3.

1 Concept of solid angle

Any area on a sphere which is equal in area to the square of its radius, when
observed from its center, subtends precisely one steradian (sr). Solid angle is
denoted by Ω.

Fig. 3.1. Solid angle.

Then, since the surface area of the sphere is 4r 2 , the solid angle it subtends
throughout the sphere is
4r 2
 4 sr 3.1
r2

3.2 Concept of vector area

Vector area is defined by


S  Snˆ 3.2
where S is the magnitude of the area and n̂ is the unit vector normal to the area.
The direction is determined by right hand grip rule on the rim.

S
S

Fig. 3.2. Vector Area.

3.3 Gauss's  Law

It states that total flux coming out of a closed surface is equal to net positive charge
within the volume enclosed by the surface.
 S

dS
rv dv

Fig. 3.3
Let, a volume V enclosed by a surface S is given a volume charge density s. dv is a
small volume inside V.
Gauss’s law is then expressed by
 
 D.dS   
S V
V dV 3.3

i.e. the surface integral of the electric displacement vector over a closed surface
enclosing a certain homogeneous volume of material is equal to the volume integral
of free charge densities inside the volume enclosed by the surface.

Proof:

S
E1
ûr D1

q
P2 dS
r
P1 dW
q1
rv

Fig. 3.4
Let, there be a charge q1 located at P1 within a closed surface.
Then at surface P2 at a distance r from  P1 ,
 q1
E1  uˆr 3.4
4 0 r r 2
 q
and D1  1 2 uˆr 3.5
4r

Now, the surface integral of D1

  q 
S D1.dS  S 41r 2 uˆr .dS 3.6
 
Now, uˆr .dS  ur dS cos  dS cos 3.7
q  q
  1 2 uˆ r .dS   1 2 dS cos 3.8
S
4r S
4r

But, dS cos  3.9

 d
r2
which is the solid angle subtended at P1. Hence,

  q1
 D .dS   4
S
1
S
d

3.10

Again, for a closed surface,

 d  4
S
3.11
 
So,  D .dS  q
S
1 1 3.12

Considering total charge within the enclosed volume Q   V dV

V

We have
 
 .dS 
S
D
V
 V dV 3.13
The Gauss's Law as expressed above is its integral form and it cannot be used for
finding out E or D at any point inside the volume. To find E or D at any point,
differential form of Gauss's Law is necessary.

3.4 Differential Form of Gauss's Law

Dy Dy  Dy
dz
dy dx

Fig. 3.5

In general, 

D  Dxiˆ  Dy ˆj  Dz kˆ 3.14
Let us apply Gauss's Law to the infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped dxdydz as
shown in the Fig. 3.5.

Then, the net flux coming out of the volume through the pair of parallel surfaces in
x-z planes

 ( Dy  Dy ) dxdz  Dy dxdz

3.15
 D y dxdz 3.16
Using chain rule, we get
Dy
D y  dy
y
3.17
Thus, in differential form,
Dy
Net flux in x-z plane  dxdydz 3.18
y
Considering the other pairs of parallel surfaces, the total flux coming out of the
volume
 Dx Dy Dz 
    dxdydz
 x y z 
3.19

Let rV be the charge density within the volume. Then as per Gauss’s Law the above
expression is equal to the total charge within the volume, i.e. rV dxdydz. In other
words,
 Dx Dy Dz 
   dxdydz  V dxdydz 3.20
 x y z 
or,
ˆ 
 ˆ 
 x 
ˆ  . D iˆ  D ˆj  D kˆ  
 i x  j y  k z  y z V  3.21
 

or, .D  V
3.22

Physically, divergence of a vector field at any point is defined as the rise of flux of
this vector field per unit volume at that point.

3.5 Divergence Theorem

As per the integral form of Gauss’s Law,

 
 D.dS
S
 
V
V dV 3.23
But,from differential form, we get
.D  V 3.24
Putting this value,
   
 .dS 
S
D 
V
(. D ) dV

3.25
where, the volume V is enclosed by the surface S.

This is the Divergence Theorem as the term .D is a measure of the divergence of
a vector field.

The divergence theorem states that the outward flux of a vector field through a
closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the divergence over the region
inside the surface.

3.6 Poisson’s Equation

From the three basic equations of Electrostatics


E   3.26
 
D   0 r E 3.27
and

.D   3.28

Hence, from (3.27 and 3.28)


.( 0  r E )   3.29

If throughout the region of interest, the dielectric is homogeneous, then from 3.29,

 0 r .E   3.30

or, 0 r   .(   )  
3.31

or,    
2
3.32
 0 r

(3.32) is the well-known Poisson’s equation.

When the region of interest contains charges in a known distribution r, Poisson’s

equation can be used to determine the potential function. Very often the region of
interest is charge free. Then Poisson’s equation becomes,
 2  0 , as   r = 0. 3.33

This is known as the Laplace’s equation.

Problem-1:    The potential field at any point in a space containing a dielectric
material of relative permittivity 3.6 is given by  = (3x2+2yz+5xy) V, where x,y,z are
in meters. Calculate the volume charge density at a point P(5,3,2)m.

Solution-1:    

Ans:     Charge density at P(5,3,2)m is independent of its location and is given by

-191.2 pC/m3.

Problem-2:     The electric flux density in free space is given by

Prove that the field region is charge free, i.e. no free charge is present in the field
region.

Solution-2:

Thus it is proved that no free charge is present in the field region.