v := VECTORDIFFERENCE(v,v) or v := v-v
s := VECTORDIFFERENCE(s,s) or s := s-s
Vector Division
v := VECTORRECIP(v) or v := /v
s := VECTORRECIP(s) or s := /s
v := VECTORQUOTIENT(v,v) or v := v/v
v := VECTORQUOTIENT(v, s ) or v := v/s
v := VECTORQUOTIENT( s ,v) or v := s/v
s := VECTORQUOTIENT(s,s) or s := s/s
Vector Multiplication
v := VECTORTIMES( s ,v) or v := s*v
v := VECTORTIMES(v, s ) or v := v*s
s := VECTORTIMES(v,v) or s := v*v
s := VECTORTIMES( s , s ) or s := s*s
Vector Cross Product
v := VECTORCROSS(v,v) or v := v×v
Vector Exponentiation
s := VECTOREXPT (v, s ) or s := vˆs
s := VECTOREXPT ( s , s ) or s := sˆs
Vector Modulus
s := VMOD (s)
s := VMOD (v)
All other combinations of operands for these operators lead to error messages being
issued. The first two instances of vector multiplication are scalar multiplication of
vectors, the third is the product of two scalars and the last is the inner (dot)
product. The unary operators +, -, / can take either scalar or vector arguments
and return results of the same type as their arguments. VMOD returns a scalar.
In compound expressions, parentheses may be used to specify the order of combi-
nation. If parentheses are omitted the ordering of the operators, in increasing order
of precedence is

+ | - | dotgrad | * | >< | ^ | _
758 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

s := div (v)
v := grad(s)
v := curl(v)
v := delsq(v)
s := delsq(s)
v := v dotgrad v
s := v dotgrad s

Table 16.2: ORTHOVEC valid combinations of operator and argument

and these are placed in the precedence list defined in REDUCE after <. The differ-
ential operator DOTGRAD is defined in the following section, and the component
selector _ was introduced in section 3.
Vector divisions are defined as follows: If a and b are vectors and c is a scalar, then
a·b
a/b =
| b |2
ca
c/a =
| a |2

Both scalar multiplication and dot products are given by the same symbol, braces
are advisable to ensure the correct precedences in expressions such as (a · b)(c · d).
Vector exponentiation is defined as the power of the modulus:
an ≡ VMOD(a)n =| a |n

16.46.5 Differential Operations

Differential operators provided are div, grad, curl, delsq, and dotgrad. All
but the last of these are prefix operators having a single vector or scalar argument
as appropriate. Valid combinations of operator and argument, and the type of the
result are shown in table 16.2.
All other combinations of operator and argument type cause error messages to be
issued. The differential operators have their usual meanings [3]. The coordinate
system used by these operators is set by invoking VSTART (cf. Sec. 16.46.2). The
names h1, h2 and h3 are reserved for the scale factors, and u1, u2 and u3 are
used for the coordinates.
A vector extension, VDF, of the REDUCE procedure DF allows the differentiation
of a vector (scalar) with respect to a scalar to be performed. Allowed forms are
VDF(v, s) → v and VDF(s, s) → s , where, for example
∂B
vdf(B, x) ≡
∂x
 759

VEX VX VPT VORDER

v v v v
v v v s
v s s s
s v v v
s v v s
s s s s

Table 16.3: ORTHOVEC valid combination of argument types.

The standard REDUCE procedures DEPEND and NODEPEND have been rede-
fined to allow dependences of vectors to be compactly defined. For example

a := svec(a1,a2,a3)$;
depend a,x,y;

causes all three components a1,a2 and a3 of a to be treated as functions of x and

y. Individual component dependences can still be defined if desired.

depend a3,z;

The procedure VTAYLOR gives truncated Taylor series expansions of scalar or

vector functions:-

vtaylor(vex,vx,vpt,vorder);

returns the series expansion of the expression VEX with respect to variable VX
about point VPT to order VORDER. Valid combinations of argument types are
shown in table 16.3.
Any other combinations cause error messages to be issued. Elements of VORDER
must be non-negative integers, otherwise error messages are issued. If scalar
VORDER is given for a vector expansion, expansions in each component are trun-
cated at the same order, VORDER.
The new version of Taylor expansion applies l’Hôpital’s rule in evaluating coef-
ficients, so handle cases such as sin(x)/(x) , etc. which the original version of
ORTHOVEC could not. The procedure used for this is LIMIT, which can be used
directly to find the limit of a scalar function ex of variable x at point pt:-

ans := limit(ex,x,pt);
760 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.46.6 Integral Operations

Definite and indefinite vector, volume and scalar line integration procedures are
included in ORTHOVEC. They are defined as follows:
Z
VINT(v, x) = v(x)dx
Z b
DVINT(v, x, a, b) = v(x)dx
Z a

VOLINT(v) = vh1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3

Z u
DVOLINT(v, l, u, n) = vh1 h2 h3 du1 du2 du3
Zl Z
∂ωi
LINEINT(v, ω, t) = v · dr ≡ vi hi dt
∂t
Z b
∂ωi
DLINEINT(v, ωt, a, b) = v i hi dt
a ∂t

In the vector and volume integrals, v are vector or scalar, a, b, x and n are scalar.
Vectors l and u contain expressions for lower and upper bounds to the integrals.
The integer index n defines the order in which the integrals over u1 , u2 and u3 are
performed in order to allow for functional dependencies in the integral bounds:

n order
1 u1 u2 u3
2 u3 u1 u2
3 u2 u3 u1
4 u1 u3 u2
5 u2 u1 u3
otherwise u3 u2 u1

The vector ω in the line integral’s arguments contain explicit paramterisation of the
coordinates u1 , u2 , u3 of the line u(t) along which the integral is taken.

16.46.7 Test Cases

To use the REDUCE source version of ORTHOVEC, initiate a REDUCE session

and then IN the file orthovec.red containing ORTHOVEC. However, it is recom-
mended that for efficiency a compiled fast loading version be made and LOADed
when required (see Sec. 18 of the REDUCE manual). If coordinate dependent dif-
ferential and integral operators other than cartesian are needed, then VSTART must
be used to reset coordinates and scale factors.
 761

Procedures Description
VSTART select coordinate system

SVEC set up a vector

VOUT output a vector
VECTORCOMPONENT _ extract a vector component (1-3)

VECTORADD + add two vectors or scalars

VECTORPLUS + unary vector or scalar plus
VECTORMINUS - unary vector or scalar minus
VECTORDIFFERENCE - subtract two vectors or scalars
VECTORQUOTIENT / vector divided by scalar
VECTORRECIP / unary vector or scalar division
(reciprocal)
VECTORTIMES * multiply vector or scalar by
vector/scalar
VECTORCROSS >< cross product of two vectors
VECTOREXPT ˆ exponentiate vector modulus or scalar
VMOD length of vector or scalar

Table 16.4: Procedures names and operators used in ORTHOVEC (part 1)

Six simple examples are given in the Test Run Output file orthovectest.log to il-
lustrate the working of ORTHOVEC. The input lines were taken from the file
orthovectest.red (the Test Run Input), but could equally well be typed in at the
Terminal.
Example 34
Show that
(a × b) · (c × d) − (a · c)(b · d) + (a · d)(b · c) ≡ 0

Example 35
Write the equation of motion
∂v
+ v · ∇v + ∇p − curl(B) × B
∂t
in cylindrical coordinates.
Example 36
Taylor expand

• sin(x) cos(y) + ez about the point (0, 0, 0) to third order in x, fourth order
in y and fifth order in z.
762 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Procedures Description
DIV divergence of vector
GRAD gradient of scalar
CURL curl of vector
DELSQ laplacian of scalar or vector
DOTGRAD (vector).grad(scalar or vector)

VTAYLOR vector or scalar Taylor series of vector or scalar

VPTAYLOR vector or scalar Taylor series of scalar
TAYLOR scalar Taylor series of scalar
LIMIT limit of quotient using l’Hôpital’s rule

VINT vector integral

DVINT definite vector integral
VOLINT volume integral
DVOLINT definite volume integral
LINEINT line integral
DLINEINT definite line integral

MAPRIN vector extension of REDUCE MAPRIN

DEPEND vector extension of REDUCE DEPEND
NODEPEND vector extension of REDUCE NODEPEND

Table 16.5: Procedures names and operators used in ORTHOVEC (part 2)

 763

• sin(x)/x about x to fifth order.

• v about x = (x, y, z) to fifth order, where v = (x/ sin(x), (ey − 1)/y, (1 +

z)10 ).

Example 37
Obtain the second component of the equation of motion in example 35, and the
first component of the final vector Taylor series in example 36.
Example 38
Evaluate the line integral
Z r2
A · dr
r1

from point r1 = (1, 1, 1) to point r2 = (2, 4, 8) along the path (x, y, z) =

(s, s2 , s3 ) where

A = (3x2 + 5y)i − 12xyj + 2xyz 2 k

and (i, j, k) are unit vectors in the (x, y, z) directions.

Example 39
Find the volume V common to the intersecting cylinders x2 + y 2 = r2 and x2 +
z 2 = r2 i.e. evaluate
Z r Z ub Z ub
V =8 dx dy dz
0 0 0
√
where ub = r 2 − x2

Bibliography

[1] James W. Eastwood. Orthovec: A REDUCE program for 3-D vector analysis
in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Comp. Phys. Commun., 47(1):139–147,
October 1987.

[2] James W. Eastwood. ORTHOVEC: version 2 of the REDUCE program for 3-D
vector analysis in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. Comp. Phys. Commun.,
64(1):121–122, April 1991.

[3] M . Speigel. Vector Analysis. Scheum Publishing Co., 1959.

764 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.47 PHYSOP: Operator calculus in quantum theory

This package has been designed to meet the requirements of theoretical physicists
looking for a computer algebra tool to perform complicated calculations in quan-
tum theory with expressions containing operators. These operations consist mainly
of the calculation of commutators between operator expressions and in the evalua-
tions of operator matrix elements in some abstract space.
Author: Mathias Warns.

16.47.1 Introduction

The package PHYSOP has been designed to meet the requirements of theoretical
physicists looking for a computer algebra tool to perform complicated calculations
in quantum theory with expressions containing operators. These operations consist
mainly in the calculation of commutators between operator expressions and in the
evaluations of operator matrix elements in some abstract space. Since the capabil-
ities of the current REDUCE release to deal with complex expressions containing
noncommutative operators are rather restricted, the first step was to enhance these
possibilities in order to achieve a better usability of REDUCE for these kind of
calculations. This has led to the development of a first package called NONCOM2
which is described in section 2. For more complicated expressions involving both
scalar quantities and operators the need for an additional data type has emerged
in order to make a clear separation between the various objects present in the cal-
culation. The implementation of this new REDUCE data type is realized by the
PHYSOP (for PHYSical OPerator) package described in section 3.

16.47.2 The NONCOM2 Package

The package NONCOM2 redefines some standard REDUCE routines in order to

modify the way noncommutative operators are handled by the system. In standard
REDUCE declaring an operator to be noncommutative using the NONCOM state-
ment puts a global flag on the operator. This flag is checked when the system has
to decide whether or not two operators commute during the manipulation of an
expression.
The NONCOM2 package redefines the NONCOM statement in a way more suitable
for calculations in physics. Operators have now to be declared noncommutative
pairwise, i.e. coding:

NONCOM A,B;

declares the operators A and B to be noncommutative but allows them to commute

 765

with any other (noncommutative or not) operator present in the expression. In a

similar way if one wants e.g. A(X) and A(Y) not to commute, one has now to
code:

NONCOM A,A;

Each operator gets a new property list containing the operators with which it does
not commute. A final example should make the use of the redefined NONCOM
statement clear:

NONCOM A,B,C;

declares A to be noncommutative with B and C, B to be noncommutative with A

and C and C to be noncommutative with A and B. Note that after these declaration
e.g. A(X) and A(Y) are still commuting kernels.
Finally to keep the compatibility with standard REDUCE declaring a single iden-
tifier using the NONCOM statement has the same effect as in standard REDUCE
i.e., the identifier is flagged with the NONCOM tag.
From the user’s point of view there are no other new commands implemented by
the package. Commutation relations have to be declared in the standard way as
described in the manual i.e. using LET statements. The package itself consists
of several redefined standard REDUCE routines to handle the new definition of
noncommutativity in multiplications and pattern matching processes.
CAVEAT: Due to its nature, the package is highly version dependent. The current
version has been designed for the 3.3 and 3.4 releases of REDUCE and may not
work with previous versions. Some different (but still correct) results may occur
by using this package in conjunction with LET statements since part of the pattern
matching routines have been redesigned. The package has been designed to bridge
a deficiency of the current REDUCE version concerning the notion of noncommu-
tativity and it is the author’s hope that it will be made obsolete by a future release
of REDUCE.

16.47.3 The PHYSOP package

The package PHYSOP implements a new REDUCE data type to perform calcula-
tions with physical operators. The noncommutativity of operators is implemented
using the NONCOM2 package so this file should be loaded prior to the use of
PHYSOP40 . In the following the new commands implemented by the package are
40
To build a fast loading version of PHYSOP the NONCOM2 source code should be read in prior
to the PHYSOP code
766 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

described. Beside these additional commands, the full set of standard REDUCE
instructions remains available for performing any other calculation.

16.47.3.1 Type declaration commands

The new REDUCE data type PHYSOP implemented by the package allows the
definition of a new kind of operators (i.e. kernels carrying an arbitrary number
of arguments). Throughout this manual, the name “operator” will refer, unless
explicitly stated otherwise, to this new data type. This data type is in turn divided
into 5 subtypes. For each of this subtype, a declaration command has been defined:

SCALOP A; declares A to be a scalar operator. This operator may carry an ar-

bitrary number of arguments i.e. after the declaration: SCALOP A; all
kernels of the form e.g. A(J), A(1,N), A(N,L,M) are recognized by
the system as being scalar operators.

VECOP V; declares V to be a vector operator. As for scalar operators, the vector

operators may carry an arbitrary number of arguments. For example V(3)
can be used to represent the vector operator V~3 . Note that the dimension of
space in which this operator lives is arbitrary. One can however address a
specific component of the vector operator by using a special index declared
as PHYSINDEX (see below). This index must then be the first in the argu-
ment list of the vector operator.

TENSOP C(3); declares C to be a tensor operator of rank 3. Tensor operators of

any fixed integer rank larger than 1 can be declared. Again this operator may
carry an arbitrary number of arguments and the space dimension is not fixed.
The tensor components can be addressed by using special PHYSINDEX in-
dices (see below) which have to be placed in front of all other arguments in
the argument list.

STATE U; declares U to be a state, i.e. an object on which operators have a

certain action. The state U can also carry an arbitrary number of arguments.

PHYSINDEX X; declares X to be a special index which will be used to address

components of vector and tensor operators.

It is very important to understand precisely the way how the type declaration com-
mands work in order to avoid type mismatch errors when using the PHYSOP pack-
age. The following examples should illustrate the way the program interprets type
declarations. Assume that the declarations listed above have been typed in by the
user, then:

• A,A(1,N),A(N,M,K) are SCALAR operators.

 767

• V,V(3),V(N,M) are VECTOR operators.

• C, C(5),C(Y,Z) are TENSOR operators of rank 3.

• U,U(P),U(N,L,M) are STATES.

BUT: V(X),V(X,3),V(X,N,M) are all scalar operators since the special index
X addresses a specific component of the vector operator (which is a scalar
operator). Accordingly, C(X,X,X) is also a scalar operator because the di-
agonal component Cxxx of the tensor operator C is meant here (C has rank 3
so 3 special indices must be used for the components).

In view of these examples, every time the following text refers to scalar operators,
it should be understood that this means not only operators defined by the SCALOP
statement but also components of vector and tensor operators. Depending on the
situation, in some case when dealing only with the components of vector or tensor
operators it may be preferable to use an operator declared with SCALOP rather than
addressing the components using several special indices (throughout the manual,
indices declared with the PHYSINDEX command are referred to as special indices).
Another important feature of the system is that for each operator declared using
the statements described above, the system generates 2 additional operators of the
same type: the adjoint and the inverse operator. These operators are accessible to
the user for subsequent calculations without any new declaration. The syntax is as
following:
If A has been declared to be an operator (scalar, vector or tensor) the adjoint oper-
ator is denoted A!+ and the inverse operator is denoted A!-1 (an inverse adjoint
operator A!+!-1 is also generated). The exclamation marks do not appear when
these operators are printed out by REDUCE (except when the switch NAT is set to
off) but have to be typed in when these operators are used in an input expression.
An adjoint (but no inverse) state is also generated for every state defined by the
user. One may consider these generated operators as ”placeholders” which means
that these operators are considered by default as being completely independent of
the original operator. Especially if some value is assigned to the original operator,
this value is not automatically assigned to the generated operators. The user must
code additional assignement statements in order to get the corresponding values.
Exceptions from these rules are (i) that inverse operators are always ordered at
the same place as the original operators and (ii) that the expressions A!-1*A and
A*A!-1 are replaced41 by the unit operator UNIT . This operator is defined as a
scalar operator during the initialization of the PHYSOP package. It should be used
to indicate the type of an operator expression whenever no other PHYSOP occur
in it. For example, the following sequence:
41
This may not always occur in intermediate steps of a calculation due to efficiency reasons.
768 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

SCALOP A;
A:= 5;

leads to a type mismatch error and should be replaced by:

SCALOP A;
A:=5*UNIT;

The operator UNIT is a reserved variable of the system and should not be used for
other purposes.
All other kernels (including standard REDUCE operators) occurring in expressions
are treated as ordinary scalar variables without any PHYSOP type (referred to as
scalars in the following). Assignement statements are checked to ensure correct
operator type assignement on both sides leading to an error if a type mismatch
occurs. However an assignement statement of the form A:= 0 or LET A = 0 is
always valid regardless of the type of A.
Finally a command CLEARPHYSOP has been defined to remove the PHYSOP type
from an identifier in order to use it for subsequent calculations (e.g. as an ordinary
REDUCE operator). However it should be remembered that no substitution rule
is cleared by this function. It is therefore left to the user’s responsibility to clear
previously all substitution rules involving the identifier from which the PHYSOP
type is removed.
Users should be very careful when defining procedures or statements of the type
FOR ALL ... LET ... that the PHYSOP type of all identifiers occurring
in such expressions is unambigously fixed. The type analysing procedure is rather
restrictive and will print out a ”PHYSOP type conflict” error message if such am-
biguities occur.

16.47.3.2 Ordering of operators in an expression

The ordering of kernels in an expression is performed according to the following

rules:
1. Scalars are always ordered ahead of PHYSOP operators in an expression. The
REDUCE statement KORDER can be used to control the ordering of scalars but
has no effect on the ordering of operators.
2. The default ordering of operators follows the order in which they have been
declared (and not the alphabetical one). This ordering scheme can be changed
using the command OPORDER. Its syntax is similar to the KORDER statement,
i.e. coding: OPORDER A,V,F; means that all occurrences of the operator A are
ordered ahead of those of V etc. It is also possible to include operators carrying
indices (both normal and special ones) in the argument list of OPORDER. However
 769

including objects not defined as operators (i.e. scalars or indices) in the argument
list of the OPORDER command leads to an error.
3. Adjoint operators are placed by the declaration commands just after the original
operators on the OPORDER list. Changing the place of an operator on this list
means not that the adjoint operator is moved accordingly. This adjoint operator can
be moved freely by including it in the argument list of the OPORDER command.

16.47.3.3 Arithmetic operations on operators

The following arithmetic operations are possible with operator expressions:

1. Multiplication or division of an operator by a scalar.
2. Addition and subtraction of operators of the same type.
3. Multiplication of operators is only defined between two scalar operators.
4. The scalar product of two VECTOR operators is implemented with a new func-
tion DOT . The system expands the product of two vector operators into an ordinary
product of the components of these operators by inserting a special index generated
by the program. To give an example, if one codes:

VECOP V,W;
V DOT W;

the system will transform the product into:

V(IDX1) * W(IDX1)

where IDX1 is a PHYSINDEX generated by the system (called a DUMMY INDEX

in the following) to express the summation over the components. The identifiers
IDXn (n is a nonzero integer) are reserved variables for this purpose and should
not be used for other applications. The arithmetic operator DOT can be used both
in infix and prefix form with two arguments.
5. Operators (but not states) can only be raised to an integer power. The sys-
tem expands this power expression into a product of the corresponding number of
terms inserting dummy indices if necessary. The following examples explain the
transformations occurring on power expressions (system output is indicated with
an ->):

SCALOP A; A**2;
- --> A*A
VECOP V; V**4;
- --> V(IDX1)*V(IDX1)*V(IDX2)*V(IDX2)
770 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

TENSOP C(2); C**2;

- --> C(IDX3,IDX4)*C(IDX3,IDX4)

Note in particular the way how the system interprets powers of tensor operators
which is different from the notation used in matrix algebra.
6. Quotients of operators are only defined between scalar operator expressions.
The system transforms the quotient of 2 scalar operators into the product of the
first operator times the inverse of the second one. Example42 :

SCALOP A,B; A / B;
-1
--> (B )*A

7. Combining the last 2 rules explains the way how the system handles negative
powers of operators:

SCALOP B;
B**(-3);
-1 -1 -1
--> (B )*(B )*(B )

The method of inserting dummy indices and expanding powers of operators has
been chosen to facilitate the handling of complicated operator expressions and par-
ticularly their application on states (see section 3.4.3). However it may be use-
ful to get rid of these dummy indices in order to enhance the readability of the
system’s final output. For this purpose the switch CONTRACT has to be turned
on (CONTRACT is normally set to OFF). The system in this case contracts over
dummy indices reinserting the DOT operator and reassembling the expanded pow-
ers. However due to the predefined operator ordering the system may not remove
all the dummy indices introduced previously.

16.47.3.4 Special functions

Commutation relations If 2 PHYSOPs have been declared noncommutative us-

ing the (redefined) NONCOM statement, it is possible to introduce in the environ-
ment elementary (anti-) commutation relations between them. For this purpose, 2
scalar operators COMM and ANTICOMM are available. These operators are used in
conjunction with LET statements. Example:

SCALOP A,B,C,D;
LET COMM(A,B)=C;
42
This shows how inverse operators are printed out when the switch NAT is on
 771

FOR ALL N,M LET ANTICOMM(A(N),B(M))=D;

VECOP U,V,W; PHYSINDEX X,Y,Z;
FOR ALL X,Y LET COMM(V(X),W(Y))=U(Z);

Note that if special indices are used as dummy variables in FOR ALL ...
LET constructs then these indices should have been declared previously using the
PHYSINDEX command.
Every time the system encounters a product term involving 2 noncommutative
operators which have to be reordered on account of the given operator ordering,
the list of available (anti-) commutators is checked in the following way: First the
system looks for a commutation relation which matches the product term. If it fails
then the defined anticommutation relations are checked. If there is no successful
match the product term A*B is replaced by:

A*B;
--> COMM(A,B) + B*A

so that the user may introduce the commutation relation later on.
The user may want to force the system to look for anticommutators only; for this
purpose a switch ANTICOM is defined which has to be turned on (ANTICOM is
normally set to OFF). In this case, the above example is replaced by:

ON ANTICOM;
A*B;
--> ANTICOMM(A,B) - B*A

Once the operator ordering has been fixed (in the example above B has to be or-
dered ahead of A), there is no way to prevent the system from introducing (anti-
)commutators every time it encounters a product whose terms are not in the right
order. On the other hand, simply by changing the OPORDER statement and reeval-
uating the expression one can change the operator ordering without the need to
introduce new commutation relations. Consider the following example:

SCALOP A,B,C; NONCOM A,B; OPORDER B,A;

LET COMM(A,B)=C;
A*B;
- --> B*A + C;
OPORDER A,B;
B*A;
- --> A*B - C;

The functions COMM and ANTICOMM should only be used to define elemen-
772 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

tary (anti-) commutation relations between single operators. For the calcula-
tion of (anti-) commutators between complex operator expressions, the functions
COMMUTE and ANTICOMMUTE have been defined. Example (is included as ex-
ample 1 in the test file):

VECOP P,A,K;
PHYSINDEX X,Y;
FOR ALL X,Y LET COMM(P(X),A(Y))=K(X)*A(Y);
COMMUTE(P**2,P DOT A);

Adjoint expressions As has been already mentioned, for each operator and state
defined using the declaration commands quoted in section 3.1, the system generates
automatically the corresponding adjoint operator. For the calculation of the adjoint
representation of a complicated operator expression, a function ADJ has been
defined. Example43 :

SCALOP A,B;
ADJ(A*B);
+ +
--> (B )*(A )

Application of operators on states For this purpose, a function OPAPPLY has

been defined. It has 2 arguments and is used in the following combinations:
(i) LET OPAPPLY(operator, state) = state; This is to define a elementary action
of an operator on a state in analogy to the way elementary commutation relations
are introduced to the system. Example:

SCALOP A; STATE U;
FOR ALL N,P LET OPAPPLY((A(N),U(P))= EXP(I*N*P)*U(P);

(ii) LET OPAPPLY(state, state) = scalar exp.; This form is to define scalar prod-
ucts between states and normalization conditions. Example:

STATE U;
FOR ALL N,M LET OPAPPLY(U(N),U(M)) = IF N=M THEN 1 ELSE 0;

(iii) state := OPAPPLY(operator expression, state); In this way, the action of

an operator expression on a given state is calculated using elementary relations
defined as explained in (i). The result may be assigned to a different state vector.
43
This shows how adjoint operators are printed out when the switch NAT is on
 773

(iv) OPAPPLY(state, OPAPPLY(operator expression, state)); This is the way

how to calculate matrix elements of operator expressions. The system proceeds in
the following way: first the rightmost operator is applied on the right state, which
means that the system tries to find an elementary relation which match the appli-
cation of the operator on the state. If it fails the system tries to apply the leftmost
operator of the expression on the left state using the adjoint representations. If
this fails also, the system prints out a warning message and stops the evaluation.
Otherwise the next operator occuring in the expression is taken and so on until the
complete expression is applied. Then the system looks for a relation expressing the
scalar product of the two resulting states and prints out the final result. An example
of such a calculation is given in the test file.
The infix version of the OPAPPLY function is the vertical bar | . It is right asso-
ciative and placed in the precedence list just above the minus (−) operator. Some
of the REDUCE implementation may not work with this character, the prefix form
should then be used instead44 .

16.47.4 Known problems in the current release of PHYSOP

(i) Some spurious negative powers of operators may appear in the result of a cal-
culation using the PHYSOP package. This is a purely ”cosmetic” effect which is
due to an additional factorization of the expression in the output printing routines
of REDUCE. Setting off the REDUCE switch ALLFAC (ALLFAC is normally on)
should make these terms disappear and print out the correct result (see example 1
in the test file).
(ii) The current release of the PHYSOP package is not optimized w.r.t. computa-
tion speed. Users should be aware that the evaluation of complicated expressions
involving a lot of commutation relations requires a significant amount of CPU time
and memory. Therefore the use of PHYSOP on small machines is rather limited.
A minimal hardware configuration should include at least 4 MB of memory and a
reasonably fast CPU (type Intel 80386 or equiv.).
(iii) Slightly different ordering of operators (especially with multiple occurrences
of the same operator with different indices) may appear in some calculations due
to the internal ordering of atoms in the underlying LISP system (see last example
in the test file). This cannot be entirely avoided by the package but does not affect
the correctness of the results.

16.47.5 Final remarks

The package PHYSOP has been presented by the author at the IV inter. Conference
on Computer Algebra in Physical Research, Dubna (USSR) 1990 (see M. Warns,
44
The source code can also be modified to choose another special character for the function
774 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Software Extensions of REDUCE for Operator Calculus in Quantum Theory, Proc.

of the IV inter. Conf. on Computer Algebra in Physical Research, Dubna 1990,
to appear). It has been developed with the aim in mind to perform calculations
of the type exemplified in the test file included in the distribution of this package.
However it should also be useful in some other domains like e.g. the calculations of
complicated Feynman diagrams in QCD which could not be performed using the
HEPHYS package. The author is therefore grateful for any suggestion to improve
or extend the usability of the package. Users should not hesitate to contact the
author for additional help and explanations on how to use this package. Some bugs
may also appear which have not been discovered during the tests performed prior
to the release of this version. Please send in this case to the author a short input
and output listing displaying the encountered problem.

Acknowledgements

The main ideas for the implementation of a new data type in the REDUCE envi-
ronnement have been taken from the VECTOR package developed by Dr. David
Harper (D. Harper, Comp. Phys. Comm. 54 (1989) 295). Useful discussions with
Dr. Eberhard Schrüfer and Prof. John Fitch are also gratefully acknowledged.

16.47.6 Appendix: List of error and warning messages

In the following the error (E) and warning (W) messages specific to the PHYSOP
package are listed.

cannot declare x as data type (W): An attempt has been made to declare
an object x which cannot be used as a PHYSOP operator of the required type.
The declaration command is ignored.

x already defined as data type (W): The object x has already been de-
clared using a REDUCE type declaration command and can therefore not
be used as a PHYSOP operator. The declaration command is ignored.

x already declared as data type (W): The object x has already been de-
clared with a PHYSOP declaration command. The declaration command is
ignored.

x is not a PHYSOP (E): An invalid argument has been included in an OPORDER

command. Check the arguments.

invalid argument(s) to function (E): A function implemented by the

PHYSOP package has been called with an invalid argument. Check type
of arguments.
 775

Type conflict in operation (E): A PHYSOP type conflict has occured

during an arithmetic operation. Check the arguments.

invalid call of function with args: arguments (E): A function of the

PHYSOP package has been declared with invalid argument(s). Check the
argument list.

type mismatch in expression (E): A type mismatch has been detected in an

expression. Check the corresponding expression.

type mismatch in assignement (E): A type mismatch has been detected in

an assignment or in a LET statement. Check the listed statement.

PHYSOP type conflict in expr (E): A ambiguity has been detected dur-
ing the type analysis of the expression. Check the expression.

operators in exponent cannot be handled (E): An operator has

occurred in the exponent of an expression.

cannot raise a state to a power (E): states cannot be exponentiated

by the system.

invalid quotient (E): An invalid denominator has occurred in a quotient.

Check the expression.

physops of different types cannot be commuted (E): An invalid

operator has occurred in a call of the COMMUTE/ANTICOMMUTE function.

commutators only implemented between scalar operators (E):

An invalid operator has occurred in the call of the COMMUTE/ANTICOMMUTE
function.

evaluation incomplete due to missing elementary relations

(W):
The system has not found all the elementary commutators or application re-
lations necessary to calculate or reorder the input expression. The result may
however be used for further calculations.
776 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.48 PM: A REDUCE pattern matcher

PM is a general pattern matcher similar in style to those found in systems such

as SMP and Mathematica, and is based on the pattern matcher described in Kevin
McIsaac, “Pattern Matching Algebraic Identities”, SIGSAM Bulletin, 19 (1985),
4-13.
Author: Kevin McIsaac.
PM is a general pattern matcher similar in style to those found in systems such
as SMP and Mathematica, and is based on the pattern matcher described in Kevin
McIsaac, “Pattern Matching Algebraic Identities”, SIGSAM Bulletin, 19 (1985),
4-13. The following is a description of its structure.
A template is any expression composed of literal elements, e.g. 5, a, or a+1, and
specially-denoted pattern variables, e.g. ?a or ??b. Atoms beginning with ? are
called generic variables and match any expression.
Atoms beginning with ?? are called multi-generic variables and match any ex-
pression or any sequence of expressions including the null or empty sequence. A
sequence is an expression of the form [a1,a2,...]. When placed in a func-
tion argument list the brackets are removed, i.e. f([a,1]) -> f(a,1) and
f(a,[1,2],b) -> f(a,1,2,b).
A template is said to match an expression if the template is literally equal to the ex-
pression, or if by replacing any of the generic or multi-generic symbols occurring in
the template, the template can be made to be literally equal to the expression. These
replacements are called the bindings for the generic variables. A replacement is
an expression of the form exp1 -> exp2, which means exp1 is replaced by
exp2, or exp1 -> exp2, which is the same except exp2 is not simplified until
after the substitution for exp1 is made. If the expression has any of the properties
associativity, commutativity, or an identity element, they are used to determine if
the expressions match. If an attempt to match the template to the expression fails
the matcher backtracks, unbinding generic variables, until it reaches a place where
it can make a different choice. It then proceeds along the new branch.
The current matcher proceeds from left to right in a depth-first search of the tem-
plate expression tree. Rearrangements of the expression are generated when the
match fails and the matcher backtracks.
The matcher also supports semantic matching. Briefly, if a subtemplate does not
match the corresponding subexpression because they have different structures, then
the two are equated and the matcher continues matching the rest of the expression
until all the generic variables in the subexpression are bound. The equality is then
checked. This is controlled by the switch semantic. By default it is on.
 777

16.48.1 M(exp,temp)

The template temp is matched against the expression exp. If the template is
literally equal to the expression T is returned. If the template is literally equal to
the expression after replacing the generic variables by their bindings then the set of
bindings is returned as a set of replacements. Otherwise 0 (nil) is returned.

Examples:

A “literal” template:

m(f(a), f(a));
t

Not literally equal:

m(f(a), f(b));
0

Nested operators:

m(f(a,h(b)), f(a,h(b)));
t

“Generic” templates:

m(f(a,b), f(a,?a));
{?a -> b}
m(f(a,b), f(?a,?b));
{?b -> b, ?a -> a}

The multi-generic symbol ??a matches the “rest” of the arguments:

m(f(a,b), f(??a));
{??a -> {[a, b]}

but the generic symbol ?a does not:

m(f(a,b), f(?a));
0

Flag h as “associative”:

flag(’(h), ’assoc);
778 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Associativity is used to group terms together:

m(h(a,b,d,e), h(?a,d,?b));
{?b -> e, ?a -> h(a,b)}

“plus” is a symmetric function:

m(a+b+c, c+?a+?b);
{?b -> a, ?a -> b}

and it is also associative

m(a+b+c, b+?a);
{?a -> c + a}

Note that the effect of using a multi-generic symbol is different:

m(a+b+c,b+??c);
{??c -> [c,a]}

16.48.2 temp _= logical_exp

A template may be qualified by the use of the conditional operator _=, such!-that.
When a such-that condition is encountered in a template, it is held until all
generic variables appearing in logical_exp are bound.
On the binding of the last generic variable, logical_exp is simplified and if
the result is not T the condition fails and the pattern matcher backtracks. When
the template has been fully parsed any remaining held such-that conditions are
evaluated and compared to T.

Examples:

m(f(a,b), f(?a,?b\_=(?a=?b)));
0
m(f(a,a), f(?a,?b\_=(?a=?b)));
{?b -> a, ?a -> a}

Note that f(?a,?b_=(?a=?b)) is the same as f(?a,?a).

 779

16.48.3 S(exp,{temp1 → sub1, temp2 → sub2, . . . }, rept, depth)

Substitute the set of replacements into exp, re-substituting a maximum of rept

times and to a maximum depth depth. rept and depth have the default values
of 1 and ∞ respectively. Essentially, S is a breadth-first search-and-replace. (There
is also a depth-first version, Sd(...).) Each template is matched against exp
until a successful match occurs.
Any replacements for generic variables are applied to the r.h.s. of that replacement
and exp is replaced by the r.h.s. The substitution process is restarted on the new
expression starting with the first replacement. If none of the templates match exp
then the first replacement is tried against each sub-expression of exp. If a matching
template is found then the sub-expression is replaced and process continues with
the next sub-expression.
When all sub-expressions have been examined, if a match was found, the expres-
sion is evaluated and the process is restarted on the sub-expressions of the resulting
expression, starting with the first replacement. When all sub-expressions have been
examined and no match found the sub-expressions are reexamined using the next
replacement. Finally when this has been done for all replacements and no match
found then the process recures on each sub-expression. The process is terminated
after rept replacements or when the expression no longer changes.
The command

Si(exp, {temp1 -> sub1, temp2 -> sub2, ...}, depth)

means “substitute infinitely many times until expression stops changing”. It is

short-hand for S(exp,{temp1 -> sub1, temp2 -> sub2,...},Inf,
depth).

Examples:

s(f(a,b), f(a,?b) -> ?b\^{}2);

2
b
s(a+b, a+b -> a{*}b);
b*a

“Associativity” is used to group a + b + c to (a + b) + c:

s(a+b+c, a+b -> a*b);

b*a + c

The next three examples use a rule set that defines the factorial function. Substitute
780 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

once:

s(nfac(3), {nfac(0) -> 1, nfac(?x) -> ?x*nfac(?x-1)});

3*nfac(2)

Substitute twice:

s(nfac(3), {nfac(0) -> 1, nfac(?x) -> ?x*nfac(?x-1)}, 2);

6*nfac(1)

Substitute until expression stops changing:

si(nfac(3), {nfac(0) -> 1, nfac(?x) -> ?x{*}nfac(?x-1)});

6

Only substitute at the top level:

s(a+b+f(a+b), a+b -> a*b, inf, 0);

f(b+a) + b*a

16.48.4 temp :- exp and temp ::- exp

If during simplification of an expression, temp matches some sub-expression, then

that sub-expression is replaced by exp. If there is a choice of templates to apply,
the least general is used.
If an old rule exists with the same template, then the old rule is replaced by the new
rule. If exp is nil the rule is retracted.
temp ::- exp is the same as temp :- exp, but the l.h.s. is not simplified
until the replacement is made.

Examples:

Define the factorial function of a natural number as a recursive function and a

termination condition. For all other values write it as a gamma function. Note that
the order of definition is not important, as the rules are re-ordered so that the most
specific rule is tried first. Note the use of ::- instead of :- to stop simplification
of the l.h.s. hold stops its arguments from being simplified.

fac(?x \_= Natp(?x)) ::- ?x*fac(?x-1);

hold(fac(?X-1)*?X)
fac(0) :- 1;
1
 781

fac(?x) :- Gamma(?x+1);
gamma(?X + 1)
fac(3);
6
fac(3/2);
gamma(5/2)

16.48.5 Arep({rep1,rep2,. . . })

In future simplifications automatically apply replacements rep1, rep2, ...

until the rules are retracted. In effect, this replaces the operator -> by :- in the set
of replacements {rep1, rep2, ...}.

16.48.6 Drep({rep1,rep2,..})

Delete the rules rep1, rep2, ....

As we said earlier, the matcher has been constructed along the lines of the pat-
tern matcher described in McIsaac with the addition of such-that conditions and
“semantic matching” as described in Grief. To make a template efficient, some
consideration should be given to the structure of the template and the position of
such-that statements. In general the template should be constructed so that fail-
ure to match is recognized as early as possible. The multi-generic symbol should
be used whenever appropriate, particularly with symmetric functions. For further
details see McIsaac.

Examples:

f(?a,?a,?b) is better than f(?a,?b,?c_=(?a=?b)). ?a+??b is better

than ?a+?b+?c....
The template f(?a+?b,?a,?b), matched against f(3,2,1) is matched as
f(?e_=(?e=?a+?b),?a,?b) when semantic matching is allowed.

16.48.7 Switches

TRPM Produces a trace of the rules applied during a substitution. This is useful to
see how the pattern matcher works, or to understand an unexpected result.

In general usage the following switches need not be considered:

SEMANTIC Allow semantic matches, e.g. f(?a+?b,?a,?b) will match

f(3,2,1), even though the matcher works from left to right.
782 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

SYM!-ASSOC Limits the search space of symmetric associative functions when

the template contains multi-generic symbols so that generic symbols will not
function. For example (a+b+c,?a+??b) will return

{?a -> a, ??b -> [b,c]} or

{?a -> b, ??b -> [a,c]} or
{?a -> c, ??b -> [a,b]}

but not {?a -> a+b, ??b -> c}, etc. No sane template should require
these types of matches. However they can be made available by turning the
switch off.
 783

16.49 QHULL: Compute the complex hull

This package is an interface to qhull (www.qhull.org), which has to be in-

stalled externally. There are 3 options for this package to find the qhull program:

1. Put it into the path of your shell (recommended).

2. Set and export an environment variable QHULL to the complete path, e.g., in
the Bash:

export QHULL=/usr/bin/qhull

3. Inside Reduce set the variable qhull_call!* to the complete path, e.g.,

symbolic(qhull_call!* := "/usr/bin/qhull");

Example: Compute the convex hull of a list integer points as a subset of that list as
follows:

1: qhull {{2,0,0}, {0,2,0}, {0,2,2}, {0,0,0}, {1,1,1}};

{{2,0,0},{0,2,0},{0,2,2},{0,0,0}}

2: symbolic;

nil

3* qhull_qhull {{2,0,0}, {0,2,0}, {0,2,2}, {0,0,0}, {1,1,1}};

((2 0 0) (0 2 0) (0 2 2) (0 0 0))

Author: Thomas Sturm, March 2013

784 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.50 QSUM: Indefinite and Definite Summation of q-

hypergeometric Terms

Authors: Harald Böing and Wolfram Koepf

16.50.1 Introduction

This package is an implementation of the q-analogues of Gosper’s and Zeil-

berger’s45 algorithm for indefinite, and definite summation of q-hypergeometric
terms, respectively.
An expression ak is called a q-hypergeometric term, if ak /ak−1 is a rational func-
tion with respect to q k . Most q-terms are based on the q-shifted factorial or
qpochhammer. Other typical q-hypergeometric terms are ratios of products of pow-
ers, q-factorials, q-binomial coefficients, and q-shifted factorials that are integer-
linear in their arguments.

16.50.2 Elementary q-Functions

Our package supports the input of the following elementary q-functions:

• qpochhammer(a,q,infinity)@
∞
Y
1 − a qj


(a; q)∞ :=
j=0

• qpochhammer(a,q,k)
 Q
k−1 j


j=0 1 − a q if k > 0


(a; q)k := 1 if k = 0
 Qk
−1
1 − a q −j

j=1 if k < 0

• qbrackets(k,q)
qk − 1
[q, k] :=
q−1
• qfactorial(k,q)
(q; q)k
[k]q ! :=
(1 − q)k
45
The ZEILBERG package (see [7]) contains the hypergeometric versions. Those algorithms are
described in [4],[11],[12] and [6].
 785

• qbinomial(n,k,q)
 
n (q; q)n
:=
k q (q; q)k · (q; q)n−k

Furthermore it is possible to use an abbreviation for the generalized q-hypergeometric

series (basic generalized hypergeometric series, see e. g. [3], Chapter 1) which is
defined as:
  
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar 
φ
r s q, z :=
b1 , b2 , . . . , bs 
∞
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ; q)k z k h k
i1+s−r
(−1)k q (2)
X
(b1 , b2 , . . . , bs ; q)k (q; q)k
k=0

where (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ; q)k is a short form to write the product rj=1 (aj ; q)k . An
Q
−n with
r φs series terminates if one of its numerator parameters is of the form q
h k
i1+s−r
n ∈ N. The additional factor (−1)k q (2) (which does not occur in the
corresponding definition of the generalized hypergeometric function) is due to a
confluence process. With this factor one gets the simple formula:
     
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar  a1 , a2 , . . . , ar−1 
lim r φs q, z = r−1 φs q, z .
ar →∞ b1 , b2 , . . . , bs  b1 , b2 , . . . , bs 
Another variation is the bilateral basic hypergeometric series (see e. g. [3], Chapter
5) that is defined as
   ∞
a1 , a2 , . . . , ar  X (a1 , a2 , . . . , ar ; q)k k h k (k2)
is−r
r ψs q, z := z (−1) q .
b1 , b2 , . . . , bs  (b1 , b2 , . . . , bs ; q)k
k=−∞

The summands of those generalized q-hypergeometric series may be entered by

• qphihyperterm(a1,a2,...,a3,b1,b2,...,b3,q,z,k) and

• qpsihyperterm(a1,a2,...,a3,b1,b2,...,b3,q,z,k)

respectively.

16.50.3 q-Gosper Algorithm

The q-Gosper algorithm[8] is a decision procedure, that decides by algebraic cal-

culations whether or not a given q-hypergeometric term ak has a q-hypergeometric
term antidifference gk , i. e. ak = gk − gk−1 with gk /gk−1 rational in q k . The ratio
gk /ak is also rational in q k — an important fact which makes the rational certifi-
cation (see § 16.50.4) of Zeilberger’s algorithm possible. If the procedure is suc-
cessful it returns gk , in which case we call ak q-Gosper-summable. Otherwise no
786 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

q-hypergeometric antidifference exists. Therefore if the q-Gosper algorithm does

not return a q-hypergeometric antidifference, it has proved that no such solution
exists, an information that may be quite useful and important.
Any antidifference is uniquely determined up to a constant, and is denoted by
X
gk = ak δk .

Finding gk given ak is called indefinite summation. The antidifference operator Σ

is the inverse of the downward difference operator ∇ak = ak − ak−1 . There is
an analogous summation theory corresponding to the upward difference operator
∆ak = ak+1 − ak .
In case, an antidifference gk of ak is known, any sum nk=m ak can be easily
P
calculated by an evaluation of g at the boundary points like in the integration case:
n
X
ak = gn − gm−1
k=m

16.50.4 q-Zeilberger Algorithm

The q-Zeilberger algorithm [8] deals with the definite summation of q-hypergeo-
metric terms f(n, k) wrt. n and k:
∞
X
s(n) := f(n, k)
k=−∞

Zeilberger’s idea is to use Gosper’s algorithm to find an inhomogeneous recurrence

equation with polynomial coefficients for f(n, k) of the form
J
X
σj (n) · f(n + j, k) = g(k) − g(k − 1), (16.91)
j=0

where g(k)/f(k) is rational in q k and q n . Assuming finite support of f(n, k) wrt.

k (i. e. f(n, k) = 0 for any n and all sufficiently large k) we can sum equation
(16.91) over all k ∈ Z. Thus we receive a homogeneous recurrence equation with
polynomial coefficients (called holonomic equation) for s(n):
J
X
σj (n) · s(n + j) = 0 (16.92)
j=0

At this stage the implementation assumes that the summation bounds are infinite
and the input term has finite support wrt. k. If those input requirements are not
fulfilled the resulting recursion is probably not valid. Thus we strongly advise the
user to check those requirements.
 787

Despite this restriction you may still be able to get valuable information by the
program: On request it returns the left hand side of the recurrence equation (16.92)
and the antidifference g(k) of equation (16.91).
Once you have the certificate g(k) it is trivial (at least theoretically) to prove equat-
ion (16.92) as long as the input requirements are fulfilled. Let’s assume somone
gives us equation (16.91). If we divide it by f(n, k) we get a rational identity (in
q n and q k ) —due to the fact that g(k)/f(n, k) is rational in q n and q k . Once we
confirmed this identity we sum equation (16.91) over k ∈ Z:
J
XX X
σj (n) · f(n + j, k) = (g(k) − g(k − 1)), (16.93)
k∈Z j=0 k∈Z

Again we exploit the fact that g(k) is a rational multiple of f(n, k) and thus g(k)
has finite support which makes the telescoping sum on the right hand side vanish.
If we exchange the order of summation we get equation (16.92) which finishes the
proof.
Note that we may relax the requirements for f(n, k): An infinite support is possible
as long as lim g(k) = 0. (This is certainly true if lim p(k) f(k) = 0 for all
k→∞ k→∞
polynomials p(k).)
For a quite general class of q-hypergeometric terms (proper q-hypergeometric
terms) the q-Zeilberger algorithm always finds a recurrence equation, not necessar-
ily of lowest order though. Unlike Zeilberger’s original algorithm its q-analogue
more often fails to determine the recursion of lowest possible order, however (see
[10]).
If the resulting recurrence equation is of first order

a(n) s(n − 1) + b(n) s(n) = 0 ,

s(n) turns out to be a q-hypergeometric term (as a and b are polynomials in q n ),

and a q-hypergeometric solution can be easily established using a suitable initial
value.
If the resulting recurrence equation has order larger than one, this information can
be used for identification purposes: Any other expression satisfying the same re-
currence equation, and the same initial values, represents the same function.
Our implementation is mainly based on [8] and on the hypergeometric analogue
described in [6]. More examples can be found in [3], [2], some of which are
contained in the test file qsum.tst.

16.50.5 REDUCE operator QGOSPER

The QSUM package must be loaded by:

788 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1: load qsum;

The qgosper operator is an implementation of the q-Gosper algorithm.

• qgosper(a,q,k) determines a q-hypergeometric antidifference. (By de-

fault it returns a downward antidifference, which may be changed by the
switch qgosper_down; see also § 16.50.8.) If it does not return a q-
hypergeometric antidifference, then such an antidifference does not exist.

• qgosper(a,q,k,m,n) determines a closed formula for the definite sum

n
P
ak using the q-analogue of Gosper’s algorithm. This is only successful
k=m
if q-Gosper’s algorithm applies.

Examples: The following two examples can be found in [3] ((II.3) and (2.3.4)).

2: qgosper(qpochhammer(a,q,k)*q^k/qpochhammer(q,q,k),q,k);

k
(q *a - 1)*qpochhammer(a,q,k)
-------------------------------
(a - 1)*qpochhammer(q,q,k)

3: qgosper(qpochhammer(a,q,k)*qpochhammer(a*q^2,q^2,k)*
qpochhammer(q^(-n),q,k)*q^(n*k)/(qpochhammer(a,q^2,k)*
qpochhammer(a*q^(n+1),q,k)*qpochhammer(q,q,k)),q,k);

k*n k k n 1
( - q *(q *a - 1)*(q - q )*qpochhammer(----,q,k)
n
q

2 2 2*k n
*qpochhammer(a*q ,q ,k)*qpochhammer(a,q,k))/((q *a - 1)*(q - 1)

n 2
*qpochhammer(q *a*q,q,k)*qpochhammer(a,q ,k)*qpochhammer(q,q,k))

Here are some other simple examples:

4: qgosper(qpochhammer(q^(-n),q,k)*z^k/qpochhammer(q,q,k),q,k);

***** No q-hypergeometric antidifference exists.

5: off qgosper_down;

6: qgosper(q^k*qbrackets(k,q),q,k);
 789

k k
- q *(q + 1 - q )*qbrackets(k,q)
-----------------------------------
k
(q - 1)*(q + 1)*(q - 1)

7: on qgosper_down;

8: qgosper(q^k,q,k,0,n);

n
q *q - 1
----------
q - 1

16.50.6 REDUCE operator QSUMRECURSION

The qsumrecursion operator is an implementation of the q-Zeilberger algo-

rithm. It tries to determine a homogeneous recurrence equation for summ(n) wrt.
n with polynomial coefficients (in n), where
∞
X
summ(n) := f(n, k).
k=−∞

If successful the left hand side of the recurrence equation (16.92) is returned.
There are three different ways to pass a summand f(n, k) to qsumrecursion:

• qsumrecursion(f,q,k,n), where f is a q-hypergeometric term wrt.

k and n, k is the summation variable and n the recursion variable, q is a
symbol.

• qsumrecursion(upper,lower,q,z,n) is a shortcut for

qsumrecursion(qphihyperterm(upper,lower,q,z,k),q,k,n)

• qsumrecursion(f,upper,lower,q,z,n) is a similar shortcut for

qsumrecursion(f*qphihyperterm(upper,lower,q,z,k),q,k,n),

i. e. upper and lower are lists of upper and lower parameters of the generalized
q-hypergeometric function. The third form is handy if you have any additional
factors.
For all three instances the following variations are allowed:
790 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• If for some reason the recursion order is known in advance you can spec-
ify it as an additional (optional ) argument at the very end of the parame-
ter sequence. There are two ways. If you just specify a positive integer,
qsumrecursion looks only for a recurrence equation of this order. You
can also specify a range by a list of two positive integers, i. e. the first one
specifying the lowest and the second one the highest order.
By default qsumrecursion will search for recurrences of order from 1
to 5. (The global variable qsumrecursion_recrange!* controls this
behavior, see § 16.50.8.)

• Usually qsumrecursion uses summ as a name for the summ-function

defined above. If you want to use another operator, say e. g. s, then the
following syntax applies: qsumrecursion(f,q,k,s(n))

As a first example we want to consider the q-binomial theorem:

∞
X (a; q)k k (a z; q)∞
z = ,
(q; q)k (z; q)∞
k=0

provided that |z|, |q| < 1. It is the q-analogue of the binomial theorem in the sense
that
∞ ∞
X (q a ; q)k k X (a)k k
lim z = z = (1 − z)−a .
q→1− (q; q)k k!
k=0 k=0

For a := q −n with n ∈ N our implementation gets:

9: qsumrecursion(qpochhammer(q^(-n),q,k)*z^k/
qpochhammer(q,q,k),q,k,n);

n n
- ((q - z)*summ(n - 1) - q *summ(n))

Notice that the input requirements are fulfilled. For n ∈ N the summand is zero
for all k > n as (q −n ; q)k = 0 and the (q; q)k -term in the denominator makes the
summand vanish for all k < 0.
With the switch qsumrecursion_certificate it is possible to get the an-
tidifference gk described above. When switched on, qsumrecursion returns a
list with five entries, see § 16.50.8. For the last example we get:

10: on qsumrecursion_certificate;

11: proof:= qsumrecursion(qpochhammer(q^(-n),q,k)*z^k/

qpochhammer(q,q,k),q,k,n);

n n
proof := - ((q - z)*summ(n - 1) - q *summ(n)),
 791

k n
- (q - q )*z
----------------,
n
q - 1

k 1
z *qpochhammer(----,q,k)
n
q
--------------------------,
qpochhammer(q,q,k)

k,

downward_antidifference

12: off qsumrecursion_certificate;

Let’s define the list entries as {rec,cert,f,k,dir}. If you substitute

summ(n + j) by f(n + j, k) in rec then you obtain the left hand side of equation
(16.91), where f is the input summand. The function g(k) := f*cert is the cor-
responding antidifference, where dir states which sort of antidifference was cal-
culated downward_antidifference or upward_antidifference, see
also § 16.50.8. Those informations enable you to prove the recurrence equation for
the sum or supply you with the necessary informations to determine an inhomoge-
neous recurrence equation for a sum with nonnatural bounds.
For our last example we can now calculate both sides of equation (16.91):

13: lhside:= qsimpcomb(sub(summ(n)=part(proof,3),

summ(n-1)=sub(n=n-1,part(proof,3)),part(proof,1)));

k k n n 1
z *(q *(q - z) + q *(z - 1))*qpochhammer(----,q,k)
n
q
lhside := -----------------------------------------------------
n
(q - 1)*qpochhammer(q,q,k)

14: rhside:= qsimpcomb((part(proof,2)*part(proof,3)-

sub(k=k-1,part(proof,2)*part(proof,3))));

k k n n k 1
- z *((q - q )*z - q *(q - 1))*qpochhammer(----,q,k)
n
792 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

q
rhside := ---------------------------------------------------------
n
(q - 1)*qpochhammer(q,q,k)

15: qsimpcomb((rhside-lhside)/part(proof,3));

Thus we have proved the validity of the recurrence equation.

As some other examples we want to consider some generalizations of orthogo-
nal polynomials from the Askey–Wilson–scheme [9]: The q-Laguerre (3.21), q-
Charlier (3.23) and the continuous q-Jacobi (3.10) polynomials.

16: operator qlaguerre,qcharlier;

17: qsumrecursion(qpochhammer(q^(alpha+1),q,n)/qpochhammer(q,q,n),
{q^(-n)}, {q^(alpha+1)}, q, -x*q^(n+alpha+1), qlaguerre(n));

n alpha + n n
((q + 1 - q )*q - q *(q *x + q))*qlaguerre(n - 1)

alpha + n n
+ ((q - q)*qlaguerre(n - 2) + (q - 1)*qlaguerre(n))*q

18: qsumrecursion({q^(-n),q^(-x)},{0},q,-q^(n+1)/a,qcharlier(n));

x n n 2* n
- ((q *((q + 1 - q )*a + q )*q - q )*qcharlier(n - 1)

x n n
+ q *((q + a*q)*(q - q)*qcharlier(n - 2) - qcharlier(n)*a*q))

19: on qsum_nullspace;

20: term:= qpochhammer(q^(alpha+1),q,n)/qpochhammer(q,q,n)*

qphihyperterm({q^(-n),q^(n+alpha+beta+1),
q^(alpha/2+1/4)*exp(I*theta), q^(alpha/2+1/4)*exp(-I*theta)},
{q^(alpha+1), -q^((alpha+beta+1)/2), -q^((alpha+beta+2)/2)},
q,q,k)$

21: qsumrecursion(term,q,k,n,2);

n i*theta alpha beta n

- ((q *e *(q *(q *(q *(q + 1) - q) - q

alpha + beta + n n beta + n

+ q *(q + 1 - q - q )) -
 793

(alpha + beta)/2 alpha n beta + n n

q * (q * (q * (q + 1) - q + q * (q + 1 - q ))

2*alpha + beta + 2*n

- (q + q)))*(sqrt(q) + q) +

(2*alpha + 1)/4 2*i*theta alpha + beta + 2*n 2

q *(e + 1)*(q - q )

alpha + beta + 2*n alpha + beta + 2*n

*(q - 1))*(q - q)*summ(n - 1) -

i*theta (alpha + beta + 2*n)/2 (alpha + beta + 2*n)/2

e *((q *(q + q)

(alpha + beta + 2*n)/2

*(q - q)*(sqrt(q) + q) +

(2*alpha + 2*beta + 4*n + 1)/2

(q + q)
794 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

alpha + beta + 2*n 2 alpha + beta + n

* (q - q ))* (q - 1)

n alpha alpha + beta + 2*n

*(q - 1)*summ(n) + (q *(sqrt(q)*q + q )

(3*alpha + beta + 2*n)/2

+ q *(sqrt(q) + q))

alpha + beta + 2*n alpha + n beta + n

*(q - 1)*(q - q)*(q - q)

*summ(n - 2)))

22: off qsum_nullspace;

The setting of qsum_nullspace (see [10] and § 16.50.8) results in a faster

calculation of the recurrence equation for this example.

16.50.7 Simplification Operators

An essential step in the algorithms introduced above is to decide whether a term ak

is q-hypergeometric, i. e. if the ratio ak /ak−1 is rational in q k .
The procedure qsimpcomb provides this facility. It tries to simplify all expo-
nential expressions in the given term and applies some transformation rules to the
known elementary q-functions as qpochhammer, qbrackets, qbinomial
and qfactorial. Note that the procedure may fail to completely simplify some
expressions. This is due to the fact that the procedure was designed to simplify
ratios of q-hypergeometric terms in the form f(k)/f(k − 1) and not arbitrary q-
hypergeometric terms.
E. g. an expression like (a; q)−n · (a/q n ; q)n is not recognized as 1, despite the
transformation formula
1
(a; q)−n = n
,
(a/q ; q)n
which is valid for n ∈ N.
Note that due to necessary simplification of powers, the switch precise is (lo-
cally) turned off in qsimpcomb. This might produce wrong results if the input
term contains e. g. complex variables.
The following synomyms may be used:

• up_qratio(f,k) or qratio(f,k) for qsimpcomb(sub(k=k+1,f)/f)

and
• down_qratio(f,k) for qsimpcomp(f/sub(k=k-1,f)).
 795

16.50.8 Global Variables and Switches

The following switches can be used in connection with the QSUM package:

• qsum_trace, default setting is off. If it is turned on some intermediate

results are printed.

• qgosper_down, default setting is on. It determines whether qgosper

returns a downward or an upward antidifference gk for the input term ak ,
i. e. ak = gk − gk−1 or ak = gk+1 − gk respectively.

• qsumrecursion_down, default setting is on. If it is switched on a down-

ward recurrence equation will be returned by qsumrecursion. Switching
it off leads to an upward recurrence equation.

• qsum_nullspace, default setting is off. The antidifference g(k) is al-

ways a rational multiple (in q k ) of the input term f(k). qgosper and
qsumrecursion determine this certificate, which requires solving a set
of linear equations. If the switch qsum_nullspace is turned on a modi-
fied nullspace-algorithm will be used for solving those equations. In general
this method is slower. However if the resulting recurrence equation is quite
complicated it might help to switch on qsum_nullspace. See also [5]
and [10].

• qgosper_specialsol, default setting is on. The antidifference g(k)

which is determined by qgosper might not be unique. If this switch is
turned on, just one special solution is returned. If you want to see all solu-
tions, you should turn the switch off.

• qsumrecursion_exp, default setting is off. This switch determines if the

coefficients of the resulting recurrence equation should be factored. Turning
it off might speed up the calculation (if factoring is complicated). Note that
when turning on qsum_nullspace usually no speedup occurs by switch-
ing qsumrecursion_exp on.

• qsumrecursion_certificate, default off. As Zeilberger’s algorithm

delivers a recurrence equation for a q-hypergeometric term f(n, k), see equat-
ion (16.91), this switch is used to get all necessary informations for proving
this recurrence equation.
If it is set on, instead of simply returning the resulting recurrence equation
(for the sum)—if one exists—qsumrecursion returns a list {rec,cert,f,k,dir}
with five items: The first entry contains the recurrence equation, while the
other items enable you to prove the recurrence a posteriori by rational arith-
metic.
796 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

If we denote by r the recurrence rec where we substituted the summ-

function by the input term f (with the corresponding shifts in n) then the
following equation is valid:

r = cert*f - sub(k=k-1,cert*f)

or
r = sub(k=k+1,cert*f) - cert*f
if dir=downward_antidifference or dir=upward_antidifference
respectively.

The global variable qsumrecursion_recrange!* controls for which recur-

sion orders the procedure qsumrecursion looks. It has to be a list with two
entries, the first one representing the lowest and the second one the highest order
of a recursion to search for. By default it is set to {1,5}.

16.50.9 Messages

The following messages may occur:

• If your call to qgosper or qsumrecursion reveals some incorrect syn-

tax, e. g. wrong number of arguments or wrong type you may receive the
following messages:

***** Wrong number of arguments.

or

***** Wrong type of arguments.

• If you call qgosper with a summand term that is free of the summation
variable you get

WARNING: Summand is independent of summation variable.

***** No q-hypergeometric antidifference exists.

• If qgosper finds no antidifference it returns:

***** No q-hypergeometric antidifference exists.

• If qsumrecursion finds no recursion in the specified range it returns:

***** Found no recursion. Use higher order.

 797

(If you do not pass a range as an argument to qsumrecursion the default

range in qsumrecursion_recrange!* will be used.)

• If the input term passed to qgosper (qsumrecursion) is not q-hyper-

geometric wrt. the summation variable — say k — (and the recursion vari-
able) then you get

***** Input term is probably not q-hypergeometric.

With all the examples we tested, our procedures decided properly whether
the input term was q-hypergeometric or not. However, we cannot guarantee
in general that qsimpcomb always returns an expression that looks rational
in q k if it actually is.

• If the global variable qsumrecursion_recrange!* was assigned an

invalid value:

Global variable qsumrecursion_recrange!* must be a list

of two positive integers: {lo,hi} with lo<=hi.
***** Invalid value of qsumrecursion_recrange!*

Bibliography

[1] Askey R. and Wilson, J.: Some Basic Hypergeometric Orthogonal Polynom-
ials that Generalize Jacobi Polynomials. Memoirs Amer. Math. Soc. 319,
Providence, RI, 1985.

[2] Gasper, G.: Lecture Notes for an Introductory Minicourse on

q-Series. 1995. To obtain from ftp://unvie6.un.or.at/siam/opsf_new/
00index_by_author.html.

[3] Gasper, G. and Rahman, M.: Basic Hypergeometric Series, Encyclopedia of

Mathematics and its Applications, 35, (G.-C. Rota, ed.), Cambridge Univer-
sity Press, London and New York, 1990.

[4] Gosper Jr., R. W.: Decision procedure for indefinite hypergeometric summa-
tion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75, 1978, 40–42.

[5] Knuth, D. E.: The Art of Computer Programming, Seminumerical Algo-

rithms. 2nd ed., 1981, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.

[6] Koepf, W.: Algorithms for m-fold hypergeometric summation. Journal of

Symbolic Computation 20, 1995, 399–417.

[7] Koepf, W.: REDUCE package for indefinite and definite summation.
SIGSAM Bulletin 29, 1995, 14–30.
798 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[8] Koornwinder, T. H.: On Zeilberger’s algorithm and its q-analogue: a rigorous

description. J. of Comput. and Appl. Math. 48, 1993, 91–111.

[9] Koekoek, R. und Swarttouw, R.F.: The Askey-scheme of Hypergeometric Or-

thogonal Polynomials and its q-analogue. Report 94–05, Technische Univer-
siteit Delft, Faculty of Technical Mathematics and Informatics, Delft, 1994.

[10] Paule, P. und Riese, A.: A Mathematica q-analogue of Zeilberger’s

algorithm based on an algebraically motivated approach to q-hypergeometric
telescoping. Fields Proceedings of the Workshop ‘Special Functions, q-
Series and Related Topics’, organized by the Fields Institute for Research
in Mathematical Sciences at Univerisity College, 12-23 June 1995, Toronto,
Ontario,179–210.

[11] Zeilberger, D.: A fast algorithm for proving terminating hypergeometric iden-
tities. Discrete Math. 80, 1990, 207–211.

[12] Zeilberger, D.: The method of creative telescoping. J. Symbolic Computation

11, 1991, 195–204.
 799

16.51 RANDPOLY: A random polynomial generator

This package is based on a port of the Maple random polynomial generator together
with some support facilities for the generation of random numbers and anonymous
procedures.
Author: Francis J. Wright.
This package is based on a port of the Maple random polynomial generator together
with some support facilities for the generation of random numbers and anonymous
procedures.

16.51.1 Introduction

The operator randpoly is based on a port of the Maple random polynomial gen-
erator. In fact, although by default it generates a univariate or multivariate poly-
nomial, in its most general form it generates a sum of products of arbitrary integer
powers of the variables multiplied by arbitrary coefficient expressions, in which the
variable powers and coefficient expressions are the results of calling user-supplied
functions (with no arguments). Moreover, the “variables” can be arbitrary expres-
sions, which are composed with the underlying polynomial-like function.
The user interface, code structure and algorithms used are essentially identical to
those in the Maple version. The package also provides an analogue of the Maple
rand random-number-generator generator, primarily for use by randpoly.
There are principally two reasons for translating these facilities rather than de-
signing comparable facilites anew: (1) the Maple design seems satisfactory and
has already been “proven” within Maple, so there is no good reason to repeat the
design effort; (2) the main use for these facilities is in testing the performance of
other algebraic code, and there is an advantage in having essentially the same test
data generator implemented in both Maple and REDUCE. Moreover, it is interest-
ing to see the extent to which a facility can be translated without change between
two systems. (This aspect will be described elsewhere.)
Sections 16.51.2 and 16.51.3 describe respectively basic and more advanced use of
randpoly; §16.51.4 describes subsidiary functions provided to support advanced
use of randpoly; §16.51.5 gives examples; an appendix gives some details of the
only non-trivial algorithm, that used to compute random sparse polynomials. Ad-
ditional examples of the use of randpoly are given in the test and demonstration
file randpoly.tst.
800 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.51.2 Basic use of randpoly

The operator randpoly requires at least one argument corresponding to the poly-
nomial variable or variables, which must be either a single expression or a list of
expressions.46 In effect, randpoly replaces each input expression by an internal
variable and then substitutes the input expression for the internal variable in the
generated polynomial (and by default expands the result as usual), although in fact
if the input expression is a REDUCE kernel then it is used directly. The rest of
this document uses the term “variable” to refer to a general input expression or the
internal variable used to represent it, and all references to the polynomial structure,
such as its degree, are with respect to these internal variables. The actual degree of
a generated polynomial might be different from its degree in the internal variables.
By default, the polynomial generated has degree 5 and contains 6 terms. Therefore,
if it is univariate it is dense whereas if it is multivariate it is sparse.

16.51.2.1 Optional arguments

Other arguments can optionally be specified, in any order, after the first compulsory
variable argument. All arguments receive full algebraic evaluation, subject to the
current switch settings etc. The arguments are processed in the order given, so that
if more than one argument relates to the same property then the last one specified
takes effect. Optional arguments are either keywords or equations with keywords
on the left.
In general, the polynomial is sparse by default, unless the keyword dense is spec-
ified as an optional argument. (The keyword sparse is also accepted, but is the
default.) The default degree can be changed by specifying an optional argument of
the form

degree = natural number.

In the multivariate case this is the total degree, i.e. the sum of the degrees with
respect to the individual variables. The keywords deg and maxdeg can also be
used in place of degree. More complicated monomial degree bounds can be
constructed by using the coefficient function described below to return a monomial
or polynomial coefficient expression. Moreover, randpoly respects internally
the REDUCE “asymptotic” commands let, weight etc. described in §10.4 of
the REDUCE 3.6 manual, which can be used to exercise additional control over
the polynomial generated.
46
If it is a single expression then the univariate code is invoked; if it is a list then the multivariate
code is invoked, and in the special case of a list of one element the multivariate code is invoked to
generate a univariate polynomial, but the result should be indistinguishable from that resulting from
specifying a single expression not in a list.
 801

In the sparse case (only), the default maximum number of terms generated can be
changed by specifying an optional argument of the form

terms = natural number.

The actual number of terms generated will be the minimum of the value of terms
and the number of terms in a dense polynomial of the specified degree, number of
variables, etc.

16.51.3 Advanced use of randpoly

The default order (or minimum or trailing degree) can be changed by specifying an
optional argument of the form

ord = natural number.

The keyword is ord rather than order because order is a reserved command
name in REDUCE. The keyword mindeg can also be used in place of ord. In the
multivariate case this is the total degree, i.e. the sum of the degrees with respect to
the individual variables. The order normally defaults to 0.
However, the input expressions to randpoly can also be equations, in which case
the order defaults to 1 rather than 0. Input equations are converted to the difference
of their two sides before being substituted into the generated polynomial. The
purpose of this facility is to easily generate polynomials with a specified zero – for
example

randpoly(x = a);

generates a polynomial that is guaranteed to vanish at x = a, but is otherwise

random.
Order specification and equation input are extensions of the current Maple version
of randpoly.
The operator randpoly accepts two further optional arguments in the form of
equations with the keywords coeffs and expons on the left. The right sides of
each of these equations must evaluate to objects that can be applied as functions of
no variables. These functions should be normal algebraic procedures (or something
equivalent); the coeffs procedure may return any algebraic expression, but the
expons procedure must return an integer (otherwise randpoly reports an error).
The values returned by the functions should normally be random, because it is the
randomness of the coefficients and, in the sparse case, of the exponents that makes
the constructed polynomial random.
A convenient special case is to use the function rand on the right of one or both of
802 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

these equations; when called with a single argument rand returns an anonymous
function of no variables that generates a random integer. The single argument of
rand should normally be an integer range in the form a .. b, where a, b are integers
such that a < b. The spaces around (or at least before) the infix operator “..” are
necessary in some cases in REDUCE and generally recommended. For example,
the expons argument might take the form

expons = rand(0 .. n)

where n will be the maximum degree with respect to each variable independently.
In the case of coeffs the lower limit will often be the negative of the upper limit
to give a balanced coefficient range, so that the coeffs argument might take the
form

coeffs = rand(-n .. n)

which will generate random integer coefficients in the range [−n, n].

16.51.4 Subsidiary functions: rand, proc, random

16.51.4.1 Rand: a random-number-generator generator

The first argument of rand must be either an integer range in the form a .. b, where
a, b are integers such that a < b, or a positive integer n which is equivalent to the
range 0 .. n − 1. The operator rand constructs a function of no arguments that
calls the REDUCE random number generator function random to return a random
integer in the range specified; in the case that the first argument of rand is a single
positive integer n the function constructed just calls random(n), otherwise the
call of random is scaled and shifted.
As an additional convenience, if rand is called with a second argument that is an
identifier then the call of rand acts exactly like a procedure definition with the
identifier as the procedure name. The procedure generated can then be called with
an empty argument list by the algebraic processor.
[Note that rand() with no argument is an error in REDUCE and does not return
directly a random number in a default range as it does in Maple – use instead the
REDUCE function random (see below).]

16.51.4.2 Proc: an anonymous procedure generator

The operator proc provides a generalization of rand, and is primarily intended to

be used with expressions involving the random function (see below). Essentially,
it provides a mechanism to prevent functions such as random being evaluated
 803

when the arguments to randpoly are evaluated, which is too early. Proc accepts
a single argument which is converted into the body of an anonymous procedure,
which is returned as the value of proc. (If a named procedure is required then the
normal REDUCE procedure statement should be used instead.) Examples are
given in the following sections, and in the file randpoly.tst.

16.51.4.3 Random: a generalized interface

As an additional convenience, this package extends the interface to the standard

REDUCE random function so that it will directly accept either a natural number
or an integer range as its argument, exactly as for the first argument of rand.
Hence effectively

rand(X) = proc random(X)

although rand is marginally more efficient. However, proc and the generalized
random interface allow expressions such as the following anonymous random
fraction generator to be easily constructed:

proc(random(-99 .. 99)/random(1 .. 99))

16.51.4.4 Further support for procs

Rand is a special case of proc, and (for either) if the switch comp is on (and the
compiler is available) then the generated procedure body is compiled.
Rand with a single argument and proc both return as their values anonymous
procedures, which if they are not compiled are Lisp lambda expressions. However,
if compilation is in effect then they return only an identifier that has no external
significance47 but which can be applied as a function in the same way as a lambda
expression.
It is primarily intended that such “proc expressions” will be used immediately as
input to randpoly. The algebraic processor is not intended to handle lambda ex-
pressions. However, they can be output or assigned to variables in algebraic mode,
although the output form looks a little strange and is probably best not displayed.
But beware that lambda expressions cannot be evaluated by the algebraic processor
(at least, not without declaring some internal Lisp functions to be algebraic oper-
ators). Therefore, for testing purposes or curious users, this package provides the
operators showproc and evalproc respectively to display and evaluate “proc
expressions” output by rand or proc (or in fact any lambda expression), in the
case of showproc provided they are not compiled.
47
It is not interned on the oblist.
804 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.51.5 Examples

The file randpoly.tst gives a set of test and demonstration examples.

The following additional examples were taken from the Maple randpoly help
file and converted to REDUCE syntax by replacing [ ] by { } and making the other
changes shown explicitly:

randpoly(x);

5 4 3 2
- 54*x - 92*x - 30*x + 73*x - 69*x - 67

randpoly({x, y}, terms = 20);

5 4 4 3 2 3 3
31*x - 17*x *y - 48*x - 15*x *y + 80*x *y + 92*x

2 3 2 2 4 3 2
+ 86*x *y + 2*x *y - 44*x + 83*x*y + 85*x*y + 55*x*y

5 4 3 2
- 27*x*y + 33*x - 98*y + 51*y - 2*y + 70*y - 60*y - 10

randpoly({x, sin(x), cos(x)});

4 3 3
sin(x)*( - 4*cos(x) - 85*cos(x) *x + 50*sin(x)

2
- 20*sin(x) *x + 76*sin(x)*x + 96*sin(x))

% randpoly(z, expons = rand(-5..5)); % Maple

% A generalized random "polynomial"!
% Note that spaces are needed around .. in REDUCE.
on div; off allfac;
randpoly(z, expons = rand(-5 .. 5));

4 3 -3 -4 -5
- 39*z + 14*z - 77*z - 37*z - 8*z
 805

off div; on allfac;

% randpoly([x], coeffs = proc() randpoly(y) end); % Maple
randpoly({x}, coeffs = proc randpoly(y));

5 5 5 4 5 3 5 2 5 5
95*x *y - 53*x *y - 78*x *y + 69*x *y + 58*x *y - 58*x

4 5 4 4 4 3 4 2 4
+ 64*x *y + 93*x *y - 21*x *y + 24*x *y - 13*x *y

4 3 5 3 4 3 3 3 2
- 28*x - 57*x *y - 78*x *y - 44*x *y + 37*x *y

3 3 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 2
- 64*x *y - 95*x - 71*x *y - 69*x *y - x *y - 49*x *y

2 2 5 4 3 2
+ 77*x *y + 48*x + 38*x*y + 93*x*y - 65*x*y - 83*x*y

5 4 3 2
+ 25*x*y + 51*x + 35*y - 18*y - 59*y + 73*y - y + 31

% A more conventional alternative is ...

% procedure r; randpoly(y)$ randpoly({x}, coeffs = r);
% or, in fact, equivalently ...
% randpoly({x}, coeffs = procedure r; randpoly(y));

randpoly({x, y}, dense);

5 4 4 3 2 3 3
85*x + 43*x *y + 68*x + 87*x *y - 93*x *y - 20*x

2 2 2 2 4 3 2
- 74*x *y - 29*x *y + 7*x + 10*x*y + 62*x*y - 86*x*y

5 4 3 2
+ 15*x*y - 97*x - 53*y + 71*y - 46*y - 28*y + 79*y + 44

16.51.6 Appendix: Algorithmic background

The only part of this package that involves any mathematics that is not completely
trivial is the procedure to generate a sparse set of monomials of specified maximum
806 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

and minimum total degrees in a specified set of variables. This involves some com-
binatorics, and the Maple implementation calls some procedures from the Maple
Combinatorial Functions Package combinat (of which I have implemented re-
stricted versions in REDUCE).
Given the maximum possible number N of terms (in a dense polynomial), the re-
quired number of terms (in the sparse polynomial) is selected as a random subset of
the natural numbers up to N , where each number indexes a term. In the univariate
case these indices are used directly as monomial exponents, but in the multivari-
ate case they are converted to monomial exponent vectors using a lexicographic
ordering.

16.51.6.1 Numbers of polynomial terms

By explicitly enumerating cases with 1, 2, etc. variables, as indicated by the induc-

tive proof below, one deduces that:
Proposition 1. In n variables, the number of distinct monomials having total de-
gree precisely r is r+n−1 Cn−1 , and the maximum number of distinct monomials in
a polynomial of maximum total degree d is d+n Cn .

Proof Suppose the first part of the proposition is true, namely that there are at most

Nh (n, r) = r+n−1 Cn−1

distinct monomials in an n-variable homogeneous polynomial of total degree r.

Then there are at most
d
X
r+n−1
N (d, r) = Cn−1 = d+n Cn
r=0

distinct monomials in an n-variable polynomial of maximum total degree d.

The sum follows from the fact that

r+n (r + n)n
Cn =
n!
where xn = x(x − 1)(x − 2) · · · (x − n + 1) denotes a falling factorial, and
b
X
nxn+1 
x = .
n + 1 a
a≤x<b

(See, for example, D. H. Greene & D. E. Knuth, Mathematics for the Analysis of
Algorithms, Birkhäuser, Second Edn. 1982, equation (1.37)). Hence the second
part of the proposition follows from the first.
 807

The proposition holds for 1 variable (n = 1), because there is clearly 1 distinct
monomial of each degree precisely r and hence at most d + 1 distinct monomials
in a polynomial of maximum degree d.
Suppose that the proposition holds for n variables, which are represented by the
vector X. Then a homogeneous polynomial of degree r in the n + 1 variables X
together with the single variable x has the form

xr P0 (X) + xr−1 P1 (X) + · · · + x0 Pr (X)

where Ps (X) represents a polynomial of maximum total degree s in the n variables

X, which therefore contains at most s+n Cn distinct monomials. The homogeneous
polynomial of degree r in n + 1 terms therefore contains at most
r
X
s+n
Cn = r+n+1 Cn+1
s=0

distinct monomials. Hence the proposition holds for n + 1 variables, and therefore
by induction it holds for all n. 

16.51.6.2 Mapping indices to exponent vectors

The previous proposition is also the basis of the algorithm to map term indices
m ∈ N to exponent vectors v ∈ Nn , where n is the number of variables.
Define a norm k · k on exponent vectors by kvk = ni=1 vi , which corresponds
P
to the total degree of the monomial. Then, from the previous proposition, the
number of exponent vectors of length n with norm kvk ≤ d is N (n, d) = d+n Cn .
The elements of the mth exponent vector are constructed recursively by applying
the algorithm to successive tail vectors, so let a subscript denote the length of the
vector to which a symbol refers.
The aim is to compute the vector of length n with index m = mn . If this vector
has norm dn then the index and norm must satisfy

N (n, dn − 1) ≤ mn < N (n, dn ),

which can be used (as explained below) to compute dn given n and mn . Since
there are N (n, dn − 1) vectors with norm less than dn , the index of the (n − 1)-
element tail vector must be given by mn−1 = mn − N (n, dn − 1), which can be
used recursively to compute the norm dn−1 of the tail vector. From this, the first
element of the exponent vector is given by v1 = dn − dn−1 .
The algorithm therefore has a natural recursive structure that computes the norm of
each tail subvector as the recursion stack is built up, but can only compute the first
term of each tail subvector as the recursion stack is unwound. Hence, it constructs
the exponent vector from right to left, whilst being applied to the elements from
808 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

left to right. The recursion is terminated by the observation that v1 = d1 = m1 for

an exponent vector of length n = 1.
The main sub-procedure, given the required length n and index mn of an exponent
vector, must return its norm dn and the index of its tail subvector of length n −
1. Within this procedure, N (n, d) can be efficiently computed for values of d
increasing from 0, for which N (n, 0) = n Cn = 1, until N (n, d) > m by using the
observation that
(d + n)(d − 1 + n) · · · (1 + n)
N (n, d) = d+n Cn = .
d!
 809

16.52 RATAPRX: Rational Approximations Package for

REDUCE

Authors: Lisa Temme and Wolfram Koepf

16.52.1 Periodic Decimal Representation

The division of one integer by another often results in a period in the decimal
part. The rational2periodic function in this package can recognise and
represent such an answer in a periodic representation. The inverse function,
periodic2rational, converts a periodic representation back to a rational
number.

Periodic Representation of a Rational Number

SYNTAX: rational2periodic(n);
rational2periodic(n, b);

INPUT:
n is a rational number
b is the number base, if absent the default is 10.

RESULT:
periodic({a1,...,an},{b1,...,bm},{c1,...,ck},±b)
where {a1,...,an} is a list of the digits in the integer part,
{b1,...,bm} is a list of the digits in the non-periodic part,
{c1,...,ck} is a list of the digits in the periodic part
and ±b where b is the number base 2 ≤ b ≤ 16,
a minus indicating the rational number n was negative.

EXAMPLES:
−59/70 written as −0.8428571
1: rational2periodic(-59/70);
periodic({0}, {8}, {4,2,8,5,7,1}, -10)

1/80 written as a hexadecimal is 0.03

2: rational2periodic(1/80,16);
periodic({0}, {0}, {3}, 16)

Normally the operator periodic will not be seen as the output will be prettyprinted
as −0.8428571 and 0.03 (base 16) respectively. Currently pretty-printed output
looks better when the switch FANCY is OFF.
810 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Rational Number of a Periodic Representation

SYNTAX:
periodic2rational(periodic({a1,...,an},{b1...bm},{c1,...,ck},±b)
periodic2rational({a1,...,an},{b1...bm},{c1,...,ck},±b)

INPUT:
{a1,...,an} is a list of the digits in the integer part,
{b1,...,bm} is a list of the digits in the non-periodic part,
{c1,...,ck} is a list of the digits in the periodic part
and b is the number base 2 ≤ b ≤ 16, a minus
indicating the rational number result should be negative.
If the base is omitted, 10 is assumed.

RESULT:
A rational number.

EXAMPLES:

0.8428571 written as 59/70

3: periodic2rational(periodic({0},{8},{4,2,8,5,7,1}));

59
---
70

4: periodic2rational({0},{8},{4,2,8,5,7,1}, -10);

59
- ---
70

Note that periodic2rational will produce the correct rational result when
passed a parameter for the periodic part which is not minimal. Similarly, a par-
ameter for the periodic part which consists of all 9’s (or in base b, all (b − 1)’s)
is treated correctly although such periodic parts are not canonical and are never
generated by calls to rational2periodic.

For example,
periodic2rational({0}, {}, {1, 2, 1, 2});
periodic2rational({0}, {1}, {2, 1});
 811

periodic2rational({0}, {1, 2}, {1, 2, 1, 2});

4
all produce the same rational result, namely 33 , as the canonical input
periodic2rational({0}, {}, {1, 2});

Similarly,
periodic2rational({0}, {}, {9});
periodic2rational({0}, {9}, {9});
periodic2rational({0}, {}, {9, 9, 9, 9});
all produce the same rational result, namely 1, as the canonical input
periodic2rational({1}, {}, {});

Although the operators periodic2rational and rational2periodic

work even when ROUNDED is ON, they are best used when ROUNDED is OFF.
The input to rational2periodic should not be a rounded number, otherwise
an error results.
For example, the input rational2periodic(1/7); will produce the in-
tended periodic representation even with ROUNDED ON. However, the input
a := 1/7; rational2periodic(a);
will result in an error as the simplifier is applied in the assignment and rounds the
rational number.
Similarly, although the result of periodic2rational will always be a rational
number (represented by a QUOTIENT prefix form), if the simplifier is applied to
the result a rounded value will be produced.

16.52.2 Continued Fractions

A continued fraction (see [1]) has the general form

a1
a0 + a2 .
b1 + a3
b2 + b +...
3

A more compact way of writing this is as

a1 | a2 | a3 |
a0 + + + + ... .
|b1 |b2 |b3

Even more succinctly:

{a0 , {a1 , b1 }, {a2 , b2 }, . . .}

812 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

This is represented in REDUCE as

contfrac(Expression, Rational approximant, {a0, {a1, b1}, {a2, b2}, .....})

The operator CFRAC is used to generate a generalised continued fraction expan-

sion of an algebraic expression.

cfrac(hnumi)
cfrac(hnumi,hlengthi)
cfrac(hfunci,hvari)
cfrac(hfunci,hvari,hlengthi)

INPUT:
hnumi is any real number
hfunci is a function
hvari is the function main variable
hlengthi is the maximum number of terms (continuents) to be generated and is
optional.
For non-rational function or irrational number input the hlengthi argument specifies
the number of continuents (ordered pairs, {ai , bi }), to be returned. Its default value
is five. For rational function or rational number input the length argument can
only truncate the answer, it cannot return additional pairs even if the precision is
increased. The default for rational function or rational number input is the complete
continued fraction.
For a non-rational function, power series expansion is necessary. The new switch
cf_taylor controls whether the TAYLOR or the TPS package is used to produce
the power series required. By default this switch is OFF and so the TPS package is
normally employed. In most cases the choice is not important, but the TPS option
is somewhat better at handling cases where the series expansion is rather sparse. In
a few cases TPS may fail to produce a series expansion when TAYLOR succeeds
and vice-versa.
For numerical input the default value is exact for rational number arguments whilst
for irrational or rounded input it is dependent on the precision of the session. The
length argument will only take effect if is smaller than the number of ordered
pairs which the default value would return.
If the number of continuent pairs returned does not exceed twelve, the result will
usually be pretty-printed as a two element list consisting of the convergent followed
by a rendering of the traditional continued fraction expansion. For a larger number
of pairs the output is of the second element is printed as a list of pairs. Thus, usually
the operator contfrac is not seen in the output.
EXAMPLES
 813

cfrac(pi, 4);

355 1
{pi,-----,3 + ----------------}
113 1
7 + ----------
1
15 + ---
1

cfrac(sqrt 2, 5);

41 1
{sqrt(2),----,1 + ---------------------}
29 1
2 + ---------------
1
2 + ---------
1
2 + ---
2

cfrac(23.696, 4);

2962 237 1
{------,-----,23 + ---------------}
125 10 1
1 + ---------
1
2 + ---
3

cfrac((x+2/3)^2/(6*x-5), x, 10);

2
9*x + 12*x + 4
{-----------------, exact,
54*x - 45

6*x + 13 1
---------- + -------------}
36 24*x - 20
814 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

-----------
9

cfrac(e^x, x);

3 2
x x + 9*x + 36*x + 60
{e , -----------------------,
2
3*x - 24*x + 60

x
1 + ---------------------------}
x
1 - ---------------------
x
2 + ---------------
x
3 - ---------
x
2 + ---
5

The operator CF is a synonym for the operator CONTINUED_FRACTION.

cf(hnumi)
cf(hnumi,hsizei)
cf(hnumi,hsizei,hnumtermsi)

The meaning of the arguments is the same as for the operator CONTINUED_FRACTION:
the original number to be expanded hnumi, an optional maximum size hsizei
permitted for the denominator of the convergent and an optional maximum
number of continuents hnumtermsi to be generated.
The output is in the same format as that of CFRAC described above. As with
the operator CFRAC output of CF is normally pretty-printed so the operator
confract will not be seen.
The accessor operators CF_EXPRESSION, CF_CONVERGENT and
CF_CONTINUENTS allow the various parts of a continued fraction
object hcf_objecti (as returned by any of the operators cf, cfrac,
continued_fraction and cf_euler) to be extracted.
These three operators return, respectively, the originating expression of the
 815

continued fraction object, the last convergent of the continued fraction, a

list of its continuents (that is a list of pairs of partial numerators and de-
nominators).
The operator CF_CONVERGENTS returns a list of all the convergents of
the expansion.

cf_expression(hcf_objecti)
cf_convergent(hcf_objecti)
cf_continuents(hcf_objecti)
cf_convergents(hcf_objecti)

EXAMPLES

2: cf(6/11);

6 6 1
{----,----,---------------}
11 11 1
1 + ---------
1
1 + ---
5

3: a := cf(pi,1000);

355 1
a := {pi,-----,3 + ----------------}
113 1
7 + ----------
1
15 + ---
1

4: cf_convergents a;

22 333 355
{3,----,-----,-----}
7 106 113

5: cf_continuents a;

{3,7,15,1}
816 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

6: precision 20;

12

7: cf pi;

21053343141
{pi,-------------,{3,7,15,1,292,1,1,1,2,1,3,1,14,2,1,1,2,2,2,2,1
6701487259

The operator CF_EULER is used to generate a generalised continued frac-

tion expansion of an algebraic expression using a formula due to Leonhard
Euler ( [2]).

cf_euler(hfunci,hvari)
cf_euler(hfunci,hvari,hlengthi)

INPUT:
hfunci is a function
hvari is the function main variable
hlengthi is the maximum number of continuents to be generated and is
optional.
The meaning of the parameters is similar to those of CFRAC, but the contin-
ued fraction expansion generated will usually be different. Note that unlike
CFRAC, CF_EULER cannot currently generate continued fraction expan-
sion of numbers and for a rational function argument (with a non-constant
denominator) the expansion will not be exact.
A number of operators are provided for transforming their continued frac-
tion argument hcf_objecti into an equivalent expansion, that is one with
exactly the same convergents. They all accept as their single argument any
continued fraction object hcf_objecti. These are:

cf_unit_denominators
converts all partial denominators to 1.

cf_unit_numerators
converts all partial numerators to 1.

cf_remove_fractions
converts the denominators of the partial numerators and partial denomina-
tors in the continuents to 1.
 817

cf_remove_constant
removes the zeroth continuent (if non-zero) absorbing it into the first con-
tinuent pair.

The operator CF_TRANSFORM is a general purpose function for transform-

ing its continued fraction argument hcf_objecti into an equivalent expan-
sion. Unlike the four preceding operators it requires a second argument: a
list of multipliers used to modify the partial numerators and denominators
of the original expansion.

cf_transform(hcf_objecti,hmultiplier-listi)

To understand the operation of cf_transform consider first the special

case where hmultiplier-listi is a list of the form {1, 1, . . . , 1, ln , 1, . . . , 1}
whose nth element is ln . Only the nth continuent pair {an , bn } and (n+1)th
partial numerator an+1 are altered and become {ln an , ln bn } and ln an+1 re-
spectively. For a hmultiplier-listi that has more than one non-unit element,
the above transformations are applied sequentially from left to right.
If the number of continuent pairs in the hcf_objecti is greater than the length
of the hmultiplier-listi, the latter is (in effect) padded with 1’s. Conversely
if it is shorter, the surplus elements of hmultiplier-listi are ignored.
The operator CF_EVEN_ODD splits its continued fraction argument hcf_objecti
into two continued fraction objects: namely its even and odd parts (in that
order) which are returned as a two-element list.

cf_even_odd(hcf_objecti)

The convergents of the even part are the even-numbered convergents of the
original expansion and those of the odd part are the odd-numbered ones
(except the zeroth convergent which is necessarily zero). For the contin-
ued fraction expansions generated by the operators cf and cfrac with a
numerical first argument hnumi. The convergents of the even part form a
monotonically increasing sequence whilst those of the odd part (after the
zeroth) form a monotonically decreasing sequence.
EXAMPLES

cf_remove_fractions(cf_euler(e^x, x, 4));

3 2
x x + 3*x + 6*x + 6
818 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

{e , ---------------------,
6

1
-------------------------------------}
x
1 - -------------------------------
x
(x + 1) - -------------------
2*x
(x + 2) - -------
x + 3

a := cf_remove_fractions(cf_euler(4*atan x, x, 4));

a := {4*atan(x),

7 5 3
- 60*x + 84*x - 140*x + 420*x
-----------------------------------,
105

4*x
-----------------------------------------------------}
2
x
1 + -----------------------------------------------
2
2 9*x
( - x + 3) + -------------------------------
2
2 25*x
( - 3*x + 5) + -------------
2
- 5*x + 7

b := (a where x => 1);

304 4
b := {pi,-----,----------------------}
105 1
1 + ----------------
 819

9
2 + ----------
25
2 + ----
2

c := cf(pi, 0, 6);

104348 1
c := {pi,--------,3 + ------------------------------}
33215 1
7 + ------------------------
1
15 + -----------------
1
1 + -----------
1
292 + ---
1

cf_remove_constant c;

104348 22
{pi,--------,-------------------------------}
33215 1
7 + -------------------------
22
333 + -----------------
1
1 + -----------
1
292 + ---
1

c:= cf(pi, 0, 8)$

d := cf_even_odd c;

208341 15
d := {{pi,--------,3 + ----------------------},
66317 292
106 - --------------
15
820 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

4687 - -----
585

312689 22
{pi,--------,-------------------------}}
99532 1
7 + -------------------
22
355 - -----------
1
294 - ---
3
cf_convergents c;

22 333 355 103993 104348 208341 312689

{3,----,-----,-----,--------,--------,--------,--------}
7 106 113 33102 33215 66317 99532

cf_convergents first d;

333 103993 208341

{3,-----,--------,--------}
106 33102 66317

cf_convergents second d;

22 355 104348 312689

{0,----,-----,--------,--------}
7 113 33215 99532

16.52.3 Padé Approximation

The Padé approximant represents a function by the ratio of two polynom-

ials. The coefficients of the powers occuring in the polynomials are deter-
mined by the coefficients in the Taylor series expansion of the function (see
[3]). Given a power series
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − h) + c2 (x − h)2 . . .
and the degree of numerator, n, and of the denominator, d, the pade func-
tion finds the unique coefficients ai , bi in the Padé approximant
a0 + a1 x + · · · + an x n
.
b 0 + b1 x + · · · + bd x d
 821

SYNTAX: pade(f, x, h, n, d);

INPUT:

f the funtion to be approximated

x the function variable
h the point at which the approximation is evaluated
n the (specified) degree of the numerator
d the (specified) degree of the denominator

RESULT:
Padé Approximant, ie. a rational function.

ERROR MESSAGES:

***** not yet implemented

The Taylor series expansion for the function, f, has not yet been imple-
mented in the REDUCE Taylor Package.

***** no Pade Approximation exists

A Padé Approximant of this function does not exist.

***** Pade Approximation of this order does not

exist

A Padé Approximant of this order (ie. the specified numerator and denom-
inator orders) does not exist but one of a different order may exist.

EXAMPLES
822 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

23: pade(sin(x),x,0,3,3);

2
x*( - 7*x + 60)
------------------
2
3*(x + 20)

24: pade(tanh(x),x,0,5,5);

4 2
x*(x + 105*x + 945)
-----------------------
4 2
15*(x + 28*x + 63)

25: pade(atan(x),x,0,5,5);

4 2
x*(64*x + 735*x + 945)
--------------------------
4 2
15*(15*x + 70*x + 63)

26: pade(exp(1/x),x,0,5,5);

***** no Pade Approximation exists

27: pade(factorial(x),x,1,3,3);

***** not yet implemented

28: pade(asech(x),x,0,3,3);

2 2 2
- 3*log(x)*x + 8*log(x) + 3*log(2)*x - 8*log(2) + 2*x
--------------------------------------------------------
2
3*x - 8

29: taylor(ws-asech(x),x,0,10);
 823

11
log(x)*(0 + O(x ))

13 6 43 8 1611 10 11
+ (-----*x + ------*x + -------*x + O(x ))
768 2048 81920

30: pade(sin(x)/x^2,x,0,10,0);

***** Pade Approximation of this order does not exist

31: pade(sin(x)/x^2,x,0,10,2);

10 8 6 4 2
( - x + 110*x - 7920*x + 332640*x - 6652800*x

+ 39916800)/(39916800*x)

32: pade(exp(x),x,0,10,10);

10 9 8 7 6
(x + 110*x + 5940*x + 205920*x + 5045040*x

5 4 3
+ 90810720*x + 1210809600*x + 11762150400*x

2
+ 79394515200*x + 335221286400*x + 670442572800)/

10 9 8 7 6
(x - 110*x + 5940*x - 205920*x + 5045040*x

5 4
- 90810720*x + 1210809600*x

3 2
- 11762150400*x + 79394515200*x

- 335221286400*x + 670442572800)
824 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

33: pade(sin(sqrt(x)),x,0,3,3);

(sqrt(x)*
3 2
(56447*x - 4851504*x + 132113520*x - 885487680))\

3 2
(7*(179*x - 7200*x - 2209680*x - 126498240))

Bibliography

[1] Jones, W B.; Thron, W.J.,

Continued fractions. Analytic Theory and Applications, (Encyclopedia
of Mathematics and its Applications, Vol 11), Addison-Wesley Publish-
ing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1980.
[2] L Euler L., Introductio in analysin infinitorum, Vol 1, Chapter 18, 1748.
[3] Baker(Jr.), G.A. and Graves-Morris, P.,
Padé Approximants, Part I: Basic Theory, (Encyclopedia of Mathemat-
ics and its Applications, Vol 13), Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Reading, Massachusetts, 1981.
 825

16.53 RATINT: Integrate Rational Functions using the

Minimal Algebraic Extension to the Constant Field

Author: Neil Langmead

This package was written when the author was a placement student at ZIB
Berlin.

16.53.1 Rational Integration

This package implements the Horowitz/ Rothstein/ Trager algorithms

[Ged92] for the integration of rational functions in REDUCE. We work
within a field K of characteristic 0 and functions p, q ∈ K[x]. K is nor-
R p field Q of rational numbers, but not always. These procedures
mally the
return q dx. The aim is to be able to integrate any function of the form
p/q in x, where p and q are polynomials in the field Q. The algorithms
used avoid algebraic number extensions wherever possible, and in general,
express the integral using the minimal algebraic extension field.

16.53.1.1 Syntax of ratint

This function has the following syntax:

ratint(p,q,var)

where p/q is a rational function in var. The output of ratint is a list of two
elements: the first is the polynomial part of the integral, the second is the
logarithmic part. The integral is the sum of these parts.

16.53.1.2 Examples

consider the following examples in REDUCE:

ratint(1,x^2-2,x);

sqrt(2)*x-2 sqrt(2)*x+2
log(-------------) - log(-------------)
sqrt(2) sqrt(2)
{ 0, --------------------------------------- }
2*sqrt(2)
826 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

p:=441*x^7+780*x^6-2861*x^5+4085*x^4+7695*x^3+3713*x^2-43253*x
+24500;

q:=9*x^6+6*x^5-65*x^4+20*x^3+135*x^2-154*x+49;

ratint(p,q,x);

49 6 226 5 268 4 1332 3 2809 2 752 256

---*(x + ---*x - ---*x + ----*x - ----*x - ---*x + ---)
2 147 49 49 147 21 9
{-----------------------------------------------------------
4 2 3 2 7
x - ---*x - 4*x + 6*x - ---
3 3

k:=36*x^6+126*x^5+183*x^4+(13807/6)*x^3-407*x^2-(3242/5)*x+(3044
l:=(x^2+(7/6)*x+(1/3))^2*(x-(2/5))^3;

ratint(k,l,x);

5271 3 39547 2 31018 7142

------*(x + -------*x - -------*x + -------)
5 52710 26355 26355
{------------------------------------------------,
4 11 3 11 2 2 4
x + ----*x - ----*x - ----*x + ----
30 25 25 75

37451 2 91125 2 128000

-------*(log(x - ---) + -------*log(x + ---) - --------*log(x +
16 5 37451 3 37451

ratint(1,x^2+1,x);

2 1
 827

{0,log_sum(beta,beta + ---,0,log(2*beta*x - 1)*beta)}

4

The meaning of the log_sum function will be explained later.

16.53.2 The Algorithm

The following main algorithm is used:

procedure ratint(p, q, x);
solution_list ← HorowitzReduction(p, q, x)
c/d ← part(solution_list,1)
poly_part ← part(solution_list,2)
rat_part ← part(solution_list,3)
rat_part ← LogarithmicP artIntegral(rat_part, x)
return(rat_part + c/d + poly_part)
end
The algorithm contains two subroutines, HorowitzReduction and rt.
HorowitzReduction is an implementation of Horowitz’ method to reduce
a given rational function into a polynomial part and a logarithmic part. The
integration of the polynomial part is a trivial task, and is done by the int
operator in REDUCE. The integration of the logarithmic part is done by the
routine rt, which is an impementation of the Rothstein and Trager method.
These two answers are outputed in a list, the complete answer being the
sum of these two parts.
These two algorithms are as follows:
procedure how(p, q, x)
forRa given rational function p/q in x, this algorithm calculates the reduction
of (p/q) into a polynomial part and logarithmic part.

poly_part ← quo(p, q); p ← rem(p, q);

d ← GCD(q, q 0 ); b ← quo(q, d); m ← deg(b);
n ← deg(d);
a ← m−1 i
c ← n−1 i
P P
i=1 ai x ; i=1 ci x ;

r ← b ∗ c0 − quo(b ∗ d0 , d) + d ∗ a;

for i from 0 to m + n − 1 do
828 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

{
eqns(i) ← coef f (p, i) = coef f (r, i);
};

solve(eqns, {a(0), ...., a(m − 1), c(0), ...., c(n − 1)});

R R
return(c/d + poly_part + a/b);
end;
procedure RothsteinTrager(a, b, x)
% Given a rational function a/b
R in x with deg(a) < deg(b), with b monic
and square free, we calculate (a/b)
R(z) ← residue(a − zb0 , b)
(r1 (z)...rk (z)) ← f actors(R(z))
integral ← 0

for i from 1 to k do
{
d ← degree(ri (z))
if d = 1 then
{
c ← solve(ri (z) = 0, z)
v ← GCD(a − cb0 , b)
v ← v/lcoef f (v)
integral ← integral + c ∗ log(v)
}
else {
% we need to do a GCD over algebraic number field
v ← GCD(a − α ∗ b0 , b)
v ← v/lcof f (v), where α = roof _of (ri (z))
if d=2 then {
% give answer in terms of radicals
c ← solve(ri (z) = 0, z)
for j from 1 to 2 do {
v[j] ← substitute(α = c[j], v)
integral ← integral + c[j] ∗ log(v[j])
}
else {
% Need answer in terms of root_of notation
for j from 1 to d do {
v[j] ← substitute(α = c[j], v)
integral ← integral + c[j] ∗ log(v[j])
 829

% where c[j] = root_of (ri (z)) }

}
}
}
return(integral)
end

16.53.3 The log_sum operator

The algorithms above returns a sum of terms of the form

X
log(S(α, x)),
α|R(α)=0

where R ∈ K[z] is square free, and S ∈ K[z, x]. In the cases where the
degree of R(α) is less than two, this is merely a sum of logarithms. For
cases where the degree is two or more, I have chosen to adopt this notation
as the answer to the original problem of integrating the rational function.
For example, consider the integral
2x5 − 19x4 + 60x3 − 159 + x2 + 50x + 11
Z Z
a
= dx
b x6 − 13x5 + 58x4 − 85x3 − 66x2 − 17x + 1
Calculating the resultant R(z) = resx (a − zb0 , b) and factorising gives

R(z) = −190107645728000(z 3 − z 2 + z + 1)2

Making the result monic, we have

R2 (z) = z 3 − z 2 + z + 1

which does not split over the constant field Q. Continuting with the Roth-
stein Trager algorithm, we now calculate

gcd(a − α b0 , b) = z 2 + (2 ∗ α − 5) ∗ z + α2 ,

where α is a root of R2 (z).

Thus we can write
Z
a X
= α ∗ log(x2 + 2αx − 5x + α2 ),
b 3 2
α|α −α +α+1=0

and this is the answer now returned by REDUCE, via a function called
log_sum. This has the following syntax:
830 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

log_sum(α, eqn(α), 0, sum_term, var)

where α satisfies eqn = 0, and sum_term is the term of the summation in

the variable var. Thus in the above example, we have
Z
a
dx = log_sum(α, α3 − α2 + α + 1, 0, α ∗ log(x2 + 2αx − 5x + α2 ), x)
b

Many rational functions that could not be integrated by REDUCE previ-

ously can now be integrated with this package. The above is one example;
some more are given on the next page.

16.53.3.1 More examples

Z
1 1
dx = log(x + 1)
x5 +1 5
1 1 1 1
+ 5log_sum(β, β 4 + β 3 + β 2 + β+ , 0, log(5 ∗ β + x) ∗ β)
5 25 125 625

which should be read as

Z
1 1 X
5
dx = log(x + 1) + log(5 ∗ β + x)β
x +1 5
β|β 4 + 15 β 3 + 25
1 2 1
β + 125 1
β+ 625 =0

7x13 + 10x8 + 4x7 − 7x6 − 4x3 − 4x2 + 3x + 3

Z
dx =
x14 − 2x8 − 2x7 − 2x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 2x + 1
1
log_sum(α, α2 − α − , 0, log(−2αx2 − 2αx + x7 + x2 − 1) ∗ α, x),
4
Z
1 3 1 62 31 4
dx = log_sum(β, β 3 − β 2 − , 0, β log(− β 2 + β+x+ )).
x3 +x+1 31 31 9 9 9

16.53.4 Options

There are several alternative forms that the answer to the integration prob-
lem can take. One output is the log_sum form shown in the examples
above. There is an option with this package to convert this to a "normal"
sum of logarithms in the case when the degree of eqn in α is two, and α can
be expressed in surds. To do this, use the function convert, which has the
following syntax:
 831

convert(exp)

If exp is free of log_sum terms, then exp itself is returned. If exp con-
tains log_sum terms, then α is represented as surds, and substituted into
the log_sum expression. For example, using the last example, we have in
REDUCE:

2: ratint(a,b,x);

{0,

2 1
log_sum(alpha,alpha - alpha - ---,0,
4

2 7 2
log( - 2*alpha*x - 2*alpha*x + x + x - 1)*alpha,x)}

3: convert(ws);

1 2 7
---*(sqrt(2)*log( - sqrt(2)*x - sqrt(2)*x + x - x - 1)
2

2 7
- sqrt(2)*log(sqrt(2)*x + sqrt(2)*x + x - x - 1)

2 7
+ log( - sqrt(2)*x - sqrt(2)*x + x - x - 1)

2 7
+ log(sqrt(2)*x + sqrt(2)*x + x - x - 1))
832 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.53.4.1 LogtoAtan function

The user could then combine these to form a more elegant answer, using the
switch combinelogs if one so wished. Another option is to convert complex
logarithms to real arctangents [Bron97], which is recommended if definite
integration is the goal. This is implemented in REDUCE via a function
convert_log, which has the following syntax:

convert_log(exp),

where exp is any log_sum expression.

The procedure to convert complex logarithms to real arctangents is based

on an algorithm by Rioboo. Here is what it does:
p
Given a field K of characteristic 0 such that ( − 1) 6∈ K and A, B ∈ K[x]
with B 6= 0, return a sum f of arctangents of polynomials in K[x] such that
df d A + iB
= i log( )
dx dx A − iB

Example:
x4 − 3 ∗ x2 + 6
Z X
dx = α log(x3 + 2αx2 − 3x − 4α)
x6 − 5 ∗ x4 + 5 ∗ x2 + 4
α|4α+1=0

Substituting α = i/2 and α = −i/2 gives the result

i (x3 − 3x) + i(x2 − 2)

log( 3 )
2 (x − 3x) − i(x2 − 2)

Applying logtoAtan now with A = x3 − 3x, and B = x2 − 2 we obtain

x4 − 3 ∗ x2 + 6 x5 − 3x3 + x
Z
dx = arctan( )+arctan(x3 )+arctan(x),
x6 − 5 ∗ x4 + 5 ∗ x2 + 4 2

and this is the formula which should be used for definite integration.

Another example in REDUCE is given below:

1: ratint(1,x^2+1,x);
 833

*** Domain mode rational changed to arnum

2 1
{0,log_sum(beta,beta + ---,0,log(2*beta*x - 1)*beta)}
4

13: part(ws,2);

2 1
log_sum(beta,beta + ---,0,log(2*beta*x - 1)*beta)
4

14: on combinelogs;

15: convertlog(ws);

1 - i*x + 1
---*log(------------)*i
2 i*x + 1

logtoAtan(-x,1,x);

2*atan(x)

16.53.5 Hermite’s method

The package also implements Hermite’s method to reduce the integral into
its polynomial and logarithmic parts, but occasionally, REDUCE returns the
incorrect answer when this algorithm is used. This is due to the REDUCE
operator pf, which performs a complete partial fraction expansion when
given a rational function as input. Work is presently being done to give the
pf operator a facility which tells it that the input is already factored. This
would then enable REDUCE to perform a partial fraction decomposition
with respect to a square free denominator, which may not necessarily be
fully factored over Q.
For a complete explanation of this and the other algorithms used in this
package, including the theoretical justification and proofs, please consult
[Ged92].
834 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.53.6 Tracing the ratint program

The package includes a facility to trace in some detail the inner workings of
the ratint program. Messages are given at the key stages of the algorithm,
together with the results obtained. These messages are displayed when the
switch traceratint is on, which is done in REDUCE with the command

on traceratint;

This switch is off by default. Here is an example of the output obtained

with this switch on:

Loading image file: /silo/tony/red/lisp/psl/solaris/red/reduce.i

REDUCE Development Version, 21-May-97 ...

1: load_package ratint;

2: on traceratint;

3: ratint(1+x,x^2-2*x+1,x);

x + 1
performing Howoritz reduction on --------------
2
x - 2*x + 1

- 2 1
Howoritz gives: {-------,0,-------}
x - 1 x - 1

1
computing Rothstein Trager on -------
x - 1

integral in Rothstein T is log(x - 1)

- 2
{-------,log(x - 1)}
x - 1
 835

16.53.7 Bugs, suggestions and comments

This package was written when the author was working as a placement stu-
dent at ZIB Berlin. All comments should therefore be reported to Winfried
Neun, ZIB, Takustrasse 7, D 14195 Berlin Dahlem, Germany
(email: [email protected]).

Bibliography

[Bron97] Bronstein, Manuel, Symbolic Integration I: Transendental Functions,

Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, 1997.

[Dav88] Davenport, James H. et al, Computer Algebra- Systems and Algorithms

for Algebraic Computation, Academic Press, 1988.

[Ged92] Geddes, K.O. et al, Algorithms for Computer Algebra, Klewer Aca-
demic Publishers, 1992.

[Red36] Hearn, Anthony C. and Fitch, John F. REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6,
RAND Corporation, 1995

16.54 REACTEQN: Support for chemical reaction equat-

ion systems

This package allows a user to transform chemical reaction systems into or-
dinary differential equation systems (ODE) corresponding to the laws of
pure mass action.
Author: Herbert Melenk.
A single reaction equation is an expression of the form

hn1ihs1i + hn2ihs2i + . . . -> hn3ihs3i + hn4ihs4i + . . .

or

hn1ihs1i + hn2ihs2i + . . . <> hn3ihs3i + hn4ihs4i + . . .

where the hsii are arbitrary names of species (REDUCE symbols) and the
hnii are positive integer numbers. The number 1 can be omitted. The con-
nector -> describes a one way reaction, while <> describes a forward and
backward reaction.
836 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

A reaction system is a list of reaction equations, each of them optionally

followed by one or two expressions for the rate constants. A rate constant
can a number, a symbol or an arbitrary REDUCE expression. If a rate
constant is missing, an automatic constant of the form RATE(n) (where n
is an integer counter) is generated. For double reactions the first constant is
used for the forward direction, the second one for the backward direction.
The names of the species are collected in a list bound to the REDUCE
variable SPECIES. This list is automatically filled during the processing
of a reaction system. The species enter in an order corresponding to their
appearance in the reaction system and the resulting ode’s will be ordered in
the same manner.
If a list of species is preassigned to the variable SPECIES either explicitly
or from previous operations, the given order will be maintained and will
dominate the formatting process. So the ordering of the result can be easily
influenced by the user.
Syntax:
reac2ode { hreactioni [,hratei [,hratei]] [,hreactioni [,hratei [,hratei]]] ....
};
where two rates are applicable only for <> reactions.
Result is a system of explicit ordinary differential equations with polyno-
mial righthand sides. As side effect the following variables are set:
lists:
rates: list of the rates in the system
species: list of the species in the system
matrices:
inputmat: matrix of the input coefficients
outputmat: matrix of the output coefficients
In the matrices the row number corresponds to the input reaction number,
while the column number corresponds to the species index. Note: if the
rates are numerical values, it will be in most cases appropriate to switch on
REDUCE rounded mode for floating point numbers. That is
on rounded;
Inputmat and outputmat can be used for linear algebra type investigations
of the reaction system. The classical reaction matrix is the difference of
these matrices; however, the two matrices contain more information than
their differences because the appearance of a species on both sides is not
 837

reflected by the reaction matrix.

EXAMPLES: This input

% Example taken from Feinberg (Chemical Engineering):

species := {A1,A2,A3,A4,A5};

reac2ode { A1 + A4 <> 2A1, rho, beta,

A1 + A2 <> A3, gamma, epsilon,
A3 <> A2 + A5, theta, mue};

gives the output

2
{DF(A1,T)=RHO*A1*A4 - BETA*A1 - GAMMA*A1*A2 + EPSILON*A3,

DF(A2,T)= - GAMMA*A1*A2 + EPSILON*A3 + THETA*A3 - MUE*A2*A5,

DF(A3,T)=GAMMA*A1*A2 - EPSILON*A3 - THETA*A3 + MUE*A2*A5,

2
DF(A4,T)= - RHO*A1*A4 + BETA*A1 ,

DF(A5,T)=THETA*A3 - MUE*A2*A5}

The corresponding matrices are

inputmat;

[ 1 0 0 1 0 ]
[ ]
[ 1 1 0 0 0 ]
[ ]
[ 0 0 1 0 0 ]

outputmat;

[ 2 0 0 0 0 ]
[ ]
[ 0 0 1 0 0 ]
[ ]
[ 0 1 0 0 1 ]
838 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

% computation of the classical reaction matrix as difference

% of output and input matrix:

reactmat := outputmat-inputmat;

[ 1 0 0 -1 0 ]
[ ]
REACTMAT := [ -1 -1 1 0 0 ]
[ ]
[ 0 1 -1 0 1 ]

% Example with automatic generation of rate constants

% and automatic extraction of species

species := {};

reac2ode { A1 + A4 <> 2A1,

A1 + A2 <> A3,
a3 <> A2 + A5};

new species: A1
new species: A4
new species: A3
new species: A2
new species: A5

2
{DF(A1,T)= - A1 *RATE(2) + A1*A4*RATE(1) - A1*A2*RATE(3) +

A3*RATE(4),

2
DF(A4,T)=A1 *RATE(2) - A1*A4*RATE(1),

DF(A2,T)= - A1*A2*RATE(3) - A2*A5*RATE(6) + A3*RATE(5) + A3*RAT

DF(A3,T)=A1*A2*RATE(3) + A2*A5*RATE(6) - A3*RATE(5) - A3*RATE(4

DF(A5,T)= - A2*A5*RATE(6) + A3*RATE(5)\}

 839

% Example with rates computed from numerical expressions

species := {};

reac2ode { A1 + A4 <> 2A1, 17.3* 22.4^1.5,

0.04* 22.4^1.5 };

new species: A1
new species: A4

2
{DF(A1,T)= - 4.24065*A1 + 1834.08*A1*A4,

2
DF(A4,T)=4.24065*A1 - 1834.08*A1*A4}
840 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.55 REDLOG: Extend REDUCE to a computer logic

system

The name REDLOG stand for REDuce LOGic system. Redlog implements
symbolic algorithms on first-order formulas with respect to user-chosen
first-order languages and theories. The available domains include real num-
bers, integers, complex numbers, p-adic numbers, quantified propositional
calculus, term algebras.
Documentation for this package can be found online.
Authors: Andreas Dolzmann and Thomas Sturm

16.56 RESET: Code to reset REDUCE to its initial state

This package defines a command RESETREDUCE that works through the

history of previous commands, and clears any values which have been as-
signed, plus any rules, arrays and the like. It also sets the various switches
to their initial values. It is not complete, but does work for most things
that cause a gradual loss of space. It would be relatively easy to make it
interactive, so allowing for selective resetting.
There is no further documentation on this package.
Author: John Fitch.
 841

16.57 RESIDUE: A residue package

This package supports the calculation of residues of arbitrary expressions.

Author: Wolfram Koepf.
The residue Res f (z) of a function f (z) at the point a ∈ C is defined as
z=a
I
1
Res f (z) = f (z) dz ,
z=a 2πi
with integration along a closed curve around z = a with winding number 1.
If f (z) is given by a Laurent series development at z = a
∞
X
f (z) = ak (z − a)k ,
k=−∞

then
Res f (z) = a−1 . (16.94)
z=a
If a = ∞, one defines on the other hand
Res f (z) = −a−1 (16.95)
z=∞

for given Laurent representation

∞
X 1
f (z) = ak .
k=−∞
zk

The package is loaded by the statement

1: load residue;

It contains two REDUCE operators:

• residue(f,z,a) determines the residue of f at the point z = a if

f is meromorphic at z = a. The calculation of residues at essential
singularities of f is not supported.
• poleorder(f,z,a) determines the pole order of f at the point
z = a if f is meromorphic at z = a.

Note that both functions use the taylor package in connection with rep-
resentations (16.94)–(16.95).
Here are some examples:
842 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

2: residue(x/(x^2-2),x,sqrt(2));

1
---
2

3: poleorder(x/(x^2-2),x,sqrt(2));

4: residue(sin(x)/(x^2-2),x,sqrt(2));

sqrt(2)*sin(sqrt(2))
----------------------
4

5: poleorder(sin(x)/(x^2-2),x,sqrt(2));

6: residue(1/(x-1)^m/(x-2)^2,x,2);

- m

7: poleorder(1/(x-1)/(x-2)^2,x,2);

8: residue(sin(x)/x^2,x,0);

9: poleorder(sin(x)/x^2,x,0);

10: residue((1+x^2)/(1-x^2),x,1);

-1

11: poleorder((1+x^2)/(1-x^2),x,1);
 843

12: residue((1+x^2)/(1-x^2),x,-1);

13: poleorder((1+x^2)/(1-x^2),x,-1);

14: residue(tan(x),x,pi/2);

-1

15: poleorder(tan(x),x,pi/2);

16: residue((x^n-y^n)/(x-y),x,y);

17: poleorder((x^n-y^n)/(x-y),x,y);

18: residue((x^n-y^n)/(x-y)^2,x,y);

n
y *n
------
y

19: poleorder((x^n-y^n)/(x-y)^2,x,y);

20: residue(tan(x)/sec(x-pi/2)+1/cos(x),x,pi/2);

-2

21: poleorder(tan(x)/sec(x-pi/2)+1/cos(x),x,pi/2);
844 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

22: for k:=1:2 sum residue((a+b*x+c*x^2)/(d+e*x+f*x^2),x,

part(part(solve(d+e*x+f*x^2,x),k),2));

b*f - c*e
-----------
2
f

23: residue(x^3/sin(1/x)^2,x,infinity);

- 1
------
15

24: residue(x^3*sin(1/x)^2,x,infinity);

-1

Note that the residues of factorial and Γ function terms are not yet sup-
ported.
 845

16.58 RLFI: REDUCE LATEX formula interface

This package adds LATEX syntax to REDUCE. Text generated by REDUCE

in this mode can be directly used in LATEX source documents. Various math-
ematical constructions are supported by the interface including subscripts,
superscripts, font changing, Greek letters, divide-bars, integral and sum
signs, derivatives, and so on.
Author: Richard Liska.
High quality typesetting of mathematical formulas is a quite tedious task.
One of the most sophisticated typesetting programs for mathematical text
TEX [5], together with its widely used macro package LATEX [6], has a
strange syntax of mathematical formulas, especially of the complicated
type. This is the main reason which lead us to designing the formula in-
terface between the computer algebra system REDUCE and the document
preparation system LATEX. The other reason is that all available syntaxes
of the REDUCE formula output are line oriented and thus not suitable for
typesetting in mathematical text. The idea of interfacing a computer algebra
system to a typesetting program has already been used, eg. in [3] presenting
the TEX output of the MACSYMA computer algebra system.
The formula interface presented here adds to REDUCE the new syntax of
formula output, namely LATEX syntax, and can also be named REDUCE -
LATEX translator. Text generated by REDUCE in this syntax can be directly
used in LATEX source documents. Various mathematical constructions are
supported by the interface including subscripts, superscripts, font changing,
Greek letters, divide-bars, integral and sum signs, derivatives etc.
The interface can be used in two ways:

• for typesetting of results of REDUCE algebraic calculations.

• for typesetting of users formulas.

The latter can even be used by users unfamiliar with the REDUCE system,
because the REDUCE input syntax of formulas is almost the same as the
syntax of the majority of programming languages. We aimed at speeding
up the process of formula typesetting, because we are convinced, that the
writing of correct complicated formulas in the REDUCE syntax is a much
more simpler task than writing them in the LATEX syntax full of keywords
and special characters \, {, ^ etc. It is clear, that not every formula
produced by the interface is typeset in the best format from an aesthetic
point of view. When a user is not satisfied with the result, he can add some
LATEX commands to the REDUCE output - LATEX input.
846 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The interface is connected to REDUCE by three new switches and sev-

eral statements. To activate the LATEX output mode the switch latex must
be set on. this switch, similar to the switch fort producing FORTRAN
output, being on causes all outputs to be written in the LATEX syntax of for-
mulas. The switch VERBATIM is used for input printing control. If it is on
input to REDUCE system is typeset in LATEX verbatim environment after
the line containing the string REDUCE Input:.
The switch lasimp controls the algebraic evaluation of input formulas. If
it is on every formula is evaluated, simplified and written in the form given
by ordinary REDUCE statements and switches such as factor, order,
rat etc. In the case when the lasimp switch is off evaluation, simplifi-
cation or reordering of formulas is not performed and REDUCE acts only
as a formula parser and the form of the formula output is exactly the same
as that of the input, the only difference remains in the syntax. The mode
off lasimp is designed especially for typesetting of formulas for which
the user needs preservation of their structure. This switch has no meaning
if the switch Latex is off and thus is working only for LATEX output.
For every identifier used in the typeset REDUCE formula the following
properties can be defined by the statement defid:

• its printing symbol (Greek letters can be used).

• the font in which the symbol will be typeset.
• accent which will be typeset above the symbol.

Symbols with indexes are treated in REDUCE as operators. Each index

corresponds to an argument of the operator. The meaning of operator ar-
guments (where one wants to typeset them) is declared by the statement
defindex. This statement causes the arguments to be typeset as sub-
scripts or superscripts (on left or right-hand side of the operator) or as argu-
ments of the operator.
The statement mathstyle defines the style of formula typesetting. The
variable laline!* defines the length of output lines.
The fractions with horizontal divide bars are typeset by using the new RE-
DUCE infix operator //. This operator is not algebraically simplified. Dur-
ing typesetting of powers the checking on the form of the power base and
exponent is performed to determine the form of the typeset expression (eg.
sqrt symbol, using parentheses).
Some special forms can be typeset by using REDUCE prefix operators.
These are as follows:
 847

• int - integral of an expression.

• dint - definite integral of an expression.
• df - derivative of an expression.
• pdf - partial derivative of an expression.
• sum - sum of expressions.
• product - product of expressions.
• sqrt - square root of expression.

There are still some problems unsolved in the present version of the inter-
face as follows:

• breaking the formulas which do not fit on one line.

• automatic decision where to use divide bars in fractions.
• distinction of two- or more-character identifiers from the product of
one-character symbols.
• typesetting of matrices.
Remark
After finishing presented interface, we have found another work [1], which
solves the same problem. The RLFI package has been described in [2] too.

16.58.1 APPENDIX: Summary and syntax

Warning
The RLFI package can be used only on systems supporting lower case let-
ters with off raise statement. The package distinquishes the upper and
lower case letters, so be carefull in typing them. In REDUCE 3.6 the RE-
DUCE commands have to be typed in lower-case while the switch latex
is on, in previous versions the commands had to be typed in upper-case.
Switches

latex - If on output is in LATEX format. It turns off the raise switch

if it is set on and on the raise switch if it is set off. By default is
off.
848 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

lasimp - If on formulas are evaluated (simplified), REDUCE works as

usually. If off no evaluation is performed and the structure of for-
mulas is preserved. By default is on.
verbatim - If on the REDUCE input, while latex switch being on, is
printed in LATEX verbatim environment. The acutal REDUCE input is
printed after the line containing the string "REDUCE Input:". It
turns on resp. off the echo switch when turned on resp. off. by
default is off.

Operators

infix - //
prefix - int,dint,df,pdf,sum,product,sqrt and all REDUCE
prefix operators defined in the REDUCE kernel and the SOLVE mod-
ule.

<alg. expression> // <alg. expression>

int(<function>,<variable>)
dint(<from>,<to>,<function>,<variable>)
df(<function>,<variables>)
<variables> ::= <o-variable>|<o-variable>,<variables>
<o-variable> ::= <variable>|<variable>,<order>
<variable> ::= <kernel>
<order> ::= <integer>
<function> ::= <alg. expression>
<from> ::= <alg. expression>
<to> ::= <alg. expression>
pdf(<function>,<variables>)
sum(<from>,<to>,<function>)
product(<from>,<to>,<function>)
sqrt(<alg. expression>)

<alg. expression> is any algebraic expression. Where appropriate,

it can include also relational operators (e.g. argument <from> of sum or
product operators is usually equation). <kernel> is identifier or prefix
operator with arguments as described in [4]. Interface supports typesetting
lists of algebraic expressions.
Statements

mathstyle <m-style>;
 849

<m-style> ::= math | displaymath | equation

defid <identifier>,<d-equations>;
<d-equations> ::= <d-equation> | <d-equation>,<d-equations>
<d-equation> ::= <d-print symbol> | <d-font>|<d-accent>
<d-print symbol> ::= name = <print symbol>
<d-font> ::= font = <font>
<d-accent> ::= accent = <accent>
<print symbol> ::= <character> | <special symbol>
<special symbol> ::= alpha|beta|gamma|delta|epsilon|
varepsilon|zeta|eta|theta|vartheta|iota|kappa|lambda|
mu|nu|xi|pi|varpi|rho|varrho|sigma|varsigma|tau|
upsilon|phi|varphi|chi|psi|omega|Gamma|Delta|Theta|
Lambda|Xi|Pi|Sigma|Upsilon|Phi|Psi|Omega|infty|hbar
<font> ::= bold|roman
<accent> ::=hat|check|breve|acute|grave|tilde|bar|vec|
dot|ddot

For special symbols and accents see [6], p. 43, 45, 51.

defindex <d-operators>;
<d-operators> ::= <d-operator> | <d-operator>,<d-operators>
<d-operator> ::= <prefix operator>(<descriptions>)
<prefix operator> ::= <identifier>
<descriptions> ::= <description> | <description>,
<descriptions>
<description> ::= arg | up | down | leftup | leftdown

The meaning of the statements is briefly described in the preceding text.

Bibliography

[1] Werner Antweiler, Andreas Strotmann, and Volker Winkelmann. A

TEX-reduce-interface. SIGSAM Bulletin, 23:26–33, February 1989.
[2] Ladislav Drska, Richard Liska, and Milan Sinor. Two practical pack-
ages for computational physics - GCPM, RLFI. Comp. Phys. Comm.,
61:225–230, 1990.
[3] Richard J. Fateman. TEX output from macsyma-like systems. ACM
SIGSAM Bulletin, 21(4):1–5, 1987. Issue #82.
[4] Anthony C. Hearn. REDUCE user’s manual, version 3.6. Technical Re-
port CP 78 (Rev. 7/95), The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, 1995.
850 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[5] Donald E. Knuth. The TEX book. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1984.

[6] Leslie Lamport. LATEX - A Document Preparation System. Addison-
Wesley, Reading, 1986.
 851

16.59 ROOTS: A REDUCE root finding package

This root finding package can be used to find some or all of the roots of
a univariate polynomial with real or complex coefficients, to the accuracy
specified by the user.
It is designed so that it can be used as an independent package, or it may be
called from SOLVE if ROUNDED is on. For example, the evaluation of

on rounded,complex;
solve(x**3+x+5,x);

yields the result

{X= - 1.51598,X=0.75799 + 1.65035*I,X=0.75799 - 1.65035*I}

This package loads automatically.

Author: Stanley L. Kameny.

16.59.1 Introduction

The root finding package is designed so that it can be used as an independent

package, or it can be integrated with and called by SOLVE. This document
describes the package in its independent use. It can be used to find some or
all of the roots of univariate polynomials with real or complex coefficients,
to the accuracy specified by the user.

16.59.2 Root Finding Strategies

For all polynomials handled by the root finding package, strategies of fac-
toring are employed where possible to reduce the amount of required work.
These include square-free factoring and separation of complex polynomials
into a product of a polynomial with real coefficients and one with complex
coefficients. Whenever these succeed, the resulting smaller polynomials
are solved separately, except that the root accuracy takes into account the
possibility of close roots on different branches. One other strategy used
where applicable is the powergcd method of reducing the powers of the ini-
tial polynomial by a common factor, and deriving the roots in two stages, as
roots of the reduced power polynomial. Again here, the possibility of close
roots on different branches is taken into account.
852 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.59.3 Top Level Functions

The top level functions can be called either as symbolic operators from
algebraic mode, or they can be called directly from symbolic mode with
symbolic mode arguments. Outputs are expressed in forms that print out
correctly in algebraic mode.

16.59.3.1 Functions that refer to real roots only

Three top level functions refer only to real roots. Each of these functions
can receive 1, 2 or 3 arguments.
The first argument is the polynomial p, that can be complex and can have
multiple or zero roots. If arg2 and arg3 are not present, all real roots are
found. If the additional arguments are present, they restrict the region of
consideration.

• If arguments are (p,arg2) then Arg2 must be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE.

If arg2=NEGATIVE then only negative roots of p are included; if
arg2=POSITIVE then only positive roots of p are included. Zero
roots are excluded.
• If arguments are (p,arg2,arg3) then Arg2 and Arg3 must be r (a
real number) or EXCLUDE r, or a member of the list POSITIVE,
NEGATIVE, INFINITY, -INFINITY. EXCLUDE r causes the value
r to be excluded from the region. The order of the sequence arg2, arg3
is unimportant. Assuming that arg2 ≤ arg3 when both are numeric,
then
{-INFINITY,INFINITY} is equivalent to {} represents all roots;
{arg2,NEGATIVE} represents −∞ < r < arg2;
{arg2,POSITIVE} represents arg2 < r < ∞;
In each of the following, replacing an arg with EXCLUDE arg converts
the corresponding inclusive ≤ to the exclusive <
{arg2,-INFINITY} represents −∞ < r ≤ arg2;
{arg2,INFINITY} represents arg2 ≤ r < ∞;
{arg2,arg3} represents arg2 ≤ r ≤ arg3;
• If zero is in the interval the zero root is included.

REALROOTS This function finds the real roots of the polynomial p, using
the REALROOT package to isolate real roots by the method of Sturm
sequences, then polishing the root to the desired accuracy. Precision
 853

of computation is guaranteed to be sufficient to separate all real roots

in the specified region. (cf. MULTIROOT for treatment of multiple
roots.)
ISOLATER This function produces a list of rational intervals, each con-
taining a single real root of the polynomial p, within the specified
region, but does not find the roots.
RLROOTNO This function computes the number of real roots of p in the
specified region, but does not find the roots.

16.59.3.2 Functions that return both real and complex roots

ROOTS p; This is the main top level function of the roots package. It will
find all roots, real and complex, of the polynomial p to an accuracy
that is sufficient to separate them and which is a minimum of 6 deci-
mal places. The value returned by ROOTS is a list of equations for all
roots. In addition, ROOTS stores separate lists of real roots and com-
plex roots in the global variables ROOTSREAL and ROOTSCOMPLEX.

The order of root discovery by ROOTS is highly variable from system

to system, depending upon very subtle arithmetic differences during
the computation. In order to make it easier to compare results obtained
on different computers, the output of ROOTS is sorted into a standard
order: a root with smaller real part precedes a root with larger real
part; roots with identical real parts are sorted so that larger imaginary
part precedes smaller imaginary part. (This is done so that for com-
plex pairs, the positive imaginary part is seen first.)
However, when a polynomial has been factored (by square-free fac-
toring or by separation into real and complex factors) then the root
sorting is applied to each factor separately. This makes the final re-
sulting order less obvious. However it is consistent from system to
system.
ROOTS_AT_PREC p; Same as ROOTS except that roots values are re-
turned to a minimum of the number of decimal places equal to the
current system precision.
ROOT_VAL p; Same as ROOTS_AT_PREC, except that instead of return-
ing a list of equations for the roots, a list of the root value is returned.
This is the function that SOLVE calls.
854 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

NEARESTROOT(p,s); This top level function uses an iterative method

to find the root to which the method converges given the initial start-
ing origin s, which can be complex. If there are several roots in the
vicinity of s and s is not significantly closer to one root than it is to
all others, the convergence could arrive at a root that is not truly the
nearest root. This function should therefore be used only when the
user is certain that there is only one root in the immediate vicinity of
the starting point s.
FIRSTROOT p; ROOTS is called, but only the first root determined by
ROOTS is computed. Note that this is not in general the first root that
would be listed in ROOTS output, since the ROOTS outputs are sorted
into a canonical order. Also, in some difficult root finding cases, the
first root computed might be incorrect.

16.59.3.3 Other top level functions

GETROOT(n,rr); If rr has the form of the output of ROOTS, REAL-

ROOTS, or NEARESTROOTS; GETROOT returns the rational, real,
or complex value of the root equation. An error occurs if n < 1 or
n > the number of roots in rr.
MKPOLY rr; This function can be used to reconstruct a polynomial
whose root equation list is rr and whose denominator is 1. Thus one
can verify that if rr := ROOT S p, and rr1 := ROOT S M KP OLY rr,
then rr1 = rr. (This will be true if MULTIROOT and RATROOT are
ON, and ROUNDED is off.) However, M KP OLY rr − N U M p = 0
will be true if and only if all roots of p have been computed exactly.

16.59.3.4 Functions available for diagnostic or instructional use only

GFNEWT(p,r,cpx); This function will do a single pass through the func-

tion GFNEWTON for polynomial p and root r. If cpx=T, then any com-
plex part of the root will be kept, no matter how small.
GFROOT(p,r,cpx); This function will do a single pass through the func-
tion GFROOTFIND for polynomial p and root r. If cpx=T, then any
complex part of the root will be kept, no matter how small.
 855

16.59.4 Switches Used in Input

The input of polynomials in algebraic mode is sensitive to the switches

COMPLEX, ROUNDED, and ADJPREC. The correct choice of input method
is important since incorrect choices will result in undesirable truncation or
rounding of the input coefficients.
Truncation or rounding may occur if ROUNDED is on and one of the follow-
ing is true:

1. a coefficient is entered in floating point form or rational form.

2. COMPLEX is on and a coefficient is imaginary or complex.

Therefore, to avoid undesirable truncation or rounding, then:

1. ROUNDED should be off and input should be in integer or rational

form; or
2. ROUNDED can be on if it is acceptable to truncate or round input to the
current value of system precision; or both ROUNDED and ADJPREC
can be on, in which case system precision will be adjusted to accom-
modate the largest coefficient which is input; or
3. if the input contains complex coefficients with very different mag-
nitude for the real and imaginary parts, then all three switches
ROUNDED, ADJPREC and COMPLEX must be on.

integer and complex modes (off ROUNDED) any real polynomial can be
input using integer coefficients of any size; integer or rational coef-
ficients can be used to input any real or complex polynomial, inde-
pendent of the setting of the switch COMPLEX. These are the most
versatile input modes, since any real or complex polynomial can be
input exactly.
modes rounded and complex-rounded (on ROUNDED) polynomials can
be input using integer coefficients of any size. Floating point coef-
ficients will be truncated or rounded, to a size dependent upon the
system. If complex is on, real coefficients can be input to any preci-
sion using integer form, but coefficients of imaginary parts of complex
coefficients will be rounded or truncated.
856 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.59.5 Internal and Output Use of Switches

The REDUCE arithmetic mode switches ROUNDED and COMPLEX control

the behavior of the root finding package. These switches are returned in the
same state in which they were set initially, (barring catastrophic error).

COMPLEX The root finding package controls the switch COMPLEX inter-
nally, turning the switch on if it is processing a complex polynomial.
For a polynomial with real coefficients, the starting point argument
for NEARESTROOT can be given in algebraic mode in complex form
as rl + im * I and will be handled correctly, independent of the set-
ting of the switch COMPLEX. Complex roots will be computed and
printed correctly regardless of the setting of the switch COMPLEX.
However, if COMPLEX is off, the imaginary part will print out ahead
of the real part, while the reverse order will be obtained if COMPLEX
is on.
ROUNDED The root finding package performs computations using the
arithmetic mode that is required at the time, which may be integer,
Gaussian integer, rounded, or complex rounded. The switch BFTAG is
used internally to govern the mode of computation and precision is ad-
justed whenever necessary. The initial position of switches ROUNDED
and COMPLEX are ignored. At output, these switches will emerge in
their initial positions.

16.59.6 Root Package Switches

Note: switches AUTOMODE, ISOROOT and ACCROOT, present in earlier

versions, have been eliminated.

RATROOT (Default OFF) If RATROOT is on all root equations are out-

put in rational form. Assuming that the mode is COMPLEX (i.e.
ROUNDED is off,) the root equations are guaranteed to be able to be
input into REDUCE without truncation or rounding errors. (Cf. the
function MKPOLY described above.)
MULTIROOT (Default ON) Whenever the polynomial has complex coef-
ficients or has real coefficients and has multiple roots, as determined
by the Sturm function, the function SQFRF is called automatically to
factor the polynomial into square-free factors. If MULTIROOT is on,
the multiplicity of the roots will be indicated in the output of ROOTS
or REALROOTS by printing the root output repeatedly, according to
 857

its multiplicity. If MULTIROOT is off, each root will be printed once,

and all roots should be normally be distinct. (Two identical roots
should not appear. If the initial precision of the computation or the
accuracy of the output was insufficient to separate two closely-spaced
roots, the program attempts to increase accuracy and/or precision if
it detects equal roots. If, however, the initial accuracy specified was
too low, and it was not possible to separate the roots, the program will
abort.)
TRROOT (Default OFF) If switch TRROOT is on, trace messages are
printed out during the course of root determination, to show the
progress of solution.
ROOTMSG (Default OFF) If switch ROOTMSG is on in addition to switch
TRROOT, additional messages are printed out to aid in following the
progress of Laguerre and Newton complex iteration. These messages
are intended for debugging use primarily.

16.59.7 Operational Parameters and Parameter Setting.

ROOTACC# (Default 6) This parameter can be set using the function

ROOTACC n; which causes ROOTACC!# to be set to MAX(n,6). If
ACCROOT is on, roots will be determined to a minimum of ROOT-
ACC!# significant places. (If roots are closely spaced, a higher num-
ber of significant places is computed where needed.)
system precision The roots package, during its operation, will change the
value of system precision but will restore the original value of system
precision at termination except that the value of system precision is
increased if necessary to allow the full roots output to be printed.
PRECISION n; If the user sets system precision, using the command
PRECISION n; then the effect is to increase the system precision to n,
and to have the same effect on ROOTS as ROOTACC n; ie. roots will
now be printed with minimum accuracy n. The original conditions
can then be restored by using the command PRECISION RESET; or
PRECISION NIL;.
ROOTPREC n; The roots package normally sets the computation mode
and precision automatically. However, if ROOTPREC n; is called and
n is greater than the initial system precision then all root computation
will be done initially using a minimum system precision n. Automatic
operation can be restored by input of ROOTPREC 0;.
858 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.59.8 Avoiding truncation of polynomials on input

The roots package will not internally truncate polynomials. However, it is

possible that a polynomial can be truncated by input reading functions of
the embedding lisp system, particularly when input is given in floating point
(rounded) format.
To avoid any difficulties, input can be done in integer or Gaussian integer
format, or mixed, with integers or rationals used to represent quantities of
high precision. There are many examples of this in the test package. It
is usually best to let the roots package determine the precision needed to
compute roots.
The number of digits that can be safely represented in floating point in the
lisp system are contained in the global variable !!NFPD. Similarly, the
maximum number of significant figures in floating point output are con-
tained in the global variable !!FLIM. The roots package computes these
values, which are needed to control the logic of the program.
The values of intermediate root iterations (that are printed when TRROOT is
on) are given in bigfloat format even when the actual values are computed
in floating point. This avoids intrusive rounding of root printout.
 859

16.60 RSOLVE:
Rational/integer polynomial solvers

This package provides operators that compute the exact rational zeros of a
single univariate polynomial using fast modular methods. The algorithm
used is that described by R. Loos (1983): Computing rational zeros of inte-
gral polynomials by p-adic expansion, SIAM J. Computing, 12, 286–293.
Author: Francis J. Wright.
This package provides the operators r/i_solve that compute respec-
tively the exact rational or integer zeros of a single univariate polynomial
using fast modular methods.

16.60.1 Introduction

This package provides operators that compute the exact rational zeros of a
single univariate polynomial using fast modular methods. The algorithm
used is that described by R. Loos (1983): Computing rational zeros of in-
tegral polynomials by p-adic expansion, SIAM J. Computing, 12, 286–293.
The operator r_solve computes all rational zeros whereas the operator
i_solve computes only integer zeros in a way that is slightly more ef-
ficient than extracting them from the rational zeros. The r_solve and
i_solve interfaces are almost identical, and are intended to be completely
compatible with that of the general solve operator, although r_solve
and i_solve give more convenient output when only rational or integer
zeros respectively are required. The current implementation appears to be
faster than solve by a factor that depends on the example, but is typically
up to about 2.
I plan to extend this package to compute Gaussian integer and rational zeros
and zeros of polynomial systems.

16.60.2 The user interface

The first argument is required and must simplify to either a univariate poly-
nomial expression or equation with integer, rational or rounded coefficients.
Symbolic coefficients are not allowed (and currently complex coefficients
are not allowed either.) The argument is simplified to a quotient of integer
polynomials and the denominator is silently ignored.
Subsequent arguments are optional. If the polynomial variable is to be spec-
ified then it must be the first optional argument, and if the first optional
860 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

argument is not a valid option (see below) then it is (mis-)interpreted as

the polynomial variable. However, since the variable in a non-constant uni-
variate polynomial can be deduced from the polynomial it is unnecessary
to specify it separately, except in the degenerate case that the first argu-
ment simplifies to either 0 or 0 = 0. In this case the result is returned by
i_solve in terms of the operator arbint and by r_solve in terms of
the (new) analogous operator arbrat. The operator i_solve will gen-
erally run slightly faster than r_solve.
The (rational or integer) zeros of the first argument are returned as a
list and the default output format is the same as that used by solve.
Each distinct zero is returned in the form of an equation with the vari-
able on the left and the multiplicities of the zeros are assigned to the
variable root_multiplicities as a list. However, if the switch
multiplicities is turned on then each zero is explicitly included in the
solution list the appropriate number of times (and root_multiplicities
has no value).
Optional keyword arguments acting as local switches allow other output
formats. They have the following meanings:

separate: assign the multiplicity list to the global variable

root_multiplicities (the default);
expand or multiplicities: expand the solution list to include mul-
tiple zeros multiple times (the default if the |multiplicities| switch is
on);
together: return each solution as a list whose second element is the mul-
tiplicity;
nomul: do not compute multiplicities (thereby saving some time);
noeqs: do not return univariate zeros as equations but just as values.

16.60.3 Examples

r_solve((9x^2 - 16)*(x^2 - 9), x);

 
−4 4
x= , x = 3, x = −3, x =
3 3

i_solve((9x^2 - 16)*(x^2 - 9), x);

 861

{x = 3, x = −3}
See the test/demonstration file rsolve.tst for more examples.

16.60.4 Tracing

The switch trsolve turns on tracing of the algorithm. It is off by default.

862 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.61 RTRACE: Tracing in REDUCE

Authors: Herbert Melenk and Francis J. Wright

16.61.1 Introduction

The package rtrace provides portable tracing facilities for REDUCE pro-
gramming. These include

• entry-exit tracing of procedures,

• assignment tracing of procedures,
• tracing of rules when they fire.

In contrast to conventional Lisp-level tracing, values are printed in algebraic

style whenever possible if the switch rtrace is on, which it is by default.
The output has been specially tailored for the needs of algebraic-mode pro-
gramming. Most features can be applied without explicitly modifying the
target program, and they can be turned on and off dynamically at run time.
If the switch rtrace is turned off then values are printed in conventional
Lisp style, and the result should be similar to the tracing provided by the
underlying Lisp system.
To make the facilities available, load the package using the command

load_package rtrace;

Alternatively, the package can be set up to auto load by putting appropriate

code in your REDUCE initialisation file. An example is provided in the file
reduce.rc in the rtrace source directory.

16.61.2 RTrace versus RDebug

The rtrace package is a modification (by FJW) of the rdebug package

(written by HM, and included in the rtrace source directory). The mod-
ifications are as follows. The procedure-tracing facilities in rdebug rely
upon the low-level tracing facilities in PSL; in rtrace these low-level fa-
cilities have been (partly) re-implemented portably. The names of the trac-
ing commands that have been re-implemented portably have been changed
to avoid conflicting with those provided by the underlying Lisp system by
preceding them with the letter “r”, and they provide a generalized interface
 863

that supports algebraic mode better. An additional set of rule tracing facili-
ties for inactive rules has been provided. Beware that the rtrace package
is still experimental!
This package is intended to be portable, and has been tested with both
CSL- and PSL-based REDUCE. However, it is intended not as a replace-
ment for rdebug but as a partial re-implementation of rdebug that works
with CSL-REDUCE, and it is assumed that PSL users will continue to use
rdebug. It should, in principle, be possible to use both. Any rtrace
functions with the same names as rdebug functions should either be iden-
tical or compatible; rtrace should be loaded after rdebug in order to
retain any enhancements provided by rtrace. Perhaps at some future
time the two packages should be merged. However, note that rtrace cur-
rently provides only tracing (hence the name) and does not support break
points. (The current version also does not support conditional tracing.)

16.61.3 Procedure tracing: RTR, UNRTR

Tracing of one or more procedures is initiated by the command rtr:

rtr <proc1>, <proc2>, ..., <procn>;

and cancelled by the command unrtr:

unrtr <proc1>, <proc2>, ..., <procn>;

Every time a traced procedure is executed, a message is printed when the

procedure is entered or exited. The entry message displays the actual pro-
cedure arguments equated to the dummy parameter names, and the exit
message displays the value returned by the procedure. Recursive calls are
marked by a level number. Here is a (simplistic) example, using first the
default algebraic display and second conventional Lisp display:

algebraic procedure power(x, n);

if n = 0 then 1 else x*power(x, n-1)$

rtr power;

(power)

power(x+1, 2);

Enter (1) power

864 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

x: x + 1$
n: 2$
Enter (2) power
x: x + 1$
n: 1$
Enter (3) power
x: x + 1$
n: 0$
Leave (3) power = 1$
Leave (2) power = x + 1$
Leave (1) power = x**2 + 2*x + 1$

2
x + 2*x + 1

off rtrace;

power(x+1, 2);

Enter (1) power

x: (plus x 1)
n: 2
Enter (2) power
x: (plus x 1)
n: 1
Enter (3) power
x: (plus x 1)
n: 0
Leave (3) power = 1
Leave (2) power = (!*sq ((((x . 1) . 1) . 1) . 1) t)
Leave (1) power = (!*sq ((((x . 2) . 1) ((x . 1) . 2) . 1) . 1)

2
x + 2*x + 1

on rtrace;

unrtr power;

(power)

Many algebraic-mode operators are implemented as internal procedures

 865

with different names. If an internal procedure with the specified name does
not exist then rtrace tracing automatically applies to the appropriate in-
ternal procedure and returns a list of the names of the internal procedures,
e.g.

rtr int;

(simpint)

This facility is an extension of the rdebug package.

Tracing of compiled procedures by the rtrace package is not completely
reliable, in that recursive calls may not be traced. This is essentially because
tracing works only when the procedure is called by name and not when it
is called directly via an internal compiled pointer. It may not be possible to
avoid this restriction in a portable way. Also, arguments of compiled proce-
dures are not displayed using the names given to them in the source code,
because these names are no longer available. Instead, they are displayed
using the names Arg1, Arg2, etc.

16.61.4 Assignment tracing: RTRST, UNRTRST

One often needs information about the internal behaviour of a procedure,

especially if it is a longer piece of code. For an interpreted procedure de-
clared in an rtrst command:

rtrst <proc1>, <proc2>, ..., <procn>;

all explicit assignments executed (as either the symbolic-mode setq or the
algebraic-mode setk) inside these procedures are displayed during pro-
cedure execution. All procedure tracing (assignment and entry-exit) is re-
moved by the command unrtrst (or unrtr, for which it is just a syn-
onym):

unrtrst <proc1>, <proc2>, ..., <procn>;

Assignment tracing is not possible if a procedure is compiled, either be-

cause it was loaded from a “fasl” file or image, or because it was compiled
as it was read in as source code. This is because assignment tracing works
by modifying the interpreted code of the procedure, which must therefore
be available.
Applying rtr to a procedure that has been declared in an rtrst com-
866 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

mand, or vice versa, toggles the type of tracing applied (and displays an
explanatory message).
Note that when a program contains a for loop, REDUCE translates this to
a sequence of Lisp instructions. When using rtrst, the printout is driven
by the “unfolded” code. When the code contains a for each ... in
statement, the name of the control variable is internally used to keep the
remainder of the list during the loop, and you will see the corresponding
assignments in the trace rather than the individual values in the loop steps,
e.g.

procedure fold u;
for each x in u sum x$

rtrst fold;

(fold)

fold {z, z*y, y};

produces the following output (using CSL-REDUCE):

Enter (1) fold

u: {z,y*z,y}$
x := [z,y*z,y]$
G0 := 0$
G0 := z$
x := [y*z,y]$
G0 := z*(y + 1)$
x := [y]$
G0 := y*z + y + z$
x := []$
Leave (1) fold = y*z + y + z$

y*z + y + z

unrtrst fold;

(fold)

In this example, the printed assignments for x show the various stages of
the loop. The variable G0 is an internally generated place-holder for the
sum, and may have a slightly different name depending on the underlying
 867

Lisp systems.

16.61.5 Tracing active rules: TRRL, UNTRRL

The command trrl initiates tracing when they fire of individual rules or
rule lists that have been activated using let.

trrl <rl1>, <rl2>, ..., <rln>;

where each of the < rli > is:

• a rule or rule list;

• the name of a rule or rule list (that is, a non-indexed variable which is
bound to a rule or rule list);
• an operator name, representing the rules assigned to this operator.

The specified rules are (re-) activated in REDUCE such that each of them
prints a report every time it fires. The report is composed of the name of
the rule or the name of the rule list together with the number of the rule in
the list, the form matching the left side (“input”) and the resulting right side
(“output”). For an explicitly given rule or rule list, trrl assigns a unique
generated name.
Note, however, that trrl does not trace rules with constant expressions on
the left, on the assumption that they are not particularly interesting. [This
behaviour may be made user-controllable in a future version.]
The command untrrl removes the tracing from rules:

untrrl <rl1>, <rl2>, ..., <rln>;

where each of the < rli > is:

• a rule or rule list;

• the name of a rule or rule list (that is, a non-indexed variable which is
bound to a rule or rule list or a unique name generated by trrl);
• an operator name, representing the rules assigned to this operator.

The rules are reactivated in their original form. Alternatively you can use
the command clearrules to remove the rules totally from the system.
868 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Please do not modify the rules between trrl and untrrl – the result may
be unpredictable.
Here are two simple examples that show tracing via the rule name and via
the operator name:

trigrules := {sin(~x)^2 => 1 - cos(x)^2};

2 2
trigrules := {sin(~x) => 1 - cos(x) }

let trigrules;
trrl trigrules;

1 - sin(x)^2;

Rule trigrules.1: sin(x)**2 => 1 - cos(x)**2$

2
cos(x)

untrrl trigrules;
trrl sin;

1 - sin(x)^2;

Rule sin.23: sin(x)**2 => 1 - cos(x)**2$

2
cos(x)

untrrl sin;
clearrules trigrules;

16.61.6 Tracing inactive rules: TRRLID, UNTRRLID

The command trrlid initiates tracing of individual rule lists that have
been assigned to variables, but have not been activated using let:

trrlid <rlid1>, <rlid2>, ..., <rlidn>;

where each of the < rlidi > is an identifier of a rule list (that is, a non-
 869

indexed variable which is bound to a rule list). It is assumed that they

will be activated later, either via a let command or by using the where
operator. When they are activated and fire, tracing output will be as if they
had been traced using trrl. The command untrrlid clears the tracing.
This facility is an extension of the rdebug package.
Here is a simple example that continues the example above:

trrlid trigrules;

1 - sin(x)^2 where trigrules;

Rule trigrules.1: sin(x)**2 => 1 - cos(x)**2$

2
cos(x)

untrrlid trigrules;

16.61.7 Output control: RTROUT

The trace output (only) can be redirected to a separate file by using the
command rtrout, followed by a file name in string quotes. A second call
of rtrout closes any current output file and opens a new one. The file
name NIL (without string quotes) closes any current output file and causes
the trace output to be redirected to the standard output device.
The rdebug variables trlimit and trprinter!* are not imple-
mented in rtrace. If you want to select Lisp-style tracing then turn off
the switch rtrace:

off rtrace;

after loading the rtrace package. Note that the rtrace switch controls
the display format of both procedure and rule tracing.
870 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.62 SCOPE: REDUCE source code optimization pack-

age

SCOPE is a package for the production of an optimized form of a set of

expressions. It applies an heuristic search for common (sub)expressions to
almost any set of proper REDUCE assignment statements. The output is
obtained as a sequence of assignment statements. GENTRAN is used to
facilitate expression output.
Author: J.A. van Hulzen.
 871

16.63 SETS: A basic set theory package

Author: Francis J. Wright.

The SETS package for REDUCE 3.5 and later versions provides algebraic-
mode support for set operations on lists regarded as sets (or representing
explicit sets) and on implicit sets represented by identifiers. It provides
the set-valued infix operators (with synonyms) union, intersection
(intersect) and setdiff (\, minus) and the Boolean-valued infix
operators (predicates) member, subset_eq, subset, set_eq. The
union and intersection operators are n-ary and the rest are binary. A list can
be explicitly converted to the canonical set representation by applying the
operator mkset. (The package also provides an operator not specifically
related to set theory called evalb that allows the value of any Boolean-
valued expression to be displayed in algebraic mode.)

16.63.1 Introduction

REDUCE has no specific representation for a set, neither in algebraic mode

nor internally, and any object that is mathematically a set is represented in
REDUCE as a list. The difference between a set and a list is that in a set
the ordering of elements is not significant and duplicate elements are not
allowed (or are ignored). Hence a list provides a perfectly natural and satis-
factory representation for a set (but not vice versa). Some languages, such
as Maple, provide different internal representations for sets and lists, which
may allow sets to be processed more efficiently, but this is not necessary.
This package supports set theoretic operations on lists and represents the
results as normal algebraic-mode lists, so that all other REDUCE facilities
that apply to lists can still be applied to lists that have been constructed
by explicit set operations. The algebraic-mode set operations provided by
this package have all been available in symbolic mode for a long time, and
indeed are used internally by the rest of REDUCE, so in that sense set theory
facilities in REDUCE are far from new. What this package does is make
them available in algebraic mode, generalize their operation by extending
the arity of union and intersection, and allow their arguments to be implicit
sets represented by unbound identifiers. It performs some simplifications
on such symbolic set-valued expressions, but this is currently rather ad hoc
and is probably incomplete.
For examples of the operation of the SETS package see (or run) the test
file sets.tst. This package is experimental and developments are under
consideration; if you have suggestions for improvements (or corrections)
872 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

then please send them to me (FJW), preferably by email. The package is

intended to be run under REDUCE 3.5 and later versions; it may well run
correctly under earlier versions although I cannot provide support for such
use.

16.63.2 Infix operator precedence

The set operators are currently inserted into the standard REDUCE prece-
dence list (see page 28, §2.7, of the REDUCE 3.6 manual) as follows:

or and not member memq = set_eq neq eq >= > <= < subset_eq
subset freeof + - setdiff union intersection * / ^ .

16.63.3 Explicit set representation and mkset

Explicit sets are represented by lists, and this package does not require any
restrictions at all on the forms of lists that are regarded as sets. Nevertheless,
duplicate elements in a set correspond by definition to the same element and
it is conventional and convenient to represent them by a single element, i.e.
to remove any duplicate elements. I will call this a normal representation.
Since the order of elements in a set is irrelevant it is also conventional and
may be convenient to sort them into some standard order, and an appro-
priate ordering of a normal representation gives a canonical representation.
This means that two identical sets have identical representations, and there-
fore the standard REDUCE equality predicate (=) correctly determines set
equality; without a canonical representation this is not the case.
Pre-processing of explicit set-valued arguments of the set-valued operators
to remove duplicates is always done because of the obvious efficiency ad-
vantage if there were any duplicates, and hence explicit sets appearing in the
values of such operators will never contain any duplicate elements. Such
sets are also currently sorted, mainly because the result looks better. The
ordering used satisfies the ordp predicate used for most sorting within RE-
DUCE, except that explicit integers are sorted into increasing numerical
order rather than the decreasing order that satisfies ordp.
Hence explicit sets appearing in the result of any set operator are currently
returned in a canonical form. Any explicit set can also be put into this form
by applying the operator mkset to the list representing it. For example

mkset {1,2,y,x*y,x+y};
 873

{x + y,x*y,y,1,2}

The empty set is represented by the empty list {}.

16.63.4 Union and intersection

The operator intersection (the name used internally) has the shorter
synonym intersect. These operators will probably most commonly be
used as binary infix operators applied to explicit sets, e.g.

{1,2,3} union {2,3,4};

{1,2,3,4}

{1,2,3} intersect {2,3,4};

{2,3}

They can also be used as n-ary operators with any number of arguments, in
which case it saves typing to use them as prefix operators (which is possible
with all REDUCE infix operators), e.g.

{1,2,3} union {2,3,4} union {3,4,5};

{1,2,3,4,5}

intersect({1,2,3}, {2,3,4}, {3,4,5});

{3}

For completeness, they can currently also be used as unary operators, in

which case they just return their arguments (in canonical form), and so act
as slightly less efficient versions of mkset (but this may change), e.g.

union {1,5,3,5,1};

{1,3,5}

16.63.5 Symbolic set expressions

If one or more of the arguments evaluates to an unbound identifier then it is

regarded as representing a symbolic implicit set, and the union or intersec-
874 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

tion will evaluate to an expression that still contains the union or intersection
operator. These two operators are symmetric, and so if they remain symb-
olic their arguments will be sorted as for any symmetric operator. Such
symbolic set expressions are simplified, but the simplification may not be
complete in non-trivial cases. For example:

a union b union {} union b union {7,3};

{3,7} union a union b

a intersect {};

{}

In implementations of REDUCE that provide fancy display using mathe-

matical notation, the empty set, union, intersection and set difference are all
displayed using their conventional mathematical symbols, namely ∅, ∪, ∩,
\.
A symbolic set expression is a valid argument for any other set operator,
e.g.

a union (b intersect c);

b intersection c union a

Intersection distributes over union, which is not applied by default but is im-
plemented as a rule list assigned to the variable set_distribution_rule,
e.g.

a intersect (b union c);

(b union c) intersection a

a intersect (b union c) where set_distribution_rule;

a intersection b union a intersection c

16.63.6 Set difference

The set difference operator is represented by the symbol \ and is always

output using this symbol, although it can also be input using either of the
two names setdiff (the name used internally) or minus (as used in
 875

Maple). It is a binary operator, its operands may be any combination of

explicit or implicit sets, and it may be used in an argument of any other set
operator. Here are some examples:

{1,2,3} \ {2,4};

{1,3}

{1,2,3} \ {};

{1,2,3}

a \ {1,2};

a\{1,2}

a \ a;

{}

a \ {};

{} \ a;

{}

16.63.7 Predicates on sets

These are all binary infix operators. Currently, like all REDUCE predicates,
they can only be used within conditional statements (if, while, repeat)
or within the argument of the evalb operator provided by this package,
and they cannot remain symbolic – a predicate that cannot be evaluated to
a Boolean value causes a normal REDUCE error.
The evalb operator provides a convenient shorthand for an if statement
designed purely to display the value of any Boolean expression (not only
predicates defined in this package). It has some similarity with the evalb
function in Maple, except that the values returned by evalb in REDUCE
(the identifiers true and false) have no significance to REDUCE itself.
Hence, in REDUCE, use of evalb is never necessary.
876 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

if a = a then true else false;

true

evalb(a = a);

true

if a = b then true else false;

false

evalb(a = b);

false

evalb 1;

true

evalb 0;

false

I will use the evalb operator in preference to an explicit if statement for

purposes of illustration.

16.63.7.1 Set membership

Set membership is tested by the predicate member. Its left operand is re-
garded as a potential set element and its right operand must evaluate to an
explicit set. There is currently no sense in which the right operand could
be an implicit set; this would require a mechanism for declaring implicit set
membership (akin to implicit variable dependence) which is currently not
implemented. Set membership testing works like this:

evalb(1 member {1,2,3});

true

evalb(2 member {1,2} intersect {2,3});

 877

true

evalb(a member b);

***** b invalid as list

16.63.7.2 Set inclusion

Set inclusion is tested by the predicate subset_eq where a subset_eq

b is true if the set a is either a subset of or equal to the set b; strict inclusion
is tested by the predicate subset where a subset b is true if the set a
is strictly a subset of the set b and is false is a is equal to b. These predicates
provide some support for symbolic set expressions, but this is not yet correct
as indicated below. Here are some examples:

evalb({1,2} subset_eq {1,2,3});

true

evalb({1,2} subset_eq {1,2});

true

evalb({1,2} subset {1,2});

false

evalb(a subset a union b);

true

evalb(a\b subset a);

true

evalb(a intersect b subset a union b); %%% BUG

false

An undecidable predicate causes a normal REDUCE error, e.g.

878 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

evalb(a subset_eq {b});

***** Cannot evaluate a subset_eq {b} as Boolean-valued set

expression

evalb(a subset_eq b); %%% BUG

false

16.63.7.3 Set equality

As explained above, equality of two sets in canonical form can be reliably

tested by the standard REDUCE equality predicate (=). This package also
provides the predicate set_eq to test equality of two sets not represented
canonically. The two predicates behave identically for operands that are
symbolic set expressions because these are always evaluated to canonical
form (although currently this is probably strictly true only in simple cases).
Here are some examples:

evalb({1,2,3} = {1,2,3});

true

evalb({2,1,3} = {1,3,2});

false

evalb(mkset{2,1,3} = mkset{1,3,2});

true

evalb({2,1,3} set_eq {1,3,2});

true

evalb(a union a = a\{});

true
 879

16.63.8 Possible future developments

• Unary union/intersection to implement repeated union/intersection on

a set of sets.
• More symbolic set algebra, canonical forms for set expressions, more
complete simplification.
• Better support for Boolean variables via a version (evalb10?) of
evalb that returns 1/0 instead of true/false, or predicates that
return 1/0 directly.
880 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64 SPARSE: Sparse Matrix Calculations

Author: Stephen Scowcroft

16.64.1 Introduction

A very powerful feature of REDUCE is the ease with which matrix calcula-
tions can be performed. This package extends the available matrix feature
to enable calculations with sparse matrices. This package also provides a
selection of functions that are useful in the world of linear algebra with
respect to sparse matrices.

Loading the Package

The package is loaded by: load_package sparse;

16.64.2 Sparse Matrix Calculations

To extend the the syntax to this class of calculations we need to add an

expression type sparse.

16.64.2.1 Sparse Variables

An identifier may be declared a sparse variable by the declaration SPARSE.

The size of the sparse matrix must be declared explicitly in the matrix dec-
laration. For example,

sparse aa(10,1),bb(200,200);

declares AA to be a 10 x 1 (column) sparse matrix and Y to be a 200 x

200 sparse matrix. The declaration SPARSE is similar to the declaration
MATRIX. Once a symbol is declared to name a sparse matrix, it can not
also be used to name an array, operator, procedure, or used as an ordinary
variable. For more information see the Matrix Variables section (14.2).

16.64.2.2 Assigning Sparse Matrix Elements

Once a matix has been declared a sparse matrix all elements of the matrix
are initialized to 0. Thus when a sparse matrix is initially referred to the
 881

message

"The matrix is dense, contains only zeros"

is returned. When printing out a matrix only the non-zero elements are
printed. This is due to the fact that only the non-zero elements of the matrix
are stored. To assign the elements of the declared matrix we use the follow-
ing syntax. Assuming AA and BB have been declared as spasre matrices, we
simply write,

aa(1,1):=10;
bb(100,150):=a;

etc. This then sets the element in the first row and first column to 10, or the
element in the 100th row and 150th column to a.

16.64.2.3 Evaluating Sparse Matrix Elements

Once an element of a sparse matrix has been assingned, it may be referred

to in standard array element notation. Thus aa(2,1) refers to the element
in the second row and first column of the sparse matrix AA.

16.64.3 Sparse Matrix Expressions

These follow the normal rules of matrix algebra. Sums and products must
be of compatible size; otherwise an error will result during evaluation. Sim-
ilarly, only square matrices may be raised to a power. A negative power is
computed as the inverse of the matrix raised to the corresponding positive
power. For more information and the syntax for matrix algebra see the Ma-
trix Expressions section (14.3).

16.64.4 Operators with Sparse Matrix Arguments

The operators in the Sparse Matix Package are the same as those in the Ma-
trix Packge with the exception that the NULLSPACE operator is not defined.
See section Operators with Matrix Arguments (14.4) for more details.

16.64.4.1 Examples

In the examples the matrix AA will be

882 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES
 
1 0 0 0
 0 3 0 0 
AA = 
 0

0 5 0 
0 0 0 9

det ppp;

135

trace ppp;

18

rank ppp;

spmateigen(ppp,eta);

{{eta - 1,1,

spm(1,1) := arbcomplex(4)$
},

{eta - 3,1,

spm(2,1) := arbcomplex(5)$
},

{eta - 5,1,

spm(3,1) := arbcomplex(6)$
},

{eta - 9,1,

spm(4,1) := arbcomplex(7)$
}}
 883

16.64.5 The Linear Algebra Package for Sparse Matrices

This package is an extension of the Linear Algebra Package for REDUCE

described in section 16.37. These functions are described alphabetically in
section 16.64.6. They can be classified into four sections(n.b: the numbers
after the dots signify the function label in section 6).

16.64.5.1 Basic matrix handling

spadd_columns ... 16.64.6.1 spadd_rows ... 16.64.6.2

spadd_to_columns ... 16.64.6.3 spadd_to_rows ... 16.64.6.4
spaugment_columns . . . 16.64.6.5 spchar_poly ... 16.64.6.9
spcol_dim ... 16.64.6.12 spcopy_into ... 16.64.6.14
spdiagonal ... 16.64.6.15 spextend ... 16.64.6.16
spfind_companion ... 16.64.6.17 spget_columns ... 16.64.6.18
spget_rows ... 16.64.6.19 sphermitian_tp ... 16.64.6.21
spmatrix_augment ... 16.64.6.27 spmatrix_stack ... 16.64.6.29
spminor ... 16.64.6.30 spmult_columns ... 16.64.6.31
spmult_rows ... 16.64.6.32 sppivot ... 16.64.6.33
spremove_columns . . . 16.64.6.35 spremove_rows ... 16.64.6.36
sprow_dim ... 16.64.6.37 sprows_pivot ... 16.64.6.38
spstack_rows ... 16.64.6.41 spsub_matrix ... 16.64.6.42
spswap_columns ... 16.64.6.44 spswap_entries ... 16.64.6.45
spswap_rows ... 16.64.6.46

16.64.5.2 Constructors

Functions that create sparse matrices.

spband_matrix ... 16.64.6.6 spblock_matrix ... 16.64.6.7

spchar_matrix ... 16.64.6.11 spcoeff_matrix ... 16.64.6.11
spcompanion ... 16.64.6.13 sphessian ... 16.64.6.22
spjacobian ... 16.64.6.23 spjordan_block ... 16.64.6.24
spmake_identity ... 16.64.6.26

16.64.5.3 High level algorithms

spchar_poly ... 16.64.6.9 spcholesky ... 16.64.6.10

spgram_schmidt ... 16.64.6.20 splu_decom ... 16.64.6.25
sppseudo_inverse ... 16.64.6.34 spsvd ... 16.64.6.43
884 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.5.4 Predicates

matrixp ... 16.64.6.28 sparsematp ... 16.64.6.39

squarep ... 16.64.6.40 symmetricp ... 16.64.6.47

Note on examples:

In the examples the matrix A will be

 
1 0 0
A = 0 5 0
0 0 9

Unfortunately, due to restrictions of size, it is not practical to use “large”

sparse matrices in the examples. As a result the examples shown may ap-
pear trivial, but they give an idea of how the functions work.

Notation

Throughout I is used to indicate the identity matrix and AT to indicate the

transpose of the matrix A.

16.64.6 Available Functions

16.64.6.1 spadd_columns, spadd_rows

Syntax:
spadd_columns(A,c1,c2,expr);
A :- a sparse matrix.
c1, c2 :- positive integers.
expr :- a scalar expression.
Synopsis:
spadd_columns replaces column c2 of A by
expr ∗ column(A,c1) + column(A,c2).
add_rows performs the equivalent task on the rows of A.
 885

Examples:
 
1 x 0
spadd_columns(A, 1, 2, x) = 0 5 0
0 0 9
 
1 0 0
spadd_rows(A, 2, 3, 5) = 0 5 0
0 25 9

Related functions:
spadd_to_columns, spadd_to_rows, spmult_columns,
spmult_rows.

16.64.6.2 spadd_rows

See: spadd_columns.

16.64.6.3 spadd_to_columns, spadd_to_rows

Syntax:
spadd_to_columns(A,column_list,expr);
A :- a sparse matrix.
column_list :- a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
expr :- a scalar expression.
Synopsis:
spadd_to_columns adds expr to each column specified in col-
umn_list of A.
spadd_to_rows performs the equivalent task on the rows of A.
Examples:


11 10 0
spadd_to_columns(A, {1, 2}, 10) = 10 15 0
10 10 9
 
1 0 0
spadd_to_rows(A, 2, −x) = −x −x + 5 −x
0 0 9

Related functions:
spadd_columns, spadd_rows, spmult_rows, spmult_columns.
886 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.6.4 spadd_to_rows

See: spadd_to_columns.

16.64.6.5 spaugment_columns, spstack_rows

Syntax:
spaugment_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a sparse matrix.
column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
spaugment_columns gets hold of the columns of A specified in
column_list and sticks them together.
spstack_rows performs the same task on rows of A.
Examples:
 
1 0
spaugment_columns(A, {1, 2}) = 0 5
0 0
 
1 0 0
spstack_rows(A, {1, 3}) =
0 0 9

Related functions:
spget_columns, spget_rows, spsub_matrix.

16.64.6.6 spband_matrix

Syntax:
spband_matrix(expr_list,square_size);
expr_list :- either a single scalar expression or a list of an odd
number of scalar expressions.
square_size :- a positive integer.
Synopsis:
spband_matrix creates a sparse square matrix of dimension
square_size.
 887

y z 0 0 0 0
 
x y z 0 0 0
0 x y z 0 0
 
Examples: spband_matrix({x, y, z}, 6) = 
0 0 x y z 0

0 0 0 x y z
0 0 0 0 x y
Related functions:
spdiagonal.

16.64.6.7 spblock_matrix

Syntax:
spblock_matrix(r,c,matrix_list);
r,c :- positive integers.
matrix_list :- a list of matrices of either sparse or matrix type.
Synopsis:
spblock_matrix creates a sparse matrix that consists of r by c
matrices filled from the matrix_list row wise.
Examples:
     
1 0 5 22 0
B= , C= , D=
0 1 0 0 0
 
1 0 5 22 0
0 1 0 0 0
spblock_matrix(2, 3, {B, C, D, D, C, B}) = 
22

0 5 1 0
0 0 0 0 1

16.64.6.8 spchar_matrix

Syntax:
spchar_matrix(A, λ);
A :- a square sparse matrix.
λ :- a symbol or algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
spchar_matrix creates the characteristic matrix C of A.
This is C = λ ∗ I − A.
888 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

x−1 0 0
Examples: spchar_matrix(A, x) =  0 x−5 0 
0 0 x−9
Related functions:
spchar_poly.

16.64.6.9 spchar_poly

Syntax:
spchar_poly(A, λ);
A :- a sparse square matrix.
λ :- a symbol or algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
spchar_poly finds the characteristic polynomial of A.
This is the determinant of λ ∗ I − A.
Examples:
spchar_poly(A,x) = x3 − 15 ∗ x2 − 59 ∗ x − 45
Related functions:
spchar_matrix.

16.64.6.10 spcholesky

Syntax:
spcholesky(A);
A :- a positive definite sparse matrix containing numeric entries.
Synopsis:
spcholesky computes the cholesky decomposition of A.
It returns {L, U} where L is a lower matrix, U is an upper matrix,
A = LU, and U = LT .
 889

Examples:
 
1 0 0
F = 0 5 0
0 0 9
   
 1 √0 0 1 √0 0 
cholesky(F) = 0 5 0  , 0 5 0
0 0 3 0 0 3
 

Related functions:
splu_decom.

16.64.6.11 spcoeff_matrix

Syntax:
spcoeff_matrix({lin_eqn1 ,lin_eqn2 , ...,lin_eqnn });
lin_eqn1 ,lin_eqn2 , . . . ,lin_eqnn :- linear equations. Can be of the
form equation = number or
just equation which is equiv-
alent to equation = 0.
Synopsis:
spcoeff_matrix creates the coefficient matrix C of the linear
equations.
It returns {C, X , B} such that CX = B.
Examples:

spcoeff_matrix({y − 20 ∗ w = 10, y − z = 20, y + 4 + 3 ∗ z, w + x + 50}) =

     

 1 −20 0 0 y 10 
1 0 −1 0  w  20 

 , , 
 1 0 3 0   z  −4

 0 1 
0 1 x 50 

16.64.6.12 spcol_dim, sprow_dim

Syntax:
column_dim(A);
A :- a sparse matrix.
890 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Synopsis:
spcol_dim finds the column dimension of A.
sprow_dim finds the row dimension of A.
Examples:
spcol_dim(A) = 3

16.64.6.13 spcompanion

Syntax:
spcompanion(poly,x);
poly :- a monic univariate polynomial in x.
x :- the variable.
Synopsis:
spcompanion creates the companion matrix C of poly.
This is the square matrix of dimension n, where n is the degree of poly
w.r.t. x. The entries of C are: C(i, n) = −coeffn(poly, x, i − 1)
for i = 1 . . . n, C(i, i − 1) = 1 for i = 2 . . . n and the rest are 0.
Examples:  
0 0 0 −11
 1 0 0 0 
spcompanion(x4 + 17 ∗ x3 − 9 ∗ x2 + 11, x) = 
0

1 0 9 
0 0 1 −17
Related functions:
spfind_companion.

16.64.6.14 spcopy_into

Syntax:
spcopy_into(A, B,r,c);
A, B :- matrices of type sparse or matrix.
r,c :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
spcopy_into copies matrix A into B with A(1,1) at B(r,c).
 891

Examples:
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
G= 0

0 0 0
0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
0 0 5 0
spcopy_into(A, G, 1, 2) = 
0

0 0 9
0 0 0 0

Related functions:
spaugment_columns, spextend, spmatrix_augment, spmatrix_stack,
spstack_rows, spsub_matrix.

16.64.6.15 spdiagonal

Syntax:
spdiagonal({mat1 ,mat2 , ...,matn });48
mat1 ,mat2 , . . . ,matn :- each can be either a scalar expr or a
square matrix of sparse or matrix type.
Synopsis:
spdiagonal creates a sparse matrix that contains the input on the
diagonal.
Examples:
 
66 77
H=
88 99

1 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 5 0 0 0 0
0 0 9 0 0 0
 
spdiagonal({A, x, H}) = 
0 0 0 x 0 0

0 0 0 0 66 77
0 0 0 0 88 99

Related functions:
spjordan_block.
48
The {}’s can be omitted.
892 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.6.16 spextend

Syntax:
spextend(A,r,c,expr);
A :- a sparse matrix.
r,c :- positive integers.
expr :- algebraic expression or symbol.
Synopsis:
spextend returns a copy of A that has been extended by r rows and
c columns. The new entries are made equal to expr.
 
1 0 0 0 0
0 5 0 0 0 
Examples: spextend(A, 1, 2, 0) =  0 0 9 0 0 

0 0 0 0 0
Related functions:
spcopy_into, spmatrix_augment, spmatrix_stack, spremove_columns,
spremove_rows.

16.64.6.17 spfind_companion

Syntax:
spfind_companion(A,x);
A :- a sparse matrix.
x :- the variable.
Synopsis:
Given a sparse companion matrix, spfind_companion finds the
polynomial from which it was made.
Examples:
 
0 0 0 −11
1 0 0 0 
C=
0

1 0 9 
0 0 1 −17

spfind_companion(C, x) = x4 + 17 ∗ x3 − 9 ∗ x2 + 11

Related functions:
spcompanion.
 893

16.64.6.18 spget_columns, spget_rows

Syntax:
spget_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a sparse matrix.
c :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
spget_columns removes the columns of A specified in col-
umn_list and returns them as a list of column matrices.
spget_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.
Examples:
    
 1 0 
spget_columns(A, {1, 3}) =  0 , 0
 
 0 9 


spget_rows(A, 2) = 0 5 0

Related functions:
spaugment_columns, spstack_rows, spsub_matrix.

16.64.6.19 spget_rows

See: spget_columns.

16.64.6.20 spgram_schmidt

Syntax:
spgram_schmidt({vec1 ,vec2 , ...,vecn });
vec1 ,vec2 , . . . ,vecn :- linearly independent vectors. Each vec-
tor must be written as a list of prede-
fined sparse (column) matrices, eg: sparse
a(4,1);, a(1,1):=1;
Synopsis:
spgram_schmidt performs the gram_schmidt orthonormalisation
on the input vectors.
It returns a list of orthogonal normalised vectors.
894 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Examples:
Suppose a,b,c,d correspond to sparse matrices representing the fol-
lowing lists: {{1,0,0,0},{1,1,0,0},{1,1,1,0},{1,1,1,1}}.
spgram_schmidt({{a},{b},{c},{d}}) =
{{1,0,0,0},{0,1,0,0},{0,0,1,0},{0,0,0,1}}

16.64.6.21 sphermitian_tp

Syntax:
sphermitian_tp(A);
A :- a sparse matrix.
Synopsis:
sphermitian_tp computes the hermitian transpose of A.
Examples:
 
i+1 i+2 i+3
J = 0 0 0 
0 i 0
 
−i + 1 0 0
sphermitian_tp(J ) = −i + 2 0 −i
−i + 3 0 0

Related functions:
tp49 .

16.64.6.22 sphessian

Syntax:
sphessian(expr,variable_list);
expr :- a scalar expression.
variable_list :- either a single variable or a list of variables.
Synopsis:
sphessian computes the hessian matrix of expr w.r.t. the variables
in variable_list.
49
standard reduce call for the transpose of a matrix - see section 14.4.
 895
 
0 0 0 0
0 2 z y
Examples: sphessian(x ∗ y ∗ z + x2 , {w, x, y, z}) = 
0

z 0 x
0 y x 0

16.64.6.23 spjacobian

Syntax:
spjacobian(expr_list,variable_list);
expr_list :- either a single algebraic expression or a list of al-
gebraic expressions.
variable_list :- either a single variable or a list of variables.
Synopsis:
spjacobian computes the jacobian matrix of expr_list w.r.t. vari-
able_list.
Examples:

spjacobian({x4 , x ∗ y 2 , x ∗ y ∗ z 3 },{w, x, y, z}) =

 
0 4 ∗ x3 0 0
0 y2 2∗x∗y 0 
3 3 2
0 y∗z x∗z 3∗x∗y∗z

Related functions:
sphessian, df50 .

16.64.6.24 spjordan_block

Syntax:
spjordan_block(expr,square_size);
expr :- an algebraic expression or symbol.
square_size :- a positive integer.
Synopsis:
spjordan_block computes the square jordan block matrix J of
dimension square_size.
50
standard reduce call for differentiation - see 7.8.
896 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES
 
x 1 0 0 0
0 x 1 0 0
 
0
Examples: spjordan_block(x,5) =  0 x 1 0
0 0 0 x 1
0 0 0 0 x
Related functions:
spdiagonal, spcompanion.

16.64.6.25 splu_decom

Syntax:
splu_decom(A);
A :- a sparse matrix containing either numeric entries or imagi-
nary entries with numeric coefficients.
Synopsis:
splu_decom performs LU decomposition on A, ie: it returns
{L, U} where L is a lower diagonal matrix, U an upper diagonal ma-
trix and A = LU.
Caution: The algorithm used can swap the rows of A during the cal-
culation. This means that LU does not equal A but a row equiva-
lent of it. Due to this, splu_decom returns {L, U,vec}. The call
spconvert(A,vec) will return the sparse matrix that has been
decomposed, ie: LU = spconvert(A,vec).
 
1 0 0
Examples: K = 0 5 0
0 0 9
    
 1 0 0 1 0 0 
lu := splu_decom(K) =  0 5 0 , 0 1 0 ,[ 1 2 3 ]
  
 0 0 9 0 0 1 

 
1 0 0
first lu * second lu = 0 5 0
0 0 9
 
1 0 0
convert(K,third lu) = 0 5 0
0 0 9
 897

Related functions:
spcholesky.

16.64.6.26 spmake_identity

Syntax:
spmake_identity(square_size);
square_size :- a positive integer.
Synopsis:
spmake_identity creates the identity matrix of dimension square_size.
 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
Examples: spmake_identity(4) =  0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1
Related functions:
spdiagonal.

16.64.6.27 spmatrix_augment, spmatrix_stack

Syntax:
spmatrix_augment({mat1 ,mat2 , ...,matn });51
mat1 ,mat2 , . . . ,matn :- matrices.
Synopsis:
spmatrix_augment joins the matrices in matrix_list together hor-
izontally.
spmatrix_stack joins the matrices in matrix_list together verti-
cally.
51
The {}’s can be omitted.
898 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Examples:

1 0 0 1 0 0
spmatrix_augment({A, A}) = 0 5 0 0 5 0
0 0 9 0 0 9

1 0 0
 
0 5 0
0 0 9
 
spmatrix_stack({A, A}) =
1 0 0

0 5 0
0 0 9

Related functions:
spaugment_columns, spstack_rows, spsub_matrix.

16.64.6.28 matrixp

Syntax:
matrixp(test_input);
test_input :- anything you like.
Synopsis:
matrixp is a boolean function that returns t if the input is a matrix
of type sparse or matrix and nil otherwise.
Examples:
matrixp(A) = t
matrixp(doodlesackbanana) = nil
Related functions:
squarep, symmetricp, sparsematp.

16.64.6.29 spmatrix_stack

See: spmatrix_augment.

16.64.6.30 spminor

Syntax:
spminor(A,r,c);
 899

A :- a sparse matrix.
r,c :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
spminor computes the (r,c)’th minor of A.
 
0 5
Examples: spminor(A, 1, 3) =
0 0
Related functions:
spremove_columns, spremove_rows.

16.64.6.31 spmult_columns, spmult_rows

Syntax:
spmult_columns(A,column_list,expr);
A :- a sparse matrix.
column_list :- a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
expr :- an algebraic expression.
Synopsis:
spmult_columns returns a copy of A in which the columns spec-
ified in column_list have been multiplied by expr.
spmult_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.
Examples:
 
x 0 0
spmult_columns(A, {1, 3}, x) =  0 5 0 
0 0 9∗x
 
1 0 0
spmult_rows(A, 2, 10) = 0 50 0
0 0 9

Related functions:
spadd_to_columns, spadd_to_rows.

16.64.6.32 spmult_rows

See: spmult_columns.
900 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.6.33 sppivot

Syntax:
sppivot(A,r,c);
A :- a sparse matrix.
r,c :- positive integers such that A(r,c) neq 0.
Synopsis:
sppivot pivots A about it’s (r,c)’th entry.
To do this, multiples of the r’th row are added to every other row in
the matrix.
This means that the c’th column will be 0 except for the (r,c)’th entry.
Related functions:
sprows_pivot.

16.64.6.34 sppseudo_inverse

Syntax:
sppseudo_inverse(A);
A :- a sparse matrix containing only real numeric entries.
Synopsis:
sppseudo_inverse, also known as the Moore-Penrose inverse,
computes the pseudo inverse of A.
Given the singular value decomposition of A, i.e: A = UΣV T , then
the pseudo inverse A† is defined by A† = VΣ† U T . For the diagonal
matrix Σ, the pseudoinverse Σ† is computed by taking the reciprocal
of only the nonzero diagonal elements.
If A is square and non-singular, then A† = A. In general, however,
AA† A = A, and A† AA† = A† .
Perhaps more importantly, A† solves the following least-squares prob-
lem: given a rectangular matrix A and a vector b, find the x minimiz-
ing kAx − bk2 , and which, in addition, has minimum `2 (euclidean)
Norm, kxk2 . This x is A† b.
 901

Examples:
 
0 0 3 0
R=
9 0 7 0
 
−0.26 0.11
 0 0 
sppseudo_inverse(R) = 
 0.33

0 
0.25 −0.05

Related functions:
spsvd.

16.64.6.35 spremove_columns, spremove_rows

Syntax:
spremove_columns(A,column_list);
A :- a sparse matrix.
column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
spremove_columns removes the columns specified in column_list
from A.
spremove_rows performs the same task on the rows of A.
Examples:
 
1 0
spremove_columns(A, 2) = 0 0
0 9


spremove_rows(A, {1, 3}) = 0 5 0

Related functions:
spminor.

16.64.6.36 spremove_rows

See: spremove_columns.

16.64.6.37 sprow_dim

See: spcolumn_dim.
902 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.6.38 sprows_pivot

Syntax:
sprows_pivot(A,r,c,{row_list});
A :- a sparse matrix.
r,c :- positive integers such that A(r,c) neq 0.
row_list :- positive integer or a list of positive integers.
Synopsis:
sprows_pivot performs the same task as sppivot but applies
the pivot only to the rows specified in row_list.
Related functions:
sppivot.

16.64.6.39 sparsematp

Syntax:
sparsematp(A);
A :- a matrix.
Synopsis:
sparsematp is a boolean function that returns t if the matrix is de-
clared sparse and nil otherwise.
Examples:

L := mat((1,2,3),(4,5,6),(7,8,9));
sparsematp(A) = t
sparsematp(L) = nil

Related functions:
matrixp, symmetricp, squarep.

16.64.6.40 squarep

Syntax:
squarep(A);
A :- a matrix.
 903

Synopsis:
squarep is a boolean function that returns t if the matrix is square
and nil otherwise.
Examples:


L= 1 3 5
squarep(A) = t
squarep(L) = nil

Related functions:
matrixp, symmetricp, sparsematp.

16.64.6.41 spstack_rows

See: spaugment_columns.

16.64.6.42 spsub_matrix

Syntax:
spsub_matrix(A,row_list,column_list);
A :- a sparse matrix.
row_list, column_list :- either a positive integer or a list of positive
integers.
Synopsis:
spsub_matrix produces the matrix consisting of the intersection
of the rows specified in row_list and the columns specified in col-
umn_list.
 
5 0
Examples: spsub_matrix(A, {1, 3}, {2, 3}) =
0 9
Related functions:
spaugment_columns, spstack_rows.

16.64.6.43 spsvd (singular value decomposition)

Syntax:
spsvd(A);
A :- a sparse matrix containing only real numeric entries.
904 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Synopsis:
spsvd computes the singular value decomposition of A.
If A is an m × n real matrix of (column) rank r, svd returns the
3-element list {U, Σ, V} where A = UΣV T .
Let k = min(m, n). Then U is m × k, V is n × k, and and Σ =
diag(σ1 , . . . , σk ), where σi ≥ 0 are the singular values of A; only r of
these are non-zero. The singular values are the non-negative square
roots of the eigenvalues of AT A.
U and V are such that UU T = VV T = V T V = Ik .
Note: there are a number of different definitions of SVD in the litera-
ture, in some of which Σ is square and U and V rectangular, as here,
but in others U and V are square, and Σ is rectangular.
Examples:
 
1 0
Q=
0 3
   
−1 0 1.0 0
svd(Q) = , ,
0 0 0 5.0
 
−1 0
0 −1

16.64.6.44 spswap_columns, spswap_rows

Syntax:
spswap_columns(A,c1,c2);
A :- a sparse matrix.
c1,c1 :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
spswap_columns swaps column c1 of A with column c2.
spswap_rows performs the same task on 2 rows of A.
 
1 0 0
Examples: spswap_columns(A, 2, 3) = 0 0 5
0 9 0
Related functions:
spswap_entries.
 905

16.64.6.45 swap_entries

Syntax:
spswap_entries(A,{r1,c1},{r2,c2});
A :- a sparse matrix.
r1,c1,r2,c2 :- positive integers.
Synopsis:
spswap_entries swaps A(r1,c1) with A(r2,c2).
 
9 0 0
Examples: spswap_entries(A, {1, 1}, {3, 3}) = 0 5 0
0 0 1
Related functions:
spswap_columns, spswap_rows.

16.64.6.46 spswap_rows

See: spswap_columns.

16.64.6.47 symmetricp

Syntax:
symmetricp(A);
A :- a matrix.
Synopsis:
symmetricp is a boolean function that returns t if the matrix is sym-
metric and nil otherwise.
Examples:
 
1 2
M=
2 1

symmetricp(A) = nil
symmetricp(M) = t

Related functions:
matrixp, squarep, sparsematp.
906 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.64.7 Fast Linear Algebra

By turning the fast_la switch on, the speed of the following functions
will be increased:
spadd_columns spadd_rows spaugment_columns spcol_dim
spcopy_into spmake_identity spmatrix_augment spmatrix_stack
spminor spmult_column spmult_row sppivot
spremove_columns spremove_rows sprows_pivot squarep
spstack_rows spsub_matrix spswap_columns spswap_entries
spswap_rows symmetricp
The increase in speed will be insignificant unless you are making a signifi-
cant number(i.e: thousands) of calls. When using this switch, error check-
ing is minimised. This means that illegal input may give strange error mes-
sages. Beware.

16.64.8 Acknowledgments

This package is an extention of the code from the Linear Algebra Package
for REDUCE by Matt Rebbeck (cf. section 16.37).
The algorithms for spcholesky, splu_decom, and spsvd are taken
from the book Linear Algebra - J.H. Wilkinson & C. Reinsch[3].
The spgram_schmidt code comes from Karin Gatermann’s Symmetry
package[4] for REDUCE.

Bibliography

[1] Matt Rebbeck: A Linear Algebra Package for REDUCE, ZIB , Berlin.
(1994)
[2] Anthony C. Hearn: REDUCE User’s Manual 3.6. RAND (1995)
[3] J. H. Wilkinson & C. Reinsch: Linear Algebra (volume II). Springer-
Verlag (1971)
[4] Karin Gatermann: Symmetry: A REDUCE package for the computa-
tion of linear representations of groups. ZIB, Berlin. (1992)
 907

16.65 SPDE: Finding symmetry groups of PDE’s

The package SPDE provides a set of functions which may be used to de-
termine the symmetry group of Lie- or point-symmetries of a given system
of partial differential equations. In many cases the determining system is
solved completely automatically. In other cases the user has to provide ad-
ditional input information for the solution algorithm to terminate.
Author: Fritz Schwarz.
The package SPDE provides a set of functions which may be applied to
determine the symmetry group of Lie- or point-symmetries of a given sys-
tem of partial differential equations. Preferably it is used interactively on a
computer terminal. In many cases the determining system is solved com-
pletely automatically. In some other cases the user has to provide some
additional input information for the solution algorithm to terminate. The
package should only be used in compiled form.
For all theoretical questions, a description of the algorithm and numerous
examples the following articles should be consulted: “Automatically De-
termining Symmetries of Partial Differential Equations”, Computing vol.
34, page 91-106(1985) and vol. 36, page 279-280(1986), “Symmetries of
Differential Equations: From Sophus Lie to Computer Algebra”, SIAM Re-
view, to appear, and Chapter 2 of the Lecture Notes “Computer Algebra and
Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics”, to appear.

16.65.1 Description of the System Functions and Variables

The symmetry analysis of partial differential equations logically falls into

three parts. Accordingly the most important functions provided by the pack-
age are:

Function name Operation

CRESYS(< arguments >) Constructs determining system
SIMPSYS() Solves determining system
RESULT() Prints infinitesimal generators
and commutator table
Table 16.6: SPDE Functions

Some other useful functions for obtaining various kinds of output are:
908 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Function name Operation

PRSYS() Prints determining system
PRGEN() Prints infinitesimal generators
COMM(U,V) Prints commutator of generators U and V
Table 16.7: SPDE Useful Output Functions

There are several global variables defined by the system which should not
be used for any other purpose than that given in Table 16.8 and 16.9. The
three globals of the type integer are:

Variable name Meaning

NN Number of independent variables
MM Number of dependent variables
PCLASS=0, 1 or 2 Controls amount of output
Table 16.8: SPDE Integer valued globals

In addition there are the following global variables of type operator:

Variable name Meaning

X(I) Independent variable xi
U(ALFA) Dependent variable ualf a
U(ALFA,I) Derivative of ualf a w.r.t. xi
DEQ(I) i-th differential equation
SDER(I) Derivative w.r.t. which DEQ(I) is resolved
GL(I) i-th equation of determining system
GEN(I) i-th infinitesimal generator
XI(I), ETA(ALFA) See definition given in the
ZETA(ALFA,I) references quoted in the introduction.
C(I) i-th function used for substitution
Table 16.9: SPDE Operator type global variables

The differential equations of the system at issue have to be assigned as

values to the operator deq i applying the notation which is defined in Ta-
ble 16.9. The entries in the third and the last line of that Table have obvious
extensions to higher derivatives.
The derivative w.r.t. which the i-th differential equation deq i is resolved has
to be assigned to sder i. Exception: If there is a single differential equation
and no assignment has been made by the user, the highest derivative is taken
by default.
When the appropriate assignments are made to the variable deq, the values
 909

of NN and MM (Table 16.7) are determined automatically, i.e. they have

not to be assigned by the user.
The function CRESYS may be called with any number of arguments, i.e.

CRESYS(); or CRESYS(deq 1,deq 2,... );

are legal calls. If it is called without any argument, all current assignments
to deq are taken into account. Example: If deq 1, deq 2 and deq 3 have been
assigned a differential equation and the symmetry group of the full system
comprising all three equations is desired, equivalent calls are

CRESYS(); or CRESYS(deq 1,deq 2,deq 3);

The first alternative saves some typing. If later in the session the symmetry
group of deq 1 alone has to be determined, the correct call is

CRESYS deq 1;

After the determining system has bee created, SIMPSYS which has no ar-
guments may be called for solving it. The amount of intermediate output
produced by SIMPSYS is controlled by the global variable PCLASS with
the default value 0. With PCLASS equal to 0, no intermediate steps are
shown. With PCLASS equal to 1, all intermediate steps are displayed so
that the solution algorithm may be followed through in detail. Each time
the algorithm passes through the top of the main solution loop the message

Entering main loop

is written. PCLASS equal 2 produces a lot of LISP output and is of no

interest for the normal user.
If with PCLASS=0 the procedure SIMPSYS terminates without any re-
sponse, the determining system is completely solved. In some cases SIMP-
SYS does not solve the determining system completely in a single run. In
general this is true if there are only genuine differential equations left which
the algorithm cannot handle at present. If a case like this occurs, SIMPSYS
returns the remaining equations of the determining system. To proceed with
the solution algorithm, appropriate assignments have to be transmitted by
the user, e.g. the explicit solution for one of the returned differential equat-
ions. Any new functions which are introduced thereby must be operators
of the form c(k) with the correct dependencies generated by a depend state-
ment (see the “REDUCE User’s Guide”). Its enumeration has to be chosen
910 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

in agreement with the current number of functions which have alreday been
introduced. This value is returned by SIMPSYS too.
After the determining system has been solved, the procedure RESULT,
which has no arguments, may be called. It displays the infinitesimal gener-
ators and its non-vanishing commutators.

16.65.2 How to Use the Package

In this Section it is explained by way of several examples how the pack-

age SPDE is used interactively to determine the symmetry group of partial
differential equations. Consider first the diffusion equation which in the
notation given above may be written as

deq 1:=u(1,1)+u(1,2,2);

It has been assigned as the value of deq 1 by this statement. There is no

need to assign a value to sder 1 here because the system comprises only a
single equation.
The determining system is constructed by calling

CRESYS(); or CRESYS deq 1;

The latter call is compulsory if there are other assignments to the operator
deq i than for i=1.
The error message

***** Differential equations not defined

appears if there are no differential equations assigned to any deq.

If the user wants the determining system displayed for inspection before
starting the solution algorithm he may call

PRSYS();

and gets the answer

GL(1):=2*DF(ETA(1),U(1),X(2)) - DF(XI(2),X(2),2) -
DF(XI(2),X(1))
 911

GL(2):=DF(ETA(1),U(1),2) - 2*DF(XI(2),U(1),X(2))

GL(3):=DF(ETA(1),X(2),2) + DF(ETA(1),X(1))

GL(4):=DF(XI(2),U(1),2)

GL(5):=DF(XI(2),U(1)) - DF(XI(1),U(1),X(2))

GL(6):=2*DF(XI(2),X(2)) - DF(XI(1),X(2),2) - DF(XI(1),X(1))

GL(7):=DF(XI(1),U(1),2)

GL(8):=DF(XI(1),U(1))

GL(9):=DF(XI(1),X(2))

The remaining dependencies

XI(2) depends on U(1),X(2),X(1)

XI(1) depends on U(1),X(2),X(1)

ETA(1) depends on U(1),X(2),X(1)

The last message means that all three functions XI(1), XI(2) and ETA(1)
depend on X(1), X(2) and U(1). Without this information the nine equations
GL(1) to GL(9) forming the determining system are meaningless. Now the
solution algorithm may be activated by calling

SIMPSYS();

If the print flag PCLASS has its default value which is 0 no intermediate
output is produced and the answer is

Determining system is not completely solved

The remaining equations are

GL(1):=DF(C(1),X(2),2) + DF(C(1),X(1))

Number of functions is 16
912 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The remaining dependencies

C(1) depends on X(2),X(1)

With PCLASS equal to 1 about 6 pages of intermediate output are obtained.

It allows the user to follow through each step of the solution algorithm.
In this example the algorithm did not solve the determining system com-
pletely as it is shown by the last message. This was to be expected because
the diffusion equation is linear and therefore the symmetry group contains
a generator depending on a function which solves the original differential
equation. In cases like this the user has to provide some additional infor-
mation to the system so that the solution algorithm may continue. In the
example under consideration the appropriate input is

DF(C(1),X(1)) := - DF(C(1),X(2),2);

If now the solution algorithm is activated again by

SIMPSYS();

the solution algorithm terminates without any further message, i.e. there
are no equations of the determining system left unsolved. To obtain the
symmetry generators one has to say finally

RESULT();

and obtains the answer

The differential equation

DEQ(1):=U(1,2,2) + U(1,1)

The symmetry generators are

GEN(1):= DX(1)

GEN(2):= DX(2)

GEN(3):= 2*DX(2)*X(1) + DU(1)*U(1)*X(2)

 913

GEN(4):= DU(1)*U(1)

GEN(5):= 2*DX(1)*X(1) + DX(2)*X(2)

2
GEN(6):= 4*DX(1)*X(1)

+ 4*DX(2)*X(2)*X(1)

2
+ DU(1)*U(1)*(X(2) - 2*X(1))

GEN(7):= DU(1)*C(1)

The remaining dependencies

C(1) depends on X(2),X(1)

Constraints

DF(C(1),X(1)):= - DF(C(1),X(2),2)

The non-vanishing commutators of the finite subgroup

COMM(1,3):= 2*DX(2)

COMM(1,5):= 2*DX(1)

COMM(1,6):= 8*DX(1)*X(1) + 4*DX(2)*X(2) - 2*DU(1)*U(1)

COMM(2,3):= DU(1)*U(1)

COMM(2,5):= DX(2)

COMM(2,6):= 4*DX(2)*X(1) + 2*DU(1)*U(1)*X(2)

COMM(3,5):= - (2*DX(2)*X(1) + DU(1)*U(1)*X(2))

2
914 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

COMM(5,6):= 8*DX(1)*X(1)

+ 8*DX(2)*X(2)*X(1)

2
+ 2*DU(1)*U(1)*(X(2) - 2*X(1))

The message “Constraints” which appears after the symmetry generators

are displayed means that the function c(1) depends on x(1) and x(2) and
satisfies the diffusion equation.
More examples which may used for test runs are given in the final section.
If the user wants to test a certain ansatz of a symmetry generator for given
differential equations, the correct proceeding is as follows. Create the deter-
mining system as described above. Make the appropriate assignments for
the generator and call PRSYS() after that. The determining system with this
ansatz substituted is returned. Example: Assume again that the determining
system for the diffusion equation has been created. To check the correct-
ness for example of generator GEN 3 which has been obtained above, the
assignments

XI(1):=0; XI(2):=2*X(1); ETA(1):=X(2)*U(1);

have to be made. If now PRSYS() is called all GL(K) are zero proving the
correctness of this generator.
Sometimes a user only wants to know some of the functions ZETA for for
various values of its possible arguments and given values of MM and NN.
In these cases the user has to assign the desired values of MM and NN and
may call the ZETAs after that. Example:

MM:=1; NN:=2;

FACTOR U(1,2),U(1,1),U(1,1,2),U(1,1,1);

ON LIST;

ZETA(1,1);

-U(1,2)*U(1,1)*DF(XI(2),U(1))

-U(1,2)*DF(XI(2),X(1))
 915

2
-U(1,1) *DF(XI(1),U(1))

+U(1,1)*(DF(ETA(1),U(1)) -DF(XI(1),X(1)))

+DF(ETA(1),X(1))

ZETA(1,1,1);

-2*U(1,1,2)*U(1,1)*DF(XI(2),U(1))

-2*U(1,1,2)*DF(XI(2),X(1))

-U(1,1,1)*U(1,2)*DF(XI(2),U(1))

-3*U(1,1,1)*U(1,1)*DF(XI(1),U(1))

+U(1,1,1)*(DF(ETA(1),U(1)) -2*DF(XI(1),X(1)))

2
-U(1,2)*U(1,1) *DF(XI(2),U(1),2)

-2*U(1,2)*U(1,1)*DF(XI(2),U(1),X(1))

-U(1,2)*DF(XI(2),X(1),2)

3
-U(1,1) *DF(XI(1),U(1),2)

2
+U(1,1) *(DF(ETA(1),U(1),2) -2*DF(XI(1),U(1),X(1)))

+U(1,1)*(2*DF(ETA(1),U(1),X(1)) -DF(XI(1),X(1),2))

+DF(ETA(1),X(1),2)

If by error no values to MM or NN and have been assigned the message

***** Number of variables not defined

is returned. Often the functions ZETA are desired for special values of its
916 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

arguments ETA(ALFA) and XI(K). To this end they have to be assigned

first to some other variable. After that they may be evaluated for the special
arguments. In the previous example this may be achieved by

Z11:=ZETA(1,1)$ Z111:=ZETA(1,1,1)$

Now assign the following values to XI 1, XI 2 and ETA 1:

XI 1:=4*X(1)**2; XI 2:=4*X(2)*X(1);

ETA 1:=U(1)*(X(2)**2 - 2*X(1));

They correspond to the generator GEN 6 of the diffusion equation which has
been obtained above. Now the desired expressions are obtained by calling

Z11;

2
- (4*U(1,2)*X(2) - U(1,1)*X(2) + 10*U(1,1)*X(1) + 2*U(1))

Z111;

2
- (8*U(1,1,2)*X(2) - U(1,1,1)*X(2) + 18*U(1,1,1)*X(1) +
12*U(1,1))

16.65.3 Test File

This appendix is a test file. The symmetry groups for various equations or
systems of equations are determined. The variable PCLASS has the default
value 0 and may be changed by the user before running it. The output may
be compared with the results which are given in the references.

%The Burgers equations

deq 1:=u(1,1)+u 1*u(1,2)+u(1,2,2)$

cresys deq 1$ simpsys()$ result()$

%The Kadomtsev-Petviashvili equation

 917

deq 1:=3*u(1,3,3)+u(1,2,2,2,2)+6*u(1,2,2)*u 1

+6*u(1,2)**2+4*u(1,1,2)$

cresys deq 1$ simpsys()$ result()$

%The modified Kadomtsev-Petviashvili equation

deq 1:=u(1,1,2)-u(1,2,2,2,2)-3*u(1,3,3)

+6*u(1,2)**2*u(1,2,2)+6*u(1,3)*u(1,2,2)$

cresys deq 1$ simpsys()$ result()$

%The real- and the imaginary part of the nonlinear

%Schroedinger equation

deq 1:= u(1,1)+u(2,2,2)+2*u 1**2*u 2+2*u 2**3$

deq 2:=-u(2,1)+u(1,2,2)+2*u 1*u 2**2+2*u 1**3$

%Because this is not a single equation the two assignments

sder 1:=u(2,2,2)$ sder 2:=u(1,2,2)$

%are necessary.

cresys()$ simpsys()$ result()$

%The symmetries of the system comprising the four equations

deq 1:=u(1,1)+u 1*u(1,2)+u(1,2,2)$

deq 2:=u(2,1)+u(2,2,2)$

deq 3:=u 1*u 2-2*u(2,2)$

deq 4:=4*u(2,1)+u 2*(u 1**2+2*u(1,2))$

sder 1:=u(1,2,2)$ sder 2:=u(2,2,2)$ sder 3:=u(2,2)$

sder 4:=u(2,1)$
918 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

%is obtained by calling

cresys()$ simpsys()$

df(c 5,x 1):=-df(c 5,x 2,2)$

df(c 5,x 2,x 1):=-df(c 5,x 2,3)$

simpsys()$ result()$

% The symmetries of the subsystem comprising equation 1

% and 3 are obtained by

cresys(deq 1,deq 3)$ simpsys()$ result()$

% The result for all possible subsystems is discussed in

% detail in ‘‘Symmetries and Involution Systems: Some
% Experiments in Computer Algebra’’, contribution to the
% Proceedings of the Oberwolfach Meeting on Nonlinear
% Evolution Equations, Summer 1986, to appear.
 919

16.66 SPECFN: Package for special functions

This special function package is separated into two portions to make it eas-
ier to handle. The packages are called SPECFN and SPECFN2. The first
one is more general in nature, whereas the second is devoted to special spe-
cial functions. Documentation for the first package can be found in the
file specfn.tex in the “doc” directory, and examples in specfn.tst and specf-
mor.tst in the examples directory.
Author: Chris Cannam, with contributions from Winfried Neun, Herbert
Melenk, Victor Adamchik, Francis Wright and several others.
The package SPECFN is designed to provide algebraic and numeric manip-
ulations of several common special functions, namely:

• Bernoulli numbers and Polynomials;

• Euler numbers and Polynomials;
• Fibonacci numbers and Polynomials;
• Stirling numbers;
• Binomial Coefficients;
• Pochhammer notation;
• The Gamma function;
• The psi function and its derivatives;
• The Riemann Zeta function;
• The Bessel functions J and Y of the first and second kinds;
• The modified Bessel functions I and K;
• The Hankel functions H1 and H2;
• The Kummer hypergeometric functions M and U;
• The Beta function, and Struve, Lommel and Whittaker functions;
• The Airy funcions;
• The Exponential Integral, the Sine and Cosine Integrals;
• The Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine Integrals;
• The Fresnel Integrals and the Error function;
920 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• The Dilog function;

• The Polylogarithm and Lerch Phi function;
• Hermite Polynomials;
• Jacobi Polynomials;
• Legendre Polynomials;
• Associated Legendre Functions (Spherical and Solid Harmonics)
• Laguerre Polynomials;
• Chebyshev Polynomials;
• Gegenbauer Polynomials;
• Lambert’s ω function;
• (Jacobi’s) Elliptic Functions;
• Elliptic Integrals;
• (Jacobi’s) Theta Functions
• 3j and 6j symbols , Clebsch-Gordan coefficients;
• and some well-known constants.

All algorithms whose sources are uncredited are culled from series or ex-
pressions found in the Dover Handbook of Mathematical Functions[1].
There is a nice collection of plot calls for special functions in the file
specplot.tst in the subfolder plot of the packages folder. These
examples will reproduce a number of well-known pictures from [1].

16.66.1 Simplification and Approximation

All of the operators supported by this package have certain algebraic sim-
plification rules to handle special cases, poles, derivatives and so on. Such
rules are applied whenever they are appropriate. However, if the ROUNDED
switch is on, numeric evaluation is also carried out. Unless otherwise stated
below, the result of an application of a special function operator to real or
complex numeric arguments in rounded mode will be approximated numer-
ically whenever it is possible to do so. All approximations are to the current
precision.
 921

Most algebraic simplifications within the special function package are de-
fined in the form of a REDUCE ruleset. Therefore, in order to get a quick
insight into the simplification rules one can use the ShowRules operator,
e.g.

ShowRules BesselI;

1 ~z - ~z
{besseli(~n,~z) => ---------------*(e - e )
sqrt(pi*2*~z)

1
when numberp(~n) and ~n=---,
2

1 ~z - ~z
besseli(~n,~z) => ---------------*(e + e )
sqrt(pi*2*~z)

1
when numberp(~n) and ~n= - ---,
2

besseli(~n,~z) => 0

when numberp(~z) and ~z=0 and numberp(~n) and ~n neq 0,

besseli(~n,~z) => besseli( - ~n,~z) when numberp(~n)

and impart(~n)=0 and ~n=floor(~n) and ~n<0,

besseli(~n,~z) => do*i(~n,~z)

when numberp(~n) and numberp(~z) and *rounded,

df(besseli(~n,~z),~z)

besseli(~n - 1,~z) + besseli(~n + 1,~z)

=> -----------------------------------------,
2
922 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

df(besseli(~n,~z),~z)

=> besseli(1,~z) when numberp(~n) and ~n=0}

Several REDUCE packages (such as Sum or Limits) obtain different (hope-

fully better) results for the algebraic simplifications when the SPECFN
package is loaded, because the later package contains some information
which may be useful and directly applicable for other packages, e.g.:

sum(1/k^s,k,1,infinity); % will be evaluated to zeta(s)

A record is kept of all values previously approximated, so that should a

value be required which has already been computed to the current precision
or greater, it can be simply looked up. This can result in some storage over-
heads, particularly if many values are computed which will not be needed
again. In this case, the switch savesfs may be turned off in order to
inhibit the storage of approximated values. The switch is on by default.

16.66.2 Constants

The following well-known constants are defined in the REDUCE core, but
the code for computing their numerical value when the switch ROUNDED is
on is contained in the special function package.

• Euler_Gamma : Euler’s constant, also available as -ψ(1);

• Catalan : Catalan’s constant;
• Khinchin : Khinchin’s constant , defined in [5]. (takes a lot of time to
compute);
√
1+ 5
• Golden_Ratio :
2

16.66.3 Bernoulli Numbers and Euler Numbers

The unary operator Bernoulli provides notation and computation for

Bernoulli numbers. Bernoulli(n) evaluates to the nth Bernoulli num-
ber; all of the odd Bernoulli numbers, except Bernoulli(1), are zero.
The algorithms are based upon those by Herbert Wilf, presented by Sandra
Fillebrown [4]. If the ROUNDED switch is off, the algorithms are exactly
 923

those; if it is on, some further rounding may be done to prevent computation

of redundant digits. Hence, these functions are particularly fast when used
to approximate the Bernoulli numbers in rounded mode.
Euler numbers are computed by the unary operator Euler, which return the
nth Euler number. The computation is derived directly from Pascal’s trian-
gle of binomial coefficients.

16.66.4 Fibonacci Numbers and Fibonacci Polynomials

The unary operator Fibonacci provides notation and computation for

Fibonacci numbers. Fibonacci(n) evaluates to the nth Fibonacci num-
ber. If n is a positive or negative integer, it will be evaluated following the
definition:
F0 = 0; F1 = 1; Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2
Fibonacci Polynomials are computed by the binary operator FibonacciP. Fi-
bonacciP(n,x) returns the nth Fibonaccip polynomial in the variable x. If n
is a positive or negative integer, it will be evaluated following the definition:
F0 (x) = 0; F1 (x) = 1; Fn (x) = xFn−1 (x) + Fn−2 (x)

16.66.5 Stirling Numbers

Stirling numbers of the first and second kind are computed by the binary
operators Stirling1 and Stirling2 using explicit formulae.

16.66.6 The Γ Function, and Related Functions

16.66.6.1 The Γ Function

This is represented by the unary operator Gamma.

Initial transformations applied with ROUNDED off are: Γ(n) for integral
n
√ is computed, Γ(n + 1/2) for integral n is rewritten to an expression in
π, Γ(n + 1/m) for natural n and m a positive integral power of 2 less
than or equal to 64 is rewritten to an expression in Γ(1/m), expressions
with arguments at which there is a pole are replaced by INFINITY, and
those with a negative (real) argument are rewritten so as to have positive
arguments.
The algorithm used for numerical approximation is an implementation of
an asymptotic series for ln(Γ), with a scaling factor obtained from the
Pochhammer functions.
924 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

An expression for Γ0 (z) in terms of Γ and ψ is included.

16.66.6.2 The Pochhammer Notation

The Pochhammer notation (a)k is supported by the binary operator Pochhammer.

With ROUNDED off, this expression is evaluated numerically if a and k are
both integral, and otherwise may be simplified where appropriate. The sim-
plification rules are based upon algorithms supplied by Wolfram Koepf [6].

16.66.6.3 The Digamma Function, ψ

This is represented by the unary operator PSI.

Initial transformations for ψ are applied on a similar basis to those for Γ;
where possible, ψ(x) is rewritten in terms of ψ(1) and ψ( 21 ), and expres-
sions with negative arguments are rewritten to have positive ones.
The algorithm for numerical evaluation of ψ is based upon an asymptotic
series, with a suitable scaler.
Relations for the derivative and integral of ψ are included.

16.66.6.4 The Polygamma Functions, ψ (n)

The nth derivative of the ψ function is represented by the binary operator

Polygamma, whose first argument is n.
Initial manipulations on ψ (n) are few; where the second argument is 1 or
3/2, the expression is rewritten to one involving the Riemann ζ function,
and when the first is zero it is rewritten to ψ; poles are also handled.
Numerical evaluation is avaialbe for real and complex arguments. The algo-
rithm used is again an asymptotic series with a scaling factor; for negative
(second) arguments, a Reflection Formula is used, introducing a term in the
nth derivative of cot(zπ).
Simple relations for derivatives and integrals are provided.

16.66.6.5 The Riemann ζ Function

This is represented by the unary operator Zeta.

With ROUNDED off, ζ(z) is evaluated numerically for even integral argu-
ments in the range −31 < z < 31, and for odd integral arguments in the
 925

range −30 < z < 16. Outside this range the values become a little un-
wieldy.
Numerical evaluation of ζ is only carried out if the argument is real. The
algorithms used for ζ are: for odd integral arguments, an expression re-
lating ζ(n) with ψ n−1 (3); for even arguments, a trivial relationship with
the Bernoulli numbers; and for other arguments the approach is either (for
larger arguments) to take the first few primes in the standard over-all-primes
expansion, and then continue with the defining series with natural num-
bers not divisible by these primes, or (for smaller arguments) to use a fast-
converging series obtained from [2].
There are no rules for differentiation or integration of ζ.

16.66.7 Bessel Functions

Support is provided for the Bessel functions J and Y, the modified Bessel
functions I and K, and the Hankel functions of the first and second kinds.
The relevant operators are, respectively, BesselJ, BesselY, BesselI,
BesselK, Hankel1 and Hankel2, which are all binary operators.
The following initial transformations are performed:

• trivial cases or poles of J, Y, I and K are handled;

• J, Y, I and K with negative first argument are transformed to have
positive first argument;
• J with negative second argument is transformed for positive second
argument;
• Y or K with non-integral or complex second argument is transformed
into an expression in J or I respectively;
• derivatives of J, Y and I are carried out;
• derivatives of K with zero first argument are carried out;
• derivatives of Hankel functions are carried out.

Also, if the COMPLEX switch is on and ROUNDED is off, expressions in

Hankel functions are rewritten in terms of Bessels.
No numerical approximation is provided for the Bessel K function, or for
the Hankel functions for anything other than special cases. The algorithms
926 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

used for the other Bessels are generally implementations of standard as-
cending series for J, Y and I, together with asymptotic series for J and Y;
usually, the asymptotic series are tried first, and if the argument is too small
for them to attain the current precision, the standard series are applied. An
obvious optimization prevents an attempt with the asymptotic series if it is
clear from the outset that it will fail.
There are no rules for the integration of Bessel and Hankel functions.

16.66.8 Hypergeometric and Other Functions

This package also provides some support for other functions, in the form of
algebraic simplifications:

• The Beta function, a variation upon the Γ function[1], with the binary
operator Beta;
• The Struve H and L functions, through the binary operators StruveH
and StruveL, for which manipulations are provided to handle spe-
cial cases, simplify to more readily handled functions where appro-
priate, and differentiate with respect to the second argument;
• The Lommel functions of the first and second kinds, through the
ternary operators Lommel1 and Lommel2, for which manipulations
are provided to handle special cases and simplify where appropriate;
• The Kummer confluent hypergeometric functions M and U (the hyper-
geometric 1 F1 or Φ, and z −a 2 F0 or Ψ, respectively), with the ternary
operators KummerM and KummerU, for which there are manipula-
tions for special cases and simplifications, derivatives and, for the M
function, numerical approximations for real arguments;
• The Whittaker M and W functions, variations upon the Kummer
functions, which, with the ternary operators WhittakerM and
WhittakerW, simplify to expressions in the Kummer functions.

16.66.9 Integral Functions

The SPECFN package includes manipulation and a limited numerical eval-

uation for some Integral functions, namely
erf, erfc, Si, Shi, si, Ci, Chi, Ei, li, Fresnel_C, and Fresnel_S.
The definitions from integral, the derviatives and some limits are known
together with some simple properties such as symmetry conditions.
 927

The numerical approximation for the Integral functions suffer from the fact
that the precision is not set correctly for values of the argument above 10.0
(approx.) and from the usage of summations even for large arguments.
li(z) is simplified towards Ei(ln(z)) .

16.66.10 Airy Functions

Support is provided for the Airy Functions Ai and Bi and for the Airyprime
Functions Aiprime and Biprime. The relevant operators are respectively
Airy_Ai, Airy_Bi, Airy_Aiprime, and Airy_Biprime, which
are all unary operators with one argument.
The following cases can be performed:

• Trivial cases of Airy_Ai and Airy_Bi and their primes are handled.
• All cases can handle both complex and real arguments.
• The Airy Functions can also be represented in terms of Bessel Funct-
ions by activating an inactive rule set.

In order to activate the Airy Function to Bessel Rules one should type:
let Airy2Bessel_rules;. As a result the Airy_Ai function, for ex-
ample will be calculated using the formula :-
1√   2 2
Ai(z) = z I−1/3 (ζ) − I1/3 (ζ) , where ζ = z 3
3 3
Note:- In order to obtain satisfactory approximations to results both the
COMPLEX and ROUNDED switches must be on.
The algorithms used for the Airy Functions are implementations of stand-
ard ascending series, together with asymptotic series. At some point it is
better to use the asymptotic approach, rather than the series. This value is
calculated by the program and depends on the given precision.
There are no rules for the integration of Airy Functions.

16.66.11 Polynomial Functions

Two groups are defined, some well-known orthogonal Polynomials (Her-

mite, Jacobi, Legendre, Laguerre, Chebyshev, Gegenbauer) and Euler and
Bernoulli Polynomials. The names of the REDUCE operator are built by
adding a P to the name of the polynomials, e.g. EulerP implements the
928 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Euler polynomials. Most definitions are equivalent to [1], except for the
ternary (associated) Legendre Polynomials.

P(n,m,x) = (-1)^m *(1-x^2)^(m/2)*df(legendreP (n,x),x,m)

16.66.12 Spherical and Solid Harmonics

The relevant operators are, respectively,

SolidHarmonicY and SphericalHarmonicY.
The SolidHarmonicY operator implements the Solid Harmonics de-
scribed below. It expects 6 parameter, namely n,m,x,y,z and r2 and returns
a polynomial in x,y,z and r2.
The operator SphericalHarmonicY is a special case of SolidHarmonicY
with the usual definition:

algebraic procedure SphericalHarmonicY(n,m,theta,phi);

SolidHarmonicY(n,m,sin(theta)*cos(phi),
sin(theta)*sin(phi),cos(theta),1)$

Solid Harmonics of order n (Laplace polynomials) are homogeneous poly-

nomials of degree n in x,y,z which are solutions of Laplace equation:-

df(P,x,2) + df(P,y,2) + df(P,z,2) = 0.

There are 2*n+1 independent such polynomials for any given n >= 0 and
with:-

w!0 = z, w!+ = i*(x-i*y)/2, w!- = i*(x+i*y)/2,

they are given by the Fourier integral:-

S(n,m,w!-,w!0,w!+) =

(1/(2*pi)) *
for u:=-pi:pi integrate (w!0 + w!+ * exp(i*u) + w!- *
exp(-i*u))^n * exp(i*m*u) * du;

which is obviously zero if |m| > n since then all terms in the expanded
integrand contain the factor exp(i*k*u) with k neq 0,
S(n,m,x,y,z) is proportional to
 929

r^n * Legendre(n,m,cos theta) * exp(i*phi)

Let r2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 and r = sqrt(r2).

The spherical harmonics are simply the restriction of the solid harmonics
to the surface of the unit sphere and the set of all spherical harmonics
n >= 0; −n <= m =< n form a complete orthogonal basis on it, i.e.
< n, m|n0 , m0 > = Kronecker_delta(n,n’) * Kronecker_delta(m,m’) using
< ...|... > to designate the scalar product of functions over the spherical
surface.
The coefficients of the solid harmonics are normalised in what follows to
yield an ortho-normal system of spherical harmonics.
Given their polynomial nature, there are many recursions formulae for the
solid harmonics and any recursion valid for Legendre functions can be
’translated’ into solid harmonics. However the direct proof is usually far
simpler using Laplace’s definition.
It is also clear that all differentiations of solid harmonics are trivial, qua
polynomials.
Some substantial reduction in the symbolic form would occur if one main-
tained throughout the recursions the symbol r2 (r cannot occur as it is not
rational in x,y,z). Formally the solid harmonics appear in this guise as more
compact polynomials in (x,y,z,r2).
Only two recursions are needed:-
(i) along the diagonal (n,n);
(ii) along a line of constant n: (m,m),(m+1,m),...,(n,m).
Numerically these recursions are stable.
For m < 0 one has:-

S(n,m,x,y,z) = (-1)^m * S(n,-m,x,-y,z);

16.66.13 Jacobi’s Elliptic Functions

The implementation of the functions in this and the next two subsections
have, in 2019, been substantially revised by Alan Barnes. This is to bring
the notation more into line with standard (British) texts such as Whittaker
& Watson [9] and Lawden [8] and also to correct a number of errors and
omissions. These changes and additions will be itemised in the relevant
sections below.
930 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The following functions have been implemented:

• The 12 Jacobi Functions

• Jacobi’s Amplitude Function
• Arithmetic Geometric Mean
• Descending Landen Transformation

16.66.13.1 Jacobi Elliptic Functions

The following Jacobi functions are available:-

• jacobisn(u,k)
• jacobidn(u,k)
• jacobicn(u,k)
• jacobicd(u,k)
• jacobisd(u,k)
• jacobind(u,k)
• jacobidc(u,k)
• jacobinc(u,k)
• jacobisc(u,k)
• jacobins(u,k)
• jacobids(u,k)
• jacobics(u,k)

These differ somewhat from the originals implemented by Lisa Temme in

that the second argument is now the modulus (usually denoted by k in most
texts rather than its square m).
Extended rule lists are provided for differentiation of these functions with
respect to either argument, to implement the standard addition formulae,
argument shifts by multiples of the two quarter-periods K and iK 0 and fi-
nally Jacobi’s transformation for a purely imaginary first argument.
When their arguments are purely numerical, these functions will be evalu-
ated numerically if the rounded switch is used. For complex arguments it
is also better if the complex switch is on.
 931

16.66.13.2 Jacobi Amplitude Function

The amplitude of u can be evaluated using the jacobiam(u,k) com-

mand.

16.66.13.3 Arithmetic Geometric Mean

A procedure to evaluate the AGM of initial values a0 , b0 , c0 exists as

AGM_function(a0 , b0 , c0 ) and will return
{N, AGM, {aN , . . . , a0 }, {bN , . . . , b0 }, {cN , . . . , c0 }}, where N is the num-
ber of steps to compute the AGM to the desired acuracy.

To determine
√ √ Integrals K(m), E(m) we use initial values a0 = 1;
the Elliptic
b0 = 1 − m ; c0 = m.
This procedure and the following one are primarily intended for use in the
numerical evaluation of the various elliptic functions and integrals rather
than for direct use by users.

16.66.13.4 Descending Landen Transformation

The procedure to evaluate the Descending Landen Transformation of phi

and alpha uses the following equations:
(1 + sin αn+1 )(1 + cos αn ) = 2 where αn+1 < αn
tan(φn+1 − φn ) = cos αn tan φn where φn+1 > φn
It can be called using landentrans(φ0 ,α0 ) and will return
{{φ0 , . . . , φn }, {α0 , . . . , αn }}.

16.66.14 Elliptic Integrals

The following functions have been implemented:

• Complete & Incomplete Elliptic Integrals of the First Kind

• Complete & Incomplete Elliptic Integrals of the Second Kind
• Jacobi’s Zeta Function

These again differ somewhat from the originals implemented by Lisa

Temme as the second argument is now the modulus k rather that its square.
932 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Also in the original implementation there was some confusion between Leg-
endre’s form and Jacobi’s form of the incomplete elliptic integrals of the
second kind; E(u, k) denoted the first in numerical evaluations and the sec-
ond in the derivative formulae for the Jacobi elliptic functions with respect
to their second argument. This confusion was perhaps understandable as in
the literature some authors use the notation E(u, k) for the Legendre form
and others for Jacobi’s form.
To avoid any possible confusion, following Lawden [8], the notation
D(φ, k) will be used for the Legendre form.
A number of rule lists have been provided to implement, where appropri-
ate, derivatives of these functions, addition rules and periodicity and quasi-
periodicity properties and to provide simplifications for special values of
the arguments.

16.66.14.1 Elliptic F

The Elliptic F function can be used as EllipticF(phi,k) and will re-

turn the value of the Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind:
Z φ
F(φ, k) = (1 − k 2 sin2 θ)−1/2 dθ.
0

16.66.14.2 Elliptic K

The Elliptic K function can be used as EllipticK(k) and will return the
value of the Complete Elliptic Integral of the First Kind:
Z π/2
K(k) = (1 − k 2 sin2 θ)−1/2 dθ.
0

This is one of the quarter periods of the Jacobi elliptic functions and is often
used in the calculation of other elliptic functions.

16.66.14.3 Elliptic K0

The Elliptic K0 function√can be used as EllipticK!0 (k) and will return

the value K(k 0 ) = K( 1 − k 2 ). iK0 (k) is the other quarter-period of the
Jacobi elliptic functions.
 933

16.66.14.4 Elliptic D

The Elliptic D function takes two arguments. It is called as EllipticD(phi,k)

and will return the value of Legendre’s form of the Incomplete Elliptic In-
tegral of the Second Kind:
Z φ p
D(φ, k) = ( 1 − k 2 sin2 θdθ.
0

16.66.14.5 Elliptic E

The Elliptic E function comes with either one or two arguments; used with
two arguments as EllipticE(u,k) it will return the value of Jacobi’s
form of the Incomplete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind:
Z u
E(u, k) = dn2 (v, k)dv.
0

The relationship between the two forms of incomplete elliptic integrals can
be expressed as
E(u, k) = D(am(u), k).

When called with one argument EllipticE(k) will return the value of
the Complete Elliptic Integral of the Second Kind:
Z K(k)
E(k) = E(K(k), k) = dn2 (v, k)dv
0

or equivalently
Z π/2 p
E(k) = D(π/2, k) = ( 1 − k 2 sin2 θdθ.
0

16.66.14.6 Elliptic E0

The Elliptic E0 function 0

√ can be used as EllipticE! (k) and will return
0 2
the value E(k ) = E( 1 − k ).

16.66.14.7 Jacobi’s Zeta Function

This can be called as JacobiZeta(u,k) and refers to Jacobi’s (elliptic)

Zeta function Z(u, k) whereas the operator Zeta will invoke Riemann’s ζ
function.
934 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.66.15 Elliptic Theta Functions

These theta functions differ from those originally defined by Lisa Temme
in a number of respects. Firstly four separate functions of two arguments
are defined

• elliptictheta1(u,q) ϑ1 (u, q)
• elliptictheta2(u,q) ϑ2 (u, q)
• elliptictheta3(u,q) ϑ3 (u, q)
• ellipticthetas(u,q) ϑ4 (u, q)

rather than a single function with three arguments (with the first argument
taking integer values in the range 1 to 4). Secondly the periods are 2π, 2π, π
and π respectively (NOT 4K, 4K, 2K and 2K). Thirdly the second argument
is the nome q where |q| < 1 and hence the quasi-period is −i log q.
elliptictheta1 and elliptictheta2 are consequently multi-
valued owing to the appearance of q 1/4 in their defining expansions.
elliptictheta3 and elliptictheta4 are, however, single-valued
functions of q.
Regarded as functions of the ’parameter’ (usually denoted by τ where
q = exp(iπτ )), elliptictheta1 and elliptictheta2 are single-
valued functions of τ .
Recall that in order that |q| < 1, the imaginary part of τ must be positive.
Note also in this case q 1/4 is interpreted as exp(iπτ /4) rather than the prin-
cipal value of q 1/4 . Thus τ, 2 + τ, 4 + τ and 6 + τ produce four different
values of both elliptictheta1 and elliptictheta2 although they
all produce the same nome q.
Utilising the periodicity and quasi-periodicity of the theta functions some
generalised shift rules are implemented to shift their first argument into the
base period parallelogram with vertices

(π/2, πτ /2), (−π/2, πτ /2), (−π/2, −πτ /2), (π/2, −πτ /2).

Together with the relation ϑ1 (0, q) = 0, these shift rules serve to simplify
all four theta functions to zero when appropriate.
When the switch rounded is on and the arguments are purely numerical,
the theta functions are evaluated numerically. For complex numerical argu-
ments the switch complex must also be on.
 935

The numerical code always returns the principal value of elliptictheta1

and elliptictheta2 (that is the one obtained by taking the principal
value of q 1/4 ). Thus the negative real-axis of q is a branch cut with the cut
line regarded as belonging to the second rather than the third quadrant.
The series for the theta functions are fairly rapidly convergent due to the
quadratic growth of the exponents of q – except for values of q for which
|q| is near to 1. In such cases the direct algorithm would suffer from slow
convergence and rounding errors. For such values of |q|, Jacobi’s transfor-
mation τ 0 = −1/τ can be used to produce a smaller value of the nome and
so increase the rate of convergence. When <q < 0, the Jacobi transforma-
tion is preceded by the modular transformation τ 0 = 1 + τ , which has the
effect of multiplying q by -1, so that the new nome has a non-negative real
part.
This works very well for real values of q, but for complex values the gains
are somewhat smaller. For a nome q whose modulus is near to 1, the
2
Jacobi transformation produces a nome q 0 for which |q 0 | ≈ |q|α where
α = π/| arg(q)| ≥ 2. Thus the worst case occurs for values of the nome q
near to ±i where α ≈ 2.

16.66.15.1 Some Numerical Utility Functions

Five utility functions are provided:

• nome2mod(q)
• nome2mod!0 (q)
• nome2!K(q)
• nome2!K!0 (q)
• nome(k)

These are only operative when the switch rounded is on and their argu-
ment is numerical. The first√pair relate the nome q of the theta functions
with the moduli k and k 0 = 1 − k 2 of the associated Jacobi elliptic funct-
ions.
The second pair return the quarter-periods K and K0 respectively of the Ja-
cobi elliptic functions associated with the nome q.
Finally, nome(k) returns the nome q associated with the modulus k of a
Jacobi elliptic function and is essentially the inverse of nome2mod.
936 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.66.16 Lambert’s W function

Lambert’s W function is the inverse of the function w ∗ ew . Therefore it

is an important contribution for the solve package. The function is studied
extensively in [10]. The current implementation will compute the principal
branch in ROUNDED mode only.

16.66.17 3j symbols and Clebsch-Gordan Coefficients

The operators ThreeJSymbol, Clebsch_Gordan are defined like in

[7] or [3]. ThreeJSymbol expects as arguments three lists of values {ji , mi },
e.g.

ThreeJSymbol({J+1,M},{J,-M},{1,0});
Clebsch_Gordan({2,0},{2,0},{2,0});

16.66.18 6j symbols

The operator SixJSymbol is defined like in [7] or [3]. SixJSymbol ex-

pects two lists of values {j1 , j2 , j3 } and {l1 , l2 , l3 } as arguments, e.g.

SixJSymbol({7,6,3},{2,4,6});

In the current implementation of the SixJSymbol, there is only a limited

reasoning about the minima and maxima of the summation using the INEQ
package, such that in most cases the special 6j-symbols (see e.g. [7]) will
not be found.

16.66.19 Acknowledgements

The contributions of Kerry Gaskell, Matthew Rebbeck, Lisa Temme,

Stephen Scowcroft and David Hobbs (all students from the University of
Bath on placement in ZIB Berlin for one year) were very helpful to aug-
ment the package. The advice of René Grognard (CSIRO, Australia) for
the development of the module for Clebsch-Gordan and 3j, 6j symbols and
the module for spherical and solid harmonics was very much appreciated.
 937

16.66.20 Table of Operators and Constants

Function Operator

Jν (z) BesselJ(nu,z)
Yν (z) BesselY(nu,z)
Iν (z) BesselI(nu,z)
Kν (z) BesselK(nu,z)
(1)
Hν (z) Hankel1(n,z)
(2)
Hν (z) Hankel2(n,z)
Hν (z) StruveH(nu,z)
Lν (z) StruveL(n,z)
sa,b (z) Lommel1(a,b,z)
Sa,b (z) Lommel2(a,b,z)
Ai(z) Airy_Ai(z)
Bi(z) Airy_Bi(z)
Ai0 (z) Airy_Aiprime(z)
Bi0 (z) Airy_Biprime(z)
M (a, b, z) or 1 F1 (a, b; z) or Φ(a, b; z) KummerM(a,b,z)
U (a, b, z) or z −a 2 F0 (a, b; z) or Ψ(a, b; z) KummerU(a,b,z)
Mκ,µ (z) WhittakerM(kappa,mu,z)
Wκ,µ (z) WhittakerW(kappa,mu,z)

Fibonacci Numbers Fn Fibonacci(n)

Fibonacci Polynomials Fn (x) FibonacciP(n)
Bn (x) BernoulliP(n,x)
En (x) EulerP(n,x)
(α)
Cn (x) GegenbauerP(n,alpha,x)
Hn (x) HermiteP(n,x)
Ln (x) LaguerreP(n,x)
(m)
Ln (x) LaguerreP(n,m,x)
Pn (x) LegendreP(n,x)
(m)
Pn (x) LegendreP(n,m,x)
938 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Function Operator
(α,β)
Pn (x) JacobiP(n,alpha,beta,x)
Un (x) ChebyshevU(n,x)
Tn (x) ChebyshevT(n,x)
Ynm (x, y, z, r2) SolidHarmonicY(n,m,x,y,z,r2)
Ynm (θ, φ) SphericalHarmonicY(n,m,theta,phi)
 
j1 j2 j3
ThreeJSymbol({j1,m1},{j2,m2},{j3,m3})
m1 m2 m3
(j1 m1 j2 m2 |j1 j2 j3 − m3 ) Clebsch_Gordan({j1,m1},{j2,m2},{j3,m3})
 
j1 j2 j3
SixJSymbol({j1,j2,j3},{l1,l2,l3})
l1 l2 l3
sn(u, k) jacobisn(u,k)
dn(u, k) jacobidn(u,k)
cn(u, k) jacobicn(u,k)
cd(u, k) jacobicd(u,k)
sd(u, k) jacobisd(u,k)
nd(u, k) jacobind(u,k)
dc(u, k) jacobidc(u,k)
nc(u, k) jacobinc(u,k)
sc(u, k) jacobisc(u,k)
ns(u, k) jacobins(u,k)
ds(u, k) jacobids(u,k)
cs(u, k) jacobics(u,k)
am(u, k) jacobiam(u,k)
F (φ, k) ellipticF(phi,k)
K(k) ellipticK(k)
K 0 (k) ellipticK!’(k)
D(φ, k) ellipticD(phi,k)
E(u, k)orE(k) ellipticE(u,k) or ellipticE(k)
E 0 (k) ellipticE!’(k)
Z(u, k) jacobizeta(u,k)
ϑ1 (u, q) elliptictheta1(u,q)
ϑ2 (u, q) elliptictheta2(u,q)
ϑ3 (u, q) elliptictheta3(u,q)
ϑ4 (u, q) elliptictheta4(u,q)
Lambert ω(z) Lambert_W(z)

Constant REDUCE name

Euler’s γ constant Euler_gamma

Catalan’s constant Catalan
Khinchin’s constant Khinchin
Golden ratio Golden_ratio
 939

Function Operator
n
Binomial(n,m)
m
Motzkin(n) Motzkin(n)
Bernoulli(n) or Bn Bernoulli(n)
Euler(n) or En Euler(n)
(m)
Sn Stirling1(n,m)
(m)
Sn Stirling2(n,m)
B(z, w) Beta(z,w)
Γ(z) Gamma(z)
Bx (a, b)
normalized incomplete Beta Ix (a, b) = iBeta(a,b,x)
B(a, b)
γ(a, z)
normalized incomplete Gamma P (a, z) = iGamma(a,z)
Γ(a)
incomplete Gamma γ(a, z) m_gamma(a,z)
(a)k Pochhammer(a,k)
ψ(z) Psi(z)
ψ (n) (z) Polygamma(n,z)
Riemann’s ζ(z) Zeta(z)

Si(z) Si(z)
si(z) s_i(z)
Ci(z) Ci(z)
Shi(z) Shi(z)
Chi(z) Chi(z)
erf (z) erf(z)
erf c(z) erfc(z)
Ei(z) Ei(z)
li(z) li(z)
C(x) Fresnel_C(x)
S(x) Fresnel_S(x)

dilog(z) dilog(z)
Lin (z) Polylog(n,z)
Lerch’s transcendent Φ(z, s, a) Lerch_Phi(z,s,a)
940 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Bibliography

[1] Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, editors. Handbook of Mathe-

matical Functions. Dover Publications, New York, 1972.
[2] Carl M. Bender and Steven A. Orszag. Advanced Mathematical Meth-
ods for Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill, 1978.
[3] A. R. Edmonds. Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics. Princeton
University Press, 1957.
[4] Sandra Fillebrown. Faster computation of bernoulli numbers. Journal
of Algorithms, 13:431–445, 1992.
[5] Aleksandr J. Khinchin. Continued Fractions. University of Chicago
Press, 1964.
[6] Wolfram Koepf. Power series in computer algebra. Journal of Symbolic
Computation, 13:581–603, 1992.
[7] Landolt-Boernstein. Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwis-
senschaften und Technik. Springer, 1968.
[8] Derek F. Lawden. Elliptic Functions and Applications. Springer-
Verlag, 1989.
[9] E.T. Whittaker & G.N. Watson. A Course in Modern Analysis. Cam-
bridge University Press, 1969.
[10] D.E.G. Hare R.M. Corless, G.H. Gonnet and D.J. Jeffrey. On Lam-
bert’s W Function. Preprint, University of Waterloo, 1992.

16.67 SPECFN2: Package for special special functions

This package provides algebraic manipulations of generalized hypergeometric

functions and Meijer’s G function. Generalized hypergeometric functions
are simplified towards special functions and Meijer’s G function is simpli-
fied towards special functions or generalized hypergeometric functions.
Author: Victor Adamchik, with major updates by Winfried Neun.
The (generalised) hypergeometric functions
 !
a1 , . . . , ap 
p Fq z
b1 , . . . , b q 
 941

are defined in textbooks on special functions as

 !
∞
a1 , . . . , ap  X (a1 )n . . . (ap )n z n
p Fq z =
b1 , . . . , b q  n=0
(b1 )n . . . (bq )n n!

w where (a)n is the Pochhammer symbol

n−1
Y
(a)n = (a + k)
k=0

The function  !
 (a )
 p
Gmn
pq z
 (bq )
has been studied by C. S. Meijer beginning in 1936 and has been called
Meijer’s G function later on. The complete definition of Meijer’s G func-
tion can be found in [1]. Many well-known functions can be written as
G functions, e.g. exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric functions, Bessel
functions and hypergeometric functions.
Several hundreds of particular values can be found in [1].

16.67.1 REDUCE operator HYPERGEOMETRIC

The operator hypergeometric expects 3 arguments, namely the list of

upper parameters (which may be empty), the list of lower parameters (which
may be empty too), and the argument, e.g the input:

hypergeometric ({},{},z);

yields the output

z
e

and the input

hypergeometric ({1/2,1},{3/2},-x^2);

gives

atan(abs(x))
--------------
abs(x)
942 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.67.2 Extending the HYPERGEOMETRIC operator

Since hundreds of particular cases for the generalised hypergeometric func-

tions can be found in the literature, one cannot expect that all cases are
known to the hypergeometric operator. Nevertheless the set of special
cases can be augmented by adding rules to the REDUCE system, e.g.

let {hypergeometric({1/2,1/2},{3/2},-(~x)^2) => asinh(x)/x};

16.67.3 REDUCE operator meijerg

The operator meijerg expects 3 arguments, namely the list of upper pa-
rameters (which may be empty), the list of lower parameters (which may be
empty too), and the argument.
The first element of the lists has to be the list of the first n or m respective
parameters, e.g. to describe
 !
1
G10 x

11
0


one has to write

MeijerG({{},1},{{0}},x); % and the result is:

sign( - x + 1) + sign(x + 1)
------------------------------
2

and for  !
x2 
G10

02
4  1 + 14 , 1 − 14


MeijerG({{}},{{1+1/4},1-1/4},(x^2)/4) * sqrt pi;

2 2
sqrt(pi)*sqrt(-----------)*sin(abs(x))*x
abs(x)*pi
-------------------------------------------
 943

Bibliography

[1] A. P. Prudnikov, Yu. A. Brychkov, O. I. Marichev, Integrals and Se-

ries, Volume 3: More special functions, Gordon and Breach Science
Publishers (1990).
[2] R. L. Graham, D. E. Knuth, O. Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company (1989).
944 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.68 SSTOOLS: Computations with supersymmetric al-

gebraic and differential expressions

Authors: Thomas Wolf and Eberhard Schruefer

16.68.1 Overview

A detailed description is available through the online tutorial

https://lie.ac.brocku.ca/crack/susy/. An essentially equiv-
alent description is available after loading S S T OOLS and issuing the com-
mand sshelp()$. The correct functioning of all procedures is tested
through reading in and running sstools.tst. This test also illustrates
the commutator rules for products of the different fields and their derivatives
with respect to besonic and fermionic variables.
The topics in the tutorial and in sshelp()$ are:

Purpose
Interactive Session
Loading Files
Notation
Initializations
The command coeffn
The procedure SSym
The procedure SSConL
The procedure FindSSWeights
The procedure Linearize
The procedure GenSSPoly
The procedure ToCoo
The procedure ToField
Discovery of recursion operators
Verification of symmetries
 945

Bibliography

[1] Hussin, V., Kiselev, A.V., Krutov, A.O., Wolf, T.: N=2 Supersymmet-
ric a=4 - Korteweg-de Vries hierarchy derived via Gardner’s deforma-
tion of Kaup-Bousinesq equation, J. Math. Phys. 51, 083507 (2010);
doi:10.1063/1.3447731 (19 pages) link, pdf file
[2] Kiselev, A. and Wolf, T.: Supersymmetric Representations and In-
tegrable Super-Extensions of the Burgers and Bussinesq Equations,
SIGMA, Vol. 2 (2006), Paper 030, 19 pages (arXiv math-ph/0511071).
ps file, pdf file
[3] Kiselev, A. and Wolf, T.: On weakly non-local, nilpotent, and super-
recursion operators for N=1 homogeneous super-equations, Proc. Int.
Workshop “Supersymmetries and Quantum Symmetries” (SQS’05),
Dubna, July 24–31, 2005, JINR, p. 231–237. (arXiv nlin.SI/0511056)
http://theor.jinr.ru/ sqs05/SQS05.pdf dvi file, ps file,
[4] Kiselev, A. and Wolf, T.: Classification of integrable super-equations
by the SsTools environment, Comp Phys Comm, Vol. 177, no. 3
(2007) p 315-328 (and on arXiv: nlin.SI/0609065). dvi file, ps file,
pdf file
[5] I. S. Krasil’shchik, P. H. M. Kersten, Symmetries and recursion oper-
ators for classical and supersymmetric differential equations, Kluwer
Acad. Publ., Dordrecht etc, (2000)
946 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.69 SUM: A package for series summation

This package implements the Gosper algorithm for the summation of series.
It defines operators SUM and PROD. The operator SUM returns the indefinite
or definite summation of a given expression, and PROD returns the product
of the given expression.
This package loads automatically.
Author: Fujio Kako.
This package implements the Gosper algorithm for the summation of series.
It defines operators SUM and PROD. The operator SUM returns the indef-
inite or definite summation of a given expression, and the operator PROD
returns the product of the given expression. These are used with the syntax:

SUM(EXPR:expression, K:kernel, [LOLIM:expression [, UPLIM:expression]])

PROD(EXPR:expression, K:kernel, [LOLIM:expression [, UPLIM:expression]])

If there is no closed form solution, these operators return the input un-
changed. UPLIM and LOLIM are optional parameters specifying the lower
limit and upper limit of the summation (or product), respectively. If UPLIM
is not supplied, the upper limit is taken as K (the summation variable itself).
For example:

sum(n**3,n);

sum(a+k*r,k,0,n-1);

sum(1/((p+(k-1)*q)*(p+k*q)),k,1,n+1);

prod(k/(k-2),k);

Gosper’s algorithm succeeds whenever the ratio

Pn
k=n f (k)
Pn−1 0
k=n0 f (k)

is a rational function of n. The function SUM!-SQ handles basic functions

such as polynomials, rational functions and exponentials.
The trigonometric functions sin, cos, etc. are converted to exponentials and
then Gosper’s algorithm is applied. The result is converted back into sin,
cos, sinh and cosh.
 947

Summations of logarithms or products of exponentials are treated by the

formula:

n
X n
Y
log f (k) = log f (k)
k=n0 k=n0

n
Y n
X
exp f (k) = exp f (k)
k=n0 k=n0

Other functions, as shown in the test file for the case of binomials and for-
mal products, can be summed by providing LET rules which must relate the
functions evaluated at k and k − 1 (k being the summation variable).
There is a switch TRSUM (default OFF). If this switch is on, trace messages
are printed out during the course of Gosper’s algorithm.
948 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.70 SYMMETRY: Operations on symmetric matrices

This package computes symmetry-adapted bases and block diagonal forms

of matrices which have the symmetry of a group. The package is the im-
plementation of the theory of linear representations for small finite groups
such as the dihedral groups.
Author: Karin Gatermann.

16.70.1 Introduction

The exploitation of symmetry is a very important principle in mathematics,

physics and engineering sciences. The aim of the SYMMETRY package is
to give an easy access to the underlying theory of linear representations for
small groups. For example the dihedral groups D3 , D4 , D5 , D6 are included.
For an introduction to the theory see S ERRE [3] or S TIEFEL and FÄSSLER
[4]. For a given orthogonal (or unitarian) linear representation
ϑ : G −→ GL(K n ), K = R, C.
the character ψ → K, the canonical decomposition or the bases of the
isotypic components are computed. A matrix A having the symmetry of a
linear representation,e.g.
ϑt A = Aϑt ∀ t ∈ G,
is transformed to block diagonal form by a coordinate transformation. The
dependence of the algorithm on the field of real or complex numbers is
controled by the switch complex. An example for this is given in the
testfile symmetry.tst.
As the algorithm needs information concerning the irreducible representa-
tions this information is stored for some groups (see the operators in Section
3). It is assumed that only orthogonal (unitar) representations are given.
The package is loaded by
load symmetry;

16.70.2 Operators for linear representations

First the data structure for a linear representation has to be explained. rep-
resentation is a list consisting of the group identifier and equations which
assign matrices to the generators of the group.
Example:
 949

rr:=mat((0,1,0,0),
(0,0,1,0),
(0,0,0,1),
(1,0,0,0));

sp:=mat((0,1,0,0),
(1,0,0,0),
(0,0,0,1),
(0,0,1,0));

representation:={D4,rD4=rr,sD4=sp};

For orthogonal (unitarian) representations the following operators are avail-

able.
canonicaldecomposition(representation);
returns an equation giving the canonical decomposition of the linear repre-
sentation.
character(representation);
computes the character of the linear representation. The result is a list of
the group identifier and of lists consisting of a list of group elements in one
equivalence class and a real or complex number.
symmetrybasis(representation,nr);
computes the basis of the isotypic component corresponding to the irre-
ducible representation of type nr. If the nr-th irreducible representation is
multidimensional, the basis is symmetry adapted. The output is a matrix.
symmetrybasispart(representation,nr);
is similar as symmetrybasis, but for multidimensional irreducible rep-
resentations only the first part of the symmetry adapted basis is computed.
allsymmetrybases(representation);
is similar as symmetrybasis and symmetrybasispart, but the
bases of all isotypic components are computed and thus a complete co-
ordinate transformation is returned.
diagonalize(matrix,representation);
returns the block diagonal form of matrix which has the symmetry of the
given linear representation. Otherwise an error message occurs.
on complex;
950 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Of course the property of irreducibility depends on the field K of real or

complex numbers. This is why the algorithm depends on K. The type of
computation is set by the switch complex.

16.70.3 Display Operators

In this section the operators are described which give access to the stored
information for a group. First the operators for the abstract groups are given.
Then it is described how to get the irreducible representations for a group.
availablegroups();
returns the list of all groups for which the information such as irreducible
representations is stored. In the following group is always one of these
group identifiers.
printgroup(group);
returns the list of all group elements;
generators(group);
returns a list of group elements which generates the group. For the definition
of a linear representation matrices for these generators have to be defined.
charactertable(group);
returns a list of the characters corresponding to the irreducible representa-
tions of this group.
charactern(group,nr);
returns the character corresponding to the nr-th irreducible representation
of this group as a list (see also character).
irreduciblereptable(group);
returns the list of irreducible representations of the group.
irreduciblerepnr(group,nr);
returns an irreducible representation of the group. The output is a list of
the group identifier and equations assigning the representation matrices to
group elements.

16.70.4 Storing a new group

If the user wants to do computations for a group for which information is

not predefined, the package SYMMETRY offers the possibility to supply
 951

information for this group.

For this the following data structures are used.
elemlist = list of identifiers.
relationlist = list of equations with identifiers and operators @ and ∗∗.
grouptable = matrix with the (1,1)-entry grouptable.
filename = "myfilename.new".

The following operators have to be used in this order.

setgenerators(group,elemlist,relationlist);
Example:

setgenerators(K4,{s1K4,s2K4},
{s1K4^2=id,s2K4^2=id,s1K4@s2K4=s2K4@s1K4});

setelements(group,relationlist);
The group elements except the neutral element are given as product of the
defined generators. The neutral element is always called id.
Example:

setelements(K4,
{s1K4=s1K4,s2K4=s2K4,rK4=s1K4@s2K4});

setgrouptable(group,grouptable);
installs the group table.
Example:

tab:=
mat((grouptable, id, s1K4, s2K4, rK4),
(id , id, s1K4, s2K4, rK4),
(s1K4 , s1K4, id, rK4,s2K4),
(s2K4 , s2K4, rK4, id,s1K4),
(rK4 , rK4, s2K4, s1K4, id));

setgrouptable(K4,tab);
952 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Rsetrepresentation(representation,type);
is used to define the real irreducible representations of the group. The vari-
able type is either realtype or complextype which indicates the type of the
real irreducible representation.
Example:

eins:=mat((1));
mineins:=mat((-1));
rep3:={K4,s1K4=eins,s2K4=mineins};
Rsetrepresentation(rep3,realtype);

Csetrepresentation(representation);
This defines the complex irreducible representations.
setavailable(group);
terminates the installation of the group203. It checks some properties of the
irreducible representations and makes the group available for the operators
in Sections 2 and 3.
storegroup(group,filename);
writes the information concerning the group to the file with name filename.
loadgroups(filename);
loads a user defined group from the file filename into the system.

Bibliography

[1] G. James, A. Kerber: Representation Theory of the Symmetric Group.

Addison, Wesley (1981).
[2] W. Ludwig, C. Falter: Symmetries in Physics. Springer, Berlin, Heidel-
berg, New York (1988).
[3] J.–P. Serre, Linear Representations of Finite Groups. Springer,
New York (1977).
[4] E. Stiefel, A. Fässler, Gruppentheoretische Methoden und ihre An-
wendung. Teubner, Stuttgart (1979). (English translation to appear by
Birkhäuser (1992)).
 953

16.71 TAYLOR: Manipulation of Taylor series

This package carries out the Taylor expansion of an expression in one or

more variables and efficient manipulation of the resulting Taylor series. Ca-
pabilities include basic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division) and also application of certain algebraic and transcendental func-
tions.
Author: Rainer Schöpf.

16.71.1 Basic Use

The most important operator is ‘TAYLOR’. It is used as follows:

TAYLOR(EXP:algebraic,
VAR:kernel,VAR0:algebraic,ORDER:integer[,...])
:algebraic.

where EXP is the expression to be expanded. It can be any REDUCE object,

even an expression containing other Taylor kernels. VAR is the kernel with
respect to which EXP is to be expanded. VAR0 denotes the point about
which and ORDER the order up to which expansion is to take place. If more
than one (VAR, VAR0, ORDER) triple is specified TAYLOR will expand
its first argument independently with respect to each variable in turn. For
example,

taylor(e^(x^2+y^2),x,0,2,y,0,2);

will calculate the Taylor expansion up to order X 2 ∗ Y 2 :

2 2 2 2 3 3
1 + y + x + y *x + O(x ,y )

Note that once the expansion has been done it is not possible to calculate
higher orders. Instead of a kernel, VAR may also be a list of kernels. In this
case expansion will take place in a way so that the sum of the degrees of the
kernels does not exceed ORDER. If VAR0 evaluates to the special identifier
INFINITY, expansion is done in a series in 1/VAR instead of VAR.
The expansion is performed variable per variable, i.e. in the example above
by first expanding exp(x2 + y 2 ) with respect to x and then expanding every
coefficient with respect to y.
There are two extra operators to compute the Taylor expansions of implicit
954 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

and inverse functions:

IMPLICIT_TAYLOR(F:algebraic,
VAR:kernel,DEPVAR:kernel,
VAR0:algebraic,DEPVAR0:algebraic,
ORDER:integer)
:algebraic

takes a function F depending on two variables VAR and DEPVAR and com-
putes the Taylor series of the implicit function DEPVAR(VAR) given by the
equation F(VAR,DEPVAR) = 0, around the point VAR0. (Violation of the
necessary condition F(VAR0,DEPVAR0)=0 causes an error.) For example,

implicit_taylor(x^2 + y^2 - 1,x,y,0,1,5);

gives the output

1 2 1 4 6
1 - ---*x - ---*x + O(x )
2 8

The operator

INVERSE_TAYLOR(F:algebraic,VAR:kernel,DEPVAR:kernel,
VAR0:algebraic,ORDER:integer)
: algebraic

takes a function F depending on VAR1 and computes the Taylor series of

the inverse of F with respect to VAR2. For example,

inverse_taylor(exp(x)-1,x,y,0,8);

yields

1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 9
y - ---*y + ---*y - ---*y + ---*y + (3 terms) + O(y )
2 3 4 5

When a Taylor kernel is printed, only a certain number of (non-zero) coeffi-

cients are shown. If there are more, an expression of the form (n terms)
is printed to indicate how many non-zero terms have been suppressed. The
number of terms printed is given by the value of the shared algebraic vari-
able TAYLORPRINTTERMS. Allowed values are integers and the special
 955

identifier ALL. The latter setting specifies that all terms are to be printed.
The default setting is 5.
The PART operator can be used to extract subexpressions of a Taylor expan-
sion in the usual way. All terms can be accessed, irregardless of the value
of the variable TAYLORPRINTTERMS.
If the switch TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL is set to ON the original expression
EXP is kept for later reference. It can be recovered by means of the operator
TAYLORORIGINAL(EXP:exprn):exprn
An error is signalled if EXP is not a Taylor kernel or if the original ex-
pression was not kept, i.e. if TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL was OFF during
expansion. The template of a Taylor kernel, i.e. the list of all variables with
respect to which expansion took place together with expansion point and
order can be extracted using .
TAYLORTEMPLATE(EXP:exprn):list
This returns a list of lists with the three elements (VAR,VAR0,ORDER).
As with TAYLORORIGINAL, an error is signalled if EXP is not a Taylor
kernel.
The operator
TAYLORTOSTANDARD(EXP:exprn):exprn
converts all Taylor kernels in EXP into standard form and resimplifies the
result.
The boolean operator
TAYLORSERIESP(EXP:exprn):boolean
may be used to determine if EXP is a Taylor kernel. (Note that this operator
is subject to the same restrictions as, e.g., ORDP or NUMBERP, i.e. it may
only be used in boolean expressions in IF or LET statements.
Finally there is
TAYLORCOMBINE(EXP:exprn):exprn
which tries to combine all Taylor kernels found in EXP into one. Opera-
tions currently possible are:

• Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.

• Roots, exponentials, and logarithms.
• Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions and their inverses.

Application of unary operators like LOG and ATAN will nearly always suc-
956 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

ceed. For binary operations their arguments have to be Taylor kernels with
the same template. This means that the expansion variable and the expan-
sion point must match. Expansion order is not so important, different order
usually means that one of them is truncated before doing the operation.
If TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL is set to ON and if all Taylor kernels in exp
have their original expressions kept TAYLORCOMBINE will also combine
these and store the result as the original expression of the resulting Taylor
kernel. There is also the switch TAYLORAUTOEXPAND (see below).
There are a few restrictions to avoid mathematically undefined expressions:
it is not possible to take the logarithm of a Taylor kernel which has no terms
(i.e. is zero), or to divide by such a beast. There are some provisions made
to detect singularities during expansion: poles that arise because the denom-
inator has zeros at the expansion point are detected and properly treated, i.e.
the Taylor kernel will start with a negative power. (This is accomplished by
expanding numerator and denominator separately and combining the re-
sults.) Essential singularities of the known functions (see above) are han-
dled correctly.
Differentiation of a Taylor expression is possible. If you differentiate with
respect to one of the Taylor variables the order will decrease by one.
Substitution is a bit restricted: Taylor variables can only be replaced by
other kernels. There is one exception to this rule: you can always substi-
tute a Taylor variable by an expression that evaluates to a constant. Note
that REDUCE will not always be able to determine that an expression is
constant.
Only simple taylor kernels can be integrated. More complicated expressions
that contain Taylor kernels as parts of themselves are automatically con-
verted into a standard representation by means of the TAYLORTOSTANDARD
operator. In this case a suitable warning is printed.
It is possible to revert a Taylor series of a function f , i.e., to compute the
first terms of the expansion of the inverse of f from the expansion of f .
This is done by the operator
TAYLORREVERT(EXP:exprn,OLDVAR:kernel, NEWVAR:kernel):exprn
EXP must evaluate to a Taylor kernel with OLDVAR being one of its ex-
pansion variables. Example:

taylor (u - u**2, u, 0, 5)$

taylorrevert (ws, u, x);

gives
 957

2 3 4 5 6
x + x + 2*x + 5*x + 14*x + O(x )

This package introduces a number of new switches:

TAYLORAUTOCOMBINE causes Taylor expressions to be automatically

combined during the simplification process. This is equivalent to ap-
plying TAYLORCOMBINE to every expression that contains Taylor
kernels. Default is ON.
TAYLORAUTOEXPAND makes Taylor expressions “contagious” in the sense
that TAYLORCOMBINE tries to Taylor expand all non-Taylor subex-
pressions and to combine the result with the rest. Default is OFF.
TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL forces the package to keep the original expres-
sion, i.e. the expression that was Taylor expanded. All operations per-
formed on the Taylor kernels are also applied to this expression which
can be recovered using the operator TAYLORORIGINAL. Default is
OFF.
TAYLORPRINTORDER causes the remainder to be printed in big-O nota-
tion. Otherwise, three dots are printed. Default is ON.
VERBOSELOAD will cause REDUCE to print some information when the
Taylor package is loaded. This switch is already present in PSL sys-
tems. Default is OFF.

16.71.2 Caveats

TAYLOR should always detect non-analytical expressions in its first argu-

ment. As an example, consider the function xy/(x+y) that is not analytical
in the neighborhood of (x, y) = (0, 0): Trying to calculate

taylor(x*y/(x+y),x,0,2,y,0,2);

causes an error

***** Not a unit in argument to QUOTTAYLOR

Note that it is not generally possible to apply the standard REDUCE oper-
ators to a Taylor kernel. For example, PART, COEFF, or COEFFN cannot
be used. Instead, the expression at hand has to be converted to standard
form first using the TAYLORTOSTANDARD operator.
958 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.71.3 Warning messages

*** Cannot expand further... truncation done

You will get this warning if you try to expand a Taylor kernel to a
higher order.

*** Converting Taylor kernels to standard representation

This warning appears if you try to integrate an expression containing

Taylor kernels.

16.71.4 Error messages

***** Branch point detected in ...

This occurs if you take a rational power of a Taylor kernel and raising
the lowest order term of the kernel to this power yields a non analytical
term (i.e. a fractional power).

***** Cannot replace part ... in Taylor kernel

The PART operator can only be used to either replace the template
of a Taylor kernel (part 2) or the original expression that is kept for
reference (part 3).

***** Computation loops (recursive definition?): ...

Most probably the expression to be expanded contains an operator

whose derivative involves the operator itself.

***** Error during expansion (possible singularity)

The expression you are trying to expand caused an error. As far as

I know this can only happen if it contains a function with a pole or
an essential singularity at the expansion point. (But one can never be
sure.)

***** Essential singularity in ...

An essential singularity was detected while applying a special func-
tion to a Taylor kernel.

***** Expansion point lies on branch cut in ...

The only functions with branch cuts this package knows of are (natu-
ral) logarithm, inverse circular and hyperbolic tangent and cotangent.
The branch cut of the logarithm is assumed to lie on the negative real
 959

axis. Those of the arc tangent and arc cotangent functions are cho-
sen to be compatible with this: both have essential singularities at the
points ±i. The branch cut of arc tangent is the straight line along the
imaginary axis connecting +1 to −1 going through ∞ whereas that of
arc cotangent goes through the origin. Consequently, the branch cut
of the inverse hyperbolic tangent resp. cotangent lies on the real axis
and goes from −1 to +1, that of the latter across 0, the other across
∞.
The error message can currently only appear when you try to calculate
the inverse tangent or cotangent of a Taylor kernel that starts with a
negative degree. The case of a logarithm of a Taylor kernel whose
constant term is a negative real number is not caught since it is difficult
to detect this in general.

***** Input expression non-zero at given point

Violation of the necessary condition F(VAR0,DEPVAR0)=0 for the
arguments of IMPLICIT_TAYLOR.

***** Invalid substitution in Taylor kernel: ...

You tried to substitute a variable that is already present in the Taylor
kernel or on which one of the Taylor variables depend.

***** Not a unit in ...

This will happen if you try to divide by or take the logarithm of a
Taylor series whose constant term vanishes.

***** Not implemented yet (...)

Sorry, but I haven’t had the time to implement this feature. Tell me if
you really need it, maybe I have already an improved version of the
package.

***** Reversion of Taylor series not possible: ...

You tried to call the TAYLORREVERT operator with inappropriate

arguments. The second half of this error message tells you why this
operation is not possible.

***** Taylor kernel doesn’t have an original part

The Taylor kernel upon which you try to use TAYLORORIGINAL
was created with the switch TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL set to OFF and
does therefore not keep the original expression.

***** Wrong number of arguments to TAYLOR

You try to use the operator TAYLOR with a wrong number of argu-
ments.
960 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

***** Zero divisor in TAYLOREXPAND

A zero divisor was found while an expression was being expanded.
This should not normally occur.

***** Zero divisor in Taylor substitution

That’s exactly what the message says. As an example consider the
case of a Taylor kernel containing the term 1/x and you try to substi-
tute x by 0.

***** ... invalid as kernel

You tried to expand with respect to an expression that is not a kernel.

***** ... invalid as order of Taylor expansion

The order parameter you gave to TAYLOR is not an integer.

***** ... invalid as Taylor kernel

You tried to apply TAYLORORIGINAL or TAYLORTEMPLATE to
an expression that is not a Taylor kernel.

***** ... invalid as Taylor Template element

You tried to substitute the TAYLORTEMPLATE part of a Taylor kernel
with a list a incorrect form. For the correct form see the description
of the TAYLORTEMPLATE operator.

***** ... invalid as Taylor variable

You tried to substitute a Taylor variable by an expression that is not a
kernel.

***** ... invalid as value of TaylorPrintTerms

You have assigned an invalid value to TAYLORPRINTTERMS. Al-
lowed values are: an integer or the special identifier ALL.
TAYLOR PACKAGE (...): this can’t happen ...
This message shows that an internal inconsistency was detected. This
is not your fault, at least as long as you did not try to work with the
internal data structures of REDUCE. Send input and output to me,
together with the version information that is printed out.

16.71.5 Comparison to other packages

At the moment there is only one REDUCE package that I know of: the
extendible power series package by Alan Barnes and Julian Padget. In my
opinion there are two major differences:
 961

• The interface. They use the domain mechanism for their power series,
I decided to invent a special kind of kernel. Both approaches have
advantages and disadvantages: with domain modes, it is easier to do
certain things automatically, e.g., conversions.
• The concept of an extendible series: their idea is to remember the
original expression and to compute more coefficients when more of
them are needed. My approach is to truncate at a certain order and
forget how the unexpanded expression looked like. I think that their
method is more widely usable, whereas mine is more efficient when
you know in advance exactly how many terms you need.
962 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.72 TPS: A extendible power series package

This package implements formal Laurent series expansions in one variable

using the domain mechanism of REDUCE. This means that power series
objects can be added, multiplied, differentiated etc., like other first class
objects in the system. A lazy evaluation scheme is used and thus terms of
the series are not evaluated until they are required for printing or for use
in calculating terms in other power series. The series are extendible giving
the user the impression that the full infinite series is being manipulated. The
errors that can sometimes occur using series that are truncated at some fixed
depth (for example when a term in the required series depends on terms of
an intermediate series beyond the truncation depth) are thus avoided.
Authors: Alan Barnes and Julian Padget.

16.72.1 Introduction

This package implements formal power series expansions in one variable

using the domain mechanism of REDUCE. This means that power series
objects can be added, multiplied, differentiated etc. like other first class
objects in the system. A lazy evaluation scheme is used in the package
and thus terms of the series are not evaluated until they are required for
printing or for use in calculating terms in other power series. The series
are extendible giving the user the impression that the full infinite series is
being manipulated. The errors that can sometimes occur using series that
are truncated at some fixed depth (for example when a term in the required
series depends on terms of an intermediate series beyond the truncation
depth) are thus avoided.
Below we give a brief description of the operators available in the power
series package together with some examples of their use.

16.72.2 PS Operator

Syntax:
PS(EXPRN:algebraic,DEPVAR:kernel, ABOUT:algebraic):ps object
The PS operator returns a power series object (a tagged domain element)
representing the univariate formal power series expansion of EXPRN with
respect to the dependent variable DEPVAR about the expansion point
ABOUT. EXPRN may itself contain power series objects.
The algebraic expression ABOUT should simplify to an expression which
 963

is independent of the dependent variable DEPVAR, otherwise an error will

result. If ABOUT is the identifier INFINITY then the power series expan-
sion about DEPVAR = ∞ is obtained in ascending powers of 1/DEPVAR.
If the command is terminated by a semi-colon, a power series object rep-
resenting EXPRN is compiled and then a number of terms of the power
series expansion are evaluated and printed. The expansion is carried out
as far as the value specified by PSEXPLIM. If, subsequently, the value of
PSEXPLIM is increased, sufficient information is stored in the power series
object to enable the additional terms to be calculated without recalculating
the terms already obtained.
If the command is terminated by a dollar symbol, a power series object is
compiled, but at most one term is calculated at this stage.
If the function has a pole at the expansion point then the correct Laurent
series expansion will be produced.
The following examples are valid uses of PS:

psexplim 6;
ps(log x,x,1);
ps(e**(sin x),x,0);
ps(x/(1+x),x,infinity);
ps(sin x/(1-cos x),x,0);

New user-defined functions may be expanded provided the user provides

LET rules giving

1. the value of the function at the expansion point

2. a differentiation rule for the new function.

For example

operator sech;
forall x let df(sech x,x)= - sech x * tanh x;
let sech 0 = 1;
ps(sech(x**2),x,0);

The power series expansion of an integral may also be obtained (even if

REDUCE cannot evaluate the integral in closed form). An example of this
is

ps(int(e**x/x,x),x,1);
964 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Note that if the integration variable is the same as the expansion variable
then REDUCE’s integration package is not called; if on the other hand the
two variables are different then the integrator is called to integrate each of
the coefficients in the power series expansion of the integrand. The constant
of integration is zero by default.

16.72.3 PSEXPLIM Operator

Syntax:
PSEXPLIM(UPTO:integer):integer
or
PSEXPLIM():integer
Calling this operator sets an internal variable of the TPS package to the
value of UPTO (which should evaluate to an integer).
This internal variable controls how many terms of a power series are printed.
The value returned by PSEXPLIM is the previous value of this variable. The
default value is six.
If PSEXPLIM is called with no argument, the current value for the expan-
sion limit is returned.

16.72.4 PSPRINTORDER Switch

Syntax:
ON PSPRINTORDER
or
OFF PSPRINTORDER
When ON this switch causes the remainder of the power series to be printed
in big-O notation. Otherwise, three dots are printed. The default is ON.

16.72.5 PSORDLIM Operator

Syntax:
PSORDLIM(UPTO:integer):integer
or
PSORDLIM():integer
 965

An internal variable is set to the value of UPTO (which should evaluate to

an integer). The value returned is the previous value of the variable. The
default value is 15.
If PSORDLIM is called with no argument, the current value is returned.
The significance of this control is that the system attempts to find the order
of the power series required, that is the order is the degree of the first non-
zero term in the power series. If the order is greater than the value of this
variable an error message is given and the computation aborts. This prevents
infinite loops in examples such as

ps(1 - (sin x)**2 - (cos x)**2,x,0);

where the expression being expanded is identically zero, but is not recog-
nized as such by REDUCE.

16.72.6 PSTERM Operator

Syntax:
PSTERM(TPS:power series object, NTH:integer):algebraic
The operator PSTERM returns the NTH term of the existing power series
object TPS. If NTH does not evaluate to an integer or TPS to a power series
object an error results. It should be noted that an integer is treated as a
power series.

16.72.7 PSORDER Operator

Syntax:
PSORDER(TPS:power series object):integer
The operator PSORDER returns the order, that is the degree of the first non-
zero term, of the power series object TPS. TPS should evaluate to a power
series object or an error results. If TPS is zero, the identifier UNDEFINED
is returned.

16.72.8 PSSETORDER Operator

Syntax:
PSSETORDER(TPS:power series object, ORD:integer):integer
966 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The operator PSSETORDER sets the order of the power series TPS to the
value ORD, which should evaluate to an integer. If TPS does not evaluate
to a power series object, then an error occurs. The value returned by this
operator is the previous order of TPS, or 0 if the order of TPS was undefined.
This operator is useful for setting the order of the power series of a function
defined by a differential equation in cases where the power series package
is inadequate to determine the order automatically.

16.72.9 PSDEPVAR Operator

Syntax:
PSDEPVAR(TPS:power series object) :identifier
The operator PSDEPVAR returns the expansion variable of the power series
object TPS. TPS should evaluate to a power series object or an integer,
otherwise an error results. If TPS is an integer, the identifier UNDEFINED
is returned.

16.72.10 PSEXPANSIONPT operator

Syntax:
PSEXPANSIONPT(TPS:power series object):algebraic
The operator PSEXPANSIONPT returns the expansion point of the power
series object TPS. TPS should evaluate to a power series object or an inte-
ger, otherwise an error results. If TPS is integer, the identifier UNDEFINED
is returned. If the expansion is about infinity, the identifier INFINITY is
returned.

16.72.11 PSFUNCTION Operator

Syntax:
PSFUNCTION(TPS:power series object):algebraic
The operator PSFUNCTION returns the function whose expansion gave rise
to the power series object TPS. TPS should evaluate to a power series object
or an integer, otherwise an error results.
 967

16.72.12 PSCHANGEVAR Operator

Syntax:
PSCHANGEVAR(TPS:power series object, X:kernel):power series ob-
ject
The operator PSCHANGEVAR changes the dependent variable of the power
series object TPS to the variable X. TPS should evaluate to a power series
object and X to a kernel, otherwise an error results. Also X should not
appear as a parameter in TPS. The power series with the new dependent
variable is returned.

16.72.13 PSREVERSE Operator

Syntax:
PSREVERSE(TPS:power series object):power series
Power series reversion. The power series TPS is functionally inverted. Four
cases arise:

1. If the order of the series is 1, then the expansion point of the inverted
series is 0.
2. If the order is 0 and if the first order term in TPS is non-zero, then the
expansion point of the inverted series is taken to be the coefficient of
the zeroth order term in TPS.
3. If the order is -1 the expansion point of the inverted series is the point
at infinity. In all other cases a REDUCE error is reported because the
series cannot be inverted as a power series. Puiseux expansion would
be required to handle these cases.
4. If the expansion point of TPS is finite it becomes the zeroth order term
in the inverted series. For expansion about 0 or the point at infinity
the order of the inverted series is one.

If TPS is not a power series object after evaluation an error results.

Here are some examples:

ps(sin x,x,0);
psreverse(ws); % produces series for asin x about x=0.
ps(exp x,x,0);
968 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

psreverse ws; % produces series for log x about x=1.

ps(sin(1/x),x,infinity);
psreverse(ws); % series for 1/asin(x) about x=0.

16.72.14 PSCOMPOSE Operator

Syntax:
PSCOMPOSE(TPS1:power series, TPS2:power series):power series
PSCOMPOSE performs power series composition. The power series TPS1
and TPS2 are functionally composed. That is to say that TPS2 is substituted
for the expansion variable in TPS1 and the result expressed as a power se-
ries. The dependent variable and expansion point of the result coincide with
those of TPS2. The following conditions apply to power series composition:

1. If the expansion point of TPS1 is 0 then the order of the TPS2 must
be at least 1.
2. If the expansion point of TPS1 is finite, it should coincide with the
coefficient of the zeroth order term in TPS2. The order of TPS2 should
also be non-negative in this case.
3. If the expansion point of TPS1 is the point at infinity then the order of
TPS2 must be less than or equal to -1.

If these conditions do not hold the series cannot be composed (with the
current algorithm terms of the inverted series would involve infinite sums)
and a REDUCE error occurs.
Examples of power series composition include the following.

a:=ps(exp y,y,0); b:=ps(sin x,x,0);

pscompose(a,b);
% Produces the power series expansion of exp(sin x)
% about x=0.

a:=ps(exp z,z,1); b:=ps(cos x,x,0);

pscompose(a,b);
% Produces the power series expansion of exp(cos x)
% about x=0.

a:=ps(cos(1/x),x,infinity); b:=ps(1/sin x,x,0);

pscompose(a,b);
 969

% Produces the power series expansion of cos(sin x)

% about x=0.

16.72.15 PSSUM Operator

Syntax:

PSSUM(J:kernel = LOWLIM:integer, COEFF:algebraic, X:kernel,

ABOUT:algebraic, POWER:algebraic):power series

The formal power series sum for J from LOWLIM to INFINITY of

COEFF*(X-ABOUT)**POWER

or if ABOUT is given as INFINITY

COEFF*(1/X)**POWER

is constructed and returned. This enables power series whose general term
is known to be constructed and manipulated using the other procedures of
the power series package.
J and X should be distinct simple kernels. The algebraics ABOUT, COEFF
and POWER should not depend on the expansion variable X, similarly the
algebraic ABOUT should not depend on the summation variable J. The
algebraic POWER should be a strictly increasing integer valued function
of J for J in the range LOWLIM to INFINITY.

pssum(n=0,1,x,0,n*n);
% Produces the power series summation for n=0 to
% infinity of x**(n*n).

pssum(m=1,(-1)**(m-1)/(2m-1),y,1,2m-1);
% Produces the power series expansion of atan(y-1)
% about y=1.

pssum(j=1,-1/j,x,infinity,j);
% Produces the power series expansion of log(1-1/x)
% about the point at infinity.

pssum(n=0,1,x,0,2n**2+3n) + pssum(n=1,1,x,0,2n**2-3n);
% Produces the power series summation for n=-infinity
970 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

% to +infinity of x**(2n**2+3n).

16.72.16 PSTAYLOR Operator

Syntax:
PSTAYLOR(EXPRN:algebraic,DEPVAR:kernel, ABOUT:algebraic):ps ob-
ject
The PSTAYLOR operator returns a power series object (a tagged domain
element) representing the univariate formal Taylor series expansion of EX-
PRN with respect to the dependent variable DEPVAR about the expansion
point ABOUT. Unlike the operator PS it directly evaluates the nth deriva-
tive of the expression EXPRN wrt the variable DEPVAR at the expansion
point ABOUT to find the nth term of the series. Poles (and other singulari-
ties) at the expansion point will cause an error – PS and TAYLOR are more
robust in this respect. The PSTAYLOR operator may be useful in contexts
where PS fails to build a suitable recurrence relation automatically and re-
ports too deep a recursion in ps!:unknown!-crule. A typical example
is the expansion of the Γ function about an expansion point which is not a
non-positive integer.
The algebraic expression ABOUT should simplify to an expression which
is independent of the dependent variable DEPVAR, otherwise an error will
result.
If ABOUT is the identifier INFINITY then the power series expansion
about DEPVAR = ∞ is obtained in ascending powers of 1/DEPVAR.

16.72.17 PSCOPY Operator

Syntax:
PSCOPY(TPS:power series):power series
This procedure returns a copy of the power series TPS. The copy has no
shared sub-structures in common with the original series. This enables sub-
stitutions to be performed on the series without side-effects on previously
computed objects. For example:

clear a;
b := ps(sin(a*x)), x, 0);
b where a => 1;
 971

will result in a being set to 1 in each of the terms of the power series and
the resulting expressions being simplified. Owing to the way power series
objects are implemented using Lisp vectors, this has the side-effect that the
value of b is changed. This may be avoided by copying the series with
PSCOPY before applying the substitution, thus:

b := ps(sin(a*x)), x, 0);
pscopy b where a => 1;

16.72.18 PSTRUNCATE Operator

Syntax:
PSTRUNCATE(TPS:power series POWER: integer) :algebraic
This procedure truncates the power series TPS discarding terms of order
higher than POWER. The series is extended automtically if the value of
POWER is greater than the order of last term calculated to date.

b := ps(sin x, x, 0);
a := pstruncate(b, 11);

will result in a being set to the eleventh order polynomial resulting in trun-
cating the series for sinx after the term involving x11 .
If POWER is less than the order of the series then 0 is returned. If POWER
does not simplify to an integer or if TPS is not a power series object then
Reduce errors result.

16.72.19 Arithmetic Operations

As power series objects are domain elements they may be combined to-
gether in algebraic expressions in algebraic mode of REDUCE in the nor-
mal way.
For example if A and B are power series objects then the commands such
as:

a*b;
a/b;
a**2+b**2;

will produce power series objects representing the product,quotient and the
972 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

sum of the squares of the power series objects A and B respectively.

16.72.20 Differentiation

If A is a power series object depending on X then the input df(a, x);

will produce the power series expansion of the derivative of A with respect
to X.
Note however that currently the input int(a, x); will not work as in-
tended; instead one must input ps(int(a, x),x,0); in order to obtain
the power series expansion of the integral of a.

16.72.21 Restrictions and Known Bugs

If A is a power series object and X is a variable which evaluates to itself then

currently expressions such as a*x do not evaluate to a single power series
object (although the result is formally valid). Instead use ps(a*x,x,0)
etc..
Similarly expressions such as sin(A) where A is a PS object currently will
not be expanded. For example:

a:=ps(1/(1+x),x,0);
b:=sin a;

will not expand sin(1/(1+x)) as a power series. In fact

SIN(1 - X + X**2 - X**3 + .....)

will be returned. However,

b:=ps(sin(a),x,0);

or

b:=ps(sin(1/(1+x)),x,0);

should work as intended.

The handling of functions with essential singularities is currently erratic:
usually an error message
***** Essential Singularity
 973

or
***** Logarithmic Singularity
occurs but occasionally a division by zero error or some drastic error like
(for PSL) binding stack overflow may occur.
There is no simple way to write the results of power series calculation to a
file and read them back into REDUCE at a later stage.
974 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.73 TRI: TeX REDUCE interface

This package provides facilities written in REDUCE-Lisp for typesetting

REDUCE formulas using TEX. The TEX-REDUCE-Interface incorporates
three levels of TEXoutput: without line breaking, with line breaking, and
with line breaking plus indentation.
Author: Werner Antweiler.
 975

16.74 TRIGD: Trigonometrical Functions with Degree

Arguments

This module provides facilities for the numerical evaluation and algebraic
simplification of expressions involving trigonometrical functions with ar-
guments given in degrees rather than in radians. The degree-valued inverse
functions are also provided.
Author: Alan Barnes

16.74.1 Introduction

This module provides facilities for the numerical evaluation and algebraic
simplification of expressions involving trigonometrical functions with ar-
guments given in degrees rather than in radians. The degree-valued inverse
functions are also provided.
Any user at all familiar with the normal trig functions in REDUCE should
have no trouble in using the facilities of this module. The names of the
degree-based functions are those of the normal trig functions with the let-
ter D appended, for example SIND, COSD and TAND denote the sine, co-
sine and tangent repectively and their corresponding inverse functions are
ASIND, ACOSD and ATAND. The secant, cosecant and cotangent funct-
ions and their inverses are also supported and, indeed, are treated more as
first class objects than their corresponding radian-based functions which
are often converted to expressions involving sine and cosine by some of the
standard REDUCE simplifications rules.
Below I give a brief description of the facilities available together with
a few examples of their use. More examples and the output that they
should produce may be found in the test files trigd-num.tst and
trigd-simp.tst and their corresponding log files with extension .rlg
which may be found in the directory packages/misc of the REDUCE
distribution along with the source code of the module.
These degree-based functions are probably best regarded as functions de-
fined for real values only, but complex arguments are supported for com-
pleteness. The numerical evaluation routines are fairly comprehensive for
both real and complex arguments. However, few simplifications occur for
trigd functions with complex arguments.
The range of the principal values returned by the inverse functions is con-
sistent with those of the corresponding radian-valued functions. More pre-
cisely, for ASIND, ATAND and ACSCD the (closure of the) range is [-90,
976 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

90] whilst for ACOSD, ACOTD and ASECD the (closure of the) range is [0,
180]. In addition the operator ATAN2D is the degree valued version of the
two argument inverse tangent function which returns an angle in the inter-
val (-180, 180] in the correct quadrant depending on the signs of its two
arguments. For X > 0, ATAN2D(Y, X) returns the same numerical value
as ATAND(Y/X). If X = 0 then ±90 is returned depending on the sign of
Y.
It might be thought that the facilities provided in this module couldbe easily
provided by defining suitable rule lists to convert between the radian and
degree-based versions of the trig functions. For example:

1: operator sind, asind$

2: d2r_list := {sind(~x) =>
sin(x*pi/180), asind(~x) => 180*asin(x)/pi}$
3: r2d_list := {sin(~x) =>
sind(180x/pi), asin(~x) => pi*sind(x)/180}$
4: sind(x+360) where d2r_list$
5: ws where r2d_list;
sind(x)
6: sind(360) where d2r_list;
0

However, this approach seldom works — try it! The result produced by
step 4 defeats the current rule52 used to simplify expressions of the form
sin(x + 2π) although it does manage step 6. The rule list approach is more
reliable if differentiation, integration or numerical evaluation of expressions
involving SIND etc. is required. However it is not particularly convenient
even if the rules and operator declarations are stored in a file so that they
may be loaded at will.
This module aims to overcome these deficiences by providing the degree-
based trig functions as first class objects of the system just like their radian-
based cousins. The aim is to provide facilities for numerical evaluation,
symbolic simplification and differentiation totally analgous to those for the
the basic trig functions and their inverses. It is hoped that the module will
be of value to students and teachers at secondary school level as well as be-
ing sufficiently powerful and flexible to be of genuine utility in fields where
angles measured in degrees (and arc minutes and seconds) are in common
usage. For more advanced situations (involving integration, complex argu-
ments and values etc.), users are urged to use the standard trig functions
already provided by the system.
52
These rules may be improved in the next version of REDUCE.
 977

16.74.2 Simplification

As in other parts of REDUCE, basic simplification of expressions involv-

ing the trigd functions takes place automatically (bracketted terms are
multiplied out, like terms are gathered together, zero terms removed from
sums and so on). The system knows and automatically applies the basic
properties of the functions to simplify the input. For example SIND(0)
is replaced by 0 and SIND(-X) by SIND(X). If the switch ROUNDED is
OFF all arithmetic is exact and transcendental functions such as SIND are
not evaluated numerically even if their arguments are purely numerical.
The built-in simplification rules are totally analogous to those of the stand-
ard trig functions namely:

• Replacement of a function application by its value if a simple an-

alytical value is known. For example cosd(60) => 1/2 and
acscd(1) => 90. Currently the only argument values where sim-
plification takes place correspond to angles that are integral multiples
of 15o .
• Use of the odd and even properties of the trig. functions so that for
example sind(-x) => -sind(x), cosd(-x) => cosd(x)
and
acosd(-x) => 180 - acosd(x).
• Argument shifts by integral multiples of 180o so that any residual nu-
merical argument lies in the range −90o . . . 90o .
Thus sind(x+540) => -sind(x), cosd(x+350) => cosd(x-10).
• Removal of argument shifts of ±90o so that for example
sind(x-90) => -cosd(x) and cotd(x+90) => -tand(x).
• Replacement of tand(x) by sind(x)/cosd(x), secd(x) by
1/cosd(x) and the like, but only when the final result is simpler
than the original.
• Basic properties relating a function and it inverse so that for example
sind(asind(x)) => x.
• A few basic rules for ATAN2D when the signs of its arguments can
be determined. For example atan2d(Y, 0) is replaced by ±90
depending on the sign of Y .

Extra rules can be added by the user for example addition formulae, dou-
ble angle rules and tangent half-angle formulae as and when required as
described in chapter 11.
978 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Rules are provided for the symbolic differentiation of all the trig functions
and their inverses. These rules are sufficient fot the power series of the trig
functions and their inverses to be found using either the TPS or TAYLOR
packages in the standard way.

16.74.3 Numerical Evaluation

When the switch ROUNDED is ON and the arguments of the operators evalu-
ate to numbers, then the floating point value of the expression is calculated
to the currently specified PRECISION in the normal way. The bigfloat
capabilities are the same as for the standard trig functions.
If these functions are supplied with complex numerical arguments, numeri-
cal evaluation will NOT be performed when the switch ROUNDED is ON, but
the switch COMPLEX is OFF — the input expression will be returned basi-
cally unaltered. Similarly inputs such as ASIND(2) or ASECD(0.5) are
not evaluated numerically. The values of these expressions are, of course,
complex.
If the switch COMPLEX is also ON , numerical evaluation is performed. For
example:

1: load_package trigd$

2: on rounded;

3: asecd(2);

60.0

4: asecd(0.5);

asecd(0.5)

5: on complex;

*** Domain mode rounded changed to complex-rounded

6: asecd(0.5);

75.4561292902*i
 979

The function ATAN2D (like ATAN2) is only defined if BOTH its arguments
are real. If they are also numerical, it will be evaluated whenever ROUNDED
is ON. Attempting to evaluate it with complex numerical arguments will
cause either the unaltered expression to be returned or an error to be raised
when the switch COMPLEX is OFF or ON respectively.

16.74.3.1 Conversion between Degrees and Radians

There are a number of utility routines for converting an angle in radians to

degrees and vice-versa. RAD2DEG converts the radian value to an angle in
degrees expressed as a single floating point value (according to the currently
specified PRECISION). The value to be converted may be an integer, a rat-
ional or a floating value or indeed any expression that simplies to a rounded
value. In particular numerical constants such as π may be used in the input
expression.
RAD2DMS converts the radian value to an angle expressed in degrees, min-
utes and seconds returned as a three element list. The degree and minute
values are integers the latter in the range 0 . . . 59 inclusive and the seconds
value is a floating point value in the interval [0, 60.0). There are also oper-
ators DEG2RAD and DEG2DMS whose purpose should be obvious.
The purpose of the operators DMS2RAD and DMS2DEG should also be ob-
vious. The degree, minute and second value to be converted is passed to the
conversion function as a three element list. There is considerable flexibilty
allowed in format of the list supplied as parameter – all three values may be
integers, rational numbers or rounded values or any combination of these;
the minute and second values need not lie between zero and sixty. The list
supplied is simplified with the appropriate carrys and borrows performed
(in effect at least) between the three values. For example

{60.5, 9.2, 11.234} => {60, 39, 23.234}

{45, 0, -1} => {44, 59, 59}

These operators are not actually part of the TRIGD module but of the RE-
DUCE core system. However, they are not currently documented in the
main manual. Currently they are purely numeric operators; when ROUNDED
is OFF they basically return the input expression (perhaps with their param-
eter simplified somewhat).
Note the sine of an angle specified in degrees, minutes and seconds cannot
be calculated by calling SIND directly with a dms list (i.e. as a list of length
3). Instead one must first convert the dms values to degrees using a call to
DMS2DEG and then call SIND on the result. Applied directly to a list (of
980 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

any length) any TRIGD function wil be applied to each member of the list
separately just like most other REDUCE operators. Here is an example
illustrating tese points:

1: load_package trigd$

2: on rounded;

3: sind dms2deg {60, 45, 30};

0.872567064923

4: sind {60,45, 30};

{0.866025403784,0.707106781187,0.5}

5: off rounded;

6: sind{60, 45, 30};

sqrt(3) sqrt(2) 1
{---------,---------,---}
2 2 2

Of course the results will be formatted much more attractively on a terminal

supporting nice graphics.

16.74.3.2 The operators ARGD and ARG

Although not directly related to the trig functions, the module TRIGD also
provides an operator ARGD; when the switches ROUNDED and COMPLEX
are both ON, it will return the argument in degrees of the complex number
supplied as its parameter — supplying zero as the parameter causes an error
to be raised. If only ROUNDED is ON, ARGD will return the argument of the
real numerical value supplied as its parameter — this will be 0 or 180 when
the value is positive or negative respectively.
The operator ARG is similar to ARGD, but returns the argument expressed
in radians. There is also an operator NORM which returns the modulus (or
absolute value or norm) of a complex number. ARG and NORM are actu-
ally part of the REDUCE core system, but are not currently documented
 981

in the main manual. Currently they are purely numeric operators; when
ROUNDED is OFF they basically return the input expression (perhaps with
their parameter simplified).
Example

1: load_package trigd$

2: on rounded;

3: {argd(-5), argd(1+i)};

{180.0,argd(i + 1)}

4: on complex;

*** Domain mode rounded changed to complex-rounded

5: {argd(1+i), argd(-1-i)};

{45.0, - 135.0}

6: {arg(3+4i), norm(3+4i)};

{0.927295218002,5.0}

16.74.4 Bugs, Restrictions and Planned Extensions

The behaviour of the numerical evaluation routines for inverse trig functions
with complex arguments at branch points could be improved; these values
are undefined and attempting to evaluate such a function at one of its branch
points ought to raise an error, however sometimes the input expression will
be returned unaltered. It is hoped to improve this behaviour in due course.
Currently there are no facilities analogous to those provided in the module
TRIGSIMP for the standard trig. functions. There users have a wide range
of standard simplification formulae available for use and can control which
are to be used depending on the requirements of their particular applica-
tion: whether to eliminate sin in favour of cos or vice-versa or to get rid
of both in favour of tan of half-angles; or whether to use the trigonometri-
cal addition formulae in order to transform trig functions whose arguments
are sums into a form where the arguments are single terms or whether to
982 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

perform the inverse transformations. It is hoped to make the TRIGSIMP

faciliites available for use with the TRIGD functions in the near future.
Integration is not directly supported although the approach using rule-lists
to convert the TRIGD functions to standard trig ones should work well.
Introducing direct support for integration will not therefore be a priority.
For the standard sine function there is a rule for imaginary arguments
namely: sin(I*X) => I*sinh(X). The corresponding rule for the de-
gree version is sind(I*X) => I*sinh(X*PI/180). However, cur-
rently such rules are NOT implemented by the system. They may be imple-
mented in future, but it is not a high priority as it is felt that the radian-based
trig functions are best suited for such symbolic calculations.
There are NO D versions of the hyperbolic functions — that would be a
step too far! And should the new functions be called sinhd and so on? Or
perhaps sindh53 etc?

53
One is perhaps reminded here of the (in)famous bilingual pun: peccavi attributed to Charles
James Napier — apparently no relation to his logarithmic namesake – see Wikipedia for details!
 983

16.75 TRIGINT: Weierstrass substitution in REDUCE

Author: Neil Langmead

This package was written when the author was a placement student at ZIB
Berlin.

16.75.1 Introduction

This package is an implementation of a new algorithm proposed by D.J. Jef-

frey and A.D. Rich [Jeff] to remove "spurious" discontinuities from inte-
grals. Their paper focuses on the Weirstrass substitution, u = tan(x/2),
currently used in conjunction with the Risch algorithm in most computer
algebra systems to evaluate trigonometric integrals. Expressions obtained
using this substitution sometimes contain discontinuities, which limit the
domain over which the expression is correct. The algorithm presented finds
a better expression, in the sense that it is continous on wider intervals whilst
still being an anti derivative of the integrand.

16.75.1.1 Example

Consider the following problem:

Z
3
dx
5 − 4 cos(x)

REDUCE computes an anti derivative to the given function using the Weirstrass
substitution u = tan( x2 ), and then the Risch algorithm is used, returning:
2 arctan(3 tan( x2 ))
,
3
which is discontinuous at all odd multiples of π. Yet our original function is contin-
uous everywhere on the real line, and so by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
any anti-derivative should also be everywhere continuous. The problem arises from
the substitution used to transform the given trigonometric function to a rational
function: often, the substituted function is discontinuous, and spurious discontinu-
ities are introduced as a result.
Jeffery and Richs’ algorithm returns the following to the given problem:
x−π
Z
3 x
dx = 2 arctan(3 tan( )) + 2πb c
5 − 4 cos(x) 2 2π
which differs from (2) by the constant 2π, and this is the correct way of removing
the discontinuity.
984 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.75.2 Statement of the Algorithm

We define a Weierstrass substitution to be one that uses a function u = Φ(x) ap-

pearing in the following table:
Functions u = Φ used in the Weirstrass Alg. and their corresponding substitutions
Choice Φ(x) sin(x) cos(x) dx b p
2u 1−u2 2du
(a) tan(x/2) 1+u2 1+u2 1+u2
π 2π
u2 −1
(b) tan( x2 + π4 ) u2 +1
2u
u2 +1
2du
1+u2
π
2 2π
2u u2 −1 −2du
(c) cot(x/2) 1+u2 1+u2 1+u2
0 2π
(d) tan(x) √ u √ 1 du π
π
1+u2 1+u2 1+u2 2

There are of course, other trigonometric substitutions, used by REDUCE, such as

sin and cos, but since these are never singular, they cannot lead to problems with
discontinuities.
Given an integrable function f (sin x, cos x) whose indefinite integral is required,
select one of the substitutions listed in the table. The choice is based on the fol-
lowing heuristics: choice (a) is used for integrands not containing sin x, choice (b)
for integrands not containing cos x; (c) is useful in cases when (a) gives an integral
that cannot be evaluated by REDUCE,and (d) is good for conditions described in
Gradshteyn and Ryzhik (1979, sect 2.50). The integral is then transformed using
the entries in the table,; for example, with choice (c), we have:

2u u2 − 1 −2du
Z Z
f (sin x, cos x) dx = f ( , ) .
1 + u2 1 + u2 1 + u2

The integral in u is now evaluated using the standard routines of the system, then
u is substituted for. Call the result ĝ(x). Next we calculate

K = lim ĝ(x) − lim ĝ(x),

x→b− x→b+

where the point b is given in the table. the corrected integral is then
x−b
Z
g(x) = f (sin x, cos x) dx = ĝ(x) + Kb c,
p

where the period p is taken from the table, and bxc is the floor function.

16.75.3 REDUCE implementation

The name of the function used in REDUCE to implement these ideas is trigint,
which has the following syntax:

trigint(exp,var),
 985

where exp is the expression to be integrated, and var is the variable of integration.
If trigint is used to calculate the integrals of trigonometric functions for which no
substitution is necessary, then non standard results may occur. For example, if we
calculate

trigint(cos(x),x),

we obtain
2 tan x2
tan x2 2 + 1
which, by using simple trigonometric identities, simplifies to:
2 tan x2 2 tan x2 x x x
→ x → 2 sin cos → sin 2 → sin x,
tan x2 2 + 1 2
sec 2 2 2 2

which is the answer we would normally expect. In the absence of a normal form
for trigonometric functions though, both answers are equally valid, although most
would prefer the simpler answer sin x. Thus, some interesting trigonometric iden-
tities could be derived from the program if one so wished.

16.75.3.1 Examples

Using our example in (1), we compute the corrected result, and show a few other
examples as well:

REDUCE Development Version, 4-Nov-96 ...

1: trigint(3/(5-4*cos(x)),x);

x - pi + x
2*(atan(3*tan(---)) + floor(-----------)*pi)
2 2*pi

2: trigint(3/(5+4*sin(x)),x);

2
pi + 2*x - pi + 2*pi*x
2*(atan(3*tan(----------)) + floor(-----------------)*pi
4 4
986 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

- pi + 2*x
+ floor(-------------)*pi)
4*pi

3: trigint(15/(cos(x)*(5-4*cos(x))),x);

x - pi + x x
8*atan(3*tan(---)) + 8*floor(-----------)*pi - 3*log(tan(---) - 1)
2 2*pi 2

x
+ 3*log(tan(---) + 1)
2

16.75.4 Definite Integration

The corrected expressions can now be used to calculate some definite integrals,
provided the region of integration lies between adjacent singularities. For example,
using our earlier function, we can use the corrected primitive to calculate
Z 4π
1
dx (16.96)
0 2 + cos x
trigint returns the answer below to give an indefinite integral, F (x):

x
tan(---)
2 - pi + x
2*sqrt(3)*(atan(----------) + floor(-----------)*pi)
sqrt(3) 2*pi
------------------------------------------------------
3

And now, we can apply the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to give

Z 4π
1
dx = F (4π) − F (0) (16.97)
0 2 + cos x
 987

sub(x=4*pi,F)-sub(x=0,F);

4*sqrt(3)*pi
-----------------
3

and this is the correct value of the definite integral. Note that although the expres-
sion in (*) is continuous, the functions value at the points x = π, 3π etc. must
be intepreted as a limit, and these values cannot substituted directly into the for-
mula given in (*). Hence care should be taken to ensure that the definite integral
is well defined, and that singularities are dealt with appropriately. For more details
of this in REDUCE,please see the documentation for the cwi addition to the def int
package.

16.75.5 Tracing the trigint function

The package includes a facility to trace in some detail the inner workings of the
ratint program. Messages are given at key points of the algorithm, together with
the results obtained. These messages are displayed whenever the switch tracetrig
is on, which is done in REDUCE with the following command:

on tracetrig;

This switch is off by default. In particular, the messages inform the user which
substitution is being tried, and the result of that substitution. The error message

cannot integrate after subs

means that REDUCE has tried all four of the Weierstraß substitutions, and the
system’s standard integrator is unable to integrate after the substitution has been
completed.

16.75.6 Bugs, comments, suggestions

This program was written whilst the author was a placement student at ZIB Berlin.
Please refer all suggestions, comments or bugs therefore to Winfried Neun, Symbo-
lik, ZIB, Takustrasse 7, D- 14195 Berlin Dahlem, Germany (e-mail [email protected]).
988 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Bibliography

[Jeff] Jeffery, D.J. and Rich, A.D. The Evaluation of Trigonometric Integrals
avoiding Spurious Discontinuities , ACM Trans. Math Software 20, 1,
1994, pages 124–135, DOI: 10.1145/174603.174409.

16.76 TRIGSIMP: Simplification and factorization of trigono-

metric and hyperbolic functions

Author: Wolfram Koepf.

16.76.1 Introduction

The REDUCE package TRIGSIMP is a useful tool for all kinds of problems re-
lated to trigonometric and hyperbolic simplification and factorization. There are
three operators included in TRIGSIMP: trigsimp, trigfactorize and triggcd. The
first is for simplifying trigonometric or hyperbolic expressions and has many opt-
ions, the second is for factorizing them and the third is for finding the greatest
common divisor of two trigonometric or hyperbolic polynomials. This package is
automatically loaded when one of these operators is used.

16.76.2 Simplifying trigonometric expressions

As there is no normal form for trigonometric and hyperbolic expressions, the same
function can convert in many different directions, e.g. sin(2x) ↔ 2 sin(x) cos(x).
The user has the possibility to give several parameters to the operator trigsimp
in order to influence the transformations. It is possible to decide whether or not a
rational expression involving trigonometric and hyperbolic functions vanishes.
To simplify an expression f, one uses trigsimp(f[,options]). For exam-
ple:

trigsimp(sin(x)^2+cos(x)^2);

The possible options (where ∗ denotes the default) are:

1. sin∗ or cos;

2. sinh∗ or cosh;
 989

3. expand∗ , combine or compact;

4. hyp, trig or expon;

5. keepalltrig;

6. tan and/or tanh;

7. target arguments of the form variable / positive integer.

From each of the first four groups one can use at most one option, otherwise an
error message will occur. Options can be given in any order.
The first group fixes the preference used while transforming a trigonometric ex-
pression:

trigsimp(sin(x)^2);

2
sin(x)

trigsimp(sin(x)^2, cos);

2
- cos(x) + 1

The second group is the equivalent for the hyperbolic functions.

The third group determines the type of transformation. With the default, expand,
an expression is transformed to use only simple variables as arguments:

trigsimp(sin(2x+y));

2
2*cos(x)*cos(y)*sin(x) - 2*sin(x) *sin(y) + sin(y)

With combine, products of trigonometric functions are transformed to trig-

onometric functions involving sums of variables:

trigsimp(sin(x)*cos(y), combine);

sin(x - y) + sin(x + y)
-------------------------
2

With compact, the REDUCE operator compact [2] is applied to f. This often
leads to a simple form, but in contrast to expand one does not get a normal form.
990 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

For example:

trigsimp((1-sin(x)^2)^20*(1-cos(x)^2)^20, compact);

40 40
cos(x) *sin(x)

With an option from the fourth group, the input expression is transformed to
trigonometric, hyperbolic or exponential form respectively:

trigsimp(sin(x), hyp);

- sinh(i*x)*i

trigsimp(sinh(x), expon);

2*x
e - 1
----------
x
2*e

trigsimp(e^x, trig);

cos(i*x) - sin(i*x)*i

Usually, tan, cot, sec, csc are expressed in terms of sin and cos. It can
sometimes be useful to avoid this, which is handled by the option keepalltrig:

trigsimp(tan(x+y), keepalltrig);

- (tan(x) + tan(y))
----------------------
tan(x)*tan(y) - 1

Alternatively, the options tan and/or tanh can be given to convert the output to
the specified form as far as possible:

trigsimp(tan(x+y), tan);

- (tan(x) + tan(y))
----------------------
tan(x)*tan(y) - 1
 991

By default, the other functions used will be cos and/or cosh, unless the other
desired functions are also specified in which case this choice will be respected.
The final possibility is to specify additional target arguments for the trigonometric
or hyperbolic functions, each of which should have the form of a variable divided
by a positive integer. These additional arguments are treated as if they had oc-
curred within the expression to be simplified, and their denominators are used in
determining the overall denominator to use for each variable in the simplified form:

trigsimp(csc x - cot x + csc y - cot y, x/2, y/2, tan);

x y
tan(---) + tan(---)
2 2

It is possible to use the options of different groups simultaneously:

trigsimp(sin(x)^4, cos, combine);

cos(4*x) - 4*cos(2*x) + 3
---------------------------
8

Sometimes, it is necessary to handle an expression in separate steps:

trigsimp((sinh(x)+cosh(x))^n+(cosh(x)-sinh(x))^n, expon);

1 n n*x
(----) + e
x
e

trigsimp(ws, hyp);

2*cosh(n*x)

trigsimp((cosh(a*n)*sinh(a)*sinh(p)+cosh(a)*sinh(a*n)*sinh(p)+
sinh(a - p)*sinh(a*n))/sinh(a));

cosh(a*n)*sinh(p) + cosh(p)*sinh(a*n)

trigsimp(ws, combine);

sinh(a*n + p)
992 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The trigsimp operator can be applied to equations, lists and matrices (and com-
positions thereof) as well as scalar expressions, and automatically maps itself re-
cursively over such non-scalar data structures:

trigsimp( { sin(2x) = cos(2x) } );

2
{2*cos(x)*sin(x)= - 2*sin(x) + 1}

16.76.3 Factorizing trigonometric expressions

With trigfactorize(p,x) one can factorize the trigonometric or hyperbolic

polynomial p in terms of trigonometric functions of the argument x. The output
has the same format as that from the standard REDUCE operator factorize.
For example:

trigfactorize(sin(x), x/2);

x x
{{2,1},{sin(---),1},{cos(---),1}}
2 2

If the polynomial is not coordinated or balanced [1], the output will equal the input.
In this case, changing the value for x can help to find a factorization, e.g.

trigfactorize(1+cos(x), x);

{{cos(x) + 1,1}}

trigfactorize(1+cos(x), x/2);

x
{{2,1},{cos(---),2}}
2

The polynomial can consist of both trigonometric and hyperbolic functions:

trigfactorize(sin(2x)*sinh(2x), x);

{{4,1}, {sinh(x),1}, {cosh(x),1}, {sin(x),1}, {cos(x),1}}

The trigfactorize operator respects the standard REDUCE factorize

switch nopowers – see the REDUCE manual for details. Turning it on gives
 993

the behaviour that was standard before REDUCE 3.7:

on nopowers;

trigfactorize(1+cos(x), x/2);

x x
{2,cos(---),cos(---)}
2 2

16.76.4 GCDs of trigonometric expressions

The operator triggcd is essentially an application of the algorithm behind

trigfactorize. With its help the user can find the greatest common divi-
sor of two trigonometric or hyperbolic polynomials. It uses the method described
in [1]. The syntax is triggcd(p,q,x), where p and q are the trigonometric
polynomials and x is the argument to use. For example:

triggcd(sin(x), 1+cos(x), x/2);

x
cos(---)
2

triggcd(sin(x), 1+cos(x), x);

The polynomials p and q can consist of both trigonometric and hyperbolic funct-
ions:

triggcd(sin(2x)*sinh(2x), (1-cos(2x))*(1+cosh(2x)), x);

cosh(x)*sin(x)

16.76.5 Further Examples

With the help of this package the user can create identities:

trigsimp(tan(x)*tan(y));

sin(x)*sin(y)
---------------
994 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

cos(x)*cos(y)

trigsimp(ws, combine);

cos(x - y) - cos(x + y)
-------------------------
cos(x - y) + cos(x + y)

trigsimp((sin(x-a)+sin(x+a))/(cos(x-a)+cos(x+a)));

sin(x)
--------
cos(x)

trigsimp(cosh(n*acosh(x))-cos(n*acos(x)), trig);

trigsimp(sec(a-b), keepalltrig);

csc(a)*csc(b)*sec(a)*sec(b)
-------------------------------
csc(a)*csc(b) + sec(a)*sec(b)

trigsimp(tan(a+b), keepalltrig);

- (tan(a) + tan(b))
----------------------
tan(a)*tan(b) - 1

trigsimp(ws, keepalltrig, combine);

tan(a + b)

Some difficult expressions can be simplified:

df(sqrt(1+cos(x)), x, 4);

5 4 3 2 3
( - 4*cos(x) - 4*cos(x) - 20*cos(x) *sin(x) + 12*cos(x)

2 2 2 4
- 24*cos(x) *sin(x) + 20*cos(x) - 15*cos(x)*sin(x)
 995

2 4 2
+ 12*cos(x)*sin(x) + 8*cos(x) - 15*sin(x) + 16*sin(x) )/

(16*sqrt(cos(x) + 1)

4 3 2
* (cos(x) + 4* cos(x) + 6* cos(x) + 4*cos(x) + 1))

on rationalize;
trigsimp(ws);

sqrt(cos(x) + 1)
------------------
16

off rationalize;
load_package taylor;

taylor(sin(x+a)*cos(x+b), x, 0, 4);

cos(b)*sin(a) + (cos(a)*cos(b) - sin(a)*sin(b))*x

2
- (cos(a)*sin(b) + cos(b)*sin(a))*x

2*( - cos(a)*cos(b) + sin(a)*sin(b)) 3

+ --------------------------------------*x
3

cos(a)*sin(b) + cos(b)*sin(a) 4 5
+ -------------------------------*x + O(x )
3

trigsimp(ws, combine);

sin(a - b) + sin(a + b) 2
------------------------- + cos(a + b)*x - sin(a + b)*x
2

2*cos(a + b) 3 sin(a + b) 4 5
- --------------*x + ------------*x + O(x )
3 3
996 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Certain integrals whose evaluation was not possible in REDUCE (without prepro-
cessing) are now computable:

int(trigsimp(sin(x+y)*cos(x-y)*tan(x)), x);

2
(cos(x) *x - cos(x)*sin(x) - 2*cos(y)*log(cos(x))*sin(y)

2
+ sin(x) *x)/2

int(trigsimp(sin(x+y)*cos(x-y)/tan(x)), x);

x 2
(cos(x)*sin(x) - 2*cos(y)*log(tan(---) + 1)*sin(y)
2

x
+ 2*cos(y)*log(tan(---))*sin(y) + x)/2
2

Without the package, the integration fails, and in the second case one does not
receive an answer for many hours.

trigfactorize(sin(2x)*cos(y)^2, y/2);

{{2*cos(x)*sin(x),1},

y y
{cos(---) - sin(---),2},
2 2

y y
{cos(---) + sin(---),2}}
2 2

trigfactorize(sin(y)^4-x^2, y);

2 2
{{sin(y) + x,1},{sin(y) - x,1}}

trigfactorize(sin(x)*sinh(x), x/2);
 997

{{4,1},

x
{sinh(---),1},
2

x
{cosh(---),1},
2

x
{sin(---),1},
2

x
{cos(---),1}}
2

triggcd(-5+cos(2x)-6sin(x), -7+cos(2x)-8sin(x), x/2);

x x
2*cos(---)*sin(---) + 1
2 2

triggcd(1-2cosh(x)+cosh(2x), 1+2cosh(x)+cosh(2x), x/2);

x 2
2*sinh(---) + 1
2

Bibliography

[1] Roach, Kelly: Difficulties with Trigonometrics. Notes of a talk.

[2] Hearn, A.C.: COMPACT User Manual.

998 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.77 TURTLE: Turtle Graphics Interface for REDUCE

Author: Caroline Cotter

This package is a simple implementation of the “Turtle Graphics” style of drawing
graphs in REDUCE. The background and ideas of “Turtle Graphics” are outlined
below.

16.77.1 Turtle Graphics

Turtle Graphics was originally developed in the 1960’s as part of the LOGO sys-
tem, and used in the classroom as an introduction to graphics and using computers
to help with mathematics.
The LOGO language was created as part of an experiment to test the idea that
programming may be used as an educational discipline to teach children. It was
first intended to be used for problem solving, for illustrating mathematical concepts
usually difficult to grasp, and for creation of experiments with abstract ideas.
At first LOGO had no graphics capabilities, but fast development enabled the in-
corporation of graphics, known as “Turtle Graphics” into the language. “Turtle
Graphics” is regarded by many as the main use of LOGO.
Main Idea: To use simple commands directing a turtle, such as forward, back,
turnleft, in order to construct pictures as opposed to drawing lines connecting carte-
sian coordinate points.
The ‘turtle’ is at all times determined by its state {x,y,a,p}- where x,y determine its
position in the (x,y)-plane, a determines the angle (which describes the direction
the turtle is facing) and p signals whether the pen is up or down (i. e. whether or
not it is drawing on the paper).

16.77.2 Implementation

Some alterations to the original “Turtle Graphics” commands have been made in
this implementation due to the design of the graphics package gnuplot used in
REDUCE.

• It is not possible to draw lines individually and to see each seperate line as
it is added to the graph since gnuplot automatically replaces the last graph
each time it calls on the plot function.
Thus the whole sequence of commands must be input together if the com-
plete picture is to be seen.
 999

• This implementation does not make use of the standard turtle commands
‘pen-up’ or ‘pen-down’ . Instead, ‘set’ commands are included which allow
the turtle to move without drawing a line.

• No facility is provided here to change the pen-colour, but gnuplot does have
the capability to handle a few different colours (which could be included
later).

• Many of the commands are long and difficult to type out repeatedly, there-
fore all the commands included under ‘Turtle Functions’ (below) are listed
alongside an equivalent abbreviated form.

• The user has no control over the range of output that can be seen on the
screen since the gnuplot program automatically adjusts the picture to fit the
window. Hence the size of each specified ‘step’ the turtle takes in any direc-
tion is not a fixed unit of length, rather it is relative to the scale chosen by
gnuplot.

16.77.3 Turtle Functions

As previously mentioned, the turtle is determined at all times by its state {x,y,a}:
its position on the (x,y)-plane and its angle(a) - its heading - which determines
the direction the turtle is facing, in degrees, relative anticlockwise to the positive
x-axis.

16.77.3.1 User Setting Functions

setheading Takes a number as its argument and resets the heading to this number.
If the number entered is negative or greater than or equal to 360 then it is
automatically checked to lie between 0 and 360.
Returns the turtle position {x,y}
SYNTAX: setheading(θ)
Abbreviated form: sh(θ)

leftturn The turtle is turned anticlockwise through the stated number of degrees.
Takes a number as its argument and resets the heading by adding this number
to the previous heading setting.
Returns the turtle position {x,y}
SYNTAX: leftturn(α)
Abbreviated form: slt(α)
1000 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

rightturn Similar to leftturn, but the turtle is turned clockwise through the
stated number of degrees. Takes a number as its argument and resets the
heading by subtracting this number from the previous heading setting.
Returns the turtle position {x,y}
SYNTAX: rightturn(β)
Abbreviated form: srt(β)
setx Relocates the turtle in the x direction. Takes a number as its argument and
repositions the state of the turtle by changing its x-coordinate.
Returns {}
SYNTAX: setx(x)
Abbreviated form: sx(x)
sety Relocates the turtle in the y direction. Takes a number as its argument and
repositions the state of the turtle by changing its y-coordinate.
Returns {}
SYNTAX: sety(y)
Abbreviated form: sy(y)
setposition Relocates the turtle from its current position to the new cartesian co-
ordinate position described. Takes a pair of numbers as its arguments and
repositions the state of the turtle by changing the x and y coordinates.
Returns {}
SYNTAX: setposition(x,y)
Abbreviated form: spn(x,y)
setheadingtowards Resets the heading so that the turtle is facing towards the
given point, with respect to its current position on the coordinate axes. Takes
a pair of numbers as its arguments and changes the heading, but the turtle
stays in the same place.
Returns the turtle position {x,y}
SYNTAX: setheadingtowards(x,y)
Abbreviated form: shto(x,y)
setforward Relocates the turtle from its current position by moving forward (in
the direction of its heading) the number of steps given. Takes a number as
its argument and repositions the state of the turtle by changing the x and y
coordinates.
Returns {}
SYNTAX: setforward(n)
Abbreviated form: sfwd(n)
 1001

setback As with setforward, but moves back (in the opposite direction of its
heading) the number of steps given.
Returns {}
SYNTAX: setback(n)
Abbreviated form: sbk(n)

16.77.3.2 Line-Drawing Functions

forward Moves the turtle forward (in the direction its heading) the number of
steps given. Takes a number as its argument and draws a line from its current
position to a new position on the coordinate plane. The x and y coordinates
are reset to the new values.
Returns the list of points { {old x,old y}, {new x,new y} }
SYNTAX: forward(s)
Abbreviated form: fwd(s)
back As with forward except the turtle moves back (in the opposite direction to
its heading) the number of steps given.
Returns the list of points { {old x,old y}, {new x,new y} }
SYNTAX: back(s)
Abbreviated form: bk(s)
move Moves the turtle to a specified point on the coordinate plane. Takes a pair
of numbers as its arguments and draws a line from its current position to the
position described. The x and y coordinates are set to these new values.
Returns the list of points { {old x,old y}, {new x,new y} }
SYNTAX: move(x,y)
Abbreviated form: mv(x,y)

16.77.3.3 Plotting Functions

draw This is the function the user calls within REDUCE to draw the list of turtle
commands given into a picture. Takes a list as its argument, with each seper-
ate command being seperated by a comma, and returns the graph drawn by
following the commands.
SYNTAX: draw{command(command_args),...,command(command_args)}
Note: all commands may be entered in either long or shorthand form, and
with a space before the arguments instead of parentheses only if just one
argument is needed. Commands taking more than one argument must be
written in parentheses and arguments seperated by a comma.
1002 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

fdraw This function is also called in REDUCE by the user and outputs the same as
the draw command, but it takes a filename as its argument. The file which
is called upon by fdraw must contain only the turtle commands and other
functions defined by the user for turtle graphics. (This is intended to make it
easier for the user to make small changes without constantly typing out long
series of commands.)
SYNTAX: fdraw{"filename"} Note: commands may be entered in
long or shorthand form but each command must be written on a separate
line of the file. Also, arguments are to be written without parentheses and
separated with a space, not a comma, regardless of the number of arguments
given to the function.

16.77.3.4 Other Important Functions

info This function is called on its own in REDUCE to tell user the current state of
the turtle. Takes no arguments but returns a list containing the current values
of the x and y coordinates and the heading variable.
Returns the list {x_coord,y_coord,heading}
SYNTAX: info() or simply info

clearscreen This is also called on its own in REDUCE to get rid of the last gnuplot
window, displaying the last turtle graphics picture, and to reset all the vari-
ables to 0. Takes no arguments and returns no printed output to the screen
but the graphics window is simply cleared.
SYNTAX: clearscreen() or simply clearscreen
Abbreviated form: cls() or cls

home This is a command which can be called within a plot function as well as out-
side of one. Takes no arguments, and simply resets the x and y coordinates
and the heading variable to 0. When used in a series of turtle commands, it
moves the turtle from its current position to the origin and sets the direction
of the turtle along the x-axis, without drawing a line.
Returns {0,0}
SYNTAX: home() or simply home

16.77.3.5 Defining Functions

It is possible to use conditional statements (if . . . then . . . else . . . ) and ‘for’ state-
ments (for i:=. . . collect{. . . }) in calls to draw. However, care must be taken - when
using conditional statements the final else statement must return a point or at least
 1003

{x_coord,y_coord} if the picture is to be continued at that point. Also, ‘for’ state-

ments must include ‘collect’ followed by a list of turtle commands (in addition, the
variable must begin counting from 0 if it is to be joined to the previous list of turtle
commands at that point exactly, e. g. for i:=0:10 collect {. . . }).
SYNTAX: { (For user-defined Turtle functions)}

procedure func_name(func_args);
begin [scalar additional variables];
..
.
(the procedure body containing some turtle commands)
..
.
return (a list, or label to a list, of turtle commands
as accepted by draw)
end;

For convenience, it is recommended that all user defined functions, such as

those involving if...then...else... or for i:=...collect{...}
are defined together in a separate file, then called into REDUCE using the in
"filename" command.
1004 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.77.4 Examples

The following examples are taken from the tur.tst file. Examples 1,2,5 & 6 are
simple calls to draw. Examples 3 & 4 show how more complicated commands can
be built (which can take their own set of arguments) using procedures. Examples 7
& 8 show the difference between the draw and fdraw commands.

% (1) Draw 36 rays of length 100

draw {for i:=1:36 collect{setheading(i*10), forward 100, back 100} };

REDUCE Plot
100

50
points

-50

-100
-100 -50 0 50 100
x

% (2) Draw 12 regular polygons with 12 sides of length 40,each polygon

%forming an angle of 360/n degrees with the previous one.

draw {for i:=1:12 collect

{leftturn(30), for j:=1:12 collect
{forward 40, leftturn(30)}} };
 1005

REDUCE Plot
150

100

50
points

-50

-100

-150
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
x

% (3) A "peak" pattern - an example of a recursive procedure.

procedure peak(r);
begin;
return for i:=0:r collect
{move(x_coord+5,y_coord-10), move(x_coord+10,y_coord+60),
move(x_coord+10,y_coord-60),move(x_coord+5,y_coord+10)};
end;

draw {home(), peak(3)};

1006 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

REDUCE Plot
50

40

30
points

20

10

-10
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
x

%This procedure can then be part of a longer chain of commands:

draw {home(), move(5,50), peak(3), move(x_coord+10,-100),

peak(2), move(x_coord+10,0)};

REDUCE Plot
100

50

0
points

-50

-100

-150
0 50 100 150 200 250
x

% (4) Write a recursive procedure which draws "trees" such that every
%branch is half the length of the previous branch.
 1007

procedure tree(a,b); %Here: a is the start length, b is the

%number of levels
begin;
return if fixpb and b>0 %checking b is a positive integer

then {leftturn(45), forward a, tree(a/2,b-1),

back a, rightturn(90), forward a, tree(a/2,b-1),
back a, leftturn(45)}
else {x_coord,y_coord}; %default: Turtle stays still
end;

draw {home(), tree(130,7)};

REDUCE Plot
250

200

150

100

50
points

-50

-100

-150

-200

-250
0 50 100 150 200 250
x

% (5) A 36-point star.

draw {home(), for i:=1:36 collect

{leftturn(10), forward 100, leftturn(10), back 100} };
1008 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

REDUCE Plot
100

80

60
points

40

20

0
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
x

% (6) Draw 100 equilateral triangles with the leading points

%equally spaced on a circular path.

draw {home(), for i:=1:100 collect

{forward 150, rightturn(60), back(150),
rightturn(60), forward 150, setheading(i*3.6)} };

REDUCE Plot
150

100

50
points

-50

-100

-150
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
x
 1009

% (7) Two or more graphs can be drawn together (this is easier

%if the graphs are named). Here we show graphs 2 and 6 on top of one
%another:

gr2:={home(), for i:=1:12 collect

{leftturn(30), for j:=1:12 collect
{forward 40, leftturn(30)}} }$

gr6:={home(), for i:=1:100 collect

{forward 150, rightturn(60), back(150),
rightturn(60), forward 150, setheading(i*3.6)} }$

draw {gr2, gr6};

REDUCE Plot
150

100

50
points

-50

-100

-150
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150
x

% (8) Example 7 could have been tackled another way, which makes use of
%the fdraw command.
%By inputting gr2 and gr6 as procedures into reduce, they can then be
%used at any time in the same reduce session in a call to draw and even
%fdraw.

%First save the procedures in a file, say fxp (fdraw example procedures):

procedure gr2;
begin;
return {home, for i:=1:12 collect
1010 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

{leftturn(30), for j:=1:12 collect

{forward 40, leftturn(30)}} };
end;

procedure gr6;
begin;
return {home(), for i:=1:100 collect
{forward 150, rightturn(60), back(150),
rightturn(60), forward 150, setheading(i*3.6)} };
end;

%Then create another file where the functions may be called to fdraw,
%e.g. fx:

gr2
gr6

%Now in reduce, after loading the turtle package just type the followi

in "fxp";
fdraw ’"fx";

%..and the graphs will appear.

%This method is useful if the user wants to define many of their own
%functions, and, using fdraw, subtle changes can be made quickly witho
%having to type out the whole string of commands to plot each time. It
%is particularly useful if there are several pictures to plot at once
%it is an easy way to build pictures so that the difference an extra
%command makes to the overall picture can be clearly seen.
%(In the above example, the file called to fdraw was only 2 lines long
%so this method did not have any advantage over the normal draw comman
%However, when the list of commands is longer it is clearly advantageo
%to use fdraw)

16.77.5 References

1. An Implementation of Turtle Graphics for Teaching Purposes

Zoran I. Putnik & Zoram d.Budimac
2. Mapletech - Maple in Mathematics and the Sciences,
Special Issue 1994
 1011

An Implementation of “Turtle Graphics” in Maple V

Eugenio Roanes Lozano & Eugenio Roanes Macias
1012 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.78 WU: Wu algorithm for polynomial systems

This is a simple implementation of the Wu algorithm implemented in REDUCE

working directly from “A Zero Structure Theorem for Polynomial-Equations-
Solving,” Wu Wen-tsun, Institute of Systems Science, Academia Sinica, Beijing.
Author: Russell Bradford.
Its purpose was to aid my understanding of the algorithm, so the code is simple,
and has a lot of tracing included. This is a working implementation, but there is
magnificent scope for improvement and optimisation. Things like using intelligent
sorts on polynomial lists, and avoiding the re-computation of various data spring
easily to mind. Also, an attempt at factorization of the input polynomials at each
pass might have beneficial results. Of course, exploitation of the natural parallel
structure is a must!
All bug fixes and improvements are welcomed.
The interface:

wu( {x^2+y^2+z^2-r^2, x*y+z^2-1, x*y*z-x^2-y^2-z+1}, {x,y,z});

calls wu with the named polynomials, and with the variable ordering x > y > z.
In this example, r is a parameter.
The result is

2 3 2
{{{r + z - z - 1,

2 2 2 2 4 2 2 2
r *y + r *z + r - y - y *z + z - z - 2,

2
x*y + z - 1},

y},

6 4 6 2 6 4 7 4 6 4 5 4 4
{{r *z - 2*r *z + r + 3*r *z - 3*r *z - 6*r *z + 3*r *z + 3*

4 3 4 2 4 2 10 2 9 2 8 2 7
r *z + 3*r *z - 3*r + 3*r *z - 6*r *z - 3*r *z + 6*r *z +

2 6 2 5 2 4 2 3 2 13 12 11
3*r *z + 6*r *z - 6*r *z - 6*r *z + 3*r + z - 3*z + z
 1013

10 9 8 7 6 4 3 2
+ 2*z + z + 2*z - 6*z - z + 2*z + 3*z - z - 1,

2 2 3 2
y *(r + z - z - 1),

2
x*y + z - 1},

2 3 2
y*(r + z - z - 1)}}

namely, a list of pairs of characteristic sets and initials for the characteristic sets.
Thus, the first pair above has the characteristic set

r2 + z 3 − z 2 − 1, r2 y 2 + r2 z + r2 − y 4 − y 2 z 2 + z 2 − z − 2, xy + z 2 − 1

and initial y.
According to Wu’s theorem, the set of roots of the original polynomials is the
union of the sets of roots of the characteristic sets, with the additional constraints
that the corresponding initial is non-zero. Thus, for the first pair above, we find
the roots of {r2 + z 3 − z 2 − 1, . . . } under the constraint that y 6= 0. These
roots, together with the roots of the other characteristic set (under the constraint of
y(r2 + z 3 − z 2 − 1) 6= 0), comprise all the roots of the original set.
Additional information about the working of the algorithm can be gained by

on trwu;

This prints out details of the choice of basic sets, and the computation of charac-
teristic sets.
The second argument (the list of variables) may be omitted, when all the variables
in the input polynomials are implied with some random ordering.
1014 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.79 XCOLOR: Color factor in some field theories

This package calculates the color factor in non-abelian gauge field theories using
an algorithm due to Cvitanovich.
Documentation for this package is in plain text.
Author: A. Kryukov.
Program "xCOLOR" is intended for calculation the colour factor in non-abelian
gauge field theories. It is realized Cvitanovich algorithm [1]. In comparision with
"COLOR" program [2] it was made many improvements. The package was writen
by symbolic mode. This version is faster then [2] more then 10 times.
After load the program by the following command load xcolor;
user can be able to use the next additional commands and operators.

Command SUdim.

Format: SUdim <any expression>;

Set the order of SU group.
The default value is 3, i.e. SU(3).

Command SpTT.

Format: SpTT <any expression>;

Set the normalization coefficient A: Sp(TiTj) = A*Delta(i,j). Default value is 1/2.

Operator QG.

Format: QG(inQuark,outQuark,Gluon)
Describe the quark-gluon vertex. Parameters may be any identifiers. First and
second of then must be in- and out- quarks correspondently. Third one is a gluon.

Operator G3.

Format: G3(Gluon1,Gluon2,Gluon3)
Describe the three-gluon vertex. Parameters may be any identifiers. The order of
gluons must be clock.
In terms of QG and G3 operators you input diagram in "color" space as a product
of these operators. For example.
 1015

Diagram: REDUCE expression:

e1

---->---
/ \
| e2 |
v1*..........*v2 <===> QG(e3,e1,e2)*QG(e1,e3,e2)
| |
\ e3 /
----<---

Here: --->--- quark

....... gluon

More detail see [2].

References.
[1] P.Cvitanovic, Phys. Rev. D14(1976), p.1536.
[2] A.Kryukov & A.Rodionov, Comp. Phys. Comm., 48(1988), pp.327-334.
Please send any remarks to my address above!
Good luck!
1016 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.80 XIDEAL: Gröbner Bases for exterior algebra

XIDEAL constructs Gröbner bases for solving the left ideal membership problem:
Gröbner left ideal bases or GLIBs. For graded ideals, where each form is homo-
geneous in degree, the distinction between left and right ideals vanishes. Further-
more, if the generating forms are all homogeneous, then the Gröbner bases for the
non-graded and graded ideals are identical. In this case, XIDEAL is able to save
time by truncating the Gröbner basis at some maximum degree if desired.
Author: David Hartley.

16.80.1 Description

The method of Gröbner bases in commutative polynomial rings introduced by

Buchberger (e.g. [1]) is a well-known and very important tool in polynomial ideal
theory, for example in solving the ideal membership problem. XIDEAL extends
the method to exterior algebras using algorithms from [2] and [3].
There are two main departures from the commutative polynomial case. First, ow-
ing to the non-commutative product in exterior algebras, ideals are no longer auto-
matically two-sided, and it is necessary to distinguish between left and right ide-
als. Secondly, because there are zero divisors, confluent reduction relations are no
longer sufficient to solve the ideal membership problem: a unique normal form for
every polynomial does not guarantee that all elements in the ideal reduce to zero.
This leads to two possible definitions of Gröbner bases as pointed out by Stokes
[4].
XIDEAL constructs Gröbner bases for solving the left ideal membership problem:
Gröbner left ideal bases or GLIBs. For graded ideals, where each form is homo-
geneous in degree, the distinction between left and right ideals vanishes. Further-
more, if the generating forms are all homogeneous, then the Gröbner bases for the
non-graded and graded ideals are identical. In this case, XIDEAL is able to save
time by truncating the Gröbner basis at some maximum degree if desired.
XIDEAL uses the exterior calculus package EXCALC of E. Schrüfer [5] to provide
the exterior algebra definitions. EXCALC is loaded automatically with XIDEAL.
The exterior variables may be specified explicitly, or extracted automatically from
the input polynomials. All distinct exterior variables in the input are assumed
to be linearly independent – if a dimension has been fixed (using the EXCALC
spacedim or coframe statements), then input containing distinct exterior vari-
ables with degrees totaling more than this number will generate an error.
 1017

16.80.2 Declarations

xorder

xorder sets the term ordering for all other calculations. The syntax is

xorder k

where k is one of lex, gradlex or deglex. The lexicographical ordering lex

is based on the prevailing EXCALC kernel ordering for the exterior variables.
The EXCALC kernel ordering can be changed with the REDUCE korder or
EXCALC forder declarations. The graded lexicographical ordering gradlex
puts terms with more factors first (irrespective of their exterior degrees) and sorts
terms of the same grading lexicographically. The degree lexicographical ordering
deglex takes account of the exterior degree of the variables, putting highest de-
gree first and then sorting terms of the same degree lexicographically. The default
ordering is deglex.

xvars

It is possible to consider scalar and 0-form variables in exterior polynomials in

two ways: as variables or as coefficient parameters. This difference is crucial
for Gröbner basis calculations. By default, all scalar variables which have been
declared as 0-forms are treated as exterior variables, along with any EXCALC
kernels of degree 0. This division can be changed with the xvars declaration.
The syntax is

xvars U,V,W,...

where the arguments are either kernels or lists of kernels. All variables specified
in the xvars declaration are treated as exterior variables in subsequent XIDEAL
calculations with exterior polynomials, and any other scalars are treated as param-
eters. This is true whether or not the variables have been declared as 0-forms. The
declaration

xvars {}

causes all degree 0 variables to be treated as parameters, and

xvars nil

restores the default. Of course, p-form kernels with p 6= 0 are always considered
as exterior variables. The order of the variables in an xvars declaration has no
1018 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

effect on the REDUCE kernel ordering or XIDEAL term ordering.

16.80.3 Operators

xideal

xideal calculates a Gröbner left ideal basis in an exterior algebra. The syntax is

xideal(S:list of forms[,V:list of kernels][,R:integer])

:list of forms.

xideal calculates a Gröbner basis for the left ideal generated by S using the
current term ordering. The resulting list can be used for subsequent reductions
with xmod as long as the term ordering is not changed. Which 0-form variables
are to be regarded as exterior variables can be specified in an optional argument V
(just like an xvars declaration). The order of variables in V has no effect on the
term ordering. If the set of generators S is graded, an optional parameter R can be
given, and xideal produces a truncated basis suitable for reducing exterior forms
of degree less than or equal to R in the left ideal. This can save time and space with
large problems, but the result cannot be used for exterior forms of degree greater
than R. The forms returned by xideal are sorted in increasing order. See also the
switches trxideal and xfullreduction.

xmodideal

xmodideal reduces exterior forms to their (unique) normal forms modulo a left
ideal. The syntax is

xmodideal(F:form, S:list of forms):form

or

xmodideal(F:list of forms, S:list of forms)

:list of forms.

An alternative infix syntax is also available:

F xmodideal S.

xmodideal(F,S) first calculates a Gröbner basis for the left ideal generated by
S, and then reduces F. F may be either a single exterior form, or a list of forms,
and S is a list of forms. If F is a list of forms, each element is reduced, and any
which vanish are deleted from the result. If the set of generators S is graded, then a
 1019

truncated Gröbner basis is calculated using the degree of F (or the maximal degree
in F). See also trxmod.

xmod

xmod reduces exterior forms to their (not necessarily unique) normal forms mod-
ulo a set of exterior polynomials. The syntax is

xmod(F:form, S:list of forms):form

or

xmod(F:list of forms, S:list of forms):list of forms.

An alternative infix syntax is also available:

F xmod S.

xmod(F,S) reduces F with respect to the set of exterior polynomials S, which is

not necessarily a Gröbner basis. F may be either a single exterior form, or a list
of forms, and S is a list of forms. This operator can be used in conjunction with
xideal to produce the same effect as xmodideal: for a single homogeneous
form F and a set of exterior forms S, F xmodideal S is equivalent to F xmod
xideal(S,exdegree F). See also trxmod.

xauto

xauto autoreduces a set of exterior forms. The syntax is

xauto(S:list of forms):list of forms.

xauto S returns a set of exterior polynomials which generate the same left ideal,
but which are in normal form with respect to each other. For linear expressions,
this is equivalent to finding the reduced row echelon form of the coefficient matrix.

excoeffs

The operator excoeffs, with syntax

excoeffs(F:form):list of expressions

returns the coefficients from an exterior form as a list. The coefficients are always
1020 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

scalars, but which degree 0 variables count as coefficient parameters is controlled

by the command xvars.

exvars

The operator exvars, with syntax

exvars(F:form):list of kernels

returns the exterior powers from an exterior form as a list. All non-scalar vari-
ables are returned, but which degree 0 variables count as coefficient parameters is
controlled by the command xvars.

16.80.4 Switches

xfullreduce

on xfullreduce allows xideal and xmodideal to calculate reduced,

monic Gröbner bases, which speeds up subsequent reductions, and guarantees a
unique form for the Gröbner basis. off xfullreduce turns of this feature,
which may speed up calculation of some Gröbner basis. xfullreduce is on by
default.

trxideal

on trxideal produces a trace of the calculations done by xideal and

xmodideal, showing the basis polynomials and the results of the critical ele-
ment calculations. This can generate profuse amounts of output. trxideal is
off by default.

trxmod

on trxmod produces a trace of reductions to normal form during calculations by

XIDEAL operators. trxmod is off by default.

16.80.5 Examples

Suppose XIDEAL has been loaded, the switches are at their default settings, and
the following exterior variables have been declared:

pform x=0,y=0,z=0,t=0,f(i)=1,h=0,hx=0,ht=0;
 1021

In a commutative polynomial ring, a single polynomial is its own Gröbner basis.

This is no longer true for exterior algebras because of the presence of zero divisors,
and can lead to some surprising reductions:

xideal {d x^d y - d z^d t};

{d t^d z + d x^d y,

d x^d y^d z,

d t^d x^d y}

f(3)^f(4)^f(5)^f(6)
xmodideal {f(1)^f(2) + f(3)^f(4) + f(5)^f(6)};

The heat equation, hxx = ht can be represented by the following exterior differen-
tial system.

S := {d h - ht*d t - hx*d x,
d ht^d t + d hx^d x,
d hx^d t - ht*d x^d t};

xmodideal can be used to check that the exterior differential system is closed
under exterior differentiation.

d S xmodideal S;

{}

xvars, or a second argument to xideal can be used to change the division

between exterior variables of degree 0 and parameters.

xideal {a*d x+y*d y};

d x*a + d y*y
{---------------}
a

xvars {a};
xideal {a*d x+y*d y};

{d x*a + d y*y,d x^d y}

1022 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

xideal({a*d x+y*d y},{a,y});

{d x*a + d y*y,

d x^d y*y}

xvars {}; % all 0-forms are coefficients

excoeffs(d u - (a*p - q)*d y);

{1, - a*p + q}

exvars(d u - (a*p - q)*d y);

{d u,d y}

xvars {p,q}; % p,q are no longer coefficients

excoeffs(d u - (a*p - q)*d y);

{ - a,1,1}

exvars(d u - (a*p - q)*d y);

{d y*p,d y*q,d u}

xvars nil;

Non-graded left and right ideals are no longer the same:

d t^(d z+d x^d y) xmodideal {d z+d x^d y};

(d z+d x^d y)^d t xmodideal {d z+d x^d y};

- 2*d t^d z

Any form containing a 0-form term generates the whole ideal:

xideal {1 + f(1) + f(1)^f(2) + f(2)^f(3)^f(4)};

{1}
 1023

Bibliography

[1] B. Buchberger, Gröbner Bases: an algorithmic method in polynomial ideal

theory, in Multidimensional Systems Theory ed. N.K. Bose (Reidel, Dor-
drecht, 1985) chapter 6.

[2] D. Hartley and P.A. Tuckey, A Direct Characterisation of Gröbner Bases in

Clifford and Grassmann Algebras, Preprint MPI-Ph/93–96 (1993).

[3] J. Apel, A relationship between Gröbner bases of ideals and vector modules
of G-algebras, Contemporary Math. 131(1992)195–204.

[4] T. Stokes, Gröbner bases in exterior algebra, J. Automated Reasoning

6(1990)233–250.

[5] E. Schrüfer, EXCALC, a system for doing calculations in the calculus of mod-
ern differential geometry, User’s manual, (The Rand Corporation, Santa Mon-
ica, 1986).
1024 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

16.81 ZEILBERG: Indefinite and definite summation

This package is a careful implementation of the Gosper and Zeilberger algorithms

for indefinite and definite summation of hypergeometric terms, respectively. Ex-
tensions of these algorithms are also included that are valid for ratios of products
of powers, factorials, Γ function terms, binomial coefficients, and shifted factorials
that are rational-linear in their arguments.
Authors: Gregor Stölting and Wolfram Koepf.

16.81.1 Introduction

This package is a careful implementation of the Gosper54 and Zeilberger algo-

rithms for indefinite, and definite summation of hypergeometric terms, respec-
tively. Further, extensions of these algorithms given by the first author are covered.
An expression ak is called a hypergeometric term (or closed form), if ak /ak−1 is
a rational function with respect to k. Typical hypergeometric terms are ratios of
products of powers, factorials, Γ function terms, binomial coefficients, and shifted
factorials (Pochhammer symbols) that are integer-linear in their arguments.
The extensions of Gosper’s and Zeilberger’s algorithm mentioned in particular are
valid for ratios of products of powers, factorials, Γ function terms, binomial coef-
ficients, and shifted factorials that are rational-linear in their arguments.

16.81.2 Gosper Algorithm

The Gosper algorithm [1] is a decision procedure, that decides by algebraic calcu-
lations whether or not a given hypergeometric term ak has a hypergeometric term
antidifference gk , i. e. gk − gk−1 = ak with rational gk /gk−1 , and returns gk if the
procedure is successful, in which case we call ak Gosper-summable. Otherwise
no hypergeometric term antidifference exists. Therefore if the Gosper algorithm
does not return a closed form solution, it has proved that no such solution exists,
an information that may be quite useful and important. The Gosper algorithm is
the discrete analogue of the Risch algorithm for integration in terms of elementary
functions.
Any antidifference is uniquely determined up to a constant, and is denoted by
X
gk = ak .
k

Finding gk given ak is called indefinite summation. The antidifference operator Σ

is the inverse of the downward difference operator ∇ak = ak − ak−1 . There is
54
The sum package contains also a partial implementation of the Gosper algorithm.
 1025

an analogous summation theory corresponding to the upward difference operator

∆ak = ak+1 − ak .
In case, an antidifference gk of ak is known, any sum
n
X
ak = gn − gm−1
k=m

can be easily calculated by an evaluation of g at the boundary points like in the

integration case. Note, however, that the sum
n  
X n
(16.98)
k
k=0

e. g. is not of this type since the summand nk depends on the upper boundary

point n explicitly. This is an example of a definite sum that we consider in the next
section.
Our package supports the input of powers (a^k), factorials (factorial(k)), Γ
function terms (gamma(a)), binomial coefficients (binomial(n,k)), shifted
factorials (pochhammer(a,k)= a(a + 1) · · · (a + k − 1) = Γ(a + k)/Γ(a)),
and partially products (prod(f,k,k1,k2)). It takes care of the necessary sim-
plifications, and therefore provides you with the solution of the decision problem
as long as the memory or time requirements are not too high for the computer used.

16.81.3 Zeilberger Algorithm

The (fast) Zeilberger algorithm [10]–[11] deals with the definite summation of
hypergeometric terms. Zeilberger’s paradigm is to find (and return) a linear ho-
mogeneous recurrence equation with polynomial coefficients (called holonomic
equation) for an infinite sum
∞
X
s(n) = f (n, k) ,
k=−∞

the summation to be understood over all integers k, if f (n, k) is a hypergeometric

term with respect to both k and n. The existence of a holonomic recurrence equat-
ion for s(n) is then generally guaranteed.
If one is lucky, and the resulting recurrence equation is of first order

p(n) s(n − 1) + q(n) s(n) = 0 (p, q polynomials) ,

s(n) turns out to be a hypergeometric term, and a closed form solution can be
easily established using a suitable initial value, and is represented by a ratio of
Pochhammer or Γ function terms if the polynomials p, and q can be factored.
1026 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

Zeilberger’s algorithm does not guarantee to find the holonomic equation of lowest
order, but often it does.
If the resulting recurrence equation has order larger than one, this information can
be used for identification purposes: Any other expression satisfying the same re-
currence equation, and the same initial values, represents the same function.
m
P2
Note that a definite sum f (n, k) is an infinite sum if f (n, k) = 0 for
k=m1
k < m1 and k > m2 . This is often the case, an example of which is the
sum (16.98) considered above, for which the hypergeometric recurrence equation
2s(n − 1) − s(n) = 0 is generated by Zeilberger’s algorithm, leading to the closed
form solution s(n) = 2n .
Definite summation is trivial if the corresponding indefinite sum is Gosper-
summable analogously to the fact that definite integration is trivial as soon as an el-
ementary antiderivative is known. If this is not the case, the situation is much more
difficult, and it is therefore quite remarkable and non-obvious that Zeilberger’s
method is just a clever application of Gosper’s algorithm.
Our implementation is mainly based on [3] and [2]. More examples can be found in
[5], [7], [8], and [9] many of which are contained in the test file zeilberg.tst.

16.81.4 REDUCE operator GOSPER

The ZEILBERG package must be loaded by:

1: load zeilberg;

The gosper operator is an implementation of the Gosper algorithm.

• gosper(a,k) determines a closed form antidifference. If it does not re-

turn a closed form solution, then a closed form solution does not exist.

• gosper(a,k,m,n) determines
n
X
ak
k=m

using Gosper’s algorithm. This is only successful if Gosper’s algorithm ap-

plies.

Example:

2: gosper((-1)^(k+1)*(4*k+1)*factorial(2*k)/
(factorial(k)*4^k*(2*k-1)*factorial(k+1)),k);
 1027

k
- ( - 1) *factorial(2*k)
------------------------------------
2*k
2 *factorial(k + 1)*factorial(k)

This solves a problem given in SIAM Review ([6], Problem 94–2) where it was
asked to determine the infinite sum
n
X (−1)k+1 (4k + 1)(2k − 1)!!
S = lim Sn , Sn = ,
n→∞ 2k (2k − 1)(k + 1)!
k=1

((2k − 1)!! = 1 · 3 · · · (2k − 1) = (2k)!

2k k!
). The above calculation shows that the
summand is Gosper-summable, and the limit S = 1 is easily established using
Stirling’s formula.
The implementation solves further deep and difficult problems some examples of
which are:

3: gosper(sub(n=n+1,binomial(n,k)^2/binomial(2*n,n))-
binomial(n,k)^2/binomial(2*n,n),k);

2
((binomial(n + 1,k) *binomial(2*n,n)

2
- binomial(2*(n + 1),n + 1)*binomial(n,k) )*(2*k - 3*n - 1)

2 3 2
* (k - n - 1) )/((2 (2
* * (n + 1) - k) (2
* * n + 1)* k - 3 *n - 7 *n - 5*n

- 1)*binomial(2*(n + 1),n + 1)*binomial(2*n,n))

4: gosper(binomial(k,n),k);

(k + 1)*binomial(k,n)
-----------------------
n + 1

5: gosper((-25+15*k+18*k^2-2*k^3-k^4)/
(-23+479*k+613*k^2+137*k^3+53*k^4+5*k^5+k^6),k);

2
- (2*k - 15*k + 8)*k
----------------------------
3 2
23*(k + 4*k + 27*k + 23)
1028 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

The Gosper algorithm is not capable to give antidifferences depending on the har-
monic numbers
k
X 1
Hk := ,
j
j=1
P
e. g. k Hk = (k + 1)(Hk+1 − 1), but, is able to give a proof, instead, for the fact
that Hk does not possess a closed form evaluation:

6: gosper(1/k,k);

***** Gosper algorithm: no closed form solution exists

The following code gives the solution to a summation problem proposed in

Gosper’s original paper [1]. Let
k
Y k
Y
2
fk = (a + b j + c j ) and gk = (e + b j + c j 2 ) .
j=1 j=1

Then a closed form solution for

X fk−1
k gk

is found by the definitions

7: operator ff,gg$

8: let {ff(~k+~m) => ff(k+m-1)*(c*(k+m)^2+b*(k+m)+a)

when (fixp(m) and m>0),
ff(~k+~m) => ff(k+m+1)/(c*(k+m+1)^2+b*(k+m+1)+a)
when (fixp(m) and m<0)}$

9: let {gg(~k+~m) => gg(k+m-1)*(c*(k+m)^2+b*(k+m)+e)

when (fixp(m) and m>0),
gg(~k+~m) => gg(k+m+1)/(c*(k+m+1)^2+b*(k+m+1)+e)
when (fixp(m) and m<0)}$

and the calculation

10: gosper(ff(k-1)/gg(k),k);

ff(k)
---------------
(a - e)*gg(k)

11: clear ff,gg$

 1029

P fk−m
Similarly closed form solutions of k gk for positive integers m can be ob-
P f
tained, as well as of k k−1
gk for

k
Y k
Y
fk = (a + b j + c j 2 + d j 3 ) and gk = (e + b j + c j 2 + d j 3 )
j=1 j=1

and for analogous expressions of higher degree polynomials.

16.81.5 REDUCE operator EXTENDED_GOSPER

The extended_gosper operator is an implementation of an extended version

of Gosper’s algorithm given by Koepf [2].

• extended_gosper(a,k) determines an antidifference gk of ak when-

ever there is a number m such that hk − hk−m = ak , and hk is an m-fold
hypergeometric term, i. e.

hk /hk−m is a rational function with respect to k.

If it does not return a solution, then such a solution does not exist.

• extended_gosper(a,k,m) determines an m-fold antidifference hk of

ak , i. e. hk − hk−m = ak , if it is an m-fold hypergeometric term.

Examples:

12: extended_gosper(binomial(k/2,n),k);

k k - 1
(k + 2)*binomial(---,n) + (k + 1)*binomial(-------,n)
2 2
-------------------------------------------------------
2*(n + 1)

13: extended_gosper(k*factorial(k/7),k,7);

k
(k + 7)*factorial(---)
7

16.81.6 REDUCE operator SUMRECURSION

The sumrecursion operator is an implementation of the (fast) Zeilberger algo-

rithm.
1030 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• sumrecursion(f,k,n) determines a holonomic recurrence equation

for
X∞
sum(n) = f (n, k)
k=−∞

with respect to n, applying extended_sumrecursion if necessary, see

§ 16.81.7. The resulting expression equals zero.

• sumrecursion(f,k,n,j) searches for a holonomic recurrence equat-

ion of order j. This operator does not use extended_sumrecursion
automatically. Note that if j is too large, the recurrence equation may not be
unique, and only one particular solution is returned.

A simple example deals with Equation (16.98)55

14: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k),k,n);

2*sum(n - 1) - sum(n)

The whole hypergeometric database of the Vandermonde, Gauß, Kummer, Saalschütz,

Dixon, Clausen and Dougall identities (see [9]), and many more identities (see e.
g. [2]), can be obtained using sumrecursion. As examples, we consider the
difficult cases of Clausen and Dougall:

15: summand:=factorial(a+k-1)*factorial(b+k-1)/(factorial(k)*
factorial(-1/2+a+b+k))*factorial(a+n-k-1)*factorial(b+n-k-1)/
(factorial(n-k)*factorial(-1/2+a+b+n-k))$

16: sumrecursion(summand,k,n);

(2*a + 2*b + 2*n - 1)*(2*a + 2*b + n - 1)*sum(n)*n

- 2*(2*a + n - 1)*(a + b + n - 1)*(2*b + n - 1)*sum(n - 1)

17: summand:=pochhammer(d,k)*pochhammer(1+d/2,k)*pochhammer(d+b-a,k)*
pochhammer(d+c-a,k)*pochhammer(1+a-b-c,k)*pochhammer(n+a,k)*
pochhammer(-n,k)/(factorial(k)*pochhammer(d/2,k)*
pochhammer(1+a-b,k)*pochhammer(1+a-c,k)*pochhammer(b+c+d-a,k)*
pochhammer(1+d-a-n,k)*pochhammer(1+d+n,k))$

18: sumrecursion(summand,k,n);

(2*a - b - c - d + n)*(b + n - 1)*(c + n - 1)*(d + n)*sum(n - 1) +

55
Note that with REDUCE Version 3.5 we use the global operator summ instead of sum to denote
the sum.
 1031

(a - b - c - d - n + 1)*(a - b + n)*(a - c + n)*(a - d + n - 1)

*sum(n)

corresponding to the statements

 !
a , b , 1/2 − a − b − n , −n  (2a)n (a + b)n (2b)n
4 F3 1 =

1/2 + a + b , 1 − a − n , 1 − b − n  (2a + 2b)n (a)n (b)n

and
 !
d , 1 + d/2 , d + b − a , d + c − a , 1 + a − b − c , n + a , −n 
7 F6 1

d/2 , 1 + a − b , 1 + a − c , b + c + d − a , 1 + d − a − n , 1 + d + n 

(d + 1)n (b)n (c)n (1 + 2 a − b − c − d)n

=
(a − d)n (1 + a − b)n (1 + a − c)n (b + c + d − a)n
(compare next section), respectively.
Other applications of the Zeilberger algorithm are connected with the verification
of identities. To prove the identity
n  3 n  2  
X n X n 2k
= ,
k k n
k=0 k=0

e. g., we may prove that both sums satisfy the same recurrence equation

19: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)^3,k,n);

2 2 2
(7*n - 7*n + 2)*sum(n - 1) + 8*(n - 1) *sum(n - 2) - sum(n)*n

20: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)^2*binomial(2*k,n),k,n);

2 2 2
(7*n - 7*n + 2)*sum(n - 1) + 8*(n - 1) *sum(n - 2) - sum(n)*n

and finally check the initial conditions:

21: sub(n=0,k=0,binomial(n,k)^3);

22: sub(n=0,k=0,binomial(n,k)^2*binomial(2*k,n));

1
1032 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

23: sub(n=1,k=0,binomial(n,k)^3)+sub(n=1,k=1,binomial(n,k)^3);

24: sub(n=1,k=0,binomial(n,k)^2*binomial(2*k,n))+
sub(n=1,k=1,binomial(n,k)^2*binomial(2*k,n));

16.81.7 REDUCE operator EXTENDED_SUMRECURSION

The extended_sumrecursion operator is an implementation of an extension

of the (fast) Zeilberger algorithm given by Koepf [2].

• extended_sumrecursion(f,k,n,m,l) determines a holonomic re-

∞
P
currence equation for sum(n) = f (n, k) with respect to n if f (n, k) is
k=−∞
an (m, l)-fold hypergeometric term with respect to (n, k), i. e.

F (n, k) F (n, k)
and
F (n − m, k) F (n, k − l)

are rational functions with respect to both n and k. The resulting expression
equals zero.

• sumrecursion(f,k,n) invokes extended_sumrecursion(f,k,n,m,l)

with suitable values m and l, and covers therefore the extended algorithm
completely.

Examples:

25: extended_sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)*binomial(k/2,n),k,n,1,2);

sum(n - 1) + 2*sum(n)

which can be obtained automatically by

26: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)*binomial(k/2,n),k,n);

sum(n - 1) + 2*sum(n)

Similarly, we get

27: extended_sumrecursion(binomial(n/2,k),k,n,2,1);
 1033

2*sum(n - 2) - sum(n)

28: sumrecursion(binomial(n/2,k),k,n);

2*sum(n - 2) - sum(n)

29: sumrecursion(hyperterm({a,b,a+1/2-b,1+2*a/3,-n},
{2*a+1-2*b,2*b,2/3*a,1+a+n/2},4,k)/(factorial(n)*2^(-n)/
factorial(n/2))/hyperterm({a+1,1},{a-b+1,b+1/2},1,n/2),k,n);

sum(n - 2) - sum(n)

In the last example, the progam chooses m = 2, and l = 1 to derive the resulting
recurrence equation (see [2], Table 3, (1.3)).

16.81.8 REDUCE operator HYPERRECURSION

Sums to which the Zeilberger algorithm applies, in general are special cases of the
generalized hypergeometric function
   ∞
a1 , a2 , · · · , ap  X (a1 )k · (a2 )k · · · (ap )k k
p Fq x := x
b1 , b2 , · · · , bq  (b1 )k · (b2 )k · · · (bq )k k!
k=0

with upper parameters {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap }, and lower parameters {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq }. If

a recursion for a generalized hypergeometric function is to be established, you can
use the following REDUCE operator:

• hyperrecursion(upper,lower,x,n) determines a holonomic  re-


a1 , a2 , · · · , ap 
currence equation with respect to n for p Fq x ,
b1 , b2 , · · · , bq 
where upper= {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap } is the list of upper parameters, and
lower= {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq } is the list of lower parameters depending on n.
If Zeilberger’s algorithm does not apply, extended_sumrecursion of
§ 16.81.7 is used.

• hyperrecursion(upper,lower,x,n,j) (j ∈ N) searches only for

a holonomic recurrence equation of order j. This operator does not use
extended_sumrecursion automatically.

Therefore

30: hyperrecursion({-n,b},{c},1,n);

(b - c - n + 1)*sum(n - 1) + (c + n - 1)*sum(n)
1034 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

establishes the Vandermonde identity

 !
−n , b  (c − b)n
2 F1 1 = ,
c  (c)n

whereas

31: hyperrecursion({d,1+d/2,d+b-a,d+c-a,1+a-b-c,n+a,-n},
{d/2,1+a-b,1+a-c,b+c+d-a,1+d-a-n,1+d+n},1,n);

(2*a - b - c - d + n)*(b + n - 1)*(c + n - 1)*(d + n)*sum(n - 1) +

(a - b - c - d - n + 1)*(a - b + n)*(a - c + n)*(a - d + n - 1)

*sum(n)

proves Dougall’s identity, again.

If a hypergeometric expression is given in hypergeometric notation, then the use of
hyperrecursion is more natural than the use of sumrecursion.
Moreover you may use the REDUCE operator

• hyperterm(upper,lower,x,k) that yields the hypergeometric term

(a1 )k · (a2 )k · · · (ap )k k
x
(b1 )k · (b2 )k · · · (bq )k k!

with upper parameters upper= {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap }, and lower parameters

lower= {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq }

in connection with hypergeometric terms.

The operator sumrecursion can also be used to obtain three-term recurrence
equations for systems of orthogonal polynomials with the aid of known hyper-
geometric representations. By ([4], (2.7.11a)), the discrete Krawtchouk polynom-
(p)
ials kn (x, N ) have the hypergeometric representation
 !
−n −x
 
N , 1
kn(p) (x, N ) = (−1)n pn 2 F1 ,

n −N p


and therefore we declare

32: krawtchoukterm:=
(-1)^n*p^n*binomial(NN,n)*hyperterm({-n,-x},{-NN},1/p,k)$

and get the three three-term recurrence equations

 1035

33: sumrecursion(krawtchoukterm,k,n);

((2*p - 1)*n - nn*p - 2*p + x + 1)*sum(n - 1)

- (n - nn - 2)*(p - 1)*sum(n - 2)*p - sum(n)*n

34: sumrecursion(krawtchoukterm,k,x);

(2*(x - 1)*p + n - nn*p - x + 1)*sum(x - 1)

- ((x - 1) - nn)*sum(x)*p - (p - 1)*(x - 1)*sum(x - 2)

35: sumrecursion(krawtchoukterm,k,NN);

((p - 2)*nn + n + x + 1)*sum(nn - 1) + (n - nn)*(p - 1)*sum(nn)

+ (nn - x - 1)*sum(nn - 2)

with respect to the parameters n, x, and N respectively.

16.81.9 REDUCE operator HYPERSUM

With the operator hypersum, hypergeometric sums are directly evaluated in

closed form whenever the extended Zeilberger algorithm leads to a recurrence
equation containing only two terms:

• hypersum(upper,lower,x,n)
  determines
 a closed form representa-
a1 , a2 , · · · , ap 

tion for p Fq x , where upper= {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap }
b1 , b2 , · · · , bq 
is the list of upper parameters, and lower= {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq } is the list of
lower parameters depending on n. The result is given as a hypergeometric
term with respect to n.
If the result is a list of length m, we call it m-fold symmetric, which is to be
interpreted as follows: Its j th part is the solution valid for all n of the form
n = mk + j − 1 (k ∈ N0 ). In particular, if the resulting list contains two
terms, then the first part is the solution for even n, and the second part is the
solution for odd n.

Examples [2]:

36: hypersum({a,1+a/2,c,d,-n},{a/2,1+a-c,1+a-d,1+a+n},1,n);

pochhammer(a - c - d + 1,n)*pochhammer(a + 1,n)

-------------------------------------------------
pochhammer(a - c + 1,n)*pochhammer(a - d + 1,n)
1036 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

37: hypersum({a,1+a/2,d,-n},{a/2,1+a-d,1+a+n},-1,n);

pochhammer(a + 1,n)
-------------------------
pochhammer(a - d + 1,n)

Note that the operator togamma converts expressions given in factorial-Γ-

binomial-Pochhammer notation into a pure Γ function representation:

38: togamma(ws);

gamma(a - d + 1)*gamma(a + n + 1)
-----------------------------------
gamma(a - d + n + 1)*gamma(a + 1)

Here are some m-fold symmetric results:

39: hypersum({-n,-n,-n},{1,1},1,n);

n/2 2 n 1 n
( - 27) * pochhammer(---,---) * pochhammer(---,---)
3 2 3 2
{----------------------------------------------------,
n 2
factorial(---)
2
0}

40: hypersum({-n,n+3*a,a},{3*a/2,(3*a+1)/2},3/4,n);

2 n 1 n
pochhammer(---,---)*pochhammer(---,---)
3 3 3 3
{-----------------------------------------------------,
3*a + 2 n 3*a + 1 n
pochhammer(---------,---)*pochhammer(---------,---)
3 3 3 3
0,

0}

These results correspond to the formulas (compare [2])

 ! 
−n , −n , −n   0 if n odd
3 F2  1 = (1/3)n/2 (2/3)n/2
1 ,1 (−27)n/2 otherwise
(n/2)!2
 
 1037

and
 !  0 if n 6= 0 (mod 3)
−n , n + 3a , a  3 
3 F2 = (1/3)n/3 (2/3)n/3 .
3a/2 , (3a + 1)/2  4 otherwise

(a + 1/3)n/3 (a + 2/3)n/3


16.81.10 REDUCE operator SUMTOHYPER

With the operator sumtohyper, sums given in factorial-Γ-binomial-Pochhammer

notation are converted into hypergeometric notation.
P∞
sumtohyper(f,k) determines the hypergeometric representation of fk ,
k=−∞
i. e. its output is c*hypergeometric(upper,lower,x), corresponding to
the representation
∞   
X a1 , a2 , · · · , ap 
fk = c · p Fq x ,
b1 , b2 , · · · , bq 
k=−∞

where upper= {a1 , a2 , . . . , ap } and lower= {b1 , b2 , . . . , bq } are the lists of

upper and lower parameters.
Examples:

41: sumtohyper(binomial(n,k)^3,k);

hypergeometric({ - n, - n, - n},{1,1},-1)

42: sumtohyper(binomial(n,k)/2^n-sub(n=n-1,binomial(n,k)/2^n),k);

- n + 2 - n
- hypergeometric({----------, - n,1},{1,------},-1)
2 2
------------------------------------------------------
n
2

16.81.11 Simplification Operators

For the decision that an expression ak is a hypergeometric term, it is necessary to

find out whether or not ak /ak−1 is a rational function with respect to k. For the pur-
pose to decide whether or not an expression involving powers, factorials, Γ function
terms, binomial coefficients, and Pochhammer symbols is a hypergeometric term,
the following simplification operators can be used:
1038 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

• simplify_gamma(f) simplifies an expression f involving only rational,

powers and Γ function terms according to a recursive application of the sim-
plification rule Γ (a + 1) = a Γ (a) to the expression tree. Since all Γ
arguments with integer difference are transformed, this gives a decision pro-
cedure for rationality for integer-linear Γ term product ratios.

• simplify_combinatorial(f) simplifies an expression f involving

powers, factorials, Γ function terms, binomial coefficients, and Pochhammer
symbols by converting factorials, binomial coefficients, and Pochhammer
symbols into Γ function terms, and applying simplify_gamma to its re-
sult. If the output is not rational, it is given in terms of Γ functions. If you
prefer factorials you may use

• gammatofactorial (rule) converting Γ function terms into factorials us-

ing Γ (x) → (x − 1)!.

• simplify_gamma2(f) uses the duplication formula of the Γ function to

simplify f .

• simplify_gamman(f,n) uses the multiplication formula of the Γ func-

tion to simplify f .

The use of simplify_combinatorial(f) is a safe way to decide the ratio-

nality for any ratio of products of powers, factorials, Γ function terms, binomial
coefficients, and Pochhammer symbols.
Example:

43: simplify_combinatorial(sub(k=k+1,krawtchoukterm)/krawtchoukterm);

(k - n)*(k - x)
--------------------
(k - nn)*(k + 1)*p

From this calculation, we see again that the upper parameters of the hypergeometric
representation of the Krawtchouk polynomials are given by {−n, −x}, its lower
parameter is {−N }, and the argument of the hypergeometric function is 1/p.
Other examples are

44: simplify_combinatorial(binomial(n,k)/binomial(2*n,k-1));

gamma( - (k - 2*n - 2))*gamma(n + 1)

----------------------------------------
gamma( - (k - n - 1))*gamma(2*n + 1)*k

45: ws where gammatofactorial;

 1039

factorial( - k + 2*n + 1)*factorial(n)

----------------------------------------
factorial( - k + n)*factorial(2*n)*k

46: simplify_gamma2(gamma(2*n)/gamma(n));

2*n 2*n + 1
2 *gamma(---------)
2
-----------------------
2*sqrt(pi)

47: simplify_gamman(gamma(3*n)/gamma(n),3);

3*n 3*n + 2 3* n + 1
3 *gamma(---------) *gamma(---------)
3 3
----------------------------------------
2*sqrt(3)*pi

16.81.12 Tracing

If you set

48: on zb_trace;

tracing is enabled, and you get intermediate results, see [2].

Example for the Gosper algorithm:

49: gosper(pochhammer(k-n,n),k);

k - 1
a(k)/a(k-1):= -----------
k - n - 1

Gosper algorithm applicable

p:= 1

q:= k - 1

r:= k - n - 1

degreebound := 0
1040 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

1
f:= -------
n + 1

Gosper algorithm successful

pochhammer(k - n,n)*k
-----------------------
n + 1

Example for the Zeilberger algorithm:

50: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)^2,k,n);

2
n
F(n,k)/F(n-1,k):= ----------
2
(k - n)

2
(k - n - 1)
F(n,k)/F(n,k-1):= --------------
2
k

Zeilberger algorithm applicable

applying Zeilberger algorithm for order:= 1

2 2 2
p:= zb_sigma(1)*k - 2*zb_sigma(1)*k*n + zb_sigma(1)*n + n

2 2
q:= k - 2*k*n - 2*k + n + 2*n + 1

2
r:= k

degreebound := 1

2*k - 3*n + 2
f:= ---------------
n

2 2 2 3 2
- 4*k *n + 2*k + 8*k*n - 4*k*n - 3*n + 2*n
p:= -------------------------------------------------
n
 1041

Zeilberger algorithm successful

4*sum(n - 1)*n - 2*sum(n - 1) - sum(n)*n

51: off zb_trace;

16.81.13 Global Variables and Switches

The following global variables and switches can be used in connection with the
ZEILBERG package:

• zb_trace, switch; default setting off. Turns tracing on and off.

• zb_direction, variable; settings: down, up; default setting down.

In the case of the Gosper algorithm, either a downward or a forward antidif-
ference is calculated, i. e., gosper finds gk with either

ak = gk − gk−1 or ak = gk+1 − gk ,

respectively.
In the case of the Zeilberger algorithm, either a downward or an upward
recurrence equation is returned. Example:

52: zb_direction:=up$

53: sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)^2,k,n);

sum(n + 1)*n + sum(n + 1) - 4*sum(n)*n - 2*sum(n)

54: zb_direction:=down$

• zb_order, variable; settings: any nonnegative integer; default setting 5.

Gives the maximal order for the recurrence equation that sumrecursion
searches for.

• zb_factor, switch; default setting on. If off, the factorization of the

output usually producing nicer results is suppressed.

• zb_proof, switch; default setting off. If on, then several intermediate

results are stored in global variables:

• gosper_representation, variable; default setting nil.

1042 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

If a gosper command is issued, and if the Gosper algorithm is applicable,

then the variable gosper_representation is set to the list of polynom-
ials (with respect to k) {p,q,r,f} corresponding to the representation
ak pk qk qk+1
= , gk = fk ak ,
ak−1 pk−1 rk pk

see [1]. Examples:

55: on zb_proof;

56: gosper(k*factorial(k),k);

(k + 1)*factorial(k)

57: gosper_representation;

{k,k,1,1}

58: gosper(
1/(k+1)*binomial(2*k,k)/(n-k+1)*binomial(2*n-2*k,n-k),k);

((2*k - n + 1)*(2*k + 1)*binomial( - 2*(k - n), - (k - n))

*binomial(2*k,k))/((k + 1)*(n + 2)*(n + 1))

59: gosper_representation;

{1,

(2*k - 1)*(k - n - 2),

(2*k - 2*n - 1)*(k + 1),

- (2*k - n + 1)
------------------}
(n + 2)*(n + 1)

• zeilberger_representation, variable; default setting nil.

If a sumrecursion command is issued, and if the Zeilberger algorithm is
successful, then the variable zeilberger_representation is set to
the final Gosper representation used, see [3].

16.81.14 Messages

The following messages may occur:

 1043

• ***** Gosper algorithm: no closed form solution exists

Example input:
gosper(factorial(k),k).

• ***** Gosper algorithm not applicable

Example input:
gosper(factorial(k/2),k).
The term ratio ak /ak−1 is not rational.

• ***** illegal number of arguments

Example input:
gosper(k).

• ***** Zeilberger algorithm fails. Enlarge zb_order

Example input:
sumrecursion(binomial(n,k)*binomial(6*k,n),k,n)
For this example a setting zb_order:=6 is needed.

• ***** Zeilberger algorithm not applicable

Example input:
sumrecursion(binomial(n/2,k),k,n)
One of the term ratios f (n, k)/f (n − 1, k) or f (n, k)/f (n, k − 1) is not
rational.

• ***** SOLVE given inconsistent equations

You can ignore this message that occurs with Version 3.5.

Bibliography

[1] Gosper Jr., R. W.: Decision procedure for indefinite hypergeometric summa-
tion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 75, 1978, 40–42.

[2] Koepf, W.: Algorithms for the indefinite and definite summation. Konrad-
Zuse-Zentrum Berlin (ZIB), Preprint SC 94-33, 1994.

[3] Koornwinder, T. H.: On Zeilberger’s algorithm and its q-analogue: a rigorous

description. J. of Comput. and Appl. Math. 48, 1993, 91–111.

[4] Nikiforov, A. F., Suslov, S. K, and Uvarov, V. B.: Classical orthogonal

polynomials of a discrete variable. Springer-Verlag, Berlin–Heidelberg–New
York, 1991.
1044 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

[5] Paule, P. and Schorn, M.: A M ATHEMATICA version of Zeilberger’s algo-

rithm for proving binomial coefficient identities. J. Symbolic Computation,
1994, to appear.

[6] Problem 94–2, SIAM Review 36, March 1994.

[7] Strehl, V.: Binomial sums and identities. Maple Technical Newsletter 10,
1993, 37–49.

[8] Wilf, H. S.: Generatingfunctionology. Academic Press, Boston, 1990.

[9] Wilf, H. S.: Identities and their computer proofs. “SPICE” Lec-
ture Notes, August 31–September 2, 1993. Anonymous ftp file
pub/wilf/lecnotes.ps on the server ftp.cis.upenn.edu.

[10] Zeilberger, D.: A fast algorithm for proving terminating hypergeometric iden-
tities. Discrete Math. 80, 1990, 207–211.

[11] Zeilberger, D.: The method of creative telescoping. J. Symbolic Computation

11, 1991, 195–204.
 1045

16.82 ZTRANS: Z-transform package

This package is an implementation of the Z-transform of a sequence. This is the

discrete analogue of the Laplace Transform.
Authors: Wolfram Koepf and Lisa Temme.

16.82.1 Z-Transform

The Z-Transform of a sequence {fn } is the discrete analogue of the Laplace Trans-
form, and
X∞
Z{fn } = F (z) = fn z −n .
n=0
p
n
This series converges in the region outside the circle |z| = |z0 | = lim sup |fn | .
n→∞

SYNTAX: ztrans(fn , n, z) where fn is an expression, and n,z

are identifiers.

16.82.2 Inverse Z-Transform

The calculation of the Laurent coefficients of a regular function results in the fol-
lowing inverse formula for the Z-Transform:
If F (z) is a regular function in the region |z| > ρ then ∃ a sequence {fn } with
Z{fn } = F (z) given by
I
1
fn = F (z)z n−1 dz
2πi

SYNTAX: invztrans(F (z), z, n) where F (z) is an expression,

and z,n are identifiers.

16.82.3 Input for the Z-Transform

This package can compute the Z-Transforms of the following list of fn , and
certain combinations thereof.

1
1 eαn (n+k)

1 1 1
n! (2n)! (2n+1)!
1046 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

sin(βn)
n! sin(αn + φ) eαn sin(βn)

cos(βn)
n! cos(αn + φ) eαn cos(βn)

sin(β(n+1)) cos(β(n+1))
n+1 sinh(αn + φ) n+1

n+k


cosh(αn + φ) m

Other Combinations

Linearity Z{afn + bgn } = aZ{fn } + bZ{gn }

d
Multiplication by n Z{nk · fn } = −z dz Z{nk−1 · fn , n, z}

z
Multiplication by λn Z{λn · fn } = F


λ
!
k−1
Z{fn+k } = z k fj z −j
P
Shift Equation F (z) −
j=0

n
 
P z
Symbolic Sums Z fk = z−1 · Z{fn }
k=0
( )
n+q
P
Z fk combination of the above
k=p

where k,λ ∈ N−{0}; and a,b are variables or fractions; and p,q ∈ Z or
are functions of n; and α, β & φ are angles in radians.

16.82.4 Input for the Inverse Z-Transform

This package can compute the Inverse Z-Transforms of any rational function,
whose denominator can be factored over Q, in addition to the following list
of F (z).
   
  cos(β)   cos(β)
sin(β) sin(β)
sin z e z
cos z e z

pz pz
pz

A sin A cos A
pz pz
pz

A sinh A cosh A
 1047
  √ 
z z 2 +Az+B
z log √
z 2 −Az+B
z log z

 
sin(β)
arctan z+cos(β)

where k,λ ∈ N−{0} and A,B are fractions or variables (B > 0) and α,β, & φ are
angles in radians.

16.82.5 Application of the Z-Transform

Solution of difference equations

In the same way that a Laplace Transform can be used to solve differential equat-
ions, so Z-Transforms can be used to solve difference equations.
Given a linear difference equation of k-th order

fn+k + a1 fn+k−1 + . . . + ak fn = gn (16.99)

with initial conditions f0 = h0 , f1 = h1 , . . ., fk−1 = hk−1 (where hj are given),

it is possible to solve it in the following way. If the coefficients a1 , . . . , ak are con-
stants, then the Z-Transform of (16.99) can be calculated using the shift equation,
and results in a solvable linear equation for Z{fn }. Application of the Inverse Z-
Transform then results in the solution of (16.99).
If the coefficients a1 , . . . , ak are polynomials in n then the Z-Transform of (16.99)
constitutes a differential equation for Z{fn }. If this differential equation can be
solved then the Inverse Z-Transform once again yields the solution of (16.99).
Some examples of these methods of solution can be found in §16.82.6.

16.82.6 EXAMPLES

Here are some examples for the Z-Transform

1: ztrans((-1)^n*n^2,n,z);

z*( - z + 1)
---------------------
3 2
z + 3*z + 3*z + 1

2: ztrans(cos(n*omega*t),n,z);

z*(cos(omega*t) - z)
1048 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

---------------------------
2
2*cos(omega*t)*z - z - 1

3: ztrans(cos(b*(n+2))/(n+2),n,z);

z
z*( - cos(b) + log(------------------------------)*z)
2
sqrt( - 2*cos(b)*z + z + 1)

4: ztrans(n*cos(b*n)/factorial(n),n,z);

cos(b)/z sin(b) sin(b)

e *(cos(--------) *cos(b) - sin(--------)*sin(b))
z z
---------------------------------------------------------
z
5: ztrans(sum(1/factorial(k),k,0,n),n,z);

1/z
e *z
--------
z - 1

6: operator f$

7: ztrans((1+n)^2*f(n),n,z);

2
df(ztrans(f(n),n,z),z,2)*z - df(ztrans(f(n),n,z),z)*z
+ ztrans(f(n),n,z)

Here are some examples for the Inverse Z-Transform

8: invztrans((z^2-2*z)/(z^2-4*z+1),z,n);

n n n
(sqrt(3) - 2) *( - 1) + (sqrt(3) + 2)
-----------------------------------------
2
 1049

9: invztrans(z/((z-a)*(z-b)),z,n);

n n
a - b
---------
a - b

10: invztrans(z/((z-a)*(z-b)*(z-c)),z,n);

n n n n n n
a *b - a *c - b *a + b *c + c *a - c *b
-----------------------------------------
2 2 2 2 2 2
a *b - a *c - a*b + a*c + b *c - b*c

11: invztrans(z*log(z/(z-a)),z,n);

n
a *a
-------
n + 1

12: invztrans(e^(1/(a*z)),z,n);

1
-----------------
n
a *factorial(n)

13: invztrans(z*(z-cosh(a))/(z^2-2*z*cosh(a)+1),z,n);

cosh(a*n)

Examples: Solutions of Difference Equations

I (See [1], p. 651, Example 1).

Consider the homogeneous linear difference equation

fn+5 − 2fn+3 + 2fn+2 − 3fn+1 + 2fn = 0

with initial conditions f0 = 0, f1 = 0, f2 = 9, f3 = −2, f4 = 23. The

Z-Transform of the left hand side can be written as F (z) = P (z)/Q(z)
1050 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

where P (z) = 9z 3 − 2z 2 + 5z and Q(z) = z 5 − 2z 3 + 2z 2 − 3z + 2 =

(z − 1)2 (z + 2)(z 2 + 1), which can be inverted to give

fn = 2n + (−2)n − cos π2 n .

The following REDUCE session shows how the present package can
be used to solve the above problem.

14: operator f$ f(0):=0$ f(1):=0$ f(2):=9$ f(3):=-2$ f(4):=23$

20: equation:=ztrans(f(n+5)-2*f(n+3)+2*f(n+2)-3*f(n+1)+2*f(n),n,z);

5 3
equation := ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z - 2*ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z

2
+ 2*ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z - 3*ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z

3 2
+ 2*ztrans(f(n),n,z) - 9*z + 2*z - 5*z

21: ztransresult:=solve(equation,ztrans(f(n),n,z));

2
z*(9*z - 2*z + 5)
ztransresult := {ztrans(f(n),n,z)=----------------------------}
5 3 2
z - 2*z + 2*z - 3*z + 2

22: result:=invztrans(part(first(ztransresult),2),z,n);

n n n n
2*( - 2) - i *( - 1) - i + 4*n
result := -----------------------------------
2

II (See [1], p. 651, Example 2).

Consider the inhomogeneous difference equation:
 1051

fn+2 − 4fn+1 + 3fn = 1

with initial conditions f0 = 0, f1 = 1. Giving

 
1 z
F (z) = Z{1} z 2 −4z+3
+ z 2 −4z+3

 
z 1 z
= z−1 z 2 −4z+3
+ z 2 −4z+3
.

The Inverse Z-Transform results in the solution

 
1 3n+1 −1
fn = 2 2 − (n + 1) .

The following REDUCE session shows how the present package can
be used to solve the above problem.

23: clear(f)$ operator f$ f(0):=0$ f(1):=1$

27: equation:=ztrans(f(n+2)-4*f(n+1)+3*f(n)-1,n,z);

3 2
equation := (ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z - 5*ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z

2
+ 7*ztrans(f(n),n,z)*z - 3*ztrans(f(n),n,z) - z )/(z - 1)

28: ztransresult:=solve(equation,ztrans(f(n),n,z));

2
z
result := {ztrans(f(n),n,z)=---------------------}
3 2
z - 5*z + 7*z - 3

29: result:=invztrans(part(first(ztransresult),2),z,n);

n
3*3 - 2*n - 3
result := ----------------
4
1052 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES

III Consider the following difference equation, which has a differential

equation for Z{fn }.

(n + 1) · fn+1 − fn = 0

with initial conditions f0 = 1, f1 = 1. It can be solved in REDUCE

using the present package in the following way.

30: clear(f)$ operator f$ f(0):=1$ f(1):=1$

34: equation:=ztrans((n+1)*f(n+1)-f(n),n,z);

2
equation := - (df(ztrans(f(n),n,z),z)*z + ztrans(f(n),n,z))

35: operator tmp;

36: equation:=sub(ztrans(f(n),n,z)=tmp(z),equation);

2
equation := - (df(tmp(z),z)*z + tmp(z))

37: load(odesolve);

38: ztransresult:=odesolve(equation,tmp(z),z);

1/z
ztransresult := {tmp(z)=e *arbconst(1)}

39: preresult:=invztrans(part(first(ztransresult),2),z,n);

arbconst(1)
preresult := --------------
factorial(n)

40: solve({sub(n=0,preresult)=f(0),sub(n=1,preresult)=f(1)},
arbconst(1));

{arbconst(1)=1}
 1053

41: result:=preresult where ws;

1
result := --------------
factorial(n)

Bibliography

[1] Bronstein, I.N. and Semedjajew, K.A., Taschenbuch der Mathematik, Verlag
Harri Deutsch, Thun und Frankfurt(Main), 1981.
ISBN 3 87144 492 8.
1054 CHAPTER 16. USER CONTRIBUTED PACKAGES
Chapter 17

Symbolic Mode

At the system level, REDUCE is based on a version of the programming language

Lisp known as Standard Lisp which is described in J. Marti, Hearn, A. C., Griss,
M. L. and Griss, C., “Standard LISP Report" SIGPLAN Notices, ACM, New York,
14, No 10 (1979) 48-68. We shall assume in this section that the reader is familiar
with the material in that paper. This also assumes implicitly that the reader has
a reasonable knowledge about Lisp in general, say at the level of the LISP 1.5
Programmer’s Manual (McCarthy, J., Abrahams, P. W., Edwards, D. J., Hart, T.
P. and Levin, M. I., “LISP 1.5 Programmer’s Manual”, M.I.T. Press, 1965) or any
of the books mentioned at the end of this section. Persons unfamiliar with this
material will have some difficulty understanding this section.
Although REDUCE is designed primarily for algebraic calculations, its source lan-
guage is general enough to allow for a full range of Lisp-like symbolic calculations.
To achieve this generality, however, it is necessary to provide the user with two
modes of evaluation, namely an algebraic mode and a symbolic mode. To enter
symbolic mode, the user types symbolic; (or lisp;) and to return to algebraic
mode one types algebraic;. Evaluations proceed differently in each mode so
the user is advised to check what mode he is in if a puzzling error arises. He can
find his mode by typing

eval_mode;

The current mode will then be printed as ALGEBRAIC or SYMBOLIC.

Expression evaluation may proceed in either mode at any level of a calculation,
provided the results are passed from mode to mode in a compatible manner. One
simply prefixes the relevant expression by the appropriate mode. If the mode name
prefixes an expression at the top level, it will then be handled as if the global system
mode had been changed for the scope of that particular calculation.
For example, if the current mode is ALGEBRAIC, then the commands

1055
1056 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

symbolic car ’(a);

x+y;

will cause the first expression to be evaluated and printed in symbolic mode and
the second in algebraic mode. Only the second evaluation will thus affect the
expression workspace. On the other hand, the statement

x + symbolic car ’(12);

will result in the algebraic value X+12.

The use of SYMBOLIC (and equivalently ALGEBRAIC) in this manner is the same
as any operator. That means that parentheses could be omitted in the above ex-
amples since the meaning is obvious. In other cases, parentheses must be used, as
in

symbolic(x := ’a);

Omitting the parentheses, as in

symbolic x := a;

would be wrong, since it would parse as

symbolic(x) := a;

For convenience, it is assumed that any operator whose first argument is quoted is
being evaluated in symbolic mode, regardless of the mode in effect at that time.
Thus, the first example above could be equally well written:

car ’(a);

Except where explicit limitations have been made, most REDUCE algebraic con-
structions carry over into symbolic mode. However, there are some differences.
First, expression evaluation now becomes Lisp evaluation. Secondly, assignment
statements are handled differently, as we shall discuss shortly. Thirdly, local vari-
ables and array elements are initialized to NIL rather than 0. (In fact, any variables
not explicitly declared INTEGER are also initialized to NIL in algebraic mode, but
the algebraic evaluator recognizes NIL as 0.) Finally, function definitions follow
the conventions of Standard Lisp.
To begin with, we mention a few extensions to our basic syntax which are designed
primarily if not exclusively for symbolic mode.
17.1. SYMBOLIC INFIX OPERATORS 1057

17.1 Symbolic Infix Operators

There are three binary infix operators in REDUCE intended for use in symbolic
mode, namely . (CONS), EQ and MEMQ. The precedence of these operators was
given in another section.

17.2 Symbolic Expressions

These consist of scalar variables and operators and follow the normal rules of the
Lisp meta language.
Examples:

x
car u . reverse v
simp (u+v^2)

17.3 Quoted Expressions

Because symbolic evaluation requires that each variable or expression has a value,
it is necessary to add to REDUCE the concept of a quoted expression by analogy
with the Lisp QUOTE function. This is provided by the single quote mark ’. For
example,

’a represents the Lisp S-expression (quote a)

’(a b c) represents the Lisp S-expression (quote (a b c))

Note, however, that strings are constants and therefore evaluate to themselves in
symbolic mode. Thus, to print the string "A String", one would write

prin2 "A String";

Within a quoted expression, identifier syntax rules are those of REDUCE. Thus
(A !. B) is the list consisting of the three elements A, ., and B, whereas (A
. B) is the dotted pair of A and B.

17.4 Lambda Expressions

LAMBDA expressions provide the means for constructing Lisp LAMBDA expres-
sions in symbolic mode. They may not be used in algebraic mode.
1058 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

Syntax:

hLAMBDA expressioni −→
LAMBDA hvarlistihterminatorihstatementi

where

hvarlisti −→ (hvariablei, . . . ,hvariablei)

e.g.,

lambda (x,y); car x . cdr y;

is equivalent to the Lisp LAMBDA expression

(lambda (x y) (cons (car x) (cdr y)))

The parentheses may be omitted in specifying the variable list if desired.

LAMBDA expressions may be used in symbolic mode in place of prefix operators,
or as an argument of the reserved word FUNCTION.
In those cases where a LAMBDA expression is used to introduce local variables
to avoid recomputation, a WHERE statement can also be used. For example, the
expression

(lambda (x,y); list(car x,cdr x,car y,cdr y))

(reverse u,reverse v)

can also be written

{car x,cdr x,car y,cdr y} where x=reverse u,y=reverse v

Where possible, WHERE syntax is preferred to LAMBDA syntax, since it is more

natural.

17.5 Symbolic Assignment Statements

In symbolic mode, if the left side of an assignment statement is a variable, a SETQ

of the right-hand side to that variable occurs. If the left-hand side is an expression,
it must be of the form of an array element, otherwise an error will result. For exam-
ple, x:=y translates into (SETQ X Y) whereas a(3) := 3 will be valid if A
has been previously declared a single dimensioned array of at least four elements.
17.6. FOR EACH STATEMENT 1059

17.6 FOR EACH Statement

The FOR EACH form of the FOR statement, designed for iteration down a list, is
more general in symbolic mode. Its syntax is:

FOR EACH ID:identifier {IN|ON} LST:list

{DO|COLLECT|JOIN|PRODUCT|SUM} EXPRN:S-expr

As in algebraic mode, if the keyword IN is used, iteration is on each element of the

list. With ON, iteration is on the whole list remaining at each point in the iteration.
As a result, we have the following equivalence between each form of FOR EACH
and the various mapping functions in Lisp:

DO COLLECT JOIN
IN MAPC MAPCAR MAPCAN
ON MAP MAPLIST MAPCON

Example: To list each element of the list (a b c):

for each x in ’(a b c) collect list x;

17.7 Symbolic Procedures

All the functions described in the Standard Lisp Report are available to users in
symbolic mode. Additional functions may also be defined as symbolic procedures.
For example, to define the Lisp function ASSOC, the following could be used:

symbolic procedure assoc(u,v);

if null v then nil
else if u = caar v then car v
else assoc(u, cdr v);

If the default mode were symbolic, then SYMBOLIC could be omitted in the above
definition. MACROs may be defined by prefixing the keyword PROCEDURE by the
word MACRO. (In fact, ordinary functions may be defined with the keyword EXPR
prefixing PROCEDURE as was used in the Standard Lisp Report.) For example,
we could define a MACRO CONSCONS by

symbolic macro procedure conscons l;

expand(cdr l,’cons);

Another form of macro, the SMACRO is also available. These are described in the
1060 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

Standard Lisp Report. The Report also defines a function type FEXPR. However,
its use is discouraged since it is hard to implement efficiently, and most uses can be
replaced by macros. At the present time, there are no FEXPRs in the core REDUCE
system.

17.8 Standard Lisp Equivalent of Reduce Input

A user can obtain the Standard Lisp equivalent of his REDUCE input by turning
on the switch DEFN (for definition). The system then prints the Lisp translation
of his input but does not evaluate it. Normal operation is resumed when DEFN is
turned off.

17.9 Communicating with Algebraic Mode

One of the principal motivations for a user of the algebraic facilities of REDUCE to
learn about symbolic mode is that it gives one access to a wider range of techniques
than is possible in algebraic mode alone. For example, if a user wishes to use parts
of the system defined in the basic system source code, or refine their algebraic
code definitions to make them more efficient, then it is necessary to understand the
source language in fairly complete detail. Moreover, it is also necessary to know a
little more about the way REDUCE operates internally. Basically, REDUCE con-
siders expressions in two forms: prefix form, which follow the normal Lisp rules
of function composition, and so-called canonical form, which uses a completely
different syntax.
Once these details are understood, the most critical problem faced by a user is how
to make expressions and procedures communicate between symbolic and algebraic
mode. The purpose of this section is to teach a user the basic principles for this.
If one wants to evaluate an expression in algebraic mode, and then use that ex-
pression in symbolic mode calculations, or vice versa, the easiest way to do this
is to assign a variable to that expression whose value is easily obtainable in both
modes. To facilitate this, a declaration SHARE is available. SHARE takes a list of
identifiers as argument, and marks these variables as having recognizable values in
both modes. The declaration may be used in either mode.
E.g.,

share x,y;

says that X and Y will receive values to be used in both modes.

If a SHARE declaration is made for a variable with a previously assigned algebraic
17.9. COMMUNICATING WITH ALGEBRAIC MODE 1061

value, that value is also made available in symbolic mode.

17.9.1 Passing Algebraic Mode Values to Symbolic Mode

If one wishes to work with parts of an algebraic mode expression in symbolic

mode, one simply makes an assignment of a shared variable to the relevant expres-
sion in algebraic mode. For example, if one wishes to work with (a+b)^2, one
would say, in algebraic mode:

x := (a+b)^2;

assuming that X was declared shared as above. If we now change to symbolic mode
and say

x;

its value will be printed as a prefix form with the syntax:

(*SQ <standard quotient> T)

This particular format reflects the fact that the algebraic mode processor currently
likes to transfer prefix forms from command to command, but doesn’t like to re-
convert standard forms (which represent polynomials) and standard quotients back
to a true Lisp prefix form for the expression (which would result in excessive com-
putation). So *SQ is used to tell the algebraic processor that it is dealing with a
prefix form which is really a standard quotient and the second argument (T or NIL)
tells it whether it needs further processing (essentially, an already simplified flag).
So to get the true standard quotient form in symbolic mode, one needs CADR of the
variable. E.g.,

z := cadr x;

would store in Z the standard quotient form for (a+b)^2.

Once you have this expression, you can now manipulate it as you wish. To facilitate
this, a standard set of selectors and constructors are available for getting at parts of
the form. Those presently defined are as follows:

REDUCE Selectors
1062 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

DENR denominator of standard quotient

LC leading coefficient of polynomial
LDEG leading degree of polynomial
LPOW leading power of polynomial
LT leading term of polynomial
MVAR main variable of polynomial
NUMR numerator (of standard quotient)
PDEG degree of a power
RED reductum of polynomial
TC coefficient of a term
TDEG degree of a term
TPOW power of a term
17.9. COMMUNICATING WITH ALGEBRAIC MODE 1063

REDUCE Constructors
.+ add a term to a polynomial
./ divide (two polynomials to get quotient)
.* multiply power by coefficient to produce term
.^ raise a variable to a power

For example, to find the numerator of the standard quotient above, one could say:

numr z;

or to find the leading term of the numerator:

lt numr z;

Conversion between various data structures is facilitated by the use of a set of

functions defined for this purpose. Those currently implemented include:

!*A2F convert an algebraic expression to a standard form. If result is

rational, an error results;
!*A2K converts an algebraic expression to a kernel. If this is not possible,
an error results;
!*F2A converts a standard form to an algebraic expression;
!*F2Q convert a standard form to a standard quotient;
!*K2F convert a kernel to a standard form;
!*K2Q convert a kernel to a standard quotient;
!*P2F convert a standard power to a standard form;
!*P2Q convert a standard power to a standard quotient;
!*Q2F convert a standard quotient to a standard form. If the quotient de-
nominator is not 1, an error results;
!*Q2K convert a standard quotient to a kernel. If this is not possible, an
error results;
!*T2F convert a standard term to a standard form
!*T2Q convert a standard term to a standard quotient.
1064 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

17.9.2 Passing Symbolic Mode Values to Algebraic Mode

In order to pass the value of a shared variable from symbolic mode to algebraic
mode, the only thing to do is make sure that the value in symbolic mode is a
prefix expression. E.g., one uses (expt (plus a b) 2) for (a+b)^2, or
the format (*sq hstandard quotienti t) as described above. However, if
you have been working with parts of a standard form they will probably not be in
this form. In that case, you can do the following:

1. If it is a standard quotient, call PREPSQ on it. This takes a standard quo-

tient as argument, and returns a prefix expression. Alternatively, you can call
MK!*SQ on it, which returns a prefix form like (*SQ hstandard quotienti
T) and avoids translation of the expression into a true prefix form.

2. If it is a standard form, call PREPF on it. This takes a standard form as

argument, and returns the equivalent prefix expression. Alternatively, you
can convert it to a standard quotient and then call MK!*SQ.

3. If it is a part of a standard form, you must usually first build up a standard

form out of it, and then go to step 2. The conversion functions described
earlier may be used for this purpose. For example,

(a) If Z is an expression which is a term, !*T2F Z is a standard form.

(b) If Z is a standard power, !*P2F Z is a standard form.
(c) If Z is a variable, you can pass it direct to algebraic mode.

For example, to pass the leading term of (a+b)^2 back to algebraic mode, one
could say:

y:= mk!*sq !*t2q lt numr z;

where Y has been declared shared as above. If you now go back to algebraic mode,
you can work with Y in the usual way.

17.9.3 Complete Example

The following is the complete code for doing the above steps. The end result will
be that the square of the leading term of (a + b)2 is calculated.

share x,y; % declare X and Y as shared

x := (a+b)^2; % store (a+b)^2 in X
symbolic; % transfer to symbolic mode
z := cadr x; % store a true standard quotient
% in Z
17.9. COMMUNICATING WITH ALGEBRAIC MODE 1065

lt numr z; % print the leading term of the

% numerataor of Z
y := mk!*sq !*t2q lt numr z; % store the prefix form of this
% leading term in Y
algebraic; % return to algebraic mode
y^2; % evaluate square of the
% leading term of (a+b)^2

17.9.4 Defining Procedures for Intermode Communication

If one wishes to define a procedure in symbolic mode for use as an operator in alge-
braic mode, it is necessary to declare this fact to the system by using the declaration
OPERATOR in symbolic mode. Thus

symbolic operator leadterm;

would declare the procedure LEADTERM as an algebraic operator. This declaration

must be made in symbolic mode as the effect in algebraic mode is different. The
value of such a procedure must be a prefix form.
The algebraic processor will pass arguments to such procedures in prefix form.
Therefore if you want to work with the arguments as standard quotients you must
first convert them to that form by using the function SIMP!*. This function takes
a prefix form as argument and returns the evaluated standard quotient.
For example, if you want to define a procedure LEADTERM which gives the leading
term of an algebraic expression, one could do this as follows:

symbolic operator leadterm; % Declare LEADTERM as a symbolic

% mode procedure to be used in
% algebraic mode.

symbolic procedure leadterm u; % Define LEADTERM.

mk!*sq !*t2q lt numr simp!* u;

Note that this operator has a different effect than the operator LTERM . In the latter
case, the calculation is done with respect to the second argument of the operator. In
the example here, we simply extract the leading term with respect to the system’s
choice of main variable.
Finally, if you wish to use the algebraic evaluator on an argument in a symbolic
mode definition, the function REVAL can be used. The one argument of REVAL
must be the prefix form of an expression. REVAL returns the evaluated expression
as a true Lisp prefix form.
1066 CHAPTER 17. SYMBOLIC MODE

17.10 Rlisp ’88

Rlisp ’88 is a superset of the Rlisp that has been traditionally used for the support
of REDUCE. It is fully documented in the book Marti, J.B., “RLISP ’88: An Evo-
lutionary Approach to Program Design and Reuse”, World Scientific, Singapore
(1993). Rlisp ’88 adds to the traditional Rlisp the following facilities:

1. more general versions of the looping constructs for, repeat and while;

2. support for a backquote construct;

3. support for active comments;

4. support for vectors of the form name[index];

5. support for simple structures;

6. support for records.

In addition, “-” is a letter in Rlisp ’88. In other words, A-B is an identifier, not
the difference of the identifiers A and B. If the latter construct is required, it is
necessary to put spaces around the - character. For compatibility between the two
versions of Rlisp, we recommend this convention be used in all symbolic mode
programs.
To use Rlisp ’88, type on rlisp88;. This switches to symbolic mode with the
Rlisp ’88 syntax and extensions. While in this environment, it is impossible to
switch to algebraic mode, or prefix expressions by “algebraic”. However, symb-
olic mode programs written in Rlisp ’88 may be run in algebraic mode provided the
rlisp88 package has been loaded. We also expect that many of the extensions de-
fined in Rlisp ’88 will migrate to the basic Rlisp over time. To return to traditional
Rlisp or to switch to algebraic mode, say “off rlisp88;”.

17.11 References

There are a number of useful books which can give you further information about
LISP. Here is a selection:
Allen, J.R., “The Anatomy of LISP”, McGraw Hill, New York, 1978.
McCarthy J., P.W. Abrahams, J. Edwards, T.P. Hart and M.I. Levin, “LISP 1.5
Programmer’s Manual”, M.I.T. Press, 1965.
Touretzky, D.S, “LISP: A Gentle Introduction to Symbolic Computation”, Harper
& Row, New York, 1984.
Winston, P.H. and Horn, B.K.P., “LISP”, Addison-Wesley, 1981.
Chapter 18

Calculations in High Energy

Physics

A set of REDUCE commands is provided for users interested in symbolic calcula-

tions in high energy physics. Several extensions to our basic syntax are necessary,
however, to allow for the different data structures encountered.

18.1 High Energy Physics Operators

We begin by introducing three new operators required in these calculations.

18.1.1 . (Cons) Operator

Syntax:

(EXPRN1:vector_expression)
. (EXPRN2:vector_expression):algebraic.

The binary . operator, which is normally used to denote the addition of an element
to the front of a list, can also be used in algebraic mode to denote the scalar product
of two Lorentz four-vectors. For this to happen, the second argument must be
recognizable as a vector expression at the time of evaluation. With this meaning,
this operator is often referred to as the dot operator. In the present system, the index
handling routines all assume that Lorentz four-vectors are used, but these routines
could be rewritten to handle other cases.
Components of vectors can be represented by including representations of unit vec-
tors in the system. Thus if EO represents the unit vector (1,0,0,0), (p.eo)
represents the zeroth component of the four-vector P. Our metric and notation fol-

1067
1068 CHAPTER 18. CALCULATIONS IN HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS

lows Bjorken and Drell “Relativistic Quantum Mechanics” (McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1965). Similarly, an arbitrary component P may be represented by (p.u).
If contraction over components of vectors is required, then the declaration INDEX
must be used. Thus

index u;

declares U as an index, and the simplification of

p.u * q.u

would result in

P.Q

The metric tensor g µν may be represented by (u.v). If contraction over U and V

is required, then they should be declared as indices.
Errors occur if indices are not properly matched in expressions.
If a user later wishes to remove the index property from specific vectors, he can do
it with the declaration REMIND. Thus remind v1,...,vn; removes the index
flags from the variables V1 through Vn. However, these variables remain vectors
in the system.

18.1.2 G Operator for Gamma Matrices

Syntax:

G(ID:identifier[,EXPRN:vector_expression])
:gamma_matrix_expression.

G is an n-ary operator used to denote a product of γ matrices contracted with

Lorentz four-vectors. Gamma matrices are associated with fermion lines in a Feyn-
man diagram. If more than one such line occurs, then a different set of γ matrices
(operating in independent spin spaces) is required to represent each line. To facil-
itate this, the first argument of G is a line identification identifier (not a number)
used to distinguish different lines.
Thus

g(l1,p) * g(l2,q)

denotes the product of γ.p associated with a fermion line identified as L1, and
γ.q associated with another line identified as L2 and where p and q are Lorentz
18.2. VECTOR VARIABLES 1069

four-vectors. A product of γ matrices associated with the same line may be written
in a contracted form.
Thus

g(l1,p1,p2,...,p3) = g(l1,p1)*g(l1,p2)*...*g(l1,p3) .

The vector A is reserved in arguments of G to denote the special γ matrix γ 5 . Thus

g(l,a) = γ5 associated with the line L

g(l,p,a) = γ · p × γ5 associated with the line L.

γ µ (associated with the line L) may be written as g(l,u), with U flagged as an

index if contraction over U is required.
The notation of Bjorken and Drell is assumed in all operations involving γ matri-
ces.

18.1.3 EPS Operator

Syntax:

EPS(EXPRN1:vector_expression,...,EXPRN4:vector_exp)
:vector_exp.

The operator EPS has four arguments, and is used only to denote the completely
antisymmetric tensor of order 4 and its contraction with Lorentz four-vectors. Thus

 +1 if i, j, k, l is an even permutation of 0,1,2,3
ijkl = −1 if i, j, k, l is an odd permutation of 0,1,2,3
0 otherwise


A contraction of the form ijµν pµ qν may be written as eps(i,j,p,q), with I

and J flagged as indices, and so on.

18.2 Vector Variables

Apart from the line identification identifier in the G operator, all other arguments
of the operators in this section are vectors. Variables used as such must be declared
so by the type declaration VECTOR, for example:

vector p1,p2;
1070 CHAPTER 18. CALCULATIONS IN HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS

declares P1 and P2 to be vectors. Variables declared as indices or given a mass are

automatically declared vector by these declarations.

18.3 Additional Expression Types

Two additional expression types are necessary for high energy calculations, namely

18.3.1 Vector Expressions

These follow the normal rules of vector combination. Thus the product of a scalar
or numerical expression and a vector expression is a vector, as are the sum and
difference of vector expressions. If these rules are not followed, error messages are
printed. Furthermore, if the system finds an undeclared variable where it expects
a vector variable, it will ask the user in interactive mode whether to make that
variable a vector or not. In batch mode, the declaration will be made automatically
and the user informed of this by a message.
Examples:
Assuming P and Q have been declared vectors, the following are vector expressions

p
2*q/3
2*x*y*p - p.q*q/(3*q.q)

whereas p*q and p/q are not.

18.3.2 Dirac Expressions

These denote those expressions which involve γ matrices. A γ matrix is im-

plicitly a 4 × 4 matrix, and so the product, sum and difference of such expres-
sions, or the product of a scalar and Dirac expression is again a Dirac expres-
sion. There are no Dirac variables in the system, so whenever a scalar variable ap-
pears in a Dirac expression without an associated γ matrix expression, an implicit
unit 4 by 4 matrix is assumed. For example, g(l,p) + m denotes g(l,p) +
m*hunit 4 by 4 matrixi. Multiplication of Dirac expressions, as for matrix
expressions, is of course non-commutative.
18.4. TRACE CALCULATIONS 1071

18.4 Trace Calculations

When a Dirac expression is evaluated, the system computes one quarter of the trace
of each γ matrix product in the expansion of the expression. One quarter of each
trace is taken in order to avoid confusion between the trace of the scalar M, say,
and M representing M * hunit 4 by 4 matrixi. Contraction over indices
occurring in such expressions is also performed. If an unmatched index is found in
such an expression, an error occurs.
The algorithms used for trace calculations are the best available at the time this
system was produced. For example, in addition to the algorithm developed by
Chisholm for contracting indices in products of traces, REDUCE uses the elegant
algorithm of Kahane for contracting indices in γ matrix products. These algorithms
are described in Chisholm, J. S. R., Il Nuovo Cimento X, 30, 426 (1963) and
Kahane, J., Journal Math. Phys. 9, 1732 (1968).
It is possible to prevent the trace calculation over any line identifier by the declara-
tion NOSPUR. For example,

nospur l1,l2;

will mean that no traces are taken of γ matrix terms involving the line numbers L1
and L2. However, in some calculations involving more than one line, a catastrophic
error

This NOSPUR option not implemented

can occur (for the reason stated!) If you encounter this error, please let us know!
A trace of a γ matrix expression involving a line identifier which has been declared
NOSPUR may be later taken by making the declaration SPUR.
See also the CVIT package for an alternative mechanism (chapter 16.17).

18.5 Mass Declarations

It is often necessary to put a particle “on the mass shell” in a calculation. This can,
of course, be accomplished with a LET command such as

let p.p= m^2;

but an alternative method is provided by two commands MASS and MSHELL. MASS
takes a list of equations of the form:

hvector variablei=hscalar variablei

1072 CHAPTER 18. CALCULATIONS IN HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS

for example,

mass p1=m, q1=mu;

The only effect of this command is to associate the relevant scalar variable as a
mass with the corresponding vector. If we now say

mshell hvector variablei, . . . ,hvector variableihterminatori

and a mass has been associated with these arguments, a substitution of the form

hvector variablei.hvector variablei = hmassi^2

is set up. An error results if the variable has no preassigned mass.

18.6 Example

We give here as an example of a simple calculation in high energy physics the

computation of the Compton scattering cross-section as given in Bjorken and Drell
Eqs. (7.72) through (7.74). We wish to compute the trace of
2 
α2 k0 γ · e0 γ · eγ · ki γ · eγ · e0 γ · kf
  
γ · pf + m
+
2 k 2m 2k.pi 2k 0 · pi

γ · ki γ · eγ · e0 γ · kf γ · e0 γ · e
  
γ · pi + m
+
2m 2k.pi 2k 0 · pi
where ki and kf are the four-momenta of incoming and outgoing photons (with
polarization vectors e and e0 and laboratory energies k and k 0 respectively) and pi ,
pf are incident and final electron four-momenta.
 0 2
α2 k
Omitting therefore an overall factor 2
we need to find one quarter of
2m k
the trace of
γ · e0 γ · eγ · ki γ · eγ · e0 γ · kf
 
(γ · pf + m) + ×
2k.pi 2k 0 .pi

γ · ki γ · eγ · e0 γ · kf γ · e0 γ · e
 
(γ · pi + m) +
2k.pi 2k 0 .pi
A straightforward REDUCE program for this, with appropriate substitutions (using
P1 for pi , PF for pf , KI for ki and KF for kf ) is
18.7. EXTENSIONS TO MORE THAN FOUR DIMENSIONS 1073

on div; % this gives output in same form as Bjorken and Drell.

mass ki= 0, kf= 0, p1= m, pf= m; vector e,ep;
% if e is used as a vector, it loses its scalar identity
% as the base of natural logarithms.
mshell ki,kf,p1,pf;
let p1.e= 0, p1.ep= 0, p1.pf= m^2+ki.kf, p1.ki= m*k,p1.kf=
m*kp, pf.e= -kf.e, pf.ep= ki.ep, pf.ki= m*kp, pf.kf=
m*k, ki.e= 0, ki.kf= m*(k-kp), kf.ep= 0, e.e= -1,
ep.ep=-1;
operator gp;
for all p let gp(p)= g(l,p)+m;
comment this is just to save us a lot of writing;
gp(pf)*(g(l,ep,e,ki)/(2*ki.p1) + g(l,e,ep,kf)/(2*kf.p1))
* gp(p1)*(g(l,ki,e,ep)/(2*ki.p1) + g(l,kf,ep,e)/
(2*kf.p1))$
write "The Compton cxn is ",ws;

(We use P1 instead of PI in the above to avoid confusion with the reserved variable
PI).
This program will print the following result

2 1 -1 1 -1
The Compton cxn is 2*E.EP + ---*K*KP + ---*K *KP - 1
2 2

18.7 Extensions to More Than Four Dimensions

In our discussion so far, we have assumed that we are working in the normal four
dimensions of QED calculations. However, in most cases, the programs will also
work in an arbitrary number of dimensions. The command

vecdim hexpressionihterminatori

sets the appropriate dimension. The dimension can be symbolic as well as numer-
ical. Users should note however, that the EPS operator and the γ5 symbol (A) are
not properly defined in other than four dimensions and will lead to an error if used.
1074 CHAPTER 18. CALCULATIONS IN HIGH ENERGY PHYSICS
Chapter 19

REDUCE and Rlisp Utilities

REDUCE and its associated support language system Rlisp include a number of
utilities which have proved useful for program development over the years. The
following are supported in most of the implementations of REDUCE currently
available.

19.1 The Standard Lisp Compiler

Many versions of REDUCE include a Standard Lisp compiler that is automatically

loaded on demand. You should check your system specific user guide to make sure
you have such a compiler. To make the compiler active, the switch COMP should be
turned on. Any further definitions input after this will be compiled automatically. If
the compiler used is a derivative version of the original Griss-Hearn compiler, (M.
L. Griss and A. C. Hearn, “A Portable LISP Compiler", SOFTWARE — Practice
and Experience 11 (1981) 541-605), there are other switches that might also be
used in this regard. However, these additional switches are not supported in all
compilers. They are as follows:

PLAP If ON, causes the printing of the portable macros produced by the compiler;

PGWD If ON, causes the printing of the actual assembly language instructions gen-
erated from the macros;

PWRDS If ON, causes a statistic message of the form

hfunctioni COMPILED, hwordsi WORDS, hwordsi LEFT
to be printed. The first number is the number of words of binary program
space the compiled function took, and the second number the number of
words left unused in binary program space.

1075
1076 CHAPTER 19. REDUCE AND RLISP UTILITIES

19.2 Fast Loading Code Generation Program

In most versions of REDUCE, it is possible to take any set of Lisp, Rlisp or RE-
DUCE commands and build a fast loading version of them. In Rlisp or REDUCE,
one does the following:

faslout <filename>;
<commands or IN statements>
faslend;

To load such a file, one uses the command LOAD, e.g. load foo; or load
foo,bah;
This process produces a fast-loading version of the original file. In some imple-
mentations, this means another file is created with the same name but a different
extension. For example, in PSL-based systems, the extension is b (for binary). In
CSL-based systems, however, this process adds the fast-loading code to a single
file in which all such code is stored. Particular functions are provided by CSL for
managing this file, and described in the CSL user documentation.
In doing this build, as with the production of a Standard Lisp form of such state-
ments, it is important to remember that some of the commands must be instantiated
during the building process. For example, macros must be expanded, and some
property list operations must happen. The REDUCE sources should be consulted
for further details on this.
To avoid excessive printout, input statements should be followed by a $ instead of
the semicolon. With LOAD however, the input doesn’t print out regardless of which
terminator is used with the command.
If you subsequently change the source files used in producing a fast loading file,
don’t forget to repeat the above process in order to update the fast loading file
correspondingly. Remember also that the text which is read in during the creation
of the fast load file, in the compiling process described above, is not stored in your
REDUCE environment, but only translated and output. If you want to use the file
just created, you must then use LOAD to load the output of the fast-loading file
generation program.
When the file to be loaded contains a complete package for a given application,
LOAD_PACKAGE rather than LOAD should be used. The syntax is the same. How-
ever, LOAD_PACKAGE does some additional bookkeeping such as recording that
this package has now been loaded, that is required for the correct operation of the
system.
19.3. THE STANDARD LISP CROSS REFERENCE PROGRAM 1077

19.3 The Standard Lisp Cross Reference Program

CREF is a Standard Lisp program for processing a set of Standard LISP function
definitions to produce:

1. A “summary” showing:

(a) A list of files processed;

(b) A list of “entry points” (functions which are not called or are only
called by themselves);
(c) A list of undefined functions (functions called but not defined in this
set of functions);
(d) A list of variables that were used non-locally but not declared GLOBAL
or FLUID before their use;
(e) A list of variables that were declared GLOBAL but not used as FLUIDs,
i.e., bound in a function;
(f) A list of FLUID variables that were not bound in a function so that one
might consider declaring them GLOBALs;
(g) A list of all GLOBAL variables present;
(h) A list of all FLUID variables present;
(i) A list of all functions present.

2. A “global variable usage” table, showing for each non-local variable:

(a) Functions in which it is used as a declared FLUID or GLOBAL;

(b) Functions in which it is used but not declared;
(c) Functions in which it is bound;
(d) Functions in which it is changed by SETQ.

3. A “function usage” table showing for each function:

(a) Where it is defined;

(b) Functions which call this function;
(c) Functions called by it;
(d) Non-local variables used.

The program will also check that functions are called with the correct number of
arguments, and print a diagnostic message otherwise.
The output is alphabetized on the first seven characters of each function name.
1078 CHAPTER 19. REDUCE AND RLISP UTILITIES

19.3.1 Restrictions

Algebraic procedures in REDUCE are treated as if they were symbolic, so that

algebraic constructs will actually appear as calls to symbolic functions, such as
AEVAL.

19.3.2 Usage

To invoke the cross reference program, the switch CREF is used. on cref causes
the cref program to load and the cross-referencing process to begin. After all the
required definitions are loaded, off cref will cause the cross-reference listing
to be produced. For example, if you wish to cross-reference all functions in the
file tst.red, and produce the cross-reference listing in the file tst.crf, the
following sequence can be used:

out "tst.crf";
on cref;
in "tst.red"$
off cref;
shut "tst.crf";

To process more than one file, more IN statements may be added before the call of
off cref, or the IN statement changed to include a list of files.

19.3.3 Options

Functions with the flag NOLIST will not be examined or output. Initially, all
Standard Lisp functions are so flagged. (In fact, they are kept on a list NOLIST!*,
so if you wish to see references to all functions, then CREF should be first loaded
with the command load cref, and this variable then set to NIL).
It should also be remembered that any macros with the property list flag EXPAND,
or, if the switch FORCE is on, without the property list flag NOEXPAND, will be
expanded before the definition is seen by the cross-reference program, so this flag
can also be used to select those macros you require expanded and those you do not.

19.4 Prettyprinting REDUCE Expressions

REDUCE includes a module for printing REDUCE syntax in a standard format.

This module is activated by the switch PRET, which is normally off.
Since the system converts algebraic input into an equivalent symbolic form, the
19.5. PRETTYPRINTING STANDARD LISP S-EXPRESSIONS 1079

printing program tries to interpret this as an algebraic expression before printing

it. In most cases, this can be done successfully. However, there will be occasional
instances where results are printed in symbolic mode form that bears little resem-
blance to the original input, even though it is formally equivalent.
If you want to prettyprint a whole file, say off output,msg; and (hopefully)
only clean output will result. Unlike DEFN, input is also evaluated with PRET on.

19.5 Prettyprinting Standard Lisp S-Expressions

REDUCE includes a module for printing S-expressions in a standard format. The

Standard Lisp function for this purpose is PRETTYPRINT which takes a Lisp ex-
pression and prints the formatted equivalent.
Users can also have their REDUCE input printed in this form by use of the switch
DEFN. This is in fact a convenient way to convert REDUCE (or Rlisp) syntax into
Lisp. off msg; will prevent warning messages from being printed.
NOTE: When DEFN is on, input is not evaluated.
1080 CHAPTER 19. REDUCE AND RLISP UTILITIES
Chapter 20

Maintaining REDUCE

Since January 1, 2009 REDUCE is Open Source Software. It is hosted at

http://reduce-algebra.sourceforge.net/

We mention here three ways in which REDUCE is maintained. The first is the
collection of queries, observations and bug-reports. All users are encouraged to
subscribe to the mailing list that Sourceforge.net provides so that they will re-
ceive information about updates and concerns. Also on SourceForge there is a bug
tracker and a forum. The expectation is that the maintainers and keen users of RE-
DUCE will monitor those and try to respond to issues. However these resources
are not there to seek answers to Maths homework problems - they are intended
specifically for issues to do with the use and support of REDUCE.
The second level of support is provided by the fact that all the sources of REDUCE
are available, so any user who is having difficulty either with a bug or understand-
ing system behaviour can consult the code to see if (for instance) comments in it
clarify something that was unclear from the regular documentation.
The source files for REDUCE are available on SourceForge in the Subversion
repository. Check the "code/SVN" tab on the SourceForge page to find instruc-
tions for using a Subversion client to fetch the most up to date copy of everything.
From time to time there may be one-file archives of a snapshot of the sources placed
in the download area on SourceForge, and eventually some of these mat be marked
as “stable” releases, but at present it is recommended that developers use a copy
from the Subversion repository.
The files fetched there come with a directory called “trunk” that holds the main
current REDUCE, and one called “branches” that is reserved for future experimen-
tal versions. All the files that we have for creating help files and manuals should
also be present in the files you fetch.
The packages that make up the source for the algebraic capabilities of REDUCE

1081
1082 CHAPTER 20. MAINTAINING REDUCE

are in the “packages” sub-directory, and often there are test files for a package
present there and especially for contributed packages there will be documentation
in the form of a LATEX file. Although REDUCE is coded in its own language many
people in the past have found that it does not take too long to start to get used to it.
In various cases even fairly “ordinary end users” may wish to fetch the source ver-
sion of REDUCE and compile it all for themselves. This may either be because
they need the benefit of a bug-fix only recently checked into the subversion repos-
itory or because no pre-compiled binary is available for the particular computer
and operating system they use. This latter is to some extent unavoidable since RE-
DUCE can run on both 32 and 64-bit Windows, the various MacOSX options (eg
Intel and Powerpc), many different distributions of Linux, some BSD variants and
Solaris (at least). It is not practically feasible for us to provide a constant stream of
up to date ready-built binaries for all these.
There are instructions for compiling REDUCE present at the top of the trunk source
tree. Usually the hardest issue seems to be encuring that your computer has an
adequate set of development tools and libraries installled before you start, but once
that is sorted out the hope is that the compilation of REDUCE should proceed
uneventfully if sometimes tediously.
In a typical Open Source way the hope is that some of those who build REDUCE
from source or explore the source (out of general interest or to pursue an under-
standing of some bug or detail) will transform themselves into contributors or de-
velopers which moves on to the third level of support.
At this third level any user can contribute proposals for bug fixes or extensions to
REDUCE or its documentation. It might be valuable to collect a library of addi-
tional user-contributed examples illustrating the use of the system too. To do this
first ensure that you have a fully up to date copy of the sources from Subversion,
and then depending on just what sort of change is being proposed provide the up-
dates to the developers via the SourceForge bug tracker or other route. In time we
may give more concrete guidance about the format of changes that will be easiest to
handle. It is obviously important that proposed changes have been properly tested
and that they are accompanied with a clear explanation of why they are of benefit.
A specific concern here is that in the past fixes to a bug in one part of REDUCE
have had bad effects on some other applications and packages, so some degree of
caution is called for. Anybody who develops a significant whole new package for
REDUCE is encouraged to make the developers aware so that it can be considered
for inclusion.
So the short form explanation about Support and Maintenance is that it is mainly
focussed around the SourceForge system. That if discussions about bugs, require-
ments or issues are conducted there then all users and potential users of REDUCE
will be able to benefit from reviewing them, and the Sourceforge mailing lists,
tracker, forums and wiki will grow to be both a static repository of answers to
 1083

common questions, an active set of locations to to get new issues looked at and a
focus for guiding future development.
1084 CHAPTER 20. MAINTAINING REDUCE
Appendix A

Reserved Identifiers

We list here all identifiers that are normally reserved in REDUCE including names
of commands, operators and switches initially in the system. Excluded are words
that are reserved in specific implementations of the system.

Commands ALGEBRAIC ANTISYMMETRIC ARRAY BYE CLEAR

CLEARRULES COMMENT CONT DECOMPOSE
DEFINE DEPEND DISPLAY ED EDITDEF END
EVEN FACTOR FOR FORALL FOREACH GO GOTO
IF IN INDEX INFIX INPUT INTEGER KORDER
LET LINEAR LISP LISTARGP LOAD
LOAD_PACKAGE MASS MATCH MATRIX
MATRIXPROC MSHELL NODEPEND NONCOM
NONZERO NOSPUR NOTREALVALUED ODD OFF ON
OPERATOR ORDER OUT PAUSE PRECEDENCE
PRINT_PRECISION PROCEDURE QUIT REAL
REALVALUED REMEMBER REMFAC REMIND RETRY
RETURN SAVEAS SCALAR SELFCONJUGATE
SETMOD SHARE SHOWTIME SHUT SPUR SYMBOLIC
SYMMETRIC UNSET VECDIM VECTOR WEIGHT
WRITE WTLEVEL

Boolean Operators EVENP FIXP FREEOF NUMBERP ORDP PRIMEP

REALVALUEDP

Infix Operators := = >= > <= < => + - * / // ^ ** . ..

WHERE SETQ OR AND CONS DIFFERENCE divide
EQ EQUAL EXPT GEQ GREATERP LEQ LESSP
MEMBER MEMQ MINUS mod NEQ PLUS QUOTIENT
RECIP TIMES

1085
1086 APPENDIX A. RESERVED IDENTIFIERS

Numerical Operators ABS ACOS ACOSH ACOT ACOTH ACSC ACSCH

AIRY_AI AIRY_AIPRIME AIRY_BI
AIRY_BIPRIME ASEC ASECH ASIN ASINH ATAN
ATANH ATAN2 BERNOULLI BESSELI BESSELJ
BESSELK BESSELY BETA COS COSH COT COTH
CSC CSCH CSCH EXP FACTORIAL FIX FLOOR
GAMMA HANKEL1 HANKEL2 HYPOT IBETA IGAMMA
KUMMERM KUMMERU LERCH_PHI LN LOG LOGB
LOG10 LOMMEL1 LOMMEL2 NEXTPRIME
POCHHAMMER POLYGAMMA PSI ROUND SEC SECH
SIN SINH SQRT STRUVEH STRUVEL TAN TANH
WHITTAKERM WHITTAKERU ZETA

Prefix Operators APPEND ARBCOMPLEX ARBINT ARGLENGTH

CEILING CI COEFF COEFFN COFACTOR CONJ
CONTINUED_FRACTION DEG DEN DET DF DILOG
EI EPS ERF EXPAND_CASES FACTORIZE
FIBONACCI FIBONACCIP FIRST GCD G
HYPERGEOMETRIC IMPART INT INTERPOL LCM
LCOF LENGTH LHS LINELENGTH LIST LPOWER
LTERM MAINVAR MAP MAT MATEIGEN MAX
MEIJERG MIN MKID MOTZKIN NULLSPACE NUM
ONE_OF PART PF PRECISION PROD pseudo_div
pseudo_divide pseudo_quotient
pseudo_remainder RANDOM RANDOM_NEW_SEED
RANK REDERR REDUCT remainder REPART REST
RESULTANT REVERSE RHS ROOT_OF ROOT_VAL
SECOND SELECT SET SHOWRULES SI SIGN
SOLVE SOLIDHARMONICY SPHERICALHARMONICY
STRUCTR SUB SUM THIRD TOTALDEG TP TRACE
VARNAME

Reserved Variables !__FILE__ !__LINE__ ASSUMPTIONS CARD_NO

CATALAN E EULER_GAMMA EVAL_MODE
FORT_WIDTH GOLDEN_RATIO HIGH_POW I
INFINITY K!* KHINCHIN LOW_POW NEGATIVE
NIL PI POSITIVE REQUIREMENTS
ROOT_MULTIPLICITIES T

Switches ADJPREC ALGINT ALLBRANCH ALLFAC

ALLOWDFINT ANTICOM ARBVARS ASSERT
ASSERTBREAK ASSERTSTATISTICS
BALANCE_MOD BEZOUT BFSPACE CF_TAYLOR
CHECKORD COMBINEEXPT COMBINELOGS
COMMUTEDF COMP COMPLEX CONTRACT CRAMER
 1087

CREF DEFN DEMO DFINT DISPJACOBIAN

DISTRIBUTE DIV ECHO ERRCONT EVALLHSEQP
EXP EXPANDDF EXPANDLOGS EZGCD FACTOR
FAILHARD FORT FORTUPPER FULLROOTS GCD
HORNER IFACTOR IMAGINARY INT INTSTR LCM
LIST LISTARGS LHYP LMON LOOKING_GOOD
LOWER_MATRIX LTRIG MCD MODULAR MSG
MULTIPLICITIES NAT NERO NOCOMMUTEDF
NOCONVERT NOLNR NOSPLIT NOT_NEGATIVE
ONLY_INTEGER OUTPUT PERIOD PLOTKEEP
PRECISE PRECISE_COMPLEX PRET PRI RAT
RATARG RATIONAL RATIONALIZE RATPRI
REVPRI RLISP88 ROUNDALL ROUNDBF ROUNDED
SAVESTRUCTR SIMPNONCOMDF SOLVESINGULAR
SYMMETRIC TIME TRA TRDEFINT TRFAC
TRIGFORM TRINT TRPLOT UPPER_MATRIX
VAROPT

Other Reserved Ids BEGIN DO THEN EXPR FEXPR INPUT LAMBDA

LISP MACRO PRODUCT REPEAT SMACRO SUM
THEN UNTIL WHEN WHILE WS
1088 APPENDIX A. RESERVED IDENTIFIERS
Bibliography

[1] Sandra Fillebrown. Faster computation of bernoulli numbers. Journal of Al-

gorithms, 13:431–445, 1992.

[2] Wolfram Koepf, Power Series in Computer Algebra, J. Symbolic Computation

13 (1992)

1089
1090 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix B

Changes since Version 3.8

New packages assert bibasis breduce cde cdiff clprl gcref guardian lalr lessons
libreduce listvecops lpdo redfront reduce4 sstools utf8

Core package rlisp Support for namespaces (::)

Default value in switch statement
Support for utf8 characters

Core package poly Improvements for differentiation: new switches expanddf,

allowdfint etc (from odesolve)

Core package alg New switch precise_complex

Improvements for switch combineexpt (exptchk.red)
New command unset
New operators continued_fraction, totaldeg
Operators now defined in the REDUCE core:
changevar, divide, pseudo_divide, pseudo_div, pseudo_quotient,
pseudo_remainder, si, ci, gamma, igamma, psi, polygamma, beta,
ibeta, euler, bernoulli, pochhammer, lerch_phi, polylog, zeta,
besselj, bessely, besseli, besselk, hankel1, hankel2, kummerM,
kummerU, struveh, struvel, lommel1, lommel2, whittakerm, whittakerw,
Airy_Ai, Airy_Bi, Airy_AiPrime, Airy_biprime, binomial, solidharmonic,
sphericalharmonic, fibonacci,fibonaccip, motzkin, hypergeometric,
MeijerG.
Constants now part of the core:

1091
1092 APPENDIX B. CHANGES SINCE VERSION 3.8

now known as part of the core, as well as constants catalan, euler_gamma,

golden_ratio, khinchin.
Consistent branch cuts for complex numerical functions.
Improvements to the conj operator, added selfconjugate declaration.

Core Package mathpr New switch unicode_in_off_nat to have unicode

characters displayed as such when nat is off.

Core Package solve New boolean operator polyp(p,var), to determine whether

p is a pure polynomial in var, ie. the coefficients of p do not contain var.

Core Package matrix New keyword matrixproc for declaration of matrix-

valued procedures.

Package specfn psi (digamma) function can now be calculated numerically for
complex arguments.

Package defint Added tracing output printing of which is controlled by the

switch trdefint.

TeXmacs interface Print prompt numbers by setting the switch promptnumbers

to on by default.

Package excalc New command killing_vector.

Index

!!FLIM global variable, 858 lists, 686

!!NFPD global variable, 858 power series, 971
!*CSYSTEMS global (AVECTOR), 263 vectors, 261
!__FILE__ (special identifier), 170 // operator, 164
!__LINE__ (special identifier), 170 := (assignment) operator, 117, 353
B function, 926 ; (statement terminator), 55
Γ function, 923 < operator, 42
ψ function, 924 << (begin group), 57
ψ (n) functions, 924 <= operator, 42
ζ function, 924 == operator (C ANTENS ) PACKAGE ), 353
* operator, 45 > operator, 42
3-D vectors, 756 >< (cross product) operator
algebraic numbers, 218 3-D vectors, 756
lists, 686 >= operator, 42
power series, 971 >> (end group), 57
vectors, 261 @ operator, 515
** operator, 45 partial differentiation, 532
lists, 686 tangent vector, 532
power series, 971 # (Hodge-*) operator, 519, 532
*. (ldot) operator, 686 $ (statement terminator), 55
+ operator, 45 % (Percent sign), 40
3-D vectors, 756 \ operator (SETDIFF), 874
algebraic numbers, 218 ˆ operator, 45
lists, 686 3-D vectors, 756
power series, 971 exterior multiplication, 514, 532
vectors, 261 lists, 686
- operator, 45 _ (lnth) operator for lists, 687
3-D vectors, 756 _| (inner product) operator, 518, 532
lists, 686 |_ (Lie derivative) operator, 519, 532
power series, 971 3j and 6j symbols, 919
vectors, 261
. (CONS) operator, 52 ABS, 71, 151
.. operator, 724 ACOS, 76, 79
/ operator, 45 ACOSH, 76, 79
3-D vectors, 756 ACOT, 76, 79
algebraic numbers, 218 ACOTH, 76, 79

1093
1094 INDEX

ACSC, 76, 79 ALLFAC switch, 114, 115

ACSCH, 76, 79 ALLOWDFINT switch, 88
ADD_TO_COLUMNS operator, 661 ALLSYMMETRYBASES, 948
ADD_TO_ROWS operator, 662 analytic_spread, 317
ADD_COLUMNS operator, 660 analytic_spread!*, 313
ADD_ROWS operator, 661 AND logical operator, 48
ADJ, 772 annihilator, 317
ADJOINT_CDIFFOP operator (CDE), annihilator!*, 308
411 ansatz of symmetry generator, 914
ADJPREC switch, 146 ANTICOM switch, 771
affine, 346 ANTICOMM operator, 770
Affine space Anticommutative
CANTENS package, 384 CANTENS package, 380
affine_points (CALI), 284 ANTICOMMUTE, 772
affine_points1 Antisymmetric
* (CALI), 316 CANTENS package, 369
affine_monomial_curve, 317 ANTISYMMETRIC declaration, 106, 391
affine_monomial_curve!*, 313 Antisymmetric operator, 105
affine_points, 317 APPEND operator, 52
affine_points!*, 316 APPLYSYM, 204
Airy Functions, 927 APPLYSYM package
Airy functions, 919 example, 205
Airy_Ai, 76, 919, 927 A PPLYSYM package, 195
Airy_Aiprime, 76, 919, 927 approximation, 84
Airy_Bi, 76, 919, 927 ARBCOMPLEX, 100
Airy_Biprime, 76, 919, 927 ARBINT, 100
ALGEBRAIC, 1055 ARBVARS switch, 100
Algebraic mode, 1055, 1060, 1061 ARGLENGTH operator, 126
Algebraic number fields, 218 A RNUM package, 218
Algebraic numbers, 218 A RNUM package
algebraic numbers (CALI), 290 example, 219, 220, 222
A LGINT package, 90, 194 ARRAY, 67
ALGINT switch, 194 Array declaration, 67
ALL_PARAMETRIC_DER shared global ASEC, 76, 79
variable (CDE), 403 ASECH, 76, 79
ALL_PARAMETRIC_ODD shared global ASIN, 76, 79
variable (CDE), 403 ASINH, 76, 79
ALL_PARAMTERIC_DER shared global A SSERT package, 224
variable (CDE), 417 assgrad, 317
ALL_PRINCIPAL_DER shared global assgrad!*, 313
variable (CDE), 403 Assignment, 56, 59, 63, 1058, 1061
ALL_PRINCIPAL_ODD shared global Assignment statement, 56
variable (CDE), 403 multiple, 56
ALLBRANCH switch, 100 ASSIST, 344, 394
INDEX 1095

A SSIST package, 230 B IBASIS package, 267

ASSUMPTIONS variable, 102 bibasis_print_statistics, 269
Asymptotic command, 155, 167 Binomial, 919
ATAN, 76, 79, 90 Binomial coefficients, 919
ATAN2, 76, 79 binomial switch, 283
ATANH, 76, 79 bloc-diagonal, 362, 363, 365
AUGMENT_COLUMNS operator, 662 Block, 62, 65
AVAILABLEGROUPS, 950 BLOCK_MATRIX operator, 663
AVEC function, 260 blockorder procedure (CALI), 287
AVECTOR package, 260 blockorder!*, 296
example, 264–266 blowup, 317
A VECTOR package, 260 blowup (CALI), 283
blowup!*, 314
BALANCED_MOD switch, 147, 722 BNDEQ!* shared variable, 520
BAND_MATRIX operator, 662 Boolean expression, 47
Barnes, Alan, 962, 975 BOOLEAN operator, 274
bas_detectunits (CALI), 302 B OOLEAN package, 274
bas_factorunits (CALI), 302 border basis (CALI), 284
bas_getrelations, 298 bounded identifier, 290
bas_removerelations, 298 bounded identifier (CALI), 317
bas_setrelations, 298 BOUNDS, 724, 730
base coefficients (CALI), 290 Buchberger’s Algorithm, 590, 593
base elements (CALI), 298 BYE command, 69
base ring (CALI), 286, 295
basis (CALI), 290 C(I), 908
bcsimp (CALI), 292 C ALI package, 278
BEGIN ... END, 62–65 cali!=basering global variable (CALI),
BERNOULLI, 919 286, 293, 296
Bernoulli, 80, 922 cali!=degrees global variable (CALI),
Bernoulli numbers, 80, 919, 922 289, 294, 296
BERNSTEIN_BASE, 733 cali!=monset global variable (CALI),
Bessel functions, 919, 925 294, 304
BesselI, 76, 919, 925 Call by value, 186, 189
BesselJ, 76, 919, 925 C AMAL package, 329
BesselK, 76, 919, 925 CANONICAL, 509
BesselY, 76, 919, 925 Canonical form, 109
BETA, 76, 919 CANONICAL operator, 344, 362, 371,
Beta, 926 376, 378, 379, 381, 390
Beta function, 919, 926 CANONICALDECOMPOSITION, 948
bettiNumbers, 317 C ANTENS package, 343
BettiNumbers!*, 310 C ANTENS package
BEZOUT switch, 139 == operator, 353
BFSPACE switch, 146 affine space, 384
BIBASIS, 269 anticommutative indexed objects, 380
1096 INDEX

antisymmetric tensor, 369 CF_UNIT_DENOMINATORS operator,

DEPEND, 349 816
dummy indices, 382 CF_UNIT_NUMERATORS operator, 816
epsilon tensor, 369 CF_CONTINUENTS operator, 814
FOR ALL, 355 CF_CONVERGENT operator, 814
indices, 380, 391 CF_CONVERGENTS operator, 815
indices, dummy, 382 CF_EULER operator, 814, 816
indices, numeric, 375 cf_euler operator, 84
indices, symbolic, 373 CF_EXPRESSION operator, 814
LET, 352 CF_TAYLOR switch, 812
loading, 344 CF_TRANSFORM operator, 817
metric tensor, 387 CFRAC operator, 812
mixed symmetry, 391 cfrac operator, 84
numeric indices, 375 CGB operator, 468
partial symmetry, 391 C GB package, 467
rewriting rules, 352 CGBFULLRED switch, 471
Riemann tensor, 391 CGBGEN switch, 469
signature, 368–370, 387 CGBGS switch, 471
spaces, 373, 379, 387 CGBREAL switch, 470
spinor, 380 CGBSTAT switch, 471
SUB, 352, 379 Chain rule, 517
subspaces, 368 change of term orders (CALI), 284
symbolic indices, 361, 373 change_termorder, 317
symmetries, 391 change_termorder!*, 316
tensor contractions, 384 change_termorder1, 317
tensor derivatives, 395 change_termorder1!*, 316
tensor polynomial, 378 CHANGEVAR operator, 81
trace, 378 CHAR_MATRIX operator, 663
variables, 348, 351, 357 CHAR_POLY operator, 664
CARD_NO shared global variable, 119 CHARACTER, 948
Cartesian coordinates, 755 Character set, 35
Catalan, 922 CHARACTERN, 950
CATALAN reserved variable, 38 Chebyshev fit, 724
Caveats Chebyshev polynomials, 919
TAYLOR package, 957 CHEBYSHEV_BASE_T, 733
CDE operator, 399 CHEBYSHEV_BASE_U, 733
C DE package, 397 CHEBYSHEV_DF, 731
CDE_GRADING operator (CDE), 413 CHEBYSHEV_EVAL, 731
C DIFF package, 442 CHEBYSHEV_FIT, 731
CEILING, 72 CHEBYSHEV_INT, 731
CF operator, 84, 814 ChebyshevT, 919
CF_EVEN_ODD operator, 817 ChebyshevU, 919
CF_REMOVE_CONSTANT operator, 816 CHECKORD switch, 401
CF_REMOVE_FRACTIONS operator, 816 CHOLESKY operator, 664
INDEX 1097

CI, 76 Complex coefficient, 147

CLEAR, 157, 161 COMPLEX switch, 79, 147
CLEAR_DUMMY_BASE, 507 Compound statement, 62, 63
clearcaliprintterms, 293 Computations with supersymmetric al-
CLEARPHYSOP, 768 gebraic and differential expres-
CLEARRULES, 162 sions, 944
Clebsch Gordan coefficients, 919 Conditional statement, 57, 58
Clebsch_Gordan, 919 CONJ, 72
codim, 318 Constructor, 1061
codim!*, 308 CONT COMMAND, 175
COEFF operator, 124 CONTFRAC operator, 812
COEFF_MATRIX operator, 665 contfrac operator, 84
Coefficient, 145, 147 Continued fractions, 811
COEFFN operator, 125 CONTINUED_FRACTION operator, 84
COFACTOR, 181 CONTRACT, 770
COFRAME CONV_CDIFF2SUPERFUN operator (CDE),
WITH METRIC, 525 408
WITH SIGNATURE, 525 CONV_SUPERFUN2CDIFF operator (CDE),
Coframe, 520, 524 408
COFRAME command, 532 Coordinates
COLLECT keyword, 59 cartesian, 755
column degree (CALI), 289 cylindrical, 755
COLUMN_DIM operator, 665 coordinates
COMBINEEXPT switch, 78 spherical, 755
COMBINELOGS switch, 77 COORDINATES operator, 262
COMM, 908 COORDS vector, 262
COMM operator, 770 COPY_INTO operator, 666
Command, 67 COS, 76, 79
BYE, 69 COSH, 76, 79
CONT, 175 COT, 76, 79
DEFINE, 69 COTH, 76, 79
PAUSE, 175 C RACK package, 473
SHOWTIME, 69 crack, running in CDE package, 418
Command terminator CRAMER switch, 96, 179
IN command, 169 CREF, 1077
COMMENT keyword, 40 CREF switch, 1078
COMMUTE, 772 CRESYS, 907, 909
COMMUTEDF switch, 87 CROSS
COMP switch, 1075 vector, 261
COMPACT operator, 472 Cross product, 261, 757
C OMPACT package, 472 Cross reference, 1077
COMPANION operator, 665 CSC, 76, 79
Compiler, 1075 CSCH, 76, 79
COMPLEX, 856 CSETREPRESENTATION, 950
1098 INDEX

Curl DELSQ
vector field, 262 operator, 262
CURL DELSQ operator, 758
operator, 262 delta, 362, 363, 365, 377, 379, 384
CURL operator, 758 delta function, 364, 379
C VIT package, 474 DEMO, 68
Cylindrical coordinates, 755 DEN, 129, 142
DEP_VAR global variable (CDE), 399
d DEPEND, 103
exterior differentiation, 532 DEPEND
dd_groebner, 612 CANTENS package, 349
Declaration, 67 DEPEND command, 107
array, 67 DEPEND declaration, 395
KORDER, 124 DEPEND statement, 759
mode handling, 68 DEQ(I), 908
DECOMPOSE, 140 DER_DEG_ORDERING operator (CDE),
decomposition 414
partial fraction, 93 Derivative
Default variational, 520
term order, 593 derivatives, 500
Defaults D ESIR package, 493
TAYLOR package, 957 DET, 179
DEFINE command, 69 DET operator, 109
DEFINE_SPACES, 345, 359 detectunits (CALI), 292, 302
Definite integration (simple), 264 Determinant
DEFINT function, 264 in DETM!*, 525
D EFINT package, 90, 483 DETM!* variable, 525
D EFINT package, 90 DETRAFO, 213
DEFLINEINT function, 265 DF, 350
DEFN switch, 1060, 1079 DF operator, 86, 89
DEFPOLY statement, 219 DF_ODD operator (CDE), 402
DEG, 141 DFINT switch, 88
Degree, 141 DFP, 501
degree, 318 D FPART package, 500
degree arguments, 975 DIAGONAL operator, 666
degree vectors (CALI), 286 DIAGONALIZE, 948
degree!*, 310 Differential geometry, 512
degreeorder procedure (CALI), 287 Differentiation, 86, 89, 107
degreeorder!*, 296 partial, 515
degsfromresolution, 318 vector, 262
del, 362, 375, 387 Digamma, 919
deleteunits Digamma function, 919, 924
* (CALI), 302 DILOG, 76, 90, 919
deleteunits, 318 Dilogarithm function, 919
INDEX 1099

dim, 318 dpmat_rows (CALI), 298

dim (CALI), 284 dual bases (CALI), 284
dim!*, 308 dualbases (CALI), 282, 315
Dimension, 515 dualhbases (CALI), 315, 316
dimzerop, 318 DUMMY, 344, 379, 380, 382, 391
dimzerop!*, 311 dummy, 348, 351
Dirac γ matrix, 1068 Dummy indices
directsum, 318 CANTENS package, 382
DISPJACOBIAN switch, 81 dummy indices, 379
DISPLAY, 174 D UMMY package, 505
Display, 109 DUMMY_BASE, 506
DISPLAYFRAME command, 528, 532 DUMMY_INDICES, 351
Displaying structure, 122 DUMMY_NAME, 506
DIV DVINT, 760
operator, 262 DVOLINT, 760
DIV operator, 758
DIV switch, 114, 145 E reserved variable, 38
Divergence easydim, 318
vector field, 262 easydim (CALI), 305
divide operator, 135 easydim!*, 309
DLINEINT, 760 easyindepset, 318
dmode (CALI), 290 easyindepset!*, 309
DO, 59, 60 easyprimarydecomposition, 318
DO keyword, 59 easyprimarydecomposition!*, 312
Dollar sign, 55 ecart (CALI), 278, 297
DOT, 769 ecart vector (CALI), 284, 288, 321
DOT ECHO switch, 169
vector, 261 ED, 173, 174
Dot product, 261, 757, 1067 EDITDEF, 175
DOTGRAD operator, 758 efgb (CALI), 294
Double slash operator Ei, 76
in rules, 164 eliminate, 319
Double tilde variables eliminate (CALI), 283
in rules, 165 eliminate!*, 306
DOWN_QRATIO operator, 794 eliminationorder procedure (CALI),
DOWNWARD_ANTIDIFFERENCE, 795 287
dp_pseudodivmod (CALI), 291 eliminationorder!*, 296
dp_pseudodivmod, 297, 307 ELL_FUNCTION operator (CDE), 410
dpgcd, 297, 318 EllipticD, 919
dpmat (CALI), 284, 289, 290, 298 EllipticE, 919
dpmat_coldegs (CALI), 299 EllipticF, 919
dpmat_cols (CALI), 298 EllipticK, 919
dpmat_gbtag (CALI), 299 EllipticTheta1, 919
dpmat_list (CALI), 298 EllipticTheta2, 919
1100 INDEX

EllipticTheta3, 919 EXCLUDE, 852

EllipticTheta4, 919 EXCOEFFS, 1019
END, 69 EXDEGREE, 532
EPS, 528, 1069 EXDEGREE command, 514
EPS EXDELT, 376, 391
Levi-Civita tensor, 532 EXP, 76, 79, 90, 133
epsilon, 362, 379, 387 EXP switch, 130
Epsilon tensor EXPAND_CASES operator, 97
CANTENS package, 369 EXPAND_TD command, 401
eqhull, 319 EXPANDDF switch, 87
eqhull!*, 312 EXPANDLOGS switch, 77
Equation, 48, 49 EXPR, 1059
ERF, 90 Expression, 45
ERRCONT switch, 173 boolean, 47
Errors EXT operator (CDE), 402
TAYLOR package, 958 EXTEND operator, 667
eta, 362, 367, 385 extended Gröbner factorizer (CALI), 283,
ETA(ALFA), 908 293, 305
Euclidean metric, 525 EXTENDED_GOSPER, 1029
euclidian, 346 EXTENDED_SUMRECURSION, 1032
EULER, 919 extendedgroebfactor, 319
Euler, 80, 922 extendedgroebfactor!*, 306
Euler numbers, 80, 919, 922 extendedgroebfactor1, 319
Euler polynomials, 919 extendedgroebfactor1!*, 306
EULER_DF operator (CDE), 404 extendible power series, 962
Euler_Gamma, 922 Exterior calculus, 512
EULER_GAMMA reserved variable, 38 Exterior differentiation, 516
EulerP, 919 Exterior form
EVAL_MODE shared global variable, 1055 declaration, 513
EVALB, 875 ordering, 530
EVALLHSEQP switch, 49 vector, 513
EVEN declaration, 103 with indices, 513, 521
Even operator, 103 Exterior product, 514, 531
EVENP boolean operator, 47 EXVARS, 1020
evlf (CALI), 294 EZGCD switch, 133
EXCALC, 349
EXCALC package FACTOR declaration, 113
example, 514–516, 518–522, 525– FACTOR switch, 130, 131
528, 530, 533 FACTORIAL, 73, 190
tracing, 528 Factorization, 130
E XCALC package, 512 FACTORIZE, 130, 131
EXCALC package factorprimes (CALI), 285, 292
example, 529 factorunits (CALI), 292, 302
Exclamation mark, 35 FAILHARD switch, 90
INDEX 1101

Fast loading of code, 1076 GAMMA, 76, 919

FAST_LA switch, 684, 906 Gamma, 923
FASTSIMPLEX switch, 679 Gamma function, 919, 923
FDOMAIN command, 515, 532 GAMMATOFACTORIAL, 1037
FEXPR reserved identifier, 1060 gb-tag (CALI), 284, 299
Fibonacci, 80, 923 gbasis, 319
Fibonacci numbers, 80, 923 gbasis!*, 302
Fibonacci Polynomials, 80 gbtestversion (CALI), 283, 284, 294,
Fibonacci Polynomials, 923 303
FibonacciP, 80 GCD, 133
F IDE package, 544 GCD switch, 132
File handling, 169 G CREF package, 576
File, startup, 171 gdimension, 597
FIND_COMPANION operator, 667 Gegenbauer polynomials, 919
FIRST operator, 52 GegenbauerP, 919
FIRSTROOT, 854 GEN(I), 908
FIX, 73 Generalized Hypergeometric functions,
FIXP boolean operator, 47 940
flatten (CALI), 284 GENERATORS, 950
FLOOR, 73 generic function, 500
FOR, 65 generic tensor, 348
FOR ALL, 156, 157 GENERIC_FUNCTION, 500
FOR ALL G ENTRAN package, 578
CANTENS package, 355 GET_COLUMNS operator, 668
FOR EACH, 59, 60 GET_ROWS operator, 668
FOR EACH statement, 1059 GETCSYSTEM command, 263
FOR statement, 59 getdegrees, 289
FORDER command, 530, 532 getecart, 288
FORT, 119 getkbase, 319
FORT switch, 119 getkbase!*, 311
FORTRAN, 119, 121 getleadterms, 319
FORTUPPER switch, 121 getring procedure (CALI), 287
FPS, 572 GETROOT, 854
F PS package, 572 getrules, 291
FRAME command, 527, 532 GFNEWT, 854
free identifier, 290 GFROOT, 854
Free operators gindependent_sets, 597
in rules, 164 GL(I), 908
FREEOF boolean operator, 47 glexconvert, 597
FROBENIUS operator, 716 global procedures (CALI), 281
FULLROOTS switch, 98, 720 GLOBAL_SIGN, 345, 368, 370
Function, 191 GLTBASIS switch, 596, 600
GNUPLOT command, 585
G, 1068 GNUPLOT package, 579
1102 INDEX

G NUPLOT package, 579 grouped, 610

GO TO, 63, 64 matrix, 611
GO TO statement, 63 weighted, 611
Golden_Ratio, 922 term order
GOLDEN_RATIO reserved variable, 38 default, 593
GOSPER, 1026 gradlex, 591
Gosper’s Algorithm, 946 lex, 591
GOSPER_REPRESENTATION variable, revgradlex, 591
1041 G ROEBNER package, 96
Gröbner Bases, 590 groebner_walk, 599
GRAD groebnerf, 599, 601, 613
operator, 262 groebnert, 607
GRAD operator, 758 GROEBOPT switch, 595, 597, 600
Graded ordering, 611 GROEBPROT switch, 605
GradedBettinumbers, 319 groebprotfile, 605
GradedBettiNumbers!*, 310 groebresmax, 601
Gradient groebrestriction, 602
vector field, 262 GROEBSTAT switch, 596, 600
gradlex groepostproc, 614
term order, 591 groesolve, 613
GRAM_SCHMIDT operator, 669 Group statement, 57, 58, 62
greduce, 603 Grouped ordering, 610
greduce_orders, 604 gsort, 617
groeb gsplit, 618
=rf (CALI), 294 gspoly, 618
groeb (CALI), 283 GSYS operator, 468
groeb_homstbasis (CALI), 303 GSYS2CGB operator, 470
groeb_lazystbasis (CALI), 303 G UARDIAN package, 622
groeb_mingb, 304 gvars, 594
groeb_minimize, 304 gvarslast, 594, 595
groeb_stbasis, 303 gzerodim?, 596
groebf_zeroprimes1 (CALI), 306
groebfactor, 319 Hankel functions, 919, 925
groebfactor!*, 305 Hankel1, 76, 919, 925
GROEBFULLREDUCTION switch, 596, Hankel2, 76, 919, 925
600 hardzerotest (CALI), 292
groebmonfac, 601 Hermite polynomials, 919
groebner, 594 HERMITE_BASE, 733
Groebner Bases, 706 HermiteP, 919
G ROEBNER package, 590 HERMITIAN_TP operator, 669
Groebner package, 590 HESSIAN operator, 670
example, 592, 594, 606–608, 613 HEUGCD switch, 133
ordering hf
graded, 611 =hf (CALI), 294
INDEX 1103

hf_whs_from_resolution, 310 I DEALS package, 639

hf_whilb, 309 idealsum, 320
hf_whilb3, 310 Identifier, 37
HFACTORS scale factors, 262 IF, 57, 58
hftestversion (CALI), 284, 294, 309 IFACTOR switch, 131
High energy trace, 1071 IGAMMA, 76
High energy vector expression, 1067, IMAGINARY switch, 677
1070 imaginary unit, 218
HIGH_POW, 125 IMPART, 72, 73, 75, 149
HILBERT operator, 670 IMPLICIT_TAYLOR operator, 953
Hilbert polynomial, 616 IN command, 169
Hilbert series (CALI), 288 IN keyword, 59
Hilbertpolynomial, 616 Indefinite integration, 89
HilbertSeries, 319 INDEP_VAR global variable (CDE), 399
HilbertSeries (CALI), 284 independent sets, 597
HilbertSeries!*, 310 indepvarsets, 320
History, 173 indepvarsets!*, 308
Hodge-* duality operator, 519, 528 INDEX, 1068
homstbasis, 319 INDEX_SYMMETRIES command, 524,
homstbasis!*, 303 532
HORNER, 114 indexrange, 346, 359, 361
HORNER switch, 114 INDEXRANGE command, 532
Hypergeometric functions, 926 Indices
HYPERRECURSION, 1033 CANTENS package, 380, 391
HYPERSUM, 1035 I NEQ package, 642
HYPERTERM, 1033 INEQ_SOLVE operator, 642
HYPOT, 76, 79 INFINITY, 852
INFINITY reserved variable, 38
i, 218 INFIX declaration, 107
I reserved variable, 38 Infix operator, 40–43
I_SOLVE, 859 INITIALIZE_EQUATIONS operator (CDE),
IBETA, 76 415
ideal dimension, 597 initmat, 320
Ideal quotient, 615 Inner product, 757
ideal quotient (CALI), 307 exterior form, 518
ideal2mat, 320 INPUT, 174
ideal2mat (CALI), 289 Input, 169
ideal_of_minors, 299, 320 Instant evaluation, 68, 127, 156, 178,
ideal_of_pfaffians, 299, 320 179
idealpower, 320 INT, 89, 175
idealprod, 320 INTEGER, 62
idealquotient, 320, 615 Integer, 46
idealquotient!*, 308 INTEGRATE_EQUATION operator (CDE),
ideals (CALI), 289 416
1104 INDEX

Integration, 89, 105 Khinchin, 922

definite (simple), 264 KHINCHIN reserved variable, 39
line, 265 Killing Vectors, 529
volume, 264 KILLING_VECTOR command, 529, 532
Interactive use, 173, 175 KORDER, 768
internal procedures (CALI), 281 KORDER declaration, 124
INTERPOL, 141 KRONECKER_PRODUCT operator, 684
interreduce, 320 Kummer functions, 919, 926
interreduce!*, 302 KummerM, 76, 919, 926
INTERSECTION, 873 KummerU, 76, 919, 926
Introduction, 31
INTSTR switch, 110 l’Hôpital’s rule, 657, 759
I NVBASE package, 644 Label, 63, 64
INVZTRANS, 1045 Laguerre polynomials, 919
IRREDUCIBLEREPNR, 950 LAGUERRE_BASE, 733
IRREDUCIBLEREPTABLE, 950 LaguerreP, 919
isolatedprimes, 320 L ALR package, 648
isolatedprimes!*, 312 LAMBDA reserved word, 1057
ISOLATER, 853 Lambert’s W, 96
isprime, 321 L APLACE package, 651
isprime!*, 312 Laplacian
iszeroradical, 321 vector field, 262
Laurent series, 953
Jacobi Elliptic Functions and Integrals, lazy switch, 283
919 lazystbasis, 321
Jacobi’s polynomials, 919 lazystbasis!*, 304
Jacobiam, 919 LCM, 134
JACOBIAN operator, 670 LCOF, 142
Jacobicn, 919 LDOT operator, 686
Jacobidn, 919 Leading coefficient, 142
JacobiP, 919 Legendre polynomials, 187, 919
Jacobisn, 919 LEGENDRE_BASE, 733
JacobiZeta, 919 LEGENDRE_SYMBOL, 699
JET_FIBER_DIM operator, 400 LegendreP, 919
JET_DIM operator, 400 LENGTH, 68, 91, 129, 131, 179
JOIN keyword, 59 LENGTH operator, 51
JORDAN operator, 720 use on lists, 51
JORDAN_BLOCK operator, 671 LET, 77, 88, 101, 105–107, 154, 162,
JORDANSYMBOLIC operator, 718 189, 190
Levi-Cevita tensor, 528
KEEP command, 530, 532 LEX, 468
Kernel, 109, 113, 124 lex
CANTENS package, 394 term order, 591
kernel form, 110 lexefgb (CALI), 293, 306
INDEX 1105

lexicographic (CALI), 286 localorder!*, 296

LHS operator, 49 LOG, 76, 79, 90
LHYP switch, 651 LOG10, 76, 79
Lie Derivative, 519 LOGB, 76, 79
L IE package, 653 Lommel functions, 919, 926
LIEPDE, 198 Lommel1, 76, 919, 926
LIMIT, 657, 759 Lommel2, 76, 919, 926
LIMIT+, 657 LOOKING_GOOD switch, 718
LIMIT-, 657 Loop, 59
LIMITS package, 657 LOW_POW, 125
L IMITS package, 657 LOWER_MATRIX switch, 677
L INALG package, 658 L PDO package, 689
Line integrals, 265 LPOWER, 142
LINEAR, 104 LTERM, 143, 1065
Linear Algebra package, 658, 880 LTRIG switch, 651
LINEAR declaration, 104 LU_DECOM operator, 672
Linear operator, 104, 107
LINEINT, 760 M_ROOTS operator, 699
LINEINT function, 265 M_SOLVE operator, 699
LINELENGTH operator, 112 MACRO, 1059
LISP, 1055 MAINVAR, 143
Lisp, 1055 MAKE_BLOC_DIAGONAL, 365, 366
LIST, 114 MAKE_PARTIC_TENS, 362, 367, 369,
List, 51 377
vector operations, 686 MAKE_TENSOR_BELONG_SPACE, 359,
list, 94 365
List operation, 51, 53 MAKE_TENSOR_BELONG_SPACE dec-
LIST switch, 114 laration, 362
LISTARGP declaration, 53 MAKE_TENSOR_BELONG_SPACE op-
LISTARGS switch, 53 erator, 361
listgroebfactor, 321 MAKE_IDENTITY operator, 673
listgroebfactor!*, 305 MAKE_VARIABLES, 350
listminimize (CALI), 282 MAP, 91
LISTPROC keyword, 688 map, 94
listtest (CALI), 282 map (CALI), 312
L ISTVECOPS package, 686 MASS, 1070, 1071
LMON switch, 651 MAT, 177, 178
LN, 79 mat2list, 321
LNTH operator, 687 mat2list (CALI), 284, 289
LOAD, 1076 matappend, 321
LOAD_PACKAGE, 193, 1076 MATCH, 161
LOADGROUPS, 950 MATEIGEN, 180
local procedures (CALI), 281 Mathematical function, 76
localorder procedure (CALI), 287 mathomogenize, 321
1106 INDEX

mathprint (CALI), 295 MK_IDS_BELONG_ANYSPACE opera-

matintersect, 321 tor, 362
matintersect (CALI), 283 MK_IDS_BELONG_SPACE, 391
matintersect!*, 307 MK_IDS_BELONG_SPACE operator, 361
matjac, 299, 321 MK_CDIFFOP operator (CDE), 405
matqquot, 321 MK_SUPERFUN operator (CDE), 407
matqquot!*, 307 MKALLLINODD operator (CDE), 420
matquot MKID, 92
* (CALI), 307 MKPOLY, 854
matquot, 321 MKSET, 872
matquot!*, 307 MM, 908
MATRIX, 177 mod, 322
Matrix assignment, 183 mod operator, 135
Matrix calculations, 177 mod!*, 302
Matrix ordering, 611 Mode, 68
MATRIX_AUGMENT operator, 673 algebraic, 1060
MATRIX_STACK operator, 674 symbolic, 1060
MATRIXP, 674, 898 Mode communication, 1060
MATRIXPROC, 188 Mode handling declarations, 68
matstabquot, 322 modequalp, 322
matstabquot!*, 308 modequalp (CALI), 284
matsum, 322 modequalp!*, 306
MAX, 74 M ODSR package, 699
MCD, 134 Modular coefficient, 147
MCD switch, 132, 134 MODULAR switch, 131, 147, 722
Meijer’s G function, 940 module bcsf (CALI), 295
MEMBER, 876 module cali (CALI), 281
metric, 362, 377 module calimat (CALI), 285, 299
METRIC command, 532 module dpmat (CALI), 299
Metric structure, 524 module groeb (CALI), 302
Metric tensor module groebf (CALI), 283, 305
CANTENS package, 387 module lf (CALI), 284, 294
MIN, 74 module moid (CALI), 308
minimal_generators, 322 module mora (CALI), 283
minimal_generators!*, 314 module odim (CALI), 284, 310
Minimum, 724 module prime (CALI), 311
Minkowski, 345, 362, 367 module quotient (CALI), 307
MINOR operator, 674 module ring (CALI), 295
minors, 299, 322 module scripts (CALI), 283, 312
Mixed symmetry module term order (CALI), 289
CANTENS package, 391 module triang (CALI), 305, 306
MK_IDS_BELONG_ANYSPACE, 348 modulequotient, 322
MK_IDS_BELONG_SPACE, 348 modulequotient!*, 308
modules (CALI), 289
INDEX 1107

moid_primes, 308 NOSPLIT, 115

MONOMIAL_BASE, 733 NOSPLIT switch, 115
Motzkin, 81 NOSPUR, 1071
Motzkin number, 81 NOSUM command, 524, 532
MRV_LIMIT operator, 702 NOSUM switch, 524
M RVLIMIT package, 700 NOT_NEGATIVE switch, 677
MSG switch, 1079 NOTREALVALUED declaration, 150
MSHELL, 1071 NOXPND
MULT_COLUMNS operator, 675 @, 517
MULT_ROWS operator, 675 D, 516
Multiple assignment statement, 56 NOXPND @ command, 532
MULTIPLICITIES switch, 97 NOXPND command, 532
MULTIROOT switch, 856 NS dummy variable, 523
NULLSPACE, 181
NAT switch, 122, 521 NUM, 143
N CPOLY package, 706 NUM_FIT, 732
NEARESTROOT, 853, 856 NUM_INT, 724, 727
NEARESTROOTS, 854 NUM_MIN, 724, 725
NEGATIVE, 852 NUM_ODESOLVE, 724, 728
NEGATIVE reserved variable, 39 NUM_SOLVE, 724, 726
negativity, 151 Number, 36, 37
NERO switch, 119 NUMBERP boolean operator, 47
Newton’s method, 724 Numeric indices
NEXTPRIME, 74 CANTENS package, 375
NIL reserved variable, 39 NUMERIC package, 724
NN, 908 N UMERIC package, 724
NOCOMMUTEDF switch, 87 Numerical operator, 71
NOCONVERT switch, 146 Numerical precision, 38
NODEPEND command, 108 nzdp, 322
NODEPEND statement, 759 nzdp!*, 315
NOETHER function, 521, 532
Noetherian (CALI), 293 ODD declaration, 103
Noetherian switch, 278, 286 Odd operator, 103
NOEXPAND_TD command, 401 ODD_VAR global variable (CDE), 401
NOINTSUBST switch, 90 O DESOLVE package, 735
NOLNR switch, 90 odim_borderbasis, 311
Non-commuting operator, 105 odim_parameter, 311
NONCOM, 764 odim_up, 311
NONCOM declaration, 105 OFF, 68
NONZERO declaration, 103 oldbasis (CALI), 294
normalform, 322 oldborderbasis (CALI), 294
normalform!*, 302 oldring (CALI), 294
NORMFORM package, 713 ON, 68
N ORMFORM package, 713 ON keyword, 59
1108 INDEX

ONE_OF operator, 97 A RNUM, 218

ONESPACE switch, 344, 358, 363 A SSERT, 224
Off, 352, 359, 364, 367, 368, 371, A SSIST, 230
384, 390 A VECTOR, 260
On, 352, 358, 363, 367, 369, 387, B IBASIS, 267
395 B OOLEAN, 274
ONLY_INTEGER switch, 677 C ALI, 278
OPAPPLY, 772 C AMAL, 329
OPERATOR, 1065 C ANTENS, 343
Operator, 40–42 C DE, 397
antisymmetric, 105 C DIFF, 442
C ANTENS package, 379 C GB, 467
double slash, 164 C OMPACT, 472
even, 103 C RACK, 473
infix, 41 C VIT, 474
linear, 104 D EFINT, 90, 483
non-commuting, 105 D EFINT, 90
numerical, 71 D ESIR, 493
odd, 103 D FPART, 500
precedence, 41, 43 D UMMY, 505
symmetric, 105 E XCALC, 512
unary prefix, 41 F IDE, 544
OPERATOR declaration, 106 F PS, 572
CANTENS package, 385 G CREF, 576
Operators G ENTRAN, 578
free, in rules, 164 G NUPLOT, 579
OPORDER, 768 G ROEBNER, 590
OR logical operator, 48 G ROEBNER, 96
ORDER declaration, 112, 124 G UARDIAN, 622
Ordering I DEALS, 639
exterior form, 530 I NEQ, 642
ORDP boolean operator, 47, 105 I NVBASE, 644
Orthogonal polynomials, 919 L ALR, 648
O RTHOVEC package, 754 L APLACE, 651
O RTHOVEC package L IE, 653
example, 761, 763 L IMITS, 657
OUT command, 170 L INALG, 658
Output, 116, 121 L ISTVECOPS, 686
Output declaration, 112 L PDO, 689
OUTPUT switch, 111 M ODSR, 699
M RVLIMIT, 700
Packages N CPOLY, 706
A LGINT, 90, 194 N ORMFORM, 713
A PPLYSYM, 195 N UMERIC, 724
INDEX 1109

O DESOLVE, 735 use on Taylor kernel, 955, 958

O RTHOVEC, 754 partial derivatives, 500
P HYSOP, 764 Partial differentiation, 515
P LOT, 579 partial fraction, 93
P M, 776 partial fraction decomposition, 93
Q HULL, 783 Partial symmetry
Q SUM, 784 CANTENS package, 391
R ANDPOLY, 799 PAUSE command, 175
R ATAPRX, 809 PCLASS, 908, 909, 911
R ATINT, 825 Percent sign, 40
R EACTEQN, 835 PERIOD switch, 121
R EDLOG, 840 Periodic decimal representation, 809
R ESET, 840 PERIODIC operator, 809
R ESIDUE, 841 PERIODIC2RATIONAL operator, 809
R LFI, 845 PF operator, 93
R OOTS, 851 pfaffian, 299, 322
R SOLVE, 859 PFORM command, 532
R TRACE, 862 PFORM statement, 513
S COPE, 870 PHYSINDEX, 766
S ETS, 871 P HYSOP package, 764
S PARSE, 880 PI reserved variable, 39
S PDE, 907 PIVOT operator, 675
S PECFN, 919 PLOT, 579
S PECFN 2, 940 P LOT package, 579
S STOOLS, 944 PLOTKEEP switch, 584
S UM, 946 PLOTRESET, 584
S YMMETRY, 948 P M package, 776
T AYLOR, 953 POCHHAMMER, 76, 919
T PS, 962 Pochhammer, 93, 924
T RI, 974 Pochhammer notation, 93, 924
T RIGD, 975 Pochhammer’s symbol, 93, 919
T RIGINT, 983 POLYGAMMA, 76, 919
T RIGSIMP, 77, 988 Polygamma, 924
T URTLE, 998 Polygamma functions, 919, 924
W U, 1012 Polynomial, 129
X COLOR, 1014 Polynomial equations, 590
X IDEAL, 1016 Polynomial Pseudo-Division, 136
Z EILBERG, 1024 POSITIVE, 852
Z TRANS, 1045 POSITIVE reserved variable, 39
Padé Approximation, 820 positivity, 151
PADE operator, 821 Power series, 962
Padget, Julian, 962 arithmetic, 971
PART operator, 123, 125 composition, 968
use on lists, 51 differentiation, 972
1110 INDEX

of integral, 963 Program structure, 35

of user defined function, 963 proj_points (CALI), 284
Power series expansions, 962 proj_points1
PRECEDENCE declaration, 107 * (CALI), 316
PRECISE switch, 77, 78 proj_monomial_curve, 323
PRECISE_COMPLEX switch, 79 proj_monomial_curve!*, 314
PRECISION operator, 145 proj_points, 323
in ROOTS package, 857 proj_points!*, 316
preduce, 603 Proper statement, 49, 55
preducet, 607 PRSYS, 908, 910
Prefix, 71, 107 PS, 962
Prefix operator, 40 PS operator, 962
declaring new one, 106 PSCHANGEVAR operator, 967
Prefix operator, unary, 41 PSCOMPOSE operator, 968
preimage, 323 PSCOPY operator, 970
preimage (CALI), 283 PSDEPVAR operator, 966
preimage!*, 313 Pseudo-Division, 136
PRET switch, 1078, 1079 pseudo_div operator, 137
PRETTYPRINT, 1079 pseudo_divide operator, 137
Prettyprinting, 1078, 1079 PSEUDO_INVERSE operator, 676
PRGEN, 908 pseudo_quotient operator, 137
PRI switch, 112 pseudo_remainder operator, 137
primary decomposition (CALI), 283 PSEXPANSIONPT operator, 966
primarydecomposition, 323 PSEXPLIM Operator, 964
primarydecomposition!*, 312 PSEXPLIM operator, 963
prime PSFUNCTION operator, 966
=decompose2 (CALI), 311 PSI, 76, 79, 919, 924
PRIMEP boolean operator, 47 Psi function, 919
PRINCIPAL_DER global variable (CDE),psi function, 924
402 PSORDER operator, 965
PRINT_PRECISION command, 146 PSORDLIM operator, 964
PRINTGROUP, 950 PSPRINTORDER switch, 964
printterms (CALI), 294 PSREVERSE operator, 967
Procedure PSSETORDER operator, 965
body, 187, 188 PSSUM operator, 969
heading, 186 PSTAYLOR operator, 970
list-valued, 688 PSTERM operator, 965
matrix-valued, 188 PSTRUNCATE operator, 971
using LET inside body, 189 Puiseux expansion, 967
PROCEDURE command, 185 Puiseux series, 953
PROD operator, 946 PUT_EQUATIONS_USED operator (CDE),
PRODUCT, 59 416
PRODUCT keyword, 59 PUTCSYSTEM command, 263
Program, 40 PVAR_DF operator (CDE), 404
INDEX 1111

QBINOMIAL operator, 784 RATIONAL2PERIODIC operator, 809

QBRACKETS operator, 784 RATIONALIZE switch, 148
QFACTORIAL operator, 784 RATJORDAN operator, 717
QGOSPER operator, 787 ratpreimage, 323
QGOSPER_DOWN switch, 788, 795 ratpreimage!*, 313
QGOSPER_SPECIALSOL switch, 795 RATPRI, 116
Q HULL package, 783 RATPRI switch, 116
QPHIHYPERTERM operator, 785 RATROOT switch, 856
QPOCHHAMMER operator, 784 R EACTEQN package, 835
QPSIHYPERTERM operator, 785 REAL, 62
QRATIO operator, 794 Real coefficient, 145
QSIMPCOMB operator, 791, 794 Real number, 36, 37
Q SUM package, 784 REALROOTS, 852, 854
QSUM_NULLSPACE switch, 794, 795 REALVALUED declaration, 149
QSUM_TRACE switch, 795 REALVALUEDP, 150
QSUMRECURSION operator, 789 red (CALI), 283
red_better (CALI), 300
QSUMRECURSION_CERTIFICATE switch,
790, 795 red_extract (CALI), 301
QSUMRECURSION_DOWN switch, 795 red_prepare (CALI), 301
QSUMRECURSION_EXP switch, 795 red_TailRedDriver (CALI), 301
Quadrature, 724 red_TopRedBE (CALI), 300
QUASILINPDE, 210 red_total (CALI), 293
QUIT, 69 red_Interreduce, 301
QUOTE, 1057 red_redpol, 301
red_Straight, 301
R_SOLVE, 859 red_TailRed, 301
radical, 323 red_TopInterreduce, 301
radical (CALI), 285 red_TopRed, 301
radical!*, 312 red_TopRedBE, 301
RANDOM, 74 red_TotalRed, 301
random_linear_form, 299, 323 REDERR, 188
RANDOM_NEW_SEED, 74 R EDLOG package, 840
RANDOM_MATRIX operator, 677 REDUCE, 352
R ANDPOLY package, 799 reducerc file, 31, 171
RANK, 182 REDUCT, 144
RAT, 115 REM_SPACES, 347
RAT switch, 115 REM_DUMMY_IDS, 351
R ATAPRX package, 809 REM_DUMMY_INDICES, 351, 381
RATARG switch, 124, 141 REM_VALUE_TENS, 353, 355
R ATINT package, 825 REM_SPACES, 359
Rational coefficient, 145 REM_TENSOR, 351
Rational function, 129 remainder operator, 135
rational number, 84 REMANTICOM, 509
RATIONAL switch, 145 REMEMBER, 191
1112 INDEX

REMFAC, 113 REVGRADLEX, 468

REMFORDER command, 530, 532 revgradlex
REMIND, 1068 term order, 591
REMOVE_COLUMNS operator, 677, 901 revlex term order (CALI), 284
REMOVE_ROWS operator, 678 REVPRI, 116
REMOVE_VARIABLES, 350 REVPRI switch, 116
REMSYM, 394, 509 Rewriting rules
RENOSUM command, 524, 532 CANTENS package, 352
REPART, 72, 73, 75 RHS operator, 49
REPEAT, 61–63, 65 Riemann tensor
REPEAT statement, 61 CANTENS package, 391
REPPRINCPARAM_DER shared global Riemann Zeta function, 924
variable (CDE), 403 RIEMANNCONX command, 528, 532
REPPRINCPARAM_ODD shared global Riemannian Connections, 528
variable (CDE), 403 ring (CALI), 290
REQUIREMENTS shared variable, 101 ring_2a (CALI), 295
Reserved variable, 38, 39 ring_degrees (CALI), 295
Reserved variable ring_ecart (CALI), 295
HIGH_POW, 125 ring_from_a (CALI), 295
LOW_POW, 125 ring_isnoetherian (CALI), 295
CATALAN, 38 ring_names (CALI), 295
EULER_GAMMA, 38 ring_tag (CALI), 295
GOLDEN_RATIO, 38 ring_define, 295
I, 38 ring_lp, 296
INFINITY, 38 ring_rlp, 296
KHINCHIN, 39 ring_sum, 296
NEGATIVE, 39 R LFI package, 845
NIL, 39 Rlisp, 1075
PI, 39 RLISP88, 1066
POSITIVE, 39 RLROOTNO, 853
T, 39 root finding, 851
R ESET package, 840 ROOT_MULTIPLICITIES global vari-
R ESIDUE package, 841 able, 97
resolve, 323 ROOT_OF operator, 96, 97
resolve (CALI), 283 ROOT_VAL, 148, 853
Resolve!*, 310 ROOTACC operator (ROOTS package),
REST operator, 52 857
RESULT, 907 ROOTACC!# global variable (ROOTS
RESULTANT, 139 package), 857
RETRY, 173 ROOTMSG switch, 857
RETURN, 63–65 ROOTPREC operator (ROOTS package),
RETURN statement, 64 857
reverse lexicographic (CALI), 286 ROOTS, 853, 854
REVERSE operator, 53 ROOTS package, 851
INDEX 1113

R OOTS package, 851 SECH, 76, 79

ROOTS_AT_PREC, 853 SECOND operator, 52
ROOTSCOMPLEX, 853 SELECT, 94
ROOTSREAL, 853 Selector, 1061
ROUND, 75 SELECTVARS operator, 400
ROUNDALL switch, 146 SELFCONJUGATE declaration, 72, 150
ROUNDBF switch, 146 Semicolon, 55
ROUNDED, 119, 856 SET statement, 56, 93
Set Statement, 56
ROUNDED switch, 38, 39, 46, 79, 145
ROW_DIM operator, 678 SET_EQ, 878
ROWS_PIVOT operator, 678 SETAVAILABLE, 950
RSETREPRESENTATION, 950 setcaliprintterms, 293
R SOLVE package, 859 setcalitrace, 293
RTR command, 863 setcalitrace (CALI), 284
R TRACE package, 862 setdegrees, 289
RTRACE switch, 862, 869 setdegrees (CALI), 294
RTROUT command, 869 SETDIFF, 874
RTRST command, 865 SETELEMENTS, 950
Rule lists, 161 setgbasis, 324
Rules setgbasis (CALI), 284
Double slash operators, 164 SETGENERATORS, 950
Double tilde variables, 165 SETGROUPTABLE, 950
Free operators, 164 setideal, 290
rules (CALI), 294 setideal (CALI), 291
setkorder (CALI), 296
saturation, 616 SETMOD, 147
SAVE_CDE_STATE operator, 400 setmodule, 290
SAVEAS statement, 111 setmodule (CALI), 291
savemat, 323 setmonset (CALI), 294
savesfs switch, 922 setmonset!*, 304
SAVESTRUCTR switch, 123 setring (CALI), 283, 288, 292, 294
Saving an expression, 121 setring command (CALI), 286
SCALAR, 62, 63 setring!*, 296
Scalar, 45 setrules, 291
Scalar variable, 38 setrules (CALI), 291, 294, 297
SCALEFACTORS operator, 262 setrules!*, 295
SCALOP, 766 S ETS package, 871
SCHOUTEN_BRACKET operator (CDE), SGN
409 indeterminate sign, 520
SCIENTIFIC_NOTATION declaration, SHARE declaration, 1060
36 SHOW_DUMMY_NAMES, 507
S COPE package, 870 SHOW_EPSILONS, 371, 374, 390
SDER(I), 908 SHOW_SPACES, 346, 359, 374
SEC, 76, 79 SHOWRULES, 166
1114 INDEX

SHOWTIME command, 69 SPADD_TO_COLUMNS operator, 885

SHUT command, 170 SPADD_TO_ROWS operator, 886
SI, 76 SPADD_COLUMNS operator, 884
Side effect, 49 SPADD_ROWS operator, 885
sieve, 324 SPARSE declaration, 880
SIGN, 75, 151 S PARSE package, 880
SIGNATURE, 367 SPARSEMATP predicate, 902
Signature SPAUGMENT_COLUMNS operator, 886
CANTENS package, 368–370, 387 SPBAND_MATRIX operator, 886
signature, 345, 346, 387 SPBLOCK_MATRIX operator, 887
SIGNATURE command, 532 SPCHAR_MATRIX operator, 887
SIMPLEDE, 574 SPCHAR_POLY operator, 888
SIMPLEX operator, 679 SPCHOLESKY operator, 888
Simplification, 46, 109 SPCOEFF_MATRIX operator, 889
simplify_combinatorial, 1037 SPCOL_DIM operator, 889
SIMPLIFY_GAMMA, 1037 SPCOMPANION operator, 890
simplify_gamma2, 1037 SPCOPY_INTO operator, 890
simplify_gamman, 1037 S PDE package, 907
SIMPNONCOMDF switch, 87 SPDIAGONAL operator, 891
SIMPSYS, 907, 909, 911 SPECFN, 77
SIN, 76, 79 S PECFN package, 919
singular_locus, 324 S PECFN 2 package, 940
singular_locus!*, 300 SPEXTEND operator, 892
SINH, 76, 79 SPFIND_COMPANION operator, 892
SixjSymbol, 919 SPGET_COLUMNS operator, 893
SMACRO reserved identifier, 1059 SPGET_ROWS operator, 893
SMITHEX operator, 714 SPGRAM_SCHMIDT operator, 893
SMITHEX_INT operator, 715 Spherical and Solid Harmonics, 919
SolidHarmonicY, 919, 928 Spherical coordinates, 526, 755
SOLVE operator, 96, 97 SphericalHarmonicY, 919, 928
ASSUMPTIONS variable, 102 SPHERMITIAN_TP operator, 894
REQUIREMENTS shared variable, SPHESSIAN operator, 894
101 Spinor
ROOT_MULTIPLICITIES global CANTENS package, 380
variable, 97 SPJACOBIAN operator, 895
use of G ROEBNER package, 590 SPJORDAN_BLOCK operator, 895
SOLVE package SPLIT_FIELD function, 222
with ROOTS package, 851 SPLITEXT_LIST operator (CDE), 422
SOLVESINGULAR switch, 100 SPLITEXT_OPEQU operator (CDE), 421
space, 344 SPLITVARS_OPEQU operator (CDE),
SPACEDIM command, 515, 532 415
Spaces SPLU_DECOM operator, 896
CANTENS package, 373, 379, 387 SPMAKE_IDENTITY operator, 897
spaces, 348, 358, 365, 368 SPMATRIX_AUGMENT operator, 897
INDEX 1115

SPMATRIX_STACK operator, 898 STOREGROUP, 950

SPMINOR operator, 898 String, 39
SPMULT_COLUMNS operator, 899 STRUCTR, 122, 123
SPMULT_ROWS operator, 899 Structuring, 109
SPPIVOT operator, 900 Struve functions, 919, 926
SPPSEUDO_INVERSE operator, 900 StruveH, 76, 919, 926
SPREMOVE_ROWS operator, 901 StruveL, 76, 919, 926
SPROW_DIM operator, 901 Sturm Sequences, 852
SPROWS_PIVOT operator, 902 SUB, 153
SPSUB_MATRIX operator, 903 SUB operator, 48
SPSVD operator, 903 SUB_MATRIX operator, 680
SPSWAP_COLUMNS operator, 904 sublist (CALI), 294
SPSWAP_ENTRIES operator, 905 submodulep, 324
SPSWAP_ROWS operator, 905 submodulep!*, 306
SPUR, 1071 SUBSET_EQ, 877
SQFRF, 856 Subspaces
SQRT, 76, 79 CANTENS package, 368
SQUAREP predicate, 679, 902 subspaces, 348
S STOOLS package, 944 Substitution, 153
stable quotient (CALI), 307 SUCH THAT, 157
STACK_ROWS operator, 680, 903 SUM, 59
Standard form, 1061 SUM keyword, 59
Standard quotient, 1061 SUM operator, 946
Startup file, 171 S UM package, 946
STATE, 766 SUM!-SQ operator, 946
Statement, 55 SUMRECURSION, 1029
assignment, 56 SUMTOHYPER, 1037
compound, 62 SUPER_PRODUCT operator (CDE), 402
conditional, 57 SVD operator, 680
FOR, 59 SVEC, 755
FOR EACH, 1059 SWAP_COLUMNS operator, 681
GO TO, 63 SWAP_ENTRIES operator, 682
Group, 57 SWAP_ROWS operator, 682
REPEAT, 61 Switch, 68, 69
RETURN, 64 ADJPREC, 146
SAVEAS, 111 ALGINT, 194
Set, 56 ALLBRANCH, 100
Unset, 56 ALLFAC, 114, 115
WHILE, 60 ALLOWDFINT, 88
Statement terminator, 55 ANTICOM, 771
Stirling Numbers, 923 ARBVARS, 100
Stirling numbers, 919 BALANCED_MOD, 147, 722
Stirling1, 919, 923 BEZOUT, 139
Stirling2, 919, 923 BFSPACE, 146
1116 INDEX

binomial, 283 LOWER_MATRIX, 677

CHECKORD, 401 LTRIG, 651
COMBINEEXPT, 78 MCD, 132, 134
COMBINELOGS, 77 MODULAR, 131, 147, 722
COMMUTEDF, 87 MSG, 1079
COMP, 1075 MULTIPLICITIES, 97
COMPLEX, 79, 147 MULTIROOT, 856
CRAMER, 96, 179 NAT, 122, 521
CREF, 1078 NERO, 119
DEFN, 1060, 1079 NOCOMMUTEDF, 87
DFINT, 88 NOCONVERT, 146
DISPJACOBIAN, 81 Noetherian, 278, 286
DIV, 114, 145 NOINTSUBST, 90
ECHO, 169 NOLNR, 90
ERRCONT, 173 NOSPLIT, 115
EVALLHSEQP, 49 NOSUM, 524
EXP, 130 NOT_NEGATIVE, 677
EXPANDDF, 87 ONESPACE, 344, 358, 363
EXPANDLOGS, 77 ONLY_INTEGER, 677
EZGCD, 133 OUTPUT, 111
FACTOR, 130, 131 PERIOD, 121
FAILHARD, 90 PLOTKEEP, 584
FAST_LA, 684, 906 PRECISE, 77, 78
FASTSIMPLEX, 679 PRECISE_COMPLEX, 79
FORT, 119 PRET, 1078, 1079
FORTUPPER, 121 PRI, 112
FULLROOTS, 98 PSPRINTORDER, 964
GCD, 132 QGOSPER_DOWN, 788, 795
GLTBASIS, 596, 600 QGOSPER_SPECIALSOL, 795
GROEBFULLREDUCTION, 596, 600 QSUM_NULLSPACE, 794, 795
GROEBOPT, 595, 597, 600 QSUM_TRACE, 795
GROEBPROT, 605 QSUMRECURSION_CERTIFICATE,
GROEBSTAT, 596, 600 790, 795
HEUGCD, 133 QSUMRECURSION_DOWN, 795
HORNER, 114 QSUMRECURSION_EXP, 795
IFACTOR, 131 RAT, 115
IMAGINARY, 677 RATARG, 124, 141
INTSTR, 110 RATIONAL, 145
lazy, 283 RATIONALIZE, 148
LHYP, 651 RATPRI, 116
LIST, 114 RATROOT, 856
LISTARGS, 53 REVPRI, 116
LMON, 651 ROOTMSG, 857
LOOKING_GOOD, 718 ROUNDALL, 146
INDEX 1117

ROUNDBF, 146 REDUCE Core

ROUNDED, 38, 39, 46, 79, 145 ADJPREC, 146
RTRACE, 862, 869 ALLBRANCH, 100
savesfs, 922 ALLFAC, 114, 115
SAVESTRUCTR, 123 ALLOWDFINT, 88
SIMPNONCOMDF, 87 ARBVARS, 100
SOLVESINGULAR, 100 BALANCED_MOD, 147, 722
SYMMETRIC, 677 BEZOUT, 139
TAYLORAUTOCOMBINE, 957 BFSPACE, 146
TAYLORAUTOEXPAND, 956, 957 COMBINEEXPT, 78
TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL, 955–957, COMBINELOGS, 77
959 COMMUTEDF, 87
TAYLORPRINTORDER, 957 COMP, 1075
TR_LIE, 654 COMPLEX, 79, 147
TRA, 194 CRAMER, 96, 179
TRCOMPACT, 472 CREF, 1078
TRFAC, 132 DEFN, 1060, 1079
TRGROEB, 596, 600 DFINT, 88
TRGROEB1, 596, 600 DISPJACOBIAN, 81
TRGROEBR, 600 DIV, 114, 145
TRGROEBS, 596, 600 ECHO, 169
TRIGFORM, 98 ERRCONT, 173
TRINT, 90, 194 EVALLHSEQP, 49
TRINTSUBST, 90 EXP, 130
TRNUMERIC, 725 EXPANDDF, 87
TRPLOT, 584 EXPANDLOGS, 77
TRROOT, 857 EZGCD, 133
TRSOLVE, 861 FACTOR, 130, 131
TRSUM, 947 FAILHARD, 90
TRWU, 1013 FORT, 119
UPPER_MATRIX, 677 FORTUPPER, 121
VAROPT, 102 FULLROOTS, 98
VERBOSELOAD, 957 GCD, 132
ZB_FACTOR, 1041 HEUGCD, 133
ZB_PROOF, 1041 HORNER, 114
ZB_TRACE, 1039, 1041 IFACTOR, 131
switch ASSERT, 227 INTSTR, 110
switch ASSERTBREAK, 227 LIST, 114
switch ASSERTSTATISTICS, 227 LISTARGS, 53
switch bcsimp (CALI), 295 MCD, 132, 134
switch hardzerotest (CALI), 291 MODULAR, 131, 147, 722
switch lexefgb (CALI), 294, 306 MSG, 1079
switch Noetherian (CALI), 296 MULTIPLICITIES, 97
Switches by package NAT, 122, 521
1118 INDEX

NERO, 119 TRCOMPACT, 472

NOCOMMUTEDF, 87 E XCALC package
NOCONVERT, 146 NOSUM, 524
NOINTSUBST, 90 G NUPLOT package
NOLNR, 90 TRPLOT, 584
NOSPLIT, 115 G ROEBNER package
OUTPUT, 111 GLTBASIS, 596, 600
PERIOD, 121 GROEBFULLREDUCTION, 596,
PLOTKEEP, 584 600
PRECISE, 77, 78 GROEBOPT, 595, 597, 600
PRECISE_COMPLEX, 79 GROEBPROT, 605
PRET, 1078, 1079 GROEBSTAT, 596, 600
PRI, 112 TRGROEB, 596, 600
RAT, 115 TRGROEB1, 596, 600
RATARG, 124, 141 TRGROEBR, 600
RATIONAL, 145 TRGROEBS, 596, 600
RATIONALIZE, 148 L APLACE package
RATPRI, 116 LHYP, 651
REVPRI, 116 LMON, 651
ROUNDALL, 146 LTRIG, 651
ROUNDBF, 146 L IE package
ROUNDED, 38, 39, 46, 79, 145 TR_LIE, 654
savesfs, 922 L INALG package
SAVESTRUCTR, 123 FAST_LA, 684
SIMPNONCOMDF, 87 FASTSIMPLEX, 679
SOLVESINGULAR, 100 IMAGINARY, 677
TRFAC, 132 LOWER_MATRIX, 677
TRIGFORM, 98 NOT_NEGATIVE, 677
TRINT, 90 ONLY_INTEGER, 677
TRINTSUBST, 90 SYMMETRIC, 677
VAROPT, 102 UPPER_MATRIX, 677
A LGINT package N ORMFORM package
ALGINT, 194 LOOKING_GOOD, 718
TRA, 194 N UMERIC package
TRINT, 194 TRNUMERIC, 725
C ALI package P HYSOP package
binomial, 283 ANTICOM, 771
lazy, 283 Q SUM package
Noetherian, 278, 286 QGOSPER_DOWN, 788, 795
C ANTENS package QGOSPER_SPECIALSOL, 795
ONESPACE, 344, 358, 363 QSUM_NULLSPACE, 794, 795
C DE package QSUM_TRACE, 795
CHECKORD, 401 QSUMRECURSION_CERTIFICATE,
C OMPACT package 790, 795
INDEX 1119

QSUMRECURSION_DOWN, 795 SYMMETRIC switch, 677

QSUMRECURSION_EXP, 795 SYMMETRICP predicate, 682, 905
R OOTS package Symmetries
MULTIROOT, 856 CANTENS package, 391
RATROOT, 856 SYMMETRIZE, 394
ROOTMSG, 857 SYMMETRY package, 948
TRROOT, 857 S YMMETRY package, 948
R SOLVE package SYMMETRYBASIS, 948
TRSOLVE, 861 SYMMETRYBASISPART, 948
R TRACE package SYMTREE, 508
RTRACE, 862, 869 SYMTREE declaration, 391
S PARSE package system precision, 857
FAST_LA, 906 syzygies, 324
S UM package syzygies!*, 302
TRSUM, 947 syzygies1!*, 303
T AYLOR package
TAYLORAUTOCOMBINE, 957 T, 286
TAYLORAUTOEXPAND, 956, 957 T reserved variable, 39
TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL, 955– TAN, 76, 79, 90
957, 959 Tangent vector, 516
TAYLORPRINTORDER, 957 tangentcone, 324
VERBOSELOAD, 957 TANH, 76, 79
T PS package TAYLOR operator, 953
PSPRINTORDER, 964 T AYLOR package, 953
W U package Taylor series, 953
TRWU, 1013 arithmetic, 955
Z EILBERG package differentiation, 956
ZB_FACTOR, 1041 integration, 956
ZB_PROOF, 1041 reversion, 956
ZB_TRACE, 1039, 1041 substitution, 956
sym, 324 TAYLORAUTOCOMBINE switch, 957
sym (CALI), 283 TAYLORAUTOEXPAND switch, 956, 957
sym!*, 314 TAYLORCOMBINE operator, 955, 956
SYMBOLIC, 1055 TAYLORKEEPORIGINAL switch, 955–
Symbolic indices 957, 959
CANTENS package, 373 TAYLORORIGINAL operator, 959, 960
Symbolic mode, 1055, 1056, 1060, 1061 TAYLORPRINTORDER switch, 957
Symbolic procedure, 1059 TAYLORPRINTTERMS variable, 954,
symbolic_power, 324 960
symbolic_power!*, 315 TAYLORREVERT operator, 956, 959
symmetric TAYLORSERIESP operator, 955
tensor, 368 TAYLORTEMPLATE operator, 955, 960
SYMMETRIC declaration, 105, 391 TAYLORTOSTANDARD operator, 955
Symmetric operator, 105 TENSOP, 766
1120 INDEX

TENSOR, 349 T RIGD package, 975

Tensor contractions TRIGFORM switch, 98
CANTENS package, 384 T RIGINT package, 983
Tensor derivatives TRIGONOMETRIC_BASE, 733
CANTENS package, 395 TRIGSIMP, 988
Tensor polynomial T RIGSIMP package, 77, 988
CANTENS package, 378 TRINT switch, 90, 194
term (CALI), 297 TRINTSUBST switch, 90
Terminator, statement, 55 TRNUMERIC switch, 725
THIRD operator, 52 TRPLOT switch, 584
ThreejSymbol, 919 TRRL command, 867
TIME, 68 TRRLID command, 868
TOEPLITZ operator, 683 TRROOT switch, 857
torder, 593, 611 TRSOLVE switch, 861
TORDER operator, 468 TRSUM switch, 947
TOTAL_ORDER global variable (CDE), TRWU switch, 1013
399 TRXIDEAL switch, 1020
TOTALDEG, 144 TRXMOD switch, 1020
TP, 181 TURTLE package, 998
T PS package, 962 T URTLE package, 998
TR_LIE switch, 654 TVECTOR command, 513, 532
TRA switch, 194
TRACE, 181 U(ALFA), 908
Trace U(ALFA,I), 908
CANTENS package, 378 Unary prefix operator, 41
trace (CALI), 294 UNION, 873
Tracing UNIT, 767
EXCALC package, 528 unmixedradical, 324
GNUPLOT package, 584 unmixedradical!*, 312
ROOTS package, 857 UNRTR command, 863
SPDE package, 909 UNRTRST command, 865
SUM package, 947 UNSET statement, 57, 93
tracing (CALI), 284 Unset Statement, 56
TRCOMPACT switch, 472 UNTIL, 59
TRFAC switch, 132 UNTRRL command, 867
TRGROEB switch, 596, 600 UNTRRLID command, 868
TRGROEB1 switch, 596, 600 UP_QRATIO operator, 794
TRGROEBR switch, 600 UPPER_MATRIX switch, 677
TRGROEBS switch, 596, 600 UPWARD_ANTIDIFFERENCE, 795
T RI package, 974 User packages, 193
triang (CALI), 283
VANDERMONDE operator, 684
TRIANG_ADJOINT operator, 683
VARDF, 532
triangular systems (CALI), 283, 305
trig functions, 975
INDEX 1121

VARDF (variational derivative) opera- VOLINTEGRAL function, 264

tor), 520 VOLINTORDER vector, 265
Variable, 38 VORDER, 759
double tilde, 165 VOUT, 755
Variable elimination, 590 VSTART, 755
Variational derivative, 520 VTAYLOR, 759
varlessp (CALI), 294
VARNAME, 121, 122 Warnings
varnames (CALI), 294 TAYLOR package, 958
varopt, 325 Wedge, 532
VAROPT switch, 102 WEIGHT, 168
varopt!*, 315 weighted Hilbert series (CALI), 284,
VDF, 758 309
VEC command, 260 Weighted ordering, 611
VECDIM, 1073 WeightedHilbertSeries, 325
VECOP, 766 WeightedHilbertSeries (CALI), 309
VECTOR, 1069 WeightedHilbertSeries!*, 310
Vector WHEN, 162
addition, 757 WHERE, 163
cross product, 757 WHILE, 60, 62, 63, 65
differentiation, 262 WHILE statement, 60
division, 757 Whittaker functions, 919, 926
dot product, 757 WhittakerM, 76, 919, 926
exponentiation, 757 WhittakerU, 76
inner product, 757 WhittakerW, 919, 926
integration, 262 wholespace, 345, 348, 368, 374, 377
modulus, 757 WHOLESPACE_DIM, 344, 345
multiplication, 757 Workspace, 110
subtraction, 757 WRITE, 116
Vector algebra, 260 WS, 33, 174
VECTORADD, 757 WTLEVEL, 168
VECTORCROSS, 757 W U package, 1012
VECTORDIFFERENCE, 757
X(I), 908
VECTOREXPT, 757
XAUTO, 1019
VECTORMINUS, 757
X COLOR package, 1014
VECTORPLUS, 757
XFULLREDUCE switch, 1020
VECTORQUOTIENT, 757
XI(I), 908
VECTORRECIP, 757
XIDEAL, 1018
VECTORTIMES, 757
X IDEAL package, 1016
VERBOSELOAD switch, 957
XMOD, 1019
VINT, 760
XMODIDEAL, 1018
VMOD, 757
XORDER, 1017
VMOD operator, 261
XPND
VOLINT, 760
1122 INDEX

XPND
@, 532
XPND
@, 517
D, 517
XPND command, 532
XVARS, 1017

ZB_DIRECTION variable, 1041

ZB_FACTOR switch, 1041
ZB_ORDER variable, 1041
ZB_PROOF switch, 1041
ZB_TRACE switch, 1039, 1041
Z EILBERG package, 1024
ZEILBERGER_REPRESENTATION vari-
able, 1041
zeroprimarydecomposition, 325
zeroprimarydecomposition!*, 312
zeroprimes, 325
zeroprimes!*, 312
zeroradical, 325
zeroradical!*, 311
zerosolve
* (CALI), 306
zerosolve, 325
zerosolve (CALI), 293
zerosolve1
* (CALI), 306
zerosolve1, 325
zerosolve1 (CALI), 293
zerosolve2
* (CALI), 306
zerosolve2, 325
ZETA, 76, 919
Zeta, 924
Zeta function, 924
Zeta function (Riemann’s), 919
ZETA(ALFA,I), 908
ZTRANS, 1045
Z TRANS package, 1045