Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873

www.elsevier.com/locate/enbuild

An analytical and numerical study of solar chimney

use for room natural ventilation
Ramadan Bassiouny *, Nader S.A. Koura
Department of Mechanical Power Engineering and Energy, Minia University, Minia 61111, Egypt
Received 17 May 2007; received in revised form 11 June 2007; accepted 19 June 2007

Abstract
The solar chimney concept used for improving room natural ventilation was analytically and numerically studied. The study considered some
geometrical parameters such as chimney inlet size and width, which are believed to have a significant effect on space ventilation. The numerical
analysis was intended to predict the flow pattern in the room as well as in the chimney. This would help optimizing design parameters. The results
were compared with available published experimental and theoretical data. There was an acceptable trend match between the present analytical
results and the published data for the room air change per hour, ACH. Further, it was noticed that the chimney width has a more significant effect on
ACH compared to the chimney inlet size. The results showed that the absorber average temperature could be correlated to the intensity as:
(Tw = 3.51I0.461) with an accepted range of approximation error. In addition the average air exit velocity was found to vary with the intensity as
(nex = 0.013I0.4).
# 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Solar chimney; Natural ventilation; ACH; CFD

1. Introduction the wind effect is not significant, just opening windows cannot
effectively move the air inside the space to help diluting
Efficient air ventilation and thermal comfort are of great contaminants, odors, and satisfying the comfort feeling. This is
importance in rural areas and hot climate conditions. due to the small pressure difference between the indoor and
Ventilation is the intentional supply of fresh outdoor air to a outdoor air. The solar chimney design and construction allow
space to dilute and remove indoor air contaminants. Ventila- storing an amount of solar energy into a surface, then releasing
tion, whether naturally or mechanically, is a very urgent need in this energy to an adjacent column of air raising its temperature,
many residential and industrial zones. Natural ventilation and accordingly it flows upward entraining an outdoor fresh air
occurs due to two causes: aeromotive or wind driving force, or into the space. This will create an air breeze inside the space.
buoyancy driving force (stack effect) due to temperature The main driving force in moving the air upward in the chimney
difference between indoor and outdoor air temperatures. A is the buoyancy force due to the absorbed energy.
significant temperature difference should be existed for the Generally, solar energy with high intensity is available in the
thermal driving force or stack effect to be appreciated. Use of Middle East countries. Egypt in general and upper-Egypt in
solar energy can create such a large temperature difference, and particular, has rich sunny and clear skies. These conditions
hence improve the stack effect for space natural ventilation. encourage adopting such a concept to enhance building natural
The solar chimney is an effective practical way to enhance ventilation and save energy. Hence this was the motivation
space natural ventilation. In most tropical countries, where it is behind the present study.
almost very difficult for the majority to have an air conditioner,
people rely on natural ventilation, instead, to achieve comfort 2. Previous studies
through opening windows. However, in some climates, where
The solar chimney is an attractive idea for many researchers
in different fields. Some previous studies have been seen in the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +20 16 3916415; fax: +20 86 2346674. literature that investigates the use of solar chimney, with
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Bassiouny). different configurations, in ventilation improvement. Some
0378-7788/$ – see front matter # 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2007.06.005
866 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873

tical model to study the effect of using solar chimneys on

Nomenclature thermal-induced ventilation in buildings. A numerical solution
of the proposed model revealed that the induced air flow ranged
A area (m2)
from 50 to 165 m3/h for every square meter of the collector area
ACH air change per hour (h1)
and for solar radiation values of 100–1000 W/m2 on the
b chimney inlet size (m)
horizontal surface. Further, they found that the induced air flow
Cd coefficient of discharge
depends on the geometry of the air collector, cross-section of
Cp specific heat (kJ/(kg 8C))
the duct, and the performance parameters of the air-heating
d chimney width (m)
solar collector such as bottom and top loss coefficients and
g gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
absorptance and transmittance of the collector plate glazing.
Gr Grashof number
A theoretical and experimental study was carried out by
h heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 8C))
Mathur et al. [2] to evaluate the possibility of making use of
H, Hw room height and window height (m)
solar radiation to induce room ventilation in hot climates. The
I solar intensity (W/m2)
theoretical results of the proposed model were in a good
k thermal conductivity (W/(m 8C))
agreement with the experimental ones. They found out that air
L chimney length (m)
flow increases linearly with the increase in solar radiation or the
Nu Nusselt number
air gap between absorber and the glass cover.
P pressure (N/m2)
Macias et al. [3] presented a practical approach to improve
Pr Prandtl number
the passive night ventilation in social housing by applying the
q heat transfer (W)
solar chimney concept. Instead of using fan forced ventilation,
Ra Rayleigh number
they used an accessible high thermal mass in building
T temperature (8C)
construction to collect solar energy during the afternoon in
u, v air velocity (m/s)
their concrete walls (50 8C). For every flat there was a
U overall heat transfer coefficient (W/(m2 8C))
separate chimney with a swinging flap at top, and while
V room volume (m3)
collecting energy the flap was closed. Then, during night when
W room width (m)
the ambient temperature drops to about 20 8C the flaps at the
x, y coordinate system
top were opened generating a draft through flats, cooling down
Greek symbols the thermal masses of the ceiling and walls.
a absorptivity Herreo and Heras-Celemin [4] proposed a mathematical
b expansion factor model to evaluate the energy performance of a 2 m high solar
e emissivity (0.9 for glass and 0.95 for absorber chimney with a 0.24 m concrete wall as a thermal storage. Real
wall) weather data for the Mediterranean was used as initial
r density (kg/m3) conditions for the model. The concrete wall reached its higher
s Stefan–Boltzmann constant (5.67  108 W/ temperature at 2 h later than the ambient temperature. Also, it
(m2 K4)) maintained its temperature well after the beginning of the dark,
t transmitivity inducing night natural ventilation. They recommended further
studies to be pursued on the thermal inertia of solar chimneys.
Subscripts An experimental study on a test cell resembling an actual
a ambient room size was conducted by Chungloo and Limmeechockai
c chimney [5]. They studied the effect of solar chimney and/or water
cond conduction spraying over a roof on natural ventilation. When the ambient
conv convection temperature was 40 8C, they achieved a maximum of 3.5 8C
f flow reduction in temperature for the case of separate chimney, and
g glass a maximum of 6.2 8C reduction in temperature for the
g–a glass to air combined effect of solar and water spraying. Also, they
l loss reported that the temperature difference between the inlet and
r room outlet of the solar chimney tends to decrease during the period
rw–g radiative from wall to glass of high solar radiation and high ambient temperature. On the
rg–sky radiative from glass to sky other hand, water spraying increases the temperature
w wall difference and consequently the air flow rate through
w–a wall to air the chimney. Finally, they recommended further studies to
be carried out on the stack effect on natural ventilation with low
rates of Reynolds number.
researchers have been interested in analyzing the vertical Mathur et al. [6] investigated the effect of using a solar
chimney, while others have been studying the inclined chimney. chimney for enhancing natural ventilation. They found that
Bansal et al. [1] are the pioneers to study solar chimney there was a trade off between the absorber inclination and stack
configurations and performance. They developed a mathema- height. Experiments showed that the optimum absorber
 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873 867

inclination angle varies from 408 to 608, depending on the

latitude of the place. They compared the experimental results
with the proposed mathematical model and found a good
agreement in between.
An experimental investigation was carried out by Burek and
Habeb [7] to study the effect of varying the solar intensity,
resembled by an electric heater, from 200 to 100 W/m2, and the
channel depth on mass flow rate through the channel.
Temperatures and velocities were recorded and the mass flow
rate was correlated to the heat input as m / Q0.572 and to the
channel depth as m / S0.712.
Mathur et al. [8] studied the performance of some types of
solar chimneys. First they investigated the performance of a
cylindrical chimney when it is covered with a transparent cover
and when it is uncovered. They found that the mass flow rate
increases for the covered one. Then they studied the effect of
inclination on a solar chimney, and concluded that an angel of
458 yields the highest rate of mass flow rate when compared
with the vertical chimneys.
Fig. 1. A general schematic of the physical domain.
The previous available studies did not show detail
information for air velocity distribution as air passes through The last term in the right-hand side represents the losses from
the chimney, in addition to space inner-flow pattern. Also, there the glass wall to the surrounding by convection, radiation, and
was no validation for the proposed correlations for the flow rate conduction:
with both intensity and chimney depth. So, the present study X
focuses on studying the effect of the chimney inlet size qloss ¼ qlwind þ qlsky þ qlcond
measured from the room floor, air gap between the glass and These losses can be summed up into
absorber on flow pattern and air velocity variation through the X
chimney. It also aims at depicting air flow pattern under qloss ¼ U t Ag ðT g  T a Þ
different operating conditions.
where Ut counts for the three heat transfer coefficients as
3. Mathematical analysis U t ¼ hwind þ hrgsky þ hcond1
The physical domain configuration considered in the present So the above equations can be rewritten as
study is shown in Fig. 1. This domain is considered a 1 m
a1 T g þ b1 T f þ c 1 T w ¼ R1 (1)
wide  1 m height, assuming a 1 m depth. An overall energy
balance on the chimney is considered. This balance includes the where a1 = hrw–gAw + hconvAg + (hwind + hrg–sky + hcond1)Ag,
glass cover wall, the black absorber wall, and the air in between. b1 = hconv, g–aAg, c1 = hrw–gAw, and R1 = agAgI + (hwind
Certainly, some postulations are assumed to enable solving the + hcond1)AgTa + hrg–skyAgTa.
mathematical model, and as a result there will be some sort of
error due to the approximated solution. Flow through chimney 3.2. Energy balance over the flowing air
was considered laminar and under steady-state conditions.
Energy exchange through glass, air, and absorber was treated as Similarly, applying the energy balance on the air column
one-dimensional. Air inlet to the chimney was considered to flowing through the chimney results in the following equation:
have the same room air average temperature. Energy exchange Convective energy form the glass to the air + convective energy
between other walls in the room and the surrounding was from the absorber to the air = convective energy by the air
neglected. through the chimney.
This yield:
3.1. Energy balance over the glass wall hconv;ga Ag ðT g  T f Þ þ hconv;wa Aw ðT w  T f Þ ¼ qconv

Applying the energy balance concept on the glass wall under where
the aforementioned assumptions yields the following: Energy qconv ¼ ṁC p ðT fo  T fi Þ
due to incident radiation + re-radiated energy from the
absorber = convective energy by the air in the chimney + total A mean temperature for the air flowing through the chimney
losses from the glass wall: can be calculated using a weighting factor between the inlet and
outlet temperatures as
X
ag Ag I þ hrwg Aw ðT w  T g Þ ¼ hconv;ga Ag ðT g  T f Þ þ qloss T f ¼ vT fo þ ð1  vÞT fi
868 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873

Considering the air inlet to the chimney with a temperature is Air flowing in the chimney carries convective energies from the
equal to the room average temperature Tr, and substituting in glass and absorber walls. So, the convective heat transfer
the above equation of qconv gives the following equation: coefficients between air and both walls are
Tf  Tr Nu kf@T g Nu kf@T w
qconv ¼ ṁC p hconv;ga ¼ ; hconv;wa ¼
v Lg Lw
where v (mean temperature weighting factor) was found to be Once the converged temperatures are known, and the air
0.74 in the literature [2]. Substitution and rearranging the above properties are updated, the air flow rate can be calculated using
equation results in the following equation: the following relation [2,6]:
a 2 T g þ b2 T f þ c 2 T w ¼ R 2 (2) sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 
C d rf A0 Tf
where a2 ¼ hconv;ga Ag , b2 ¼ hconv;ga Ag þ hconv;wa Aw þ ṁ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi 2gLc  1
1 þ ðA20 =A2i Þ Tr
ðṁC p =vÞ, c2 ¼ hconv;wa Aw , and R2 ¼ ṁC p T r =v.
The coefficient of discharge, Cd is defined as the ratio of the
3.3. Energy balance over the absorber wall cross-section area at the vena–contracta to the actual opening
area. Spencer [11] mentioned that the Cd value is almost
The absorber wall is the main trigger for the chimney theory constant at 0.61 for Re greater than 100, and less than 0.6 for Re
of operation. The conservation of energy for this wall, as a part less than 100. A value of 0.57 was chosen due to the sharp edge
of the system, is as follows: Energy absorbed = re-radiated inlet.
energy from the absorber to the glass + convective energy to the In natural ventilation, it is much significant to know
air in the chimney + conduction to the room: air exchange rate, the ratio of the air volume flow rate to
the room volume. This expression is known as the air
aw tg Aw I ¼ hrwg Aw ðT w  T g Þ þ hconv;wa Aw ðT w  T f Þ change per hour (ACH). This index is defined by ASHRAE
þ hcond2 Aw ðT w  T r Þ as
Rearranging the above equation gives V̇  3600
ACH ¼
a 3 T g þ b3 T f þ c 3 T w ¼ R 3 (3) room total volume
In this study, the room volume was considered 27 m3 to
where a3 = hrwgAw, b3 = hconv,waAw, c3 = hrwgAw +
simulate an actual room size for the purpose of reasoning values
hconv,waAw + hcond2Aw, and R3=awtgAwI + hcond2AwTr.The
and to compare with the published data in Ref. [2]. However, it
above three equations, (1)–(3) are iteratively solved using
should be noted that the room model volume could be used to
the relaxation method. The temperatures of glass, absorber,
obtain ACH.
and air in between are obtained. The flowing air properties are
Below are the correlations used to estimate the heat transfer
considered to vary with its temperature. Therefore, the proper-
coefficients between air flowing in the chimney and both glass
ties are updated with the converged temperature values. The
wall and absorber wall [2]. The empirical relation for the
heat transfer coefficients listed in the above three equations can
Nusselt number is obtained from Ref. [10] for natural
be calculated based on the Stefan–Boltzmann relation, New-
convection on vertical plates:
ton’s cooling law, and Fourier law of conduction. These coeffi-
cients are as listed below: Tg þ Ts
Tm ¼
2
sðT w þ T g ÞðTw2 þ Tg2 Þ
hrwg ¼ where Ts means a surface average temperature. It is equal to Tg
ðð1  eg Þ=eg Þ þ ðð1  ew Þ=ew Þ þ ð1=F wg Þ
when the system is the glass wall, and equal to Tw when the
where the shape factor, F wg is considered unity. system is the absorber wall.

seg ðT g þ T sky ÞðTg2 þ Tsky

2
ÞðT g  T sky Þ 1
hrgs ¼ b¼ ; DT ¼ T s  T f ;
Tg  Ta Tm
mf ¼ 1:846  105 þ 0:00472  105 ðT m  300Þ;
Glass absorptivity was taken as 0.06, transmitivity as 0.84,
and wall absorbitivity as 0.95.The sky temperature and wind kf ¼ 0:0263 þ 0:000074ðT m  300Þ;
coefficient can be found in [9] as:
mC p
C p ¼ 1007 þ 0:004ðT m  300Þ; Pr ¼ ;
T sky ¼ 0:0552Ta1:5 and hwind ¼ 2:8 þ 3:0V kf
The conductive heat transfer coefficients for the glass and gb DTL3c mC p
Ra ¼ Gr Pr ¼ b c ;
absorber walls are n2 kf

1 1 0:67 Ra0:25
hcond1 ¼ ; hcond2 ¼ Nu ¼ 0:68 þ 4=9
ð1=h0 Þ þ ðDxg =kg Þ ð1=hi Þ þ ðDxins =kins Þ ½1 þ ð0:492=PrÞ9=16 
 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873 869

to prove a grid independent solution. The eventual total number

of elements was 6510 elements.

5. Results and discussion

A FORTRAN computer program uses the relaxation

iterative method to solve for wall, glass, and air average
temperatures. These temperatures are the trigger for the whole
analysis. Herein, the results are presented and discussed.
Solar energy transmission through the chimney will
certainly create a significant temperature difference through
the chimney. This difference is the driving force for chimney
theory of operation. Fig. 2 shows the average temperature
variation of glass wall, absorber wall, and air in between as a
result of solar intensity variation. The figure indicates the
significant temperature difference corresponding to solar
intensity. Further, as intensity increases, there is almost a
linear increase in all temperatures. The figure indicates that the
maximum absorber temperature would increase by a factor of
Fig. 2. Temperature variation of glass, wall, and air as a result of solar intensity 2.25 when intensity increases by a factor of five. This is
variation. expected due to the nature of the absorber as a thermal storage
medium. This absorbed energy increases the absorber
4. Numerical analysis temperature, the major part of this energy is consumed in
accelerating the air through the chimney. Being mainly a
The finite element method was used to predict flow pattern transmittive medium, glass temperature is considerably low and
inside the space as a result of using a solar chimney. The main close to that of air due to glass low absorbitivity and exposure to
governing equations are considered as [10]: convection from both sides. It can be concluded from the figure
that the wall average temperature varies as (3.51I0.461), while
@u @v @u @u @2 u the glass average temperature varies as (9.15I0.199).
þ ¼ 0; u þ v ¼ gbðT  T 1 Þ þ n 2 ;
@x @y @x @y @y The average exit velocity variation as a result of varying the
  2
@T @T @ T inlet air size and chimney width is shown in Fig. 3. The figure
and rC p u þ v ¼k 2 shows that there is an optimum inlet size beyond which the air
@x @y @y
flow rate through the chimney would begin to decrease. In
The momentum equation along with the energy equation addition, increasing the chimney width beyond would relax the
was iterative and simultaneously solved. The flow was assumed flow of kinetic energy, though the flow rate increases due to the
to be incompressible, steady, and laminar. A quadrilateral effect of area increase.
element type was chosen over which a quadratic approximation The solar intensity is the motive force and its natural
of the dependent variable and the weighted function was variation in the universe is significant for the chimney
assumed. The computational domain considered in this study is performance. Fig. 4a shows the effect of varying the chimney
shown in Fig. 6. Mesh refinement is adopted in regions where inlet size on the ACH at different solar intensities for a certain
sharp variation in the variable is expected, such as in the chimney width. This figure illustrates that the increase in the
boundary layer region. A gradual mesh refinement was adopted ACH as the solar intensity increase is approaching asymptotic

Fig. 3. Air average exit velocity and flow rate variation as a result of varying chimney width.
870 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873

Fig. 5. Air exit velocity as a result of varying air inlet gap height (a) and
chimney width (b).

Fig. 4. ACH variation as a result of varying air inlet size (a) and chimney width insignificant beyond a chimney width of almost 0.25 m.
(b).
Comparing Fig. 4a and b concludes that the chimney width has
a more significant effect on the ACH than the inlet air size.
trends. The figure also shows that there is a remarkable increase Fig. 5a shows the inlet air size effect on chimney average
in the ACH at high solar intensities as the chimney inlet size exit air velocity. This could help optimizing this size to reduce
increases up to almost 0.2 m, then any increase does not have a inlet losses and enhance ACH. For any intensity, an
significant effect on ACH improvement. On the contrary, insignificant improvement in the exit velocity was noticed as
increasing the chimney inlet size beyond almost 0.25 m would the chimney inlet size increases. On the other side, Fig. 5b
tend to decrease the ACH. This could be attributed to the manifests that as the chimney width increases the exit velocity
increase in air velocity at the inlet to the chimney at first, and decreases due to the relaxation in the flow kinetic energy as
then as the inlet size increases, the flow kinetic energy tends to chimney cross-section area expands. Also, it is clear from both
relax and flow separation took place resulting in contracting the figures that at high solar intensity, the variation in velocity is
airsteam flowing up in the chimney. Thus, the exit velocity significant as the width varies from 0.1 to 0.3 m. This increase is
would reduce and consequently the flow rate. due to the result of increasing the energy gained by the absorber
Fig. 4b shows the effect of varying the chimney width on the causing the air in between the glass and absorber to highly
ACH at a selected inlet air size and at different solar intensities. accelerate (Fig. 6).
The figure illustrates a distinct improve in the ACH as the The inlet flow to the chimney is definitely affected by the
chimney width increases. This improvement would be discharge coefficient which is, in turn, dependent on the
 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873 871

rate. Since the inlet area was kept constant, the inlet velocity
would increase resulting in a noticeable flow separation
region at the lower part of the chimney as shown in the figure.
Increasing the chimney width allows the flow inside the space

Fig. 6. Room and chimney grid configuration.

contracted area due to the suddenly contraction in geometry to

the main inlet area shape. Fig. 7 depicts an enlarged zoom on
the flow velocity vectors beneath the absorber, where the flow is
suddenly contracted. As shown, the sudden contraction
increases the air velocity in this region, the vena–contracta
effect. This creates flow separation just very close to the leading
edge followed by a flow reattachment. This separation would
add resistance on upward flow. Zones of secondary flow are
illustrated by the figure.
Since the air gap between the absorber and the glass cover
(chimney width) plays an important role in the ventilation
rate, it is encouraged to closely depict the flow pattern as this
gap varies. Fig. 8 shows the flow pattern and zones of
separation as a result of varying the chimney width.
Increasing the flow area width would increase the mass flow

Fig. 8. Stream function through the space and chimney for different chimney
width at 300 W/m2 solar intensity. (a) Width 0.1 m. (b) Width 0.2 m. (c) Width
Fig. 7. An enlarged portion of the air flowing beneath the absorber wall. 0.3 m.
872 R. Bassiouny, N.S.A. Koura / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 865–873

Table 1
Summary of some results for comparison with experimental and theoretical published data [2]
Absorber Air inlet Chimney Chimney ACH at 300 W/m2 ACH at 500 W/m2 ACH at 700 W/m2
height size b width height
(m) (m) (m) (m) Experimental Mathur Present Experimental Mathur Present Experimental Mathur Present
[2] et al. [2] study [2] et al. [2] study [2] et al. [2] study
0.9 0.1 0.1 0.95 2 2.497 2.249 2.4 2.992 2.739 2.662 3.125 3.118
0.1 0.2 2.8 2.949 2.650 2 3.392 3.227 3.73 3.879 3.671
0.1 0.3 2.4 2.704 2.760 2.66 3.461 3.361 2.93 3.671 3.824
0.8 0.2 0.1 0.9 2.66 2.608 2.535 2.93 3.067 3.086 4 3.518 3.505
0.2 0.2 4.53 3.633 3.480 4.26 4.049 4.233 3.73 4.688 4.806
0.2 0.3 5.33 4.054 3.891 4.53 4.895 4.732 5.33 5.175 5.373
0.7 0.3 0.1 0.85 3.2 2.406 2.515 4 3.09 3.060 4.4 3.524 3.475
0.3 0.2 4 3.619 3.705 5.2 4.205 4.503 5.2 4.942 5.112
0.3 0.3 4.4 4.173 4.375 4.8 5.16 5.316 5.6 5.81 6.033

to relax and fill in the occupied zone, which is very important

in the ventilation field.
A comparison between the obtained results and the
theoretical and experimental results of Mathur et al. [2] is
shown in Fig. 9a and b. The present study considered a wide
range of intensity variation from 100 to 1000 W/m2, while only
300, 500, and 700 W/m2 were considered in Ref. [2]. Selected
results are compared with those obtained in Ref. [2]. A
summary of these results for different configurations and solar
intensities are listed in Table 1. There was a fluctuation of both
theoretical results around the measured experimental data.
However, this variation is accepted. The quantitative compar-
ison showed a reasonable agreement between the results
obtained during this study and the published results within the
operating conditions they considered.

6. Conclusions

The present study shows that the chimney width has a very
significant effect of flow rate and ACH compared to the inlet
area size. The results showed that there is an optimum inlet size
beyond which the room ACH would decrease. It can be
concluded that increasing the inlet size three times only
improved the ACH by almost 11%. However, increasing the
chimney width by a factor of three improved the ACH by
almost 25%, keeping the inlet size fixed. The numerical
prediction of flow pattern showed the effect of absorber edge on
flow separation and accordingly the energy dissipated.
Chamfering the inlet sharp edge is expected to further improve
the ventilation rate.

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