DATABASE NOTES

1.0 OVERVIEW OF DATABASE SYSTEMS...........................4

1.2 Evaluation of the DBMS......................................................5
1.3 Types Of Database Systems.................................................5
1.4 Advantages Of The Database Systems................................6
1.5 Disadvantages Of Database Systems..................................7
File System Environment..............................................................8
Database System Environment.....................................................8
1.6 The Database System Environment.....................................8

2.0 DATABASE ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENT.11

2.1 Abstraction and Data Integration.....................................11
Data Independence.....................................................................14
2.3 Components Of The DBMS...............................................15
2.4 Typical DBMS Functions.....................................................16
2.5 Overall System Structure...................................................18
Major Components Of Dbms......................................................19
Database Life Cycle (DBLC).....................................................19
3.0 CONCEPTUAL DATA MODEL........................................21
3.1 Types Of Data Models.......................................................21
3.2 The E- R Model (Entity Relationship)...............................21
3.2.1 E-R Model Basic Concepts.............................................22
3.2.2 Characteristics Of Attributes..........................................22
3.2.3 Relationship Sets............................................................23
Types Of Relationships...............................................................23
Exercise......................................................................................24
3.3 Entity-Relationship Diagram............................................24
Exercise......................................................................................25
3.4 Entity modeling (Diagrammatic representation)
relationships...............................................................................26
Exercise......................................................................................26
Exercise......................................................................................27
3.5 DATA NORMALIZATION.................................................28

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 3.5.1 Advantages of Normalisation Approach........................30
3.5.2 Disadvantages................................................................30
Exercise......................................................................................31

4.0 RELATIONAL DATABASE SYSTEM..............................32

4.1 Relational Data Structure.................................................32
Properties of Relations...............................................................32
4.2 Relational Database Language.........................................33
Structured Query Language.......................................................33
Components of SQL....................................................................33
4.2.1 Basic Structure Of SQL Statement.................................33
Select clause...............................................................................34
Ordering Display of Tuples........................................................35
4.2.2 Aggregate Functions......................................................36
Null Values.................................................................................36
4.2.3 Tuple Variables..............................................................36
4.2.4 String Operations...........................................................37
4.2.5 SQL and Set.......................................................................38
4.4.6 VIEWS............................................................................39
4.4.7 Modification Of The Database.......................................39
4.2.7 Schema Definition in SQL..............................................41

5.0 TRANSACTIONS MANAGEMENT AND

CONCURRENCY CONTROL.....................................................42
5.1 Properties Of Transactions...............................................42
5.2 Interference between Concurrent transactions.................42
5.3 Schedules And Serialisation..............................................44
5.4 Concurrency Control Techniques.....................................44
Techniques To Control Deadlocks.............................................46
Validation Phase.....................................................................47

6.0 DISTRIBUTED DATABASES...........................................48

6.1 File Servers........................................................................48
6.2 Distributed Database Approaches....................................48
6.2.1 Distributed DBMS.............................................................51

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 6.2.1.1 Date’s 12 rules of distribution........................................52

7.0 DATABASE RECOVERY MANAGEMENT.....................56

7.1 Causes Of Database Failures............................................56
7.2 Transaction And Recovery................................................56
7.2.1 Causes Of Failures.........................................................57
7.3 Recovery Protocols............................................................58

8.0 SECURITY, INTEGRITY AND CONTROL......................59

8.1 Objectives of IS security.......................................................59
8.2 Accidental Loss.....................................................................62
8.3 Malicious Damage...............................................................62
8.4 Protection.............................................................................62
8.5 Authorization........................................................................63
Exercise......................................................................................63

9.0 QUERY OPTIMIZATION..................................................64

9.1 The optimization process...................................................64
9.2 Relational Algebra............................................................65
10.0 LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN DATABASE
TECHNOLOGY..........................................................................67
10.1 Developments....................................................................67
10.2 Applications.......................................................................68
Decision-support Systems...........................................................68
Data analysis..............................................................................68
Data mining...............................................................................681
Data warehousing......................................................................68
Spatial and geographical Databases.........................................68
Multimedia databases.................................................................69
Mobility and personal databases...............................................69
Distributed information systems.................................................70
The World Wide Web..................................................................70

APPENDIX...................................................................................71
1
Martin O. Adada

3
Revision Questions.....................................................................71

4
1.0 OVERVIEW OF DATABASE SYSTEMS

 Data management, which focuses on data collection, storage

and retrieval, constitutes a core activity for any organisation.
 To generate relevant information efficiently you need quick
access to data (raw facts) from which the required information
is produced.
 Efficient data management requires the use of a computer
database. A database is a shared, integrated computer
structure that houses a collection of: -

i. End -user data i.e. raw facts of interest to the user.

ii. Meta -data i.e. raw facts of interest to the user
iii.Meta data i.e. data about data through which the data is
integrated. The Meta data provides a description of the
data characteristics and the set of relationships that link
the data found within the database. The database
resembles a very well organized electronic filing cabinet
in which powerful software referred to as DBMS helps
manage the cabinet’s contents.
1.1 Review Of Traditional Processing And It’s Limitations

 Consider a saving bank enterprise that keeps information about

all customers and savings accounts in permanent system files at
the bank.
 The bank will need a number of applications e.g.

i. Program to debit or credit an account

ii. A program to add a new account
iii.A program to find the balance of an account
iv. A program to generate monthly statements
v. Any new program would be added as per the banks
requirements

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 Such a typical filing /processing system has the limitation of
more and more files and application programs being added to
the system at any time. Such a scheme has a number of major
disadvantages:

i. Data redundancy and inconsistency - Since the files and

application programs are created by different
programmers over a long period of type, the files are
likely to have different formats and the programs may be
written in several programming languages. Moreover, the
same piece of information may be duplicated in several
files. This redundancy leads to higher storage and access
costs. It may also lead to inconsistency i.e. the various
copies of the same data may no longer agree.

6
ii. Difficulty in accessing - Suppose that one of the bank
officers needs to find out the names of all customers who
live within the city's 78-phone code. The officer would ask
the data processing department to generate such a list.
Such a request may not have been anticipated while
designing the system originally and the only options
available are:-

 Extract the data manually

 Write the necessary application, therefore do
not allow the data to be accessed conveniently
and efficiently

iii.Data isolation - Since data is scattered in various files

and files may be in different formats, it may be difficult to
write new applications programs to retrieve the
appropriate data.
iv. Concurrent access anomalies - Interaction of concurrent
updates may result in inconsistent data e.g. if 2 customers
withdraw funds say 50/= and 100/= from an account at
about the same time the result of the concurrent execution
may leave the account in an incorrect state.
v. Security problems - Not every user of the database
system should be able to access all the data. Since
application programs are added to the system in an ad-
hoc manner, it is difficult to enforce security constraints.
vi. Integrity - The data value stored in the database must
satisfy certain types of consistency constraints e.g. a
balance of a bank account may never fall below a
prescribed value e.g. 5,000/=. These constraints are
enforced in a system by adding appropriate code in the
various application programs. However, when new
constraints are added there is need to change the other
programs to enforce.

7
Conclusion.
These difficulties among others have prompted the development of
DBMS.

1.2 Evaluation of the DBMS

Unlike the file system with may separate and unrelated files, the
Database consists of logically related data store in a single data
repository. The problems inherent in file systems make using the
database system very desirable and therefore, the database
represents a change in the way the end user data are stored
accessed and arranged.

1.3 Types Of Database Systems

i. Single User database systems

This is a database system that supports one user at a time such

that if user A is using the database, users B & C must wait until
user A complete his or her database work.
If a single user database runs on a personal computer it’s called a
desktop database.

ii. Multi-user database

This is a database that supports multiple users at the same time for
relatively small number e.g. 50 users in a department the database
is referred to as a workgroup database. While one, which
supports many departments is called an enterprise database.

iii.Centralized Database system

This is a database system that supports a database located at a
single site.

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iv. Distributed database system

This is a database system that supports a database distributed

across several different sites.

v. Transactional DBMS/Production DBMS

This is a database system that supports immediate response

transaction e.g. sale of a product.

vi. Decision Support DBMS

It focuses primarily on the production of information required to

make a tactical or strategic decision at middle and high
management levels.

1.4 Advantages Of The Database Systems

1. Centralized Control - Via the DBA it is possible to enforce

centralized management and control of data. This means that
necessary modifications, which do not affect other application
changes, meet the data independence DBMS requirement.

2. Reduction of redundancies - Unnecessary duplication of data

is avoided effectively reducing total amount of data required,
consequently the reduction of storage space. It also eliminates
extra processing necessary to trace the required data in a large
mass of data. It also eliminates inconsistencies. Any
redundancies that exist in the DBMS are controlled and the
system ensures that his multiple copies are consistent.

3. Shared data - In a DBMS, sharing of data under its control by a

number of application programs and user is possible e.g.
backups.

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4. Integrity - Centralized control can also ensure that adequate
checks are incorporated to the DBMS provide data integrity.
Data integrity means that the data contained in the database is
both accurate and consistent e.g. employee age must be
between 28-25 years.

5. Security - Only authorized people must access confidential

data. The DBA ensures that proper access procedures are
followed including proper authentication schemes process that
the DBMS and additional checks before permitting access to
sensitive data. Different levels of security can be implemented
for various types of data or operations.

6. Conflict Resolution - The DBA is in a position to resolve

conflicting resolve conflicting requirements of various users
and applications. It is by choosing the best file structure and
access method to get optimum performance for the response.
This could be by classifying applications into critical and less
critical applications.

7. Data Independence - It involves both logical and physical

independence logical data independence indicates that the
conceptual schemes can be changed without affecting the
existing external schemes. Physical data independence
indicates that the physical storage structures/devices used for
storing the data would be changed without necessitating a
change in the conceptual view or any of the external use.
1.5 Disadvantages Of Database Systems

1. Cost - in terms of:

 The DBMS - software

 Purchasing or developing S/W

10
  H/W
 Workspace (disks for storage)
 Migration (movement from tradition separate systems to
an integrated one)

2. Centralization Problems

You would require adequate backup incase of failure

You would require increased severity of security breeches and
disruption of operation of the organisation because of downtimes
and failures.

3. Complexity of Backup and recovery

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File System Environment
Personnel Sales Accounts
Department Department Department

employees customer sales inventory accounts

_____________________________________________________
_________________________
Personnel
DATABASE
Department
Employees
Customers
Sales
Sales Department DBMS Inventory
Accounts
Integrated
Accounting
Department System

Database System Environment

The database eliminates most of the file systems' data

inconsistencies, anomalies and structural dependency problems.

12
The current generation of DBMS software stores not only the data
structures in a central location but also stores the relationships
between the database components
The DBMS also takes care of defining all the required access
paths of the required component.

1.6 The Database System Environment

The term database system refers to an organisation of components
that define and regulate the collection storage, management and
use of data within a database environment.
The database system is composed of 5 major parts i.e.
a. Hardware d. Procedures
b. Software e. Data
c. People

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Hardware
This identifies all the systems physical devices e.g. the composition
peripherals, storage devices etc.

Software
These are a collection of programs used by the computers within
the database system.
i. O.S - manages all hardware components and makes it
possible for all other and software to run on the
composition.
ii. The DBMS - manages the database within the database
system e.g. Oracle, DB2, Ms Access etc.
iii.Applications programs and utilities to access and
manipulate data in the DBMS.

People
These are all database systems users:-
1. Systems administrator - Oversees the database systems general
operations.
2. Database administrator (DBA) - Manages the DBMS use and
ensures that the database is functioning properly. His functions
include:

i. Scheme definition - The original database scheme is

created by writing a set of definitions, which are
translated by DDL compiler to a set of tables that are
permanently stored in the data dictionary.
ii. Storage structure and Access Methods Definitions - By
writing a set of definitions for appropriate storage
structures and access methods, which are translated by
the data storage and definition language compiler.
iii.Scheme and physical organisation modifications -
Modification to either the database schema or description
of the physical storage organisation are accompanied by
writing a set of definitions which are used by either the

14
 DDL compiler or the data storage and definition language
compiler to generate modification to appropriate internal
systems tables e.g. data dictionary.
iv. Granting authorization to data access - This is so as to
regulate which parts of the database users can access.
v. The database manager keeps integrity Constrains in a
special system structure whenever an update takes place
in the system.

3. Database designers - These are the database architects who

design the database structure.

4. Systems Analysts & Programmers (application programmers)

- They design and implement the application programs they
design & create the data entry scheme, reports & procedures
through which users access and manipulate the databases data.

15
5. End users - These are the people who use the application
programs to run the organizations daily operations. They fall
in the following classes:

i. Sophisticated users - These interact with the system

without writing programs. They form their requests in a
database query language.
ii. Specialized database applications that do not fit in the
traditional data processing framework e.g. CAD Systems,
knowledge based & expect systems.
iii.Application programmers: These interact with the system
through the DML & applications.
iv. Naive – Unsophisticated user who interact with the
systems by invoking one of the permanent application
programs that have been written previously.

Procedures
 These are instructions and rules that govern the design and use
of the database system.
 They enforce standards by which business is conducted within
the organisation an with customers.
 They also ensure that there is an organized way to monitor and
audit both the data that enter the database and the information
that is generated through the use of such data.

DATA
This covers the collection for facts stored in the database and
since data is the raw material from which information is generated
the determination of what data is to be stored into the database
and how the data is to be organized is a vital part of the database
designer jobs.

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2.0 DATABASE ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

2.1 Abstraction and Data Integration

Abstraction is the simplification mechanism to hide superfluous

details of a set of objects.
It allows one to concentrate on the properties that are of interest
to the application e.g. a car is an abstraction of personal
transportation vehicle but does not reveal details about model,
year, colour etc.
Vehicle itself is an abstraction that includes the types; car, truck,
bus and lorry.

Consider a non- database environment of a number of application

programs as shown below:

Application 1 will contain values for the attributes employee Name

and Employee. Address and this record can be described in
pseudo-code as

Type Employee = record

Employee.name:string
Employee.address:string
End

Application 2 will have:

Type Employee = record

Employee.name: String
Employee.soc_sec_No: Integer
Employee.Adress: String
Employee. Annual_salary:integer
End

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In a non-database environment each application is responsible for
maintaining the currency of data and a change in data item.

In a database environment, data can be stored in this application

and their requirement be integrated by whoever is responsible for
centralized control (DBA).
The integrated version would appear as recorded containing
attributes required by both applications.

The record will appear as:

Type Employee = record
Employee.Name:string
Employee.soc-sec.no: Integer
Employee.Address:string
Employee.Annual_Salary: double
End

The views supported are derived from the conceptual record by

using appropriate mapping.
The application programs no longer require information about the
storage structure; storage device types or access methods. These
are absorbed by the DBMS.

There are 3 level abstractions corresponding to 3 views:

i. The highest level which is seen by the application
programs or user called “external or user view"
ii. A sum total of users view called global view a conceptual
view.
iii.Lower level which is the description of the actual method
of storing the data. It is also referred to as the internal
view.

Local View Employee.Name Employee.Name

Employee.Address
Employee.Soc_Sec_No

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 Employee.Address
Employee.Annual_Sal

User
1 User
2

Conceptual View
Employee.Name:String
Employee.Soc_Sec_No:Integer DBA
Employee.Address:String
Employee.Annual_Sal:Double

Connection to the
DBA

Internal View
Name:String Length 25 Offset 0
Soc_Sec_No:Integer 9 Offset 25
Address: String Length 5 Offset 34
Salary: 9,2 dec Offset 39

The 3 level scheme architecture is called the ANSI/SPARC model

(American National Standard Institute/Standards Planning and
Requirements Committee.)
It is divided into 3 levels:
 External
 Conceptual
 Internal
2

19
The view of each level is described as a scheme, which is an
outline or a plan that describes the records and relations existing
in the view. It also describes the way in which entities at one level
of abstraction can be mapped onto the next level.
External Level (External or User view)
This is at the highest level of database abstraction where only
those portions of the database of concern to the user or
application programs are included.

Any number of user views may be possible, some of which may be

identical.
Each external view is described by means of a scheme called
external scheme, which consists of a definition of the logical
records and the relationships in the external view.
It also contains the method of devising the objects in the external
view from the objects in the conceptual view (entities, attributes
and relationships).

Conceptual Or Global View

Contains all database entities and the relationships among them
are included and one conceptual view represents the entire
database.
It is defined by the conceptual scheme. Also contains the methods
of deriving the objects in the conceptual view from the object s in
the internal view.
It is independent of the physical presentation.

Internal View
This is the lowest level of abstraction
View A closest View
to the
B physical
View C
storage method used.
It indicated how data would be stored and describe the data
structures and access methods to be used by the database. The
internal schema implements it.
Conceptual View
External Level

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INTERNAL
VIEW
User/application view

Mapping supplied by the DBMS

Conceptual Level

Internal Level

The 3 levels of architecture of a DBMS

21
Mapping between views
Two mappings are required, one between external and conceptual
views and another between the conceptual records to internal
ones.

Data Independence
This is the immunity of users/application programs from changes
in storage structure and access mechanism.
The 3 levels of abstractions along with the mappings from internal
to conceptual and from conceptual to external provide 2 distinct
levels of data independence i.e.:
 Logical Data Independence
 Physical Data Independence

(i) Logical Data Independence

This indicates that the conceptual schema can be changed without

affecting the existing external schema.
The mapping between the external and conceptual levels would
absorb the change.

It also insulates application programs from operations such as

combining two records into one or splitting an existing record into
2 or more records. The LDI is achieved by providing the external
level or user view database.

The application programs or users see the database as described

by the respective external view.
DBMS provided a mapping from this view to the conceptual view.
NB: The view at conceptual level of the database is the sum total
of the current and anticipated views of the database.

(ii) Physical Data Independence

22
This indicates that the physical storage structures or devices used
for storing the data can be changed without necessitating a change
in the conceptual view or any of the external view. Any change is
absorbed by the mapping between the conceptual and internal
views.

23
2.3 Components Of The DBMS

A DBMS is software used to build, maintain and control database

systems. It allows a systematic approach to the storage and
retrieval of data in a computer.
Most DBMS(s) have several major components, which include the
following:

1. Data Definition Language (DDL) - These are commands used

for creating and altering the structure of the database.
The structures comprise of Field Names, Field sizes, Type of
data for each field, File organizational technique. The DDL
commands are used to create new objects, alter the structure of
existing ones or completely remove objects from the system.

2. Data Manipulation language (DML) - This is the user

language interface and is used for executing and modifying the
contents of the database. These commands allow access and
manipulation of data for output. They include commands for
adding, inserting, deleting, sorting, displaying, painting etc.
These are the most frequently used commands once the
database has been created.

3. Data Control Language (DCL) - These are commands used to

control access to the database in response to DML commands.
It acts as an interface between the DML and the OS. It provides
security and control to the data.

4. Query Languages - A query language is a formalized method of

constructing queries in database system. It provides the ways
in which the user interrogates the database for data without
using conventional programs. For relation database, structures
query languages (SQL) has emerged as the standard language.

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 Almost all the DBMS(s) use SQL running on machines ranging
from microcomputers to large main frames.

5. Form Generator - A form is a screen display version of a paper

form, which can be used for both input and output.

6. Menu Generator - This is used to generate different types of

menus to suit user requirements.

7. Report Generator - This is a tool that gives non- specialized

users the capability of providing reports from one or more files
through easily constructed statements. The reports may be
produced either constructed statements. The reports may be
produced either on screen or paper. A report generator has the
following features:
 Page headings and footings
 Page Numbering
 Sorting
 Combining data from several files
 Column headings
 Totaling and subtotaling
 Grouping of data
 Reports titling
8. Business Graphics - Some DBMS may provide means of
generating graphical output e.g. bar charts, pie charts scatter
graphics line plots etc. others will allow users to export data
into graphics software.

9. Application Generators - This is a type of 4th generation

language used to create complete application programs. The
user describes what need to be done, the data and files that are
to be used and the application generator then translates the
description into a program. They are also refereed to as rapid
application tools.

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10. Data Dictionary (DD) - This provides the following
facilities:
 Documentation of data items
 Provision of Standard definition an names for data items.
 Data item description.
 Removal of redundancy in documentation of data item.
 Documentation of relationships between data items;

11. Fort Generation Languages (4GLS'S) - A 4GL'S is a non-

procedural language in which the programs flows and not
designed by the programmer but by the 4G software itself.. The
user requests for the result rather than a detailed procedure to
obtain these results.

2.4 Typical DBMS Functions

A DBMS performs several functions that guarantee the integrity

and consistency of the data in the database. Most of these
functions are transparent to end-users and can be achieved only
through the use of a DBMS. They include:

i. Data Dictionary Management - The DBMS enquires that

definitions of the data element and their relationships
(metadata) be stored in a data dictionary. The DBMS
uses the DD to look up the required data component,
structures and relationships thus relieving us from having
to code such complex relationships in each program. Any
changes made in the database structure are automatically
recorded in the DD thereby freeing us from having to
modify all the programs that access the changed structure.
So, the DBMS provides data obstruction and removes
structural or data dependency of the system.

26
ii. Data Storage Management - Creation of complex
structure required for data storage is done by DBMS thus
relieving us from the difficult task of defining and
programming the physical data characteristics. A modern
DBMS system provides storage for data and related data
entry forms or screen definitions, report definition, data
validation rules, procedural code structures to handle
video and picture formats etc.

iii.Data Transformation and Presentation - Transformation

of entered data to conform the data structures that are
required to store the data is done by the DBMS relieving
us the core issue of making a distinction between the data
logical formats and data physical format. By maintaining
data independence the DBMS translates logical requests it
no commands that physically locate and retrieve the
requested data. That is the DBMS transform the
physically retrieved data to conform to the users logical
expectations. This is by providing application programs
with software independence and data abstraction.

iv. Security Management - The DBMS creates the systems

security that enforces users security and data privacy
within the database. Security rules determine which users
can access database which data item each user can access
and which data operations (read, add, delete, modify) the
user may perform. This is important in multi user
database system where many users can access the
database simultaneously.

v. Multi User Access Control - The database creates

complex structures that allow multi-user access to the
structure. In order to provide data integrity and
consistency the DBMS users sophisticated algorithms to

27
 ensure that multiple users can access the database con-
currently and still guarantee integrity of the database.

vi. Back-up and recovery management - To ensure data

safety and integrity current DBMS systems provide special
utilities that allow the DBA to perform routing and special
backup and restore procedures. Recovery management
deals with recovery of the database after a failure such as
a bad sector in the disk, a power failure etc. Such
capability is critical to the preservation of the database
integrity.

vii. Data integrity Management - The DBMS promotes and

enforces integrity rules to eliminate data integrity
problems thus minimizing data redundancy and
maximizing data consistency. The relationships stored in
the Data Dictionary are used to enforce data integrity.
Data integrity is especially important in transaction
oriented database systems.

viii. Data base Access Language and Application

Programming Interfaces - The DBMS provides data
access via a query language. It contains 2 components,
DDL and DML. The DDL defines the structures in which
the data are housed and the DML allows end users to
extract the data from the database. It also allows data
access to programmers via procedural languages such as
Cobol, C, Pascal, and Visual Basic etc. It also provides
utilities used by the DBA and the Database Designer to
create, implement, monitor and maintain the database.

ix. Database Communication interfaces - Current

generation of DBMS's provide special communication
routines designed to allow the database to accept end-use
r requests within a computer network environment. The

28
DBMS may provide communication functions to access
the database through the internet using internet browsers
e.g. Netscape or Explorer as the front-ends

29
2.5 Overall System Structure

A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each

of the responsibilities of the overall systems. The design of the
database system must include consideration of the interface
between the database system and the O.S. The functional
components of a database system include:
 File Manager
 Data base manager
 Query processor
 DML pre-compiler
 DDL compiler

File Manager
This manages the allocation of space in the disk storage and the
data structures used to represent information stored on the disk. It
deals more on the physical aspects.

Database Manager
Provides the interface between the low level data stored in the
database and the application and programs the queries submitted
to the system.

Query Processor
This translates statements in a query language into low-level
instruction that the DB manager understands. In addition the
query processor attempts to transform a user request into more
efficient statement, thus finding a good strategy for executing the
query.

DML Pre-compiler
This converts the DML statements embedded in an application
program to normal procedure calls in the language. The pre-

30
compiler must interact with the query processor order generate
the appropriate code.

DDL Compiler - This converts DDL statements to a set of table

containing metadata.

31
Major Components Of Dbms
Programmers Users
DBA

Application Queries Database scheme

programs

Query DDL
DML processor compiler
Pre-processor

Program Database Dictionary

object code manager manager

Access File manager

methods

System
buffers

Database &
System catalog

32
Database Life Cycle (DBLC)

1. The Database Initial Study

 Examine the current system operation.

 Try to establish how and why the current system fails.
 Define the problems and constraints
 Define the objectives
 Define scope and boundaries

2. Database Design

 This involves the conceptual design, selection of database,

management system software.
 Creation of the logical design
 Creation of the physical design

3. Implementation

 This involves installation of the DBMS

 Creation of the database
 Loading or conversion of data

4. Testing and evaluation

The activities involve:

 Testing the database

 Tune the database
 Evaluate the database application programs
 Provide the required information flow

33
5. Operation

Once the database has passed the evaluation stage it is considered

to be operational, the database, its management, its users and its
application programs constitute a complete I.S. The beginning of
the operational phase starts the process of system evaluation.

6. Maintenance and Evaluation

It involves the following:

 Preventive Maintenance
 Corrective maintenance
 Adaptive maintenance
 Assignment and maintenance of access permission to new
and old user
 Generation of database access statistics to improve the
efficiency and usefulness of audits and to monitor system
persons.
 Periodic security based on the system generated statistics
 Periodic (monthly, quarterly or yearly) system using
summaries for internal billing or budgeting purposes.

34
3.0 CONCEPTUAL DATA MODEL
A database model is a collection of logical constructs used to
represent the data structure and relationships found within the
database.

3.1 Types Of Data Models

1. Object Based Logical Models

They are used in describing data at the conceptual and view levels.
They provide fairly flexible structuring capabilities and allow data
constraints to be specified explicitly. They include:
 E - R Model
 Object Oriented Model
 Binary Model
 Semantic Data Models
 Info-logical Data Model
 Function

2. Record Based Logical Models

These are models used in describing data at the conceptual and

view levels. They are used to specify the overall logical structure
of the database and to provide a higher-level description
implementation. It is hard to understand.

3. Physical Data Models

These are models that are used to describe data at the lowest level.
They are very few in number and the two widely known ones are:
i. Unifying model
ii. Frame memory model

35
NB: Like the E-R model, the object-oriented model is based on a
collection of object where an object contains values stored in
instance variables with the object.

3.2 The E- R Model (Entity Relationship)

It is based on a perception over a real world, which consists of a

collection of basic objects called entities and relationships among
this objects. An entity is an object that is distinguished from other
objects via a specific set of attributes.

36
3.2.1 E-R Model Basic Concepts
The model employs the following components:
 Entity sets
 Relationship sets
 Attributes

1. Entity sets
An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is
distinguishable from all other objects. It may be concrete e.g. a
person or a book or it may be abstract e.g. a loan, holiday a
concept etc. An entity set is a set of entities of the same type that
share the same properties or attitudes e.g. a set of all persons who
are customers of a bank.

2. Relationship sets
An association between two or more entities is called a
relationship.

3. Attributes
They are descriptive properties or characteristics possessed by
each member of an entity set.

3.2.2 Characteristics Of Attributes

1. Simple and Composite attributes - e.g. a customer name or first
name, middle name, last name. Composite attributes are
necessary if a user wishes to refer to entire attribute on some
occasions and to only a component of the attributes on other
occasions.

2. Single valued and Multi valued Attribute - The social security

number or ID number can only have a single value at any
instance and therefore its said to be single valued. An attribute

37
 like dependant name can take several values ranging from o-n
thus it is said to be multi valued.

3. Null Attributes - A null value is used when an entity does not

have a value for an attribute e.g. dependent name.

4. Calculated attribute - The value for this type of attribute can be

derived from the values of other related attributes or entities
e.g.

i. Employment length value can be derived from the value

for the start date and the current date.
ii. Loans held can be a count of the number of loans a
customer has.

38
3.2.3 Relationship Sets
A relationship is an association amongst several entities while a
relationship set is a set of relationships of the same tuple. It is a
mathematical relation on n>2 possible non-distinct entity sets e.g.
consider 2 entity sets, loan and branch. A relationship set loan,
branch can be defined to denote association between a bank loan
and the branch in which that loan is obtained.

Example
Consider 2 entity sets Customer and loan.
A relationship set - A borrower can be defined to denote the
association between customers and the bank loans that the
customers have.

Types Of Relationships

i. One to one relationship (1:1) - An entity in A is associated with

utmost one entity in B is associated with at utmost one entity in
A.

a b
1 1
a b
2 2
a b
3 3
a b
4 4
ii. One to Many relationship (1:M) - An entity in A is associated
with any number of entities in B while an entity in B can be
associated with at most one entity in A .

a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
a5 b5
39
40
iii.Many to one relationship (M:1) - An entity in A is associated
with at most one entity in B and an entity in B can be associated
with a number of entities in A.

a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
a5 b5

iv. Many to many (M:N) - An entity in A is associated with at least

one entity in B and an entity in B can be associated with a
number of entities in A.

a b
1 1
a b
2 2
a b
3 3
a b
4 4

Existence Dependencies

If the existence of an entity X depends on the existence of entity Y,

then X is said to be existence dependent on Y. If Y is deleted, so is
X. Y is said to be the dominant entity and X is said to be
subordinate entity.

41
Exercise.
Differentiate between super key, primary candidates and
candidate keys.

3.3 Entity-Relationship Diagram

Components of E-R diagram

(i) Rectangles: - They represent entity sets.
(ii) Ellipses: - represent attributes
(iii) Diamond: - represents relationship sets
(iv) Lines - Link attributes to entities and entity sets to
relationship sets
(v) Double ellipses: - represent multi-value attributes
(vi) Dashed ellipses: - denote derived attributes
(vii) Double lines: - indicate total participation of an entity
in relationship sets.

Exercise.
Draw an E-R diagram that shows the hospital environment,
theatres, patients (in and out-patients) doctors, nurses, wards and
ward beds.

Weak Entity Set

This is an entity set that does not have sufficient attributes to form
a primary e.g. an entity set payments comprising of the attributes
payment number, payment date and payment amount. Although
each payment entity is distinct, payment for different loan e.g. may
share the same payment number thus this entity set does not have a
primary key.

42
Strong Entity Set
This is an entity set that has a primary key. For weak entity set to
be meaningful it must be part of a one to many relationships.

Specialization
An entity set may include sub-groupings of entities that are distinct
in some way from other entities in the set. This is called
specialization of the entity set e.g. the entity bank account could
have different types e.g.
Credit account
Checking account
Savings account - interest rate
Checking account - overdraft amount

Under checking account you could have type:

i. Standard check account
ii. Gold checking account
iii.Senior checking account

For the standard if may be divided by number count of checks gold

minimum balance and an interest payment.
Senior checking account - age limit
A specialised entity set may be specialised by one or more
distinguishing features.

Aggregation
This is abstraction through which relationship are heated as
higher-level entities e.g. the relationship set borrower and the
entity sets customer and loan can be treated as a higher set called
borrower as a whole.

43
3.4 Entity modeling (Diagrammatic representation)
relationships

i. One to one relationship

Patient Ward bed

ii. One to many relationship

Student Payment

iii.Many to many relationship

Lecturer Student

NB: Whenever the degree of a relationship is many to many we

must decompose the relationship to one-to -one or one-to-many.
The decomposition process will create a new entity.

Exercise
A company consists of a number of departments each having a
number of employees each department has a manager who must be
on a monthly payroll, other employees are either on a monthly or
weekly payroll and are members of the sports club if they so wish.
Construct an entity - relationship diagram depicting the scenario.

Mandatory and Optional

Optional relationships are shown by either, use of a small circle
drawn along the line or a dotted line while mandatory

44
relationships are shown by use of either a bar drawn across the
line or a continuous line.

Optional
Family Child

Mandatory

Course Student

45
Representing Attributes

Although E-R diagrams describe many of the features of the

logical model, they do not show the attributes associated with each
entity, this additional information is represented conveniently in
form of a table.

Exercise
Consider the entity relationship Student_Course that defines a
course undertaken by many students.
Generate a sample tabular representation of the above assuming
key attributes are course-code and stud-no respectively.

A HOSPITAL DATABASE SYSTEM.

A hospital wishes to maintain a database to assist the

administration of its wards and operating theatres, and to
maintain information relating to its patients, surgeons and nurses.

Information in relation to patients is captured on admission and

patients are assigned to a ward. A nurse is assigned to a ward.
Nurses are identified by their staff numbers and their names,
address, phone numbers and grades are also recorded. Each ward
has a unique number and is dedicated to a type of patient (e.g.
pediatric, maternity, etc)

A patient may have a number of operations. The information to be

recorded about an operation include the type of operation, the
patient, the surgeons involved , date, time and location.

Only one surgeon may perform an operation, any other surgeons

present being considered as assisting at the operation. Surgeons
come under the direction of senior surgeons, called consultants,
who may also perform or assist at operations. Information

46
recorded about a surgeon includes name, address and phone
number.

An operation can be performed in only one theatre but a given

theatre may be the location of many operations.

A nurse may or may not be assigned to a theatre and he/she

cannot be assigned to more than one theatre. A theatre may have
many nurses assigned to it.

Required.

 Design and develop a database system for the above

application. This should include:

 Logical data model.

 Forms for data entry.

 Integrity and security features.

 Reports including the following:

i.) List of all operations scheduled for the following

week.
ii.) List of all in-patients and their ailments.
iii.) Details of bed occupancy/availability.
iv.) Summary list of all patients for specified doctors.
v.) Theatre occupancy/availability

47
3.5 DATA NORMALIZATION

Normalisation is the process of applying a number of rules to the

tables, which have been identified in order to simplify. The aim is
to highlight dependencies between the various data items so that
we can reduce these dependencies.

The rules applied are referred to as: -

 First Normal Form (1NF)
 Second Normal Form (2NF)
 Third Normal Form (3NF)

1NF
A table or relation is said to be in first normal form, if and only if
it contains no repeating groups i.e. it has no repeated values for
particular attributes in a simple record. If there are repeating
groups and attributes they should be isolated to form a new entity.
2NF
A table is said to be in 2NF if and only if it is in 1NF and every
non-key attribute is fully dependent on the key attribute. Attributes
not fully dependent should be isolated to form a new entity.
3NF
A table is said to be in 3NF if and only if it is 2nd NF and every
non-key attribute is not dependent on any other non-key attribute.
All non-key attributes that are dependent on other non-key
attributes, should be isolated to form a new entity

48
Example: An invoice

Invoice No. ______________________ Date

_______________________

Customer __________________________ Delivery to

__________________

Address ___________________________
___________________________

Product Code Description Quantity Unit Price

Amount

Thank you.
Amount____________

Un-normalised data.
Invoice (Invoice no., Date, Customer, Cust_address,
Deliv_To,Product code, Quantity, Unit Price, amount, Invoice
amount)

INF (Identify and separate repeating groups to form a new entity)

49
INVOICE (Invoice number, date, customer address, Deliv_
address, Invoice_Amount )
PRODUCT (Product code, invoice number, product description,
Quantity,Unit price, amount)

2NF (identity and separate non-key attributes not fully dependent

on key attribute)

INVOICE (Invoice-no, date, customer address, del.address,

invoice total)
PRODUCT (prod-code, prod-description, unit price)
INVOICE PRODUCT(Prod_Code,Invoice_No,Quantity,Amount)

3NF (Identify non-key attributes dependent on other non-key

attributes)

INVOICE (Invoice-no, Customer_Number, Date, invoice total)

PRODUCT (Prod-code, prod-description, unit price)
INVOICE PRODUCT(Prod_Code,Invoice_No,Quantity,Amount)
CUSTOMER (Customer_Number,Customer_Name,
customer_Address, del.address)
NB: Whenever there is no composite key the table is in 3NF

50
Corresponding ERD
Invoice Product
Invoice

Product
Customer

3.5.1 Advantages of Normalisation Approach

1. It is a formal technique with each stage of normalisation

process elimination a particular type of undesirable
dependency as well as each stage of normalisation eliminating
a certain type of redundancy.
2. It highlights constraints and dependencies in the data and helps
in understanding the nature of the data.
3. The 3NF produces well-designed databases, which provide a
high degree of independence.

3.5.2 Disadvantages

1. It depends a thorough understanding of the entities and their

relationships.
2. It’s a complex process particularly if the entities are many.

51
Exercise
A customer account details in a bank are stored in a table that has the following
structure, normalise this data to 3NF. Customer (branch -no, account no, address,
postcode, tel)

52
 A hospital drug dispensing record requires that, for each
patient, the pharmacy must record the
following information.

Pharmacy drug dispensing card

Patient No ……………………. Surname …………………Sex

…………………….
Date of Birth …………………. Address
………………………………
Ward No …………………….. Ward name ………………Date
…………………….
Name of company paying…………………… Company
address ………………………..

Date Drug Drug name Quanti Unit Amou

code ty price nt

Total
…………………….
Paid
……………………..
Balance
…………………

(a) Explain what you understand by data normalization

stating each of the three normal forms.

53
(b) Perform data normalization for the table to 3NF.
Showing clearly the results of each stage.

54
4.0 RELATIONAL DATABASE SYSTEM

Motivation
1. To shield programmers and users from the structural
complexities of the database.
2. For conceptual simplicity

4.1 Relational Data Structure

Relation: A relation corresponds to a table

Tuple: Corresponds to a row of a table
Domain: Is a pool of values from which one or 2 values draw
their actual values e.g. the Town Domain is a set of all legal town
names. A relation on domains D1, D2, D3........,Dn (not necessarily
all distinct) consists of a heading and a body, the heading consists
of a fixed head of attributes a1, a2, a3, ........... an such that each
attribute ai corresponds to exactly one of the underlying domain
Di. The body consists of a time varying set of tuples where each
tuple in turn consists of a set of attribute value pairs (ai, ri)

Properties of Relations
1. There is no duplicate tuples – The body of a relation is a
mathematical set, which by definition does not include duplicate
elements.
2. Tuples are unordered - Sets are unordered
3. Attributes are unordered - The heading of a relation is a set that
is unordered.
4. All simple attributes values are atomic meaning that relations
do not contain repeating groups (normalized)

Primary Keys
These are special type of more general construct candidate keys. A
candidate key is a unique identifier and each relation has at least

55
one candidate key. For a given relation, one of the candidate keys
is chosen to be the primary key and the rest are called alternate
keys.

Let r be a relation with attributes a1, a2, an. The set of attributes
K= (Ai, Ai .........AK) of R is said to be a candidate key of R. If it
satisfies the following 2 time independent properties:
i. Uniqueness - At any given time, no 2 distinct types of R
have the same values for Ai, Aj ----------AK.
ii. Minimality - None of Ai, Aj -------- Ak can be discarded
from K without destroying the uniqueness property.

56
4.2 Relational Database Language

Structured Query Language

Components of SQL

i. Data Definition Language (DDL) - DDL provides commands

for defining relation schemes, deletion relation, creating indices
and modifying relation schemers
ii. Interactive Data Manipulation Language (DML) - DML
includes a query language based on both relational calculus. It
includes commands to insert tuples into, delete tuples from and
modify tuples in the database.
iii.Embedded DML - This is designed for use within general
purpose programming languages such as PL/1. Cobol, Pascal,
Fortran and C.
iv. View Definition - The SQL DDL includes commands for
specifying access rights to relations and view.
v. Integrity - The SQL DDL includes commands for specifying
integrity constraints that the data stored in the database must
satisfy. Updates that violate integrity constraints as disallowed.
vi. Transaction Control - SQL includes commands for specifying
the beginning and ending of transactions. Several
implementations also allow explicit locking of data for
concurrency control.

4.2.1 Basic Structure Of SQL Statement

Basic structure of an SQL expression consists of 3 clauses;

i. SELECT
ii. FROM
iii.WHERE

57
SELECT
This corresponds o a projection operation of the relational
algebra. Its used to list the attributed desired in the result of a
query.
FROM
This corresponds to a Cartesian product operation of the
relational algebra. It lists the relations to be scanned in the
evaluation of the expression
WHERE
Corresponds to the predicate of the relational algebra. It consist
of a predicate involving attributes of the relations that appear in
the FROM clause.

58
A typical SQL query will be of the form:
SELECT
A1,A2, A3, ................An
FROM
R1, R2, R3, .....................Rn
WHERE
P
Ai represents an attribute; each r a relation and P is a predicate.

Select clause
Examples (i) SELECT Branch name
FROM Loan

(ii) SELECT DISTINCT Branch-name

FROM Loan

The symbol * can be used to denote all attributes of a given

relation
(iii) SELECT *
FROM Loan

STUDENT COURSE
Code Stud.id Name Code Title
IMIS 001 Charles IMIS Info.
Systems
BIT 002 Mary BIT Bachelor of IT
BIT 003 Maina CIT Cert in IT
CIT 004 Judy DIT Dip in IT

Select Stud-Id, Name, Code, Title

From Student, Course
Where Student.Code = Course.Code

59
The select clause can also contain arithmetical expressions
involving operations +, -, *, and operating on constants or
attributes of tables e.g.
SELECT Branch_name, Loan_number, Amount*100
FROM loan

Where Clause
Specifies a condition that has to be met. SQL uses the logical
connectives AND, OR and NOT in the where clause. It also uses
operands of logical connectives <, < =, >, >=, = and < >. It also
includes a BETWEEN operations e.g.
(i) Select loan_number
From loan
(ii) Select loan_number
From loan
Where branch_name = "River Road" and Amount Between
10,000 And 15,000.

From Clause
This specifies the source (relations), which is a Cartesian product.
The SQL uses the notion relation-name. Attribute-name to avoid
ambiguity in case where an attribute appears in the schemer of
more that one relation e.g.

Example
Select Customer_name, borrower. loan number
From borrower, loan
Where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number
AND branch_name= "Moi Avenue"

This will return the name of the customer the loan-number is the
customer loan no. appears in Moi Avenue.

SQL provides a mechanism for renaming both relations and

attributes by use of the As clause it is of the form

60
Old_name AS New_name. e.g.

Select distinct Customer_name, Borrower. Loan_number AS

loan_Id
From Borrower, loan
Where Borrower. Loan_number = loan.loan_number
AND Branch_name = "Koinange Street"

Ordering Display of Tuples

The "order by” clause case the tuples in the result for a query to
appear in sorted order e.g.

Select distinct Customer - name

From borrower, loan
Where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number
And Branch name = "University way”
Order by customer_name

By default the order by clause lists items in ascending order. To

specify the sort order use 'desc' for descending order or ‘asc’ for
ascending e.g.

Select *
From loan
Order by amount desc, loan-number desc

61
4.2.2 Aggregate Functions

These are functions that take a collection (set or multi-set) of

values as input and return a single value. These are
Average: Avg
Minimum: Min
Maximum: Max
Total: Sum
Count: Count

The input to sum and average must be a collection of numbers but

the other operators can operate on collection of non-numeric
data-types e.g. strings

Example
(i) SELECT Branch name, Avg(balance)
FROM Account
GROUP BY Branch -name

(ii) SELECT Branch_name, count (distinct customer_name)

FROM Depositor, account
WHERE Depositor, account-number = account - number
GROUP BY Branch name

(ii) SELECT Branch_name, Avg(balance)

FROM Account
GROUP BY Branch_name
HAVING Average (balance) > 1200

Null Values
Null values indicate absence of information about the value of an
attribute. e.g.
SELECT loan-number

62
FROM loan
WHERE Amount is Null

Assignment: look into Inner Join and Outer Join

4.2.3 Tuple Variables

 A tuple variable in SQL must be associated with a particular
relation
They are defined in the FROM clause via the use of the AS clause.
e.g.

SELECT DISTINCT Customer_name, T.loan_number

FROM Borrower AS T, loan AS S
WHERE T.loan_number = S.Loan_number

Query to find the names of all branches that have assets greater
than at least one branch located in Brooklyn would be.

SELECT Distinct T.Branch_name

FROM Branch AS T, Branch AS S
WHERE T.assets > S.assets AND S.Branch_city =
“BROOKLYN”

When expressions of the form relation_name.Attribute_name are

written, the relation name is an implicitly defined tuple variable.

4.2.4 String Operations

 Most commonly used operation on strings is pattern matching
using “LIKE”.
 Two characters are used
 Percent (%) - matches any sub-string
 Underscore (-) - matches any character

63
 Patterns are case sensitive i.e. uppercase do not match lower
case characters.

Examples
(i) “Mary %” matches any string beginning with “Mary”
(ii) “%ry” Matches any string containing “ry” as a sub-string
e.g. very, mary, ary etc.
(iii) “- - -“ Matches any string of exactly three characters.
(iv) “- - -%” Matches any string of at least 3 characters.

The query to find customer names for all customers whose

addresses include the sub-string “main” would be:-

SELECT Customer-name
FROM Customer
WHERE Customer -street LIKE “%main %”

For patterns to include special pattern characters (i.e. % and _)

SQL allows the specification of an escape character. The escape
character is placed immediately before a special pattern character
to indicate the special pattern. Character is to be treated like a
normal character. The key work ESCAPE is used.

Examples.
 LIKE “ab\%cd%”ESCAPE “\” - matches all strings beginning
with “ab%cd”
 LIKE “ab\\cd%” ESCAPE”\” - matches all strings beginning
with “ab\cd”

Mismatches.
SQL allows the search for mismatches using the NOT LIKE
comparison operator Set Operations.

64
4.2.5 SQL and Set
SQL operations Union, Intersect and Except operate on relations
and correspond to the relational operations ,  and -,

(i) Union

To find all customers having a loan, an account or both at the

bank

(SELECT Customer_name FROM depositor)

UNION
(SELECT Customer_name
FROM Borrower)

To indicate duplicates

(SELECT Customer_name FROM Depositor)

UNION ALL
(SELECT Customer_name
FROM Borrower)

(ii) The Intersection

To find customers who have both a loan and an account at the

bank

(SELECT Distinct Customer_name

FROM Depositor)
INTERSECT
(SELECT Distinct Customer_name
FROM Borrower)

To include duplicates we use “intersect all”

65
(iii) The Exception

To find customers who have an account but no loan at the bank we

write

(SELECT Distinct Customer_name FROM Depositor)

EXCEPT
(SELECT Customer_name
FROM Borrower)

To include duplicate we use “Except all”

Null Values
 The keyword is used in the predicate test.

Example

SELECT Loan_number
FROM Loan
WHERE Amount is NULL

 To test for the absence of a null value we use the predicate “IS
NOT NULL”

4.4.6 VIEWS

Use CREATE VIEW command

Syntax

CREATE VIEW V AS <query expression>

Where query expression is a legal query expression.

Example
CREATE VIEW Customer AS

66
(SELECT Branch_name, Customer_name
FROM Depositor.account)
WHERE Depositor.Account_number, Account.account_number

The names of the attribute of a view can be specified as

CREATE VIEW Branch_total_loan(branch-name, total(loan)

AS
SELECT Branch_name, SUM (amount)
FROM loan
GROUP BY Branch_name

NB: A create view clause creates a view definition in the database

which stays there until a command DROP View (view name) is
executed.

4.4.7 Modification Of The Database

Involves Add, REMOVE or CHANGE of information in the

database.

(i) Deletion

DELETE FROM r
WHERE P
 P represents the predicate, r represent the relation.
 The statement first finds all tuples t in r which P(t) is true &
then deletes them from r
 Where clause can be omitted in which case all tuples in P are
deleted.

Example
DELETE FROM Loan
- Deletes all tuples from the loan relation.

67
To delete all loans with loan amounts between 1300 &1500

DELETE FROM loan

WHERE amount BETWEEN 1300 AND 1500

To delete all accounts at city square branch

DELETE FROM account

WHERE Branch-name = ”City Square”

Insertion
(ii)
To insert data into a relation:-
 Specify a tuple to be inserted or
 Write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
Tuples to be inserted must be in the correct arity.

Example

INSERT INTO Account

VALUES (“City Square”, “ Account”, 6000)
or
INSERT INTO Account (branch-name, account-number, balance)
VALUES (“City Square”, ”Account”, 6000)

(iii) Updates

To change a value in a tuple without changing all values the

UPDATE statement can be used.
Examples
(i) UPDATE Account
SET Balance = Balance * 1.05
(ii) UPDATE Account
SET Balance = Balance *1.06
WHERE balance >10,000

68
69
Update Of A View
 A modification is permitted through a view only if the view in
question is defined in terms of one relation of the actual
relational database i.e. of a logical level db

Example
CREATE VIEW Branch_loan AS
SELECT Branch_name, loan_number
FROM loan
INSERT INTO Branch_loan
VALUES (“Moi Avenue”, “Accoo8”)

4.2.7 Schema Definition in SQL

Syntax
CREATE TABLE r(A1D1, A2D2, -----, AnDn,
[Integrity Constraints],
…………
………...
………...
[Integrity - constraints]

Examples
(i) CREATE TABLE Customer
(Customer_name CHAR(20) NOT NULL,
Customer_street CHAR(30),
Customer_city CHAR(30),
PRIMARY KEY (customer_name))

(ii) CREATE TABLE Branch

(Branch_name CHAR (15) NOT NULL,
Branch_city CHAR (30),
Assets Integer,
PRIMARY KEY (Branch_name)

70
 Check (assets> = 0))

(iii) CREATE TABLE Depositor

(customer_name, CHAR(20) NOT NULL,
Account_name CHAR(20) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (Customer_name, Account_number))

The create table commands includes other integrity constraints.

 Primary key - includes a list of the attributes that constitute the
primary key
 Unique - includes a list of the attributes that constitute a
candidate key
 Foreign key - includes both a list of the attributes that constitute
the foreign key & the name of the relation referenced by the
foreign key.

71
5.0 TRANSACTIONS MANAGEMENT AND
CONCURRENCY CONTROL

A transaction is a series of actions carried out by a single user or

application program, which must be treated as a single logical
unit of work. It results from the execution of a user program
delimited by statements (or function calls) of the form begin
transactions and end transactions.

5.1 Properties Of Transactions

(i) Atomicity

It is the all or nothing property.

Either all the operations of the transactions are reflected in the
database properly or none are. This means that a transaction is
an indivisible unit.

(ii) Consistency

Execution of a transaction in isolation preserves the consistency of

the database. So a transaction will normally transform a database
from one consistent state to another consistent state.

(iii) Isolation (Independent)

Transaction execute independently of one another i.e. even though

multiple transactions may execute concurrently the system
quantities that for ever pair of transactions Ti and Tj it appears to
Ti that either Tj finished execution after Ti started or Tj started
execution after Ti finished each transactions is unaware of other
transactions executing concurrently in the system.

(iv) Durability /Persistence

72
The effects of a successfully completed (committed) transaction
are permanently recorded in the database and cannot be undone.
These properties are usually referred to as ACID properties.

5.2 Interference between Concurrent transactions

Concurrency transactions can present the following problems
among others.
(i) Lost update problem
(ii) Uncommitted dependency problem
(iii) Inconsistency analysis problem

73
(i) Lost Update Problem

Another user can override an apparently successfully completed

update operation by one user.

Consider this situation.

Transaction A Time Transaction B
Fetch R t1 __

t2 Fetch R

Update R t3

t4 Update R

Transaction A retrieves some record R at time t1.

Transaction B retrieves the same record R at the time t2.
Transaction A updates the record at time t3 on the basis of valves
read at time t1.
Transaction B updates the same record at time t4 on the basis of
values read at time t2.
Update at t3 is lost

(ii) Uncommitted Dependency Problem

Violations of integrity constraints governing the database can

arise when 2 transactions are allowed to execute concurrently
without being synchronized.
Consider.
Transaction A Time Transaction B
__ t1 Fetch R

__ t2 Update R

Fetch R t3 __

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 t4 Roll back

Transaction B reads R at t1 and updates it at t2 .

Transaction A reads an uncommitted update at time t3, and then
the update is undone at time t4. Transaction A is therefore
operating on false assumption. Transaction A becomes dependent
on an uncommitted update at time t2.

(iii) Inconsistency Analysis Problem

Transactions that only read the database can obtain the wrong
result if they're allowed to read partial result or incomplete
transactions, which has simultaneously updated the database.
Consider 2 transactions A & B operating on an account records.
Transaction A is summing account balances while transaction B is
transferring amount 10 from account 3 to account 1.

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Transaction A Time Transaction B

Fetch account1 (40) t1 ______

(Sum = 40)
Fetch account2 (50) t2 ______
(Sum = 90)
t3 Fetch account 3
(30)

___ t4 Update account

3 by
subtracting the
mount
of 10 (30-10) =
20

___ t5 Fetch account 1

(40)

___ t6 Updates
account 1(40
+ 10 = 50)
___ t7 Commit

Fetch account 3(20) t8 ______

(Sum 110 instead of 120)

5.3 Schedules And Serialisation

A transaction consists of a sequence of reads and writes of

database. The entire sequence of reads and writes by all
concurrent transactions in a database taken together is known as
schedule. The order of interleaving of operations from different
transactions is crucial to maintaining consistency of the database.

76
A serial schedule is the way in which all the reads and writes of
each transaction are run sequentially one after another.
A schedule is said to be serialised if all reads and writes of each
transaction can be re ordered in such a way that when they are
grouped together as in a serial schedule, they net affect of
executing this re-organised schedule is the same as that of the
original schedule.

5.4 Concurrency Control Techniques

There are 3 basic concurrency control techniques:

(i) Locking Method
(ii) Time Stamp Method
(iii) Optimistic Method

77
(i) Locking method

A lock guarantees exclusive use of data item to a current

transaction. Transaction T1 does not have access to a data item
that is currently used by transaction T2. A transaction acquires a
lock prior to data access. The lock is released (Unlock) when the
transaction is completed so that another transaction can lock the
data item for its exclusive use.

Shared Locks
These are used during read operations since read operations
cannot conflict. More than one transaction is permitted to hold
read locks simultaneously of the same data item.

Exclusive Locks (White Locks)

These give a transaction exclusive access to a data item. As long
as a transaction holds an exclusive lock no other transaction can
read or update that data item.

2-Phase locking
To ensure serialisability the 2- phase locking protocol defines how
transaction acquire and relinquish locks. 2-phase locking
guarantees serialisability but it does not prevent deadlocks. The 2-
phases are:

(a) Growing phase in which a transaction acquires all the

required locks without unlocking any data. Once all the
locks have been acquired the transaction is in its locked
point.
(b) Stinking phase in which a transaction releases all locks
and cannot obtain any new lock.

Rules governing the 2-Phase protocol are:

(i) 2 transactions cannot have conflicting locks

78
 (ii) No unlock operation can precede an unlock operation
in the same transaction.
(iii) No data is affected until all locks are obtained i.e. until
the transaction is in the locked point.

Deadlocks

It is used when 2 transactions T1 and T2 exist in the following

modes:
T1 = access data items X and Y
T2 = access data item Y and X
If T1 has not unlocked Y then T2 cannot begin.
If T2 has not unlocked data item X, T1 cannot continue.
Consequently T1 and T2 wait indefinitely each waiting for the other
to unlock the required data item. Such a deadlock is known as
deadly embrace.

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Techniques To Control Deadlocks

1. Deadlock Prevention

A transaction requesting a new lock is aborted if there is a

possibility that a dead lock can occur. If the transaction is
aborted, all the changes made by this transaction are rolled back
and all locks obtained by the transaction are released. The
transaction is then rescheduled for execution. Deadlock prevention
works because it avoids the conditions that lead to deadlock.

2. Deadlock Detection

The DBMS periodically tests the database for deadlocks. If the

deadlock is found one of the transactions (the "victim”) is aborted
(rolled back and restarted) and the other transaction continues.

3. Deadlock Avoidance

The transaction must obtain all the locks it needs before it can be
executed. This technique avoids rolled up of conflicting
transactions by requiring that locks be obtained in successions,
but the serial lock assignment increase action response times.
Conclusion:
The best deadlock control method depends on the database
environment, if the probability is low, deadlock detection is
recommended, if probability is high, deadlock prevention is
recommended and if response time is not high on the system
priority list deadlock avoidance might be employed.

(ii) Time Stamping Method

The time stamping approach, to schedule concurrent transactions
assign a global unique time stamp to each transaction. The time

80
stamp value uses an explicit order in which transactions are
submitted to the DBMS. The stamps must have 2 properties;
i. Uniqueness - which assures that no equal time stamp
values can exist.
ii. Monotonicity - which assures that time stamp values
always increase.

All database operations read and write within the same

transaction must have the same time stamp. The DBMS executes
conflicting operations in the time stamp order thereby ensuring
serialisability of the transactions.

If 2 transactions conflict, one is often stopped, re-scheduled and

assigned a new time stamp value. The main draw back of time
stamping approach is that each value stored in the database
requires 2 additional time- stamp fields, one for the last time the
field was read and one for the last update. Time stamping thus
increases the memory needs and the databases.

(iii) Optimistic Methods

The optimistic approach is based on the assumption that the

majority of database operations do not conflict. The optimistic
approach does not require locking or time stamping techniques;
instead a transaction is executed without restrictions until it is
committed. In this approach, each transaction moves through 2 or
3 phases; read, validation and write phase.
Read Phase
The transaction reads the database, executes the needed
computations and makes the updates to private copy of the
database values. All update operations of the transaction are
recorded in a temporary update file, which is not accessed by the
remaining transactions.

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 Validation Phase
The transaction is validated to ensure that the changes made will
not affect the integrity and consistency of the database. If a
validation phase is negative, the transaction is restarted and the
changes are discarded.

Write Phase
The changes are permanently applied (written) to the database.
Conclusion
The optimistic approach is acceptable for mostly read or query
database system that require very few update transactions.

82
6.0 DISTRIBUTED DATABASES

6.1 File Servers

The first attempt to alleviate centralization problems were made in

traditional file processing environments. While some central (host)
computer still stored all data files applications were allowed to
run on separate computers, usually cheaper Pcs.
The host could be an existing mainframe or mini (the host link
approach), a PC (the LAN file server approach).

Without the benefits of DBMSs, file serving has severe limitations

in networked environments. Each application, on its own, must
ensure integrity and security, control concurrency and recover
from failures, except that now there are additional complications
from the network multiple nodes.

The fact is that there is no real distribution to speak of here; that

is, neither the data nor application processing form a "whole" as
the concept of distribution implies.

Applications do data processing on multiple nodes but files servers

are, in effect,” dumb" site storage drives for application: files are
downloaded from the host to application nodes to be processed,
and if updates are involved, they are uploaded back to the host
computer.

Transmitting files back and forth congests the network, causing

performance problems. This is exacerbated by one-record-at-a-
time data request that burdens the network traffic with heavy
messaging.

83
6.2 Distributed Database Approaches

Only database approaches offer truly distributed solutions. Here

different distribution strategies are based on different assumptions
about access to information and, therefore are suitable for the
specific circumstances that fit the underlying assumptions.

Client/Server

In database environment, some processing (database functions) is

performed at the back end by the DBMS and some (application
functions) at the front end by applications that suggests one
obvious way to distribute by separating the two processing
components on different computers. This is the approach
underlying the increasingly popular (though not necessarily well
understood) client/server database architecture.

Note: Client/server implies separation between database and

application functions, but not necessarily across nodes. Thus
DBMS and application software on the same node that achieves a
clean separation comply with the definition. In practice, however,
the separation is usually, across nodes, to balance the processing
load using inexpensive Pcs.

In a client/server configuration every database resides on one

network node, a database server, and is managed by DBMS
running on that node.
If there are multiple databases on a node, each is a separate
entity. There can be multiple database servers on the network
work but a database does not span multiple nodes, and DBMSs
running on different servers operate independently of one another.

From a database perspective, practically nothing has changed

relative to a centralized environment. Database functions such as
integrity and security enforcement, concurrency control and

84
recovery are performed by the DBMS and present the results to
users. Now, however, as with file servers, applications can run on
network nodes separate from servers, the client (or requestor)
nodes.

There are server and client software components that interface

with the network. Data requests by remote applications are
passed as messages to the client component, which sends then
through the network to the appropriate server component, which
in turn passes them to the resident DBMS for execution.
The DBMS passes the results as messages back to its server DC
component, which returns them through the network to the proper
client component, which passes them to the requesting application.

This approach retains the advantages of centralized database

management, but by off-loading application functions to clients,
the processing burden on servers is reduced. So is traffic on the
network, because the amount of data traversing it is not whole files
(or sections thereof), but if only the results the applications need.
While with file server’s files are shipped to applications for all
processing and returned for storage afterwards, with database
servers application data requests are shipped to DBMS
processing, and results are shipped in return to applications.

Here, the processing by the DBMS and client applications forms a

"whole" so it is appropriate to label the client/server database
approach distributed processing. Distribution also implies,
however, treating collection of parts as a whole, and with
client/server the system facilities for such treatment of the
processing components is quite limited.

NOTE: There are at least two major ways to distribute

processing, and as will be seen shortly, they are significantly
different. Applying the same label to both, while correct, causes
confusion. To distinguish between the two approaches, the term”

85
distributed processing" is reserved for client/server, and another
term is used for the other approach (see the next section). Users
are advised to exercise care, however, because both terms are
used rather indiscriminately.

The distribution details (what databases are available on what

servers, which application nodes can request data from them, and
so on) are not handled by the DBMS itself and are therefore
unknown to it. In other words, in a client/server environment
managing the distribution is not a database function, but the
responsibility of users and applications.

For example, if a database is created on one server, the relevant

client components must be explicability updated to reflect this fact
(usually by the network administrator), for client applications to
be able to issue data requests to it. And if the database needs to be
subsequently split into two (independent!) databases to be stored
on different servers, the administrator must manually perform the
split and then update server and client components accordingly.
But even if this is done limitations remain.

Consider operations spanning multiple databases, possibly on

multiple servers. Applications may be able to access multiple
databases simultaneously, but because each database is managed
independently by the DBMS on the server on which it resides, an
application must:

 Issue separate data requests for each pertinent database

 Get the results from the pertinent DBMSs to a common
node (usually the requesting client node)
 Execute data operations on the results it.

This means that users, including application developers, must

know what data exists in which databases on what nodes, and
refer to them explicitly. They are also responsible for performance

86
optimization, which must now take network communication as well
as platform differences into account.

If the operation involves multi-database updates, the application

must also ensure overall integrity and recovery (because the
DBMSs do not cooperate).
Of course, when the distribution changes, applications that
reference the old details must be modified and re-optimized.
In other words, client/server environments do not support
distribution independence in general and location independence in
particular.

Implicit in the client/server approach is the assumption that

database boundaries are both distinct and relatively stable.

For example, consider a bank where there are clearly delineated

branch databases, each of which is frequently accessed (and
maintained!) by branch personnel and only rarely accessed from
other branches and headquarters.

Data from multiple branches, however, is very rarely accessed

simultaneously, usually only by headquarters, and for queries
only. A client/server solution yields branch databases residing on
server nodes local to the branches, managed by local DBMSs.

On the rare occasions where multi-branch information is required

by headquarters, data is extracted from the branch databases and
processed in some user-defined way on the headquarters node.

Note: The processing can, for example, be performed in the

traditional (non-database) way or by applications accessing a
(redundant!) database on the headquarters node, into which data
is extracted from branch databases, and which is managed by the
headquarters' DBMS.

87
6.2.1 Distributed DBMS

Where the assumption behind client/server fits, database servers

are an improvement over no distributed database systems and file
servers. But in many cases, the assumption is not realistic.
Database boundaries are mostly based on quite arbitrary cutoff
points, whose optimally might fluctuate over time, depending on
the dynamics of business reality and data access patterns.

What if, for example interaction between branches increase and

they need to access each other's data more frequently? or if, in
order to improve decision making, headquarters needs to access
bank wide information more frequently and process it in more
ways? Or if branches are frequently merged or split?

In such circumstances the database boundaries are neither distinct

nor stable. There is one database, which happens to be distributed
(and redistributed) on multiple nodes. In the bank's case, each
branch component is still a database in its own (local) right, but it
is also part of the bank wide database.
Facilities must, therefore, exist to manage the latter, and the
DBMS on the network must obviously co-operate to perform multi-
branch database functions and ensure distributing independence,
which the client/server approach does not do.
In other words, both the database and the database functions (that
is, the DBMS) are distributed, an approach referred to as
distributed DBMS (DDBMS).

NOTE: Now it should be clear why, even though a distributed

DBMS does involve a type of distributed processing (database
processing itself is distributed on different nodes). It is more
appropriate to use a different term to distinguish it from the type of
distribution in client/server, where database and application
processing are separated on different nodes. Distributed DBMS

88
are sometimes referred to as co-operative processing, but this is
also too broad a term, that also applies to client/server (the DBMS
and applications cooperate) as well as to certain types of
hardware architectures (the central processors cooperate)

Date defines a distributed database as:

A virtual database whose component parts are physically stored in

a number of distinct “real” databases at a number of distinct
nodes. The distributed database definition is the union of the
various components database definitions.

Full DBMS support for managing a distributed database implies

that:

Any single application should be able to operate transparently on

data that is spread across a variety of databases, managed by
(multiple) DBMSs, running on a variety of different computers,
supported by a variety of operating systems, and connected
together by a variety of communication networks.

89
6.2.1.1 Date’s 12 rules of distribution.
Transparency - is the “Rule 0”b of DDBMS, as formulated by
date:

0 : Distribution Independence

To the user, a distributed database should look exactly kike a non-

distributed database, at least in so far as data manipulation is
concerned. In other words, a DDBMS insulates applications from
the physical distribution details (and changes thereof).

To comply with this rule (and thus offer full transparent), a

DDBMS must achieve at least twelve objectives, also spelled out
by Date. This is done usually by implementing a component that is
added to all DBMSs on the network, which allows them to
cooperate with one another in providing database functions
spanning more than one local database.
In other words, database functions such as catalog management;
query processing, concurrency control, recovery, and performance
optimization become distributed themselves.

NOTE: A DDBMS usually subsumes client/server features. Many

commercial products start as client/server and are gradually
extended with DDBMS features. It is, however, important to point
out that unless client /servers are explicitly implemented to allow
such extensions, and server databases are explicitly design as
components of one database, there is no guarantee that all twelve
objectives will be achieved in compliance with Rule 0.

Date's Rule 0 for distributed databases can be considered the

equivalent of Codd's Distribution Independence Rule, with the 12
objectives spelling out in detail what compliance with either rule
(date's or Codd's) means.

90
Similar to Codd's 12 rules for relational databases, the objectives
can be used to evaluate DDBMS product claims: Any objective
that is not achieved defeats some transparency aspect, imposing
costs on users.
Products vary on which objectives they achieve and to what
degree, and users must understand the practical consequences of
the objectives and make decisions based on how consequential
each is for their specific environment.
It is, however, important to note that, like Codd's rules the
objectives are not independent, and giving up any will have
ramifications for the others.

1 : Local Autonomy

As much as possible, no node should depend on any other node for

its successful functioning.

This objective is rather straightforward. The fact that local

databases are accessed remotely should not prevent local DBMSs
from operating effectively, regardless of whether other nodes are
on-lime or not.

Note: There are certain circumstances where dependence on other

nodes is unavoidable.

91
2: NO Reliance On A Central Site

There must not be any reliance on a central "master" node for

some central service, such that the entire system is dependent on
that central site.

Obviously, if this objective is not achieved, the system is not fully

distributed, but at least partially centralized.

Note: If there is reliance on a central site; there is no local

autonomy. On the other hand, the absence of such reliance does
not automatically imply local autonomy.

3: Continuous Operation

There should, ideally, never be any need for a planned system

shutdown.

If shutdowns are required to perform certain functions (such a

adding new node or upgrading the DBMS on an existing node,)
transparency is affected, because then the DDBMS does not
operate exactly as a non-distributed one, which requires no such
shutdowns.

4: Location Independence

Users should not have to know where data is physically stored and
should be able to behave - from a logical standpoint - as if the
data were all stored on their own local node.

This objective is not achieved by client/server implementations.

Other than simplifying data access (and application development),
the major benefit from it , is that the database can be first
distributed or redistributed without impairing applications.

92
5: Fragmentation Independence

A major purpose of distribution is to store data as physically close

to its most frequent users as possible (to maximize performance)
without preventing other users from accessing it logically as if it
were local to them.

Suppose another location is added to existing organization

database, and some departments, employees, projects, tasks, and
assignments, will migrate to it. Some subset of the database
representing those entities will also migrate, distributing the
database into two locations.
One option is to redesign the database, by substitution two base
tables for every database table, and store each of two in relevant
location. Note, however, that unless full transparency cans be
achieved with views applications accessing the initial tables will
have to be modified.

But with a DDBMS supporting fragmentation of logical database

objects into fragments physically stored on different nodes, such
complications can be avoided. For example, the EMPLOYEES
table will be horizontally split into two physical fragments, each of
which will reside on a different node (tables can also be vertical
fragmented).
Fragmentation does not impair existing applications, because in
so far as users are concerned, the database is logically the same.
When databases are first fragmented or re-fragmented, or when
fragments are redistributed, the DDBMS keeps track of
fragmentation details in its distributed global catalog, and
transparently reconstructs (logical) tables from their (physical)
fragments when applications require it, optimizing performance in
the process. Thus, an application accessing the EMPLOYEES
table will continue to work properly after the table is fragmented
on two modes.

93
6: Replication Independence
Users should be able to behave-from a logical standpoint-as if the
data were not, fact, replicated at all.

Given the highly dynamic nature of database access patterns, even

fragmentation must not be sufficient in certain circumstances,
particularly from a performance perspective. For, example, what
if the two nodes of the software project are on an international
WAN, and there is heavy interaction between them that
necessitated frequent access to each other's data? Chances are
that performance will not always be acceptable.

For such cases, a DDBMS must support replication of data objects

(or fragments thereof) on multiple nodes. For example, the
EMPLOYEES table could be physically replicated on each of the
two nodes. As with fragmentation the DBMS must insulate
applications from replication details, if it is to achieve objective 6.
The DBMS catalogs and keeps track of the replicas and their
distribution; transparently makes the proper ones available to
users; and propagates updates through replicas to keep them in
sync.

7: Distributed Query Processing.

The system should support distributed queries.
This too is a rather obvious objective, as one of the main purposes
of distributed DBMS is to overcome the lack of support for multi-
database operations in client/server environments.

Networked database environments are much more sensitive to

performance than non-distributed ones. Optimization requires
taking network transmission costs into account. Full support of
distributed (or global) optimization by the DDBMS, a clear case
where multiple local DBMSs must cooperate.

8: Distributed Transaction Processing.

94
The system should support distributed transactions.
Other than individual operations, and retrievals, a DDBMS must
also support-distributed transactions, that is, sets of multiple
operations spanning multiple nodes. As in the non-distributed
case, concurrency control and recovery are critical functions. The
two-phase commit (2PC) recovery feature comes in handy.

9: Hardware Independence.
Users should be able to run the same DBMS on different hardware
systems, and have those systems all participate as equal partners
in a distributed system.

95
10: Software Independence.
Users should be able to run the same DBMS under different
operating systems, even on the same hardware.

11. Network Independence.

Users should be able to run the same DBMS on different
communication networks.

12: DBMS Independence

Users should be able to run different DBMSs, and have them
participate as equal partners in the distributed system.

96
7.0 DATABASE RECOVERY MANAGEMENT
Recovery restores a database from a given state usually
inconsistent to a previously consistent state recovery techniques
are based on the atomic transaction property.

All portions of the transaction must be treated as a single logical

unit of work in which all operations must be applied and
completed to produce a consistent database.
If for any reason any transaction operation cannot be completed
the transaction must be aborted and any changes to the database
must be rolled back.

Recovery techniques also apply to the database or the system after

some type of critical error has occurred.
Backup and recovery functions constitute a very important
component of today’s DBMS's

Levels of Backups
1. A full back up of the database of dump of the database.
2. Reference backup of the database in which only the last
modifications done on the database are copied.
3. A back-up of the transaction log only this level backup all the
transaction log operations that are not reflected in the previous
back-up copy of the database. The database backup is stored in
a secure place usually in a different building and protected
against dangers such as fire, theft flood and other potential
calamities back-up existence guarantees recovery system
(hardware/software) failures. Failures that claim databases and
systems are generally induced by software, hardware, program
exemption, transactions and external factors.

7.1 Causes Of Database Failures

97
1. Software - Software induced failures may be traceable to the
O.S, DBMS, S/W application programs or viruses.
2. Hardware - Hardware induced failures may include memory
chip errors, disk crashes, bad disk sectors, disk full error etc
3. Programming exemptions - Application programs end-users
may roll back transactions when certain conditions are defined
e.g. a recovery procedure may be initiated if withdrawal funds
is made when customer funds are at O or when en-user has
initiated an unintended keyboard error such as pressing Ctrl c,
the system detects deadlocks and aborts one of the transactions.
4. External factors - Backups are especially important when a
system suffers complete distraction due to fire, earthquakes,
floods etc. The database recovery process generally follows a
predictable scenario where first you determine the type and the
extent of the required recovery.

7.2 Transaction And Recovery

It is the role of recovery manager to guarantee at least durability

and atomicity in the presence of unpredictable failures.
Log file.
All operations on the database carried out by all transactions are
recorded in the log file. In a distributed database, each site may
have its own separate log.

An entry is made in the local log file each time the following
commands are issued by a transaction:-
 Begin transaction
 Write (insert, delete, update)
 Commit transaction
 Abort transaction

Each log record contains:

1. Transaction identifier

98
2. The type of log record i.e. as listed above
3. Identifier of data object - affected
4. Before - image of the data object
5. Log management information

Check Pointing
The recovery manager periodically check points (dumps) and on
recovery it only has to go back as far as the last check point)

7.2.1 Causes Of Failures

1. Ways:
 Transaction induced abort e.g. insufficient memory space-
time slice.
 Unforeseen transaction failure arising from bugs.
 System induced aborts e.g. when transaction manager
explicitly aborts a
transaction causes it to conflicts with another transaction
or to break a deadlock.

2. Site failures - This occur due to failure of the local C.P.U or

power supply and results in a system crash, its of 2 types:
 Total failure - all sites in a distributed database system
are down
 Partial failure - Only some sites are down

3. Medium failure - Commonly caused by disk head crash.

4. Network failure - Although most networks are reliable, a failure
may occur in the communication lines.

99
7.3 Recovery Protocols

1. Restart Procedures - It assumes that no transactions are

accepted until the database has been repaired and included.

(i) Emergency restart this follows when a system fails without

warning e.g. due to power failure.
(ii) Cold restart - The system is restarted from archive
when the log and restart file has been corrupted.
(iii) Warm restart - It allows controlled shut down of the
system

2. Archiving - Creation of periodic back-ups.

3. Mirroring - 2 complete copies of the database are maintained
online in different stable storage devices. It is used in
environments with non-stop fault tolerant operations
4. Undo/Redo - It is undoing and re-doing a transaction after
failure. The transaction manager keeps an active list and abort
list and a commit list. These comprise of transactions that have
begun, abort and committed transactions respectively.
5. 2-Phase Commit - It is used in a DBS and has 2 phases:
(i) Voting phase - where participants are asked whether or not
they are prepared to commit the transaction.
(ii) Decision phase where the transaction is committed.

6. 3-Phase Commit - This one has:

(i) Voting Phase
(ii) Pre-commit phase and
(iii) Decision phase

Salvation Program
When all other recovery techniques fail, a salvation program may
be used. This is a specially designed program that scans the

100
database after failure to assess the damages and to restore a valid
state by rescuing whatever data are recognizable.

NB: Different recovery techniques (protocols) maintain different

kinds of recovery data and are effective if and only if their
recovery data have not also been contaminated or destroyed by the
failure.

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8.0 SECURITY, INTEGRITY AND CONTROL
This is the protection of data from accidental or deliberate threats,
which might cause unauthorized modification disclosure or
destruction of data and the protection of the Information System
from the degradation of non-availability of services.

Data integrity in this context of security is when data are the same
as in source documents and have not been accidentally or
intentionally altered, destroyed or disclosed.

Misuse of the database can be categorized as being either

intentional (malicious) or accidental.

8.1 Objectives of IS security

To control loss of assets
To insure the integrity and reliability of data
To improve the efficiency/effectiveness of Information
systems

Risks:
These are various dangers to information systems, the people,
hardware, software, data and other assets with which they are
associated.
The dangers include:
Natural disasters, thieves, industrial spies, disgruntled employees.
There Risk means the potential loss to the firm.

Threats:
Refer to people, actions, events or other situations that could
trigger losses, they are potential causes of loss.

Vulnerabilities: Flaws, problems or other conditions that make a

system open/prone to threats.

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Common Controls
Controls are counter measures to threats. They are tools that are
used to counter risks from the variety of people, actions, events or
situations that can threaten an IS.
Are used to identify risk, prevent risk, reduce risks and recover
from actual losses.

Physical Controls
These are controls that use conventional physical protection
measures.
Might include door locks, keyboard locks, fire doors, surp pumps.
Control over access and use of computer facilities and equipment
and controls for prevention of theft.
Inclusive controls to reduce contain or eliminate the damage from
natural disasters, power outages, humidity, dust, high temperature
and other conventional threats.

Electronic Controls
Are controls that use electronic measures to prevent or identify the
threats.
Might include intruder detection and biological access compels
e.g. log-on ID, passwords, badges and hand, voice or retina print
access controls.

Software Controls
Are program code and controls used in IS applications to prevent,
identify or recover from errors, un-authorized access and other
threats.
e.g. programming code placed in payroll application to prevent a
data entry clerk from entering hourly rate of pay that is too high.

Management Controls
Result from setting, implementing and enforcing policies and
procedures e.g. employees required to back up or archive their

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data at regular interval and take backup copies of data files to
secure, off-site locations for storage.

Common Threats
Natural disasters, unauthorized access (e.g. theft, vandalism,
invasion of privacy), computer crime and computer viruses.

Natural disasters
E.g. five, floods, water damage, earthquakes, tornadoes,
hurricanes, mud slides, wind and storm damage
Security planning should consider
 Disaster prevention
 Disaster containment
 Disaster recovery

e.g. Prevention: Use of backup power supplies or special

building materials, locations,
drainage system or structural modifications to avoid damage
during floods, storms fires
and earthquakes.
Containment: Consider sprinkler systems, halon gas fire
Suppression: System or watertight ceilings to contain water
damage from fire hoses.
Recovery: developing contingency plans for use of computer
facilities of vendors or non-
competitors with similar computer systems

Employee errors
Ordinary carelessness or poor employee training e.g. formatting
the hard disk rather than drive A, keying incorrect data.

Computer crime, fraud and abuse

Computer crime: stealing data, damaging or vandalizing hard
ware, software or data or using computer software illegally or
committing fraud.

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Industrial espionage
It’s the theft of original data by competitors. Also called economic
espionage
Hacking
Also known as cracking. It’s the unauthorized entry by a person
into a computer
system or network.
Hackers are people who illegally gain access to the computer
systems of others.
They can insert viruses onto networks, steal data and software,
damage data or vandalize a system.
Toll Fraud
Swindling companies and organisations e.g. through telephone
bills through false pretences – e.g. use of slugs instead of real
coins
Toll hackers use maintenance ports, modem pools, voice mail
systems, automated attendants or other facilities of PBX, the
private branch exchanges that are the computerized telephone
switches at customer sites.

Signs of frauds:
1. Numerous short calls
2. Simultaneous use of one telephone access mode
3. Numerous calls after business hours
4. Large increases in direct inward system access dialing or
DISA

Data diddling
Use of a computer system by employees to forge documents or
change data in records for gain.

Trojan horses and salami slicing

This is a change in code that is made to a program without
authorization.

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It appears to be performing a proper task but may actually
perform a variety of mischievous or criminal activities e.g.
printing paychecks to employees or vendors who don’t exist.

Trap doors
Are procedures or code that allows a person to avoid the usual
security procedures for use of or access to a system or data.

Computer viruses
A computer virus is a hidden program that inserts itself into your
computer system and forces the system to clone the virus (i.e. it
replicates itself.)
They may cause serious damage by modifying data, erasing files
or formatting disks.
e.g. cruise or stealth virus might lie dormant until it can capture
financial information and transmit the data to thieves
Antivirus programs or vaccination products can be used.
Antivirus programs help in:
 Preventing the virus program inserting itself in your
system
 Detecting a virus program so you can take emergency
action
 Controlling the damage virus can do once they have
been detected.

Hardware theft and vandalism

Software privacy – any reproduction or a copyright program is

theft.

Privacy violations
Privacy is the capacity of individuals or organizations to control
information about themselves.
Privacy rights imply:

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  Type and amounts of data that may be collected about
individuals or organizations are limited.
 That individuals and organizations have the ability to
access, examine and correct the data stored about them.
 Disclosure, use or dissemination of those data is
restricted.

Program bugs
Bugs are defects in programming code. They are prevalent to new
software, are normally discovered by users, and software vendors
provide “patches” to their code.

8.2 Accidental Loss

Accidental loss of data consistency may result from:-
 Crashes during transaction processing
 Anomalies caused by concurrent access to the database
 Anomalies caused by the distribution of data over several
computers
 Logical errors that violate the assumption that transactions
preserve the database consistency constraints.

8.3 Malicious Damage

Among the forms of malicious access are the following: -
 Unauthorized reading of data (theft of data)
 Unauthorized modification of data
 Unauthorized destruction of data

Absolute protection of the database from malicious abuse is not

possible, but the cost to the perpetrator can be made significantly
high to deter most if not all attempts to access the database
without proper authority.

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8.4 Protection.
To protect the database, measures must be taken at several levels:-

Physical. The site or sites containing the computer systems must

be physically secured against armed or surreptitious entry by
intruders.

Human. Users must be authorized carefully to reduce the chance

of any such user giving access to an intruder in exchange of a
bribe or other favors.

Operating system. No matter how secure the database is,

weakness in operating system security may serve as a means of
unauthorized access to the database.

Network. Since almost all database systems allow remote access

through terminals or networks, software level security may serve
as a means of unauthorized access to the database.

Database. Some database system users may be authorized to

access only a limited portion of the database. Others may be
allowed to issue queries, but may be forbidden to modify the data.
It is the responsibility of the database system to ensure that these
authorization restrictions are not violated.
8.5 Authorization
A user may have several forms of authorization on parts of the
database. Among them are the following: -
Read authorization. Allows reading, but no modification, of
data.
Insert authorization. Allows insertion of new data, but no
modification of existing data.
Update authorization. Allows modification, but not deletion
of data.
Delete authorization. Allows deletion of data.

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A user may be assigned all, none or a combination of these types
of authorization. In addition to these forms of authorization for
access to data, a user may be granted authorization to modify the
database schema: -
Index authorization. Allows the creation and deletion of
indices.
Resource authorization. Allows the creation of new
relations.
Alteration authorization. Allows the addition or deletion of
attributes in a relation.
Drop authorization. Allows the deletion of relations.

Exercise
Make a list of security concerns for a bank. For each item on your
list, state whether this concern relates to physical security, human
security, operating system security or database security.

System Integrity
This refers to the system operation conforming to the design
specifications despite attempts to make it behave incorrectly.

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9.0 QUERY OPTIMIZATION.
Optimization represents both a challege and opportunity for
relational systems. A challege because optimization is required in
such a system is to achieve acceptable performance and an
opportunity because it’s one of the strenghs of the relational
approach. The advantage of system-managed optimization is not
just that users donot have to worry about how nest to state their
queries but the real possibility that the optimizer might actually do
better than a human programmer.

Reasons for this state of affairs.

 A good optimizer will have a wealth of information available
to it that a human programmers typically do not have. It will
have certain statistical information e.g. cardinality of each
domain, cardinality of each base relation, the number of
times each distinct value occurs in each such attribute.
 Reoptimization is possible if the database statistics change
significantly e.g. if the database is phasically reorganized.
 The optimizer is a program and is therefore by definition
much more patient than a typical human programmer.
 The optimizer is regarded in a as embodyingthe skills and
services of ‘the best’ human programmers.

9.1 The optimization process.

Stages
 Cast the query into some internal form.
 Convert into canonical form.
 Choose candidate low level procedures.
 Generate query plans and choose the cheapest.

Stage 1 : Cast the query into some internal form.

One formalism empoyed in the internal representation is the
relational algebra or the relational calculus. The internal form

110
that is ussually chosen is some kind of abstruct syntax tree or
query tree.
Example. ( ( SP JOIN S ) WHERE P# = ‘P2’ ) [SNAME] stands
for ‘get the names of suppliers who supply part P2.
Final result

PROJECT over SNAME

RESTRICT where P# = ‘P2’

JOIN over S#

SP S
Query tree for ‘Names of suppliers who supply part P2’
Stage 2 : Convert to canonical form.
The optimizer performs a number of optimizations that are
‘guaranteed to be good’ regardless of the data values and access
paths that exist in the stored database i.e. relational database
allow all but the simplest of the queries to be expressed in a
variety of ways that are atleast superficially distinct.

The internal representation is converted into some equivalent

cananocal form with the objective of eliminating superficial
distinctions and finding a representation that is more efficient than
the original in some respect.

In order to transform the output in stage one into some equivalent

but more efficient form, the optimizer makes use of well defined
transformation rules or laws.

Example
The expression

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 ( A JOIN B ) WHERE restriction-on-A
can be transformed into the equivalent but more efficient
expression
( A WHERE restriction-on-A) JOIN B

Stage 3 : Choose candidate low level procedures.

The optimizer decides how to execute the transformed query
represented by the converted form. At this stage consideration
such as the existence of indexes or other access paths, distribution
of stored data values, physical clustering of stored data e.t.c. come
into play.
The strategy is to consinder the query expression as specifying a
series of ‘low level’ operations (join, restriction e.t.c.)

For each low level operation, the optimizer will have available to
it a set of predifined implementation procedures. Each procedure
will have a (parameterized) cost formula associated with it,
indicating the cost (in terms of disk I/O’s, processor utilization).
The cost formulas are used in stage 4.
Using the information from the catalogue regarding the current
state in the database the optimizer will choose one or more
candidate procedures for implementing each of the low level
operations in the query expressions. The process is sometimes
referred to as access path selection.

Stage 4 : Generate query plans and choose the cheapest.

This final stage involves the construction of a set of candidate
query plans, followed by the choice of the best (i.e. cheapest) of
the plans. The cost of a given plan is the. sum of the costs of the
individual procedures that go to make up that plan.

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9.2 Relational Algebra.
Consists of a collection of operators (e.g. join), that take relations
as their operands and return relations as their result. It consits of
eight operators, two groups of four each :
 The traditional set of operations union, intersection,
difference and cartesian product.
 The special relational operations restrict, project, join,and
divide.
Restrict : Returns a relation consisting of all tuples from a
specified relation that satisfy a specific condition.
Project : Returns a relation consisting of all tuples that remain
as (sub)tuples in s specified relation after specified
attributes have been eliminated.
Product : Returns a relation consisting of all possible tuples that
are a combination of two tuples , one from each of two
specified relations.
Union : Returns a relation consisting of all tuples appering in
either or both of two specified relations.
Intersect : Returns a relation consisting of all possible tuples
appearing in both of two specified relations.
Difference : Returns a relation consisting of all possible tuples
appearing in the first and not in the second of the two
specified relations.
Join : Returns a relation consisting of all possible tuples that
are a combination of two tuples , one from each of two
specified relations, such that the two tuples
contributing to any given combination have a common
value for the common attribute(s) of the two relations
(and that common value appears just once, not twice,
in the result tuple. This is a natural join.
Divide : Takes two relations, one binary and one unary, and
returns a relation consisting of all values of one
atrribute of the binary relation that match (in the other
attribute) all values in the unary relation.

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114
10.0 LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN DATABASE
TECHNOLOGY.
10.1 Developments
 Integrating other types of information.
Images Records
Graphics Text
Video Documents
Rules
 Web technology
 Geographical information systems (GIS)
Capturing, storing, checking, integrating, analysing and
displaying spartilly referenced data about the earth. It includes
topographic maps, remote sensing images, photograhic images,
geodetic e.t.c.
 Knowledge-based databases.
Databases that support logical rules of inference.
 Computer aided manufacturing.
 Data warehousing.

A subject oriented integrated, time variant and non volatile

collection of data in support of management’s decision making
process.
Subject oriented : a data warehouse is organised around the
major subjects of an organization e.g. customers, products, sales
rather than the major application areas e.g. stock control,
invoicing.
Integrated : Comming from different sources.
Time variant : Data in the data warehouse is only accurate and
valid at some point in time or over a time interval.
Non-volatile : the data is not updated in real time but is refreshed
from operational systems from time to time.
 Data mart :

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A subset of data warehouse that supports the requirements of a
particular department or business function.
 Data mining :
The process of extracting valid, previusly unknown,
comprehensible and actionable information from large databases
and using it to make crucial business decisions.
 Active databases :
Databases that are based on events, conditions and actions. They
are triggered upon the occurrence of certain events in the system.
Related to process control systems.
 Online analytical processing (OLAP) :
The dynamic sysnthesis, analysis and consolidation of large
volumes of multi-dimensional data.
 Digital publishing.
 Computer aided software engineering.
 Data Warehouses.

Major components of a data warehouse.

 Operating data.
 Load manager :Performs all the operations associated with
the extraction and loading of the data in the warehouse.
 Warehouse manager : Performs all operations
associated with the management of the data in the warehouse
e.g. analysis of data to ensure consistency, transforming and
merging of data sources.
 Query manager : Performs all operations associated
with the management of user queries e.g. directing queries to
appropriate tables and scheduling execution of queries.
 End-user access tools : Data reporting and query tools,
application development tools, executive information system
tools, OLAP tools, data mining tools.

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10.2 Applications
Decision-support Systems
As online availability of data has grown, businesses have began to
exploit the available data to make better decisions about their
activities, such as what items to stock and how best to target
customers to increase sales.
Data analysis
Although complex statistical analysis is best left to statistics
packages, databases should support simple, commonly used, forms
of data analysis. Since the data in the databases are usually large
in volume, they need to be summarized in some fashion if we are to
derive information that humans can use. The SQL aggregation
functionality is limited; so several extensions have been
implemented by different databases. For instance, although SQL
defines only a few aggregate functions, many database systems
provide a richer set of functions including variance, median, and
so on.

Data mining
The term data mining refers loosely to finding relevant
information, or “discovering knowledge” from a large volume of
data. Like knowledge discovery in artificial intelligence, data
mining attempts to discover statistical rules and patterns
automatically form data.

Data warehousing
Large companies have presences at numerous sites, each of which
may generate a large volume of data. A data warehouse is a
repository (or archive) of information gathered from multiple
sources, stored under a unified schema at a single site. Once
gathered, the data are stored for a long time, permitting access to

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historical data. Thus data warehouses provide the user a single
consolidated interface to data, making decision support queries
easier to write.

Spatial and geographical Databases

Spatial databases store information related to spatial locations,
and provide support for efficient querying and indexing based on
spatial locations. Two types of spatial databases are: -
 Design databases or CAD databases –are spatial databases
used to stored design information about how objects such as
buildings, car, or aircraft are constructed. Other important CAD
databases are integrated circuit and electronic-device layouts.
 Geographical databases are spatial databases used to store
graphic information, such as maps. Geographic databases are
often called geographic information systems.

Multimedia databases
Recently there interest in databases that store multimedia data,
such as images, audio and video. Database functionality becomes
important when the number of multimedia objects stored is large.
Issues such as transaction updates, querying facilities, and
indexing then become important.
Multimedia objects often have descriptive attributes, such as those
indicating when they were created, who created them and to what
category they belong.

One approach to building a database for such multimedia objects

is to use databases the descriptive attributes and for keeping track
of files in which the multimedia objects are stored.
Storing multimedia outside the database makes it harder to
provide database functionality, such as indexing on the bases of
actual multimedia data content. It can also lead to inconsistencies,

118
such as a file that is noted in the database but whose contents are
missing and vise versa.

Several issues have to been addressed if multimedia data are to be

stored in a database.
(i) The database must support large objects, since
multimedia object such as video can occupy up to a few
gigabytes of storage. Many relational objects do not
support such large objects.
(ii) Similarity-based retrieval is needed in many
multimedia database applications. For example in a
database that stores fingerprint images, a query
fingerprint image is provided and finger prints in the
database that are similar to the query finger print must
be retrieved.
(iii) The retrieval of some types of data, such as audio and
video, has the requirement that data delivery must
proceed at a guaranteed steady rate. Such data are
sometimes called isochronous data or continuous-
media data.

Mobility and personal databases

Large scale, commercial databases have traditionally been stored
in central computing facilities. Incase of distributed database
applications, there has been a strong central and network
administration.

Two technology trends have combined to create applications in

which this assumption of central control and administration is not
entirely correct:
(i) The increasingly widespread use of personal
computers, and, more important of laptop or
“notebook” computers.

119
 (ii) The development of a relatively low-cost wireless
digital communication infrastructure, based on
wireless local-area networks, cellular digital packet
networks, and other technologies.
Mobile computing has proved useful in many applications. Many
business travelers use lap top computers to enable them to work
and access data en route. Delivery services use mobile computers
to assist in packet tracking. Emergency response services use
mobile computers at the scene of disasters, medical emergencies,
and the like to access information and to enter data pertaining to
the situation.

Distributed information systems

It is easy for a person located in one area to connect to computers
based in distant geographical area and retrieve information stored
on the distant computer. The most widespread distributed
information system today is the World Wide Web.

The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a distributed information system based on
hypertext. The user of a web system sees formatted text along with
images, rather than the raw text with formatting instructions.

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Appendix
Revision Questions.

Question 1
Define what you understand by the following terms:
i) Rendudant data
ii) Duplicate data
iii) Conceptual model
iv) Physical model
v) Non-attribute key
vi) Domain
vii) Foreign Key
viii) Candidate key
ix) Alternate Key
X) Primary Key
Question 2.
(a) Briefly describe normalization.
(b) List and briefly describe advantages and disadvantages of
database approach to database systems.
(d) A Local Authority with several branch libraries wishes to
maintain a database of stocked books. It is assumed that
each book has a unique title and author but many copies of
the more popular books will be stocked at any branch.
Assuming the un-normalized entity BRANCH is given as:
BRANCH(Branch-no, Branch-address(Title,Author,
Publisher, No-of-copies))
i) Identify and normalize all the entities and their
attributes to third normal form (3NF).
ii) Draw the conceptual data model diagram for ,your
solution in(i)showing the entities and
relationships involved.
Question 3.
Some computer installations, particularly the larger, more
sophisticated ones are using databases
in which to store the original data.
(a) Differentiate between a database and database
management system.

121
 (b) Explain briefly three of the major problems
associated with the implementation and operation of a
comprehensive database.
(c) List and explain briefly five of the advantages
claimed for a well-designed database.

Question 4.
(a) Describe the different forms of security which might be
used in a PC system database to provide back-up facilities
or prevent unauthorized access to the computer files.
(b) A proposed database for a book order processing
system will have four relations.
Customers
Customer orders
Order details
Books
(i) Suggest what fields these tables might contain
(ii) Draw an entity relationship model for the books
order processing system
(c) Define the terms
(i) Entity instance
(ii) Schema
(iii) Alias
(iv) External schema

Question 5.
(a) Taking two transactions T1 and T2, illustrate the
following three common concurrent transaction problems.
(i) Lost update problem
(ii) Uncommitted dependency problem
(iii) Inconsistency analysis problem
(b) Differentiate the following.
(i) Shared locks and Exclusive locks
(ii) Growing phase and shrinking phase.

122
 (c) Briefly explain the following techniques used to control
deadlocks.
(i) Deadlock prevention
(ii) Deadlock detection

Question 6.
(a) Discuss the various types of relationship cardinality
(b) Define the following
(i) Data integrity
(ii) Systems integrity
(c) Give reasons why there is a need for database
security?
(d) Outline main controls that an organization can use to
counter threats to its database.

Question 7.
(a) The following is an outfit table.

Outfit_name Outfit_col Price Origin

our
Levis trouser Blue 1,400 Paris
Blazer shirt Purple 900 UK
Savco trouser Brown 1,200 Nairobi
Jeans shirt Black 800 New York

Using the above table answer the following questions.

(i) Write an SQL statement that would output outfit
name, price and origin for all shirts
and trousers that cost more than kshs. 550
alphabetically by name.
(ii) Due to economic problems, the price of trousers
has tripled. Write an SQL statement to effect the
increase.

123
 (iii) Write an SQL statement that returns a relation
where the colour of the outfit is blue or the price
is more than or equal to kshs. 1,200.
(iv) Write an SQL statement to delete the record for
the outfit Savco trouser from the table.
(b) (i) What does the phrase ’’Query optimisation’’
mean ?

124
 (ii) Write a canonical form for :
SELECT O-num,O_name
FROM Order
WHERE O_quantity BETWWEN 45 AND
95 ;

Question 8.
(a) Define the following terms as they relate to relational
database
(i) Relationship
(ii) Primary key
(iii) Domain
(iv) Tuple
(b) What is a transaction? Explain the ACID properties of
a transaction.
(c) Outline four advantages of object technology.

Question 9.
(a) Define distributed database systems. What is
distributed in this case
(b) Discuss eight of the dates’ 12 rules of distributed
databases.

Question 10.
(a) Define the terms:
(i) Entity instance
(ii) Schema
(iii) Alias
(iv) Identifying owner

(b) Give a brief discussion of integrity constraints.

Following is a relation of customers:

(c)
Customer_ID Customer_Na Customer_Bas Customer_Star

125
 me e t Date
101 John California Nov/2/1994
214 Paul Georgia Oct/8/1993
862 Harris California Jan/3/1995
918 Derek Florida Nov/2/1995
924 Cecil California Feb/1/1994
991 Sue Florida Jan/4/1994

Suggest and illustrate how you would perform horizontal

partitioning based on the above table.

(d)Consider the following transactions,’’T1 and T2:

T1 T2
Lock item a Lock item b
Request for item b Request for item a
Wait for T2 Wait for T1
(i) What is the problem with the above two transactions?
(ii) How can the problem be handled?

(iii) What is a distributed database?

Question 11.
(a) Discuss the basic search conditions in SQL.

A database is an organized collection of logically related data

or information. What do you understand by organized and
related?
(b) Give a brief discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of
a standardized language
(c) Which SQL clause in the SELECT statement must one include if
one intends to use the HAVING clause?

(d) Consider a database containing data on Customers, Rented

Properties and Owners of the properties. It is required that, the
data be systematically arranged into the third normal form.

126
 A database engineer has embarked on this and has already
come up with the following:

UNF UNF
Level
CNum 1
Cname 1
Pnum 2
Paddress 2
RStartDa 2
te
RfinishD 2
ate
Ramount 2
ONum 2
Oname 2

Note: CCustomer, PProperty, RRent and OOwner

Finish the task.

Question 12.
(a) Discuss strategies for distributing databases. Give a brief
discussion of the potential problems caused by concurrency.

(b) The following data relates to trainees:

Trai Trainee_ Special Cour Course_Nam Trainer_ Trai Gra

nee_ Surname ization se_C e FName ner_ de
ID ode Bas
e
T13 Short Accoun ACC Principles of Peter AD C
41 ting 1 Accounting M1
T13 Kendrick Market MKT Introduction Cecil AD B
45 ing 3 to Marketing M4
International Mary D

127
 MKT Marketing AD
6 M2
T13 Smith Manag MKT Introduction Cecil AD C
50 ement 3 to Marketing M4

Systematically, arrange the above data into third normal form.

128