भारत सरकार

जल शिक्त मंत्रालय
जल संसाधन, नदी िवकास और गंगा संरक्षण िवभाग
के द्रीय जल आयोग
रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी, पुणे

के द्रीय जल अिभयांित्रकी सेवा के नव िनयक्

ु त
अिधकािरय का इक ीसवां प्रवेशन प्रिशक्षण कायर्क्रम
19 August 2019 – 07 February 2020

िडजाइन और अनस ु ंधान

Module III: Hydel Civil Designs

पणु े
िदसंबर 2019
 
 Government of India 
Central Water Commission 
National Water Academy 
 

के द्रीय जल अिभयांित्रकी सेवा के नव िनयुक्त

अिधकािरय का इक ीसवां प्रवेशन प्रिशक्षण कायर्क्रम
19 August 2019 – 07 February 2020

िडजाइन और अनस
ु ंधान

Module- III
HYDEL CIVIL DESIGNS
02-08 December 2019

 

 
 
Module Co‐ordinator 
Shri S N Pande, Director (Designs) 
 
 
 
 
Pune 
December 2019 

 
 
 Module – III

Hydel Civil Designs

INDEX
Sr. No. Topics Page No.

1. Introduction to Hydropower 01-72

2. Electro-mechanical Equipment/Systems in Hydro Electric Plant 73-84

3. Planning, Analysis and Design of Underground Structures 85-116

4. Design of Power Intakes 117-134

5. Design of Desilting Chambers 135-145

6. Water Conductor System 146-170

7. Hydraulic Transient Studies 171-192

8. Survey & Investigation for Planning of Hydroelectric Projects 193-204

9. Pumped Storage Scheme 205-220

10. Hydropower Projects – Planning and Design Aspects 221-246

11. Underground Excavations; Rock Formation – Genesis; 247-295

Classification Of Rocks – Based On Its Genesis;Rockmass –
Different From Rock; Rock Discontinuity; Introduction To Joints

12. Hydraulic Modelling Techniques 296-323

13. Use of ABAQUS Software for Dam Analysis 324-333

14. Introduction to Phase2 334-338

15. Analysis and Design of Underground Openings & Surface 339-346

Excavations using Unwedge

16. Introduction to Water Hammer and Mass Oscilliation (WHAMO) 347-352

 
 INTRODUCTION TO
HYDROPOWER
Rakesh Kumar,
Director (HPP&I)
CEA

POWER SCENARIO IN THE COUNTRY

Sector–wise Installed Capacity & Energy Generation
INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW) ENERGY GENERATION (BU)
(As on 31.10.2019) 2018-19

Renewables 
9.24% Hydro 
Renewable* (126.76 BU) 9.83%
Nuclear
22.68% (134.89 BU)
1.86% Nuclear
(6.8 GW) (82.6 GW) 2.76%
(37.81 BU)
Hydro Thermal
12.46% 63%
(45.4GW) (229.4 GW) Thermal
78.17%
(1072.24 BU)

Total : 364.2 GW Total : 1371.70 BU*

*(Renewable IC is as on 30.09.2019 ) *(Excluding 4.41 BU imports from Bhutan)

Page 1 of 352
 SHARE OF CENTRAL, STATE AND PRIVATE SECTOR

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW) GENERATION (BU) for 2018-19*

45399 MW 134.89 BU
3394 MW
Private 13567.03 MU
55155.29 MU
10% Private
10%
15046.7 MW
Central
State 41%
49% Central State
41% 49%
26958.5 MW

66171.29 MU

Installed capacity as on 31st

Oct. 2019

HYDRO POWER DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Some Facts

First Hydro Power Station 1897, Sidrapong (130 kW) in Darjeeling

First Major Hydro Station 1902, Sivasamudram (4500 kW) in Mysore

First Private Hydro Station 1915, Tata-Khopoli (32 MW) in Maharashtra

Largest Tunnel Diameter 15m, Srisailam (770 MW) in Andhra Pradesh

Longest Tunnel 27 km, Nathpa Jhakri (1500 MW) in H.P.

Highest Dam 260m, Tehri (1000 MW), Uttarakhand

Highest Head 1026m, Pykara Ultimate (150 MW), T.Nadu

Hydro Capacity in 1947 508 MW

Present Hydro Capacity 45399 MW (As on October, 2019)

Page 2 of 352
 ADVANTAGES OF HYDROPOWER
• Renewable, Clean and Green Source of Energy
• Ancillary support to Grid
• Fastest Ramping Source : Full Load in less than 60 sec.
• Social Sustainability
• Environmental Sustainability
• Economic Sustainability
GHG Emissions/kWh 
Source of Power
(Gram Equivalent CO2)
Thermal – Coal 957
Thermal – Gas 422
RES – Solar 38
Hydro – Storage 10
RES – Wind 9
Nuclear 6
Hydro ‐ RoR 4
Source: Hydro Quebec , Canada 5

REGULATORY PROVISIONS
Section 8. (Hydro-electric generation) of Electricity Act, 2003 provides that :
• Notwithstanding anything contained in section 7, any generating company intending
to set-up a hydro-generating station shall prepare and submit to the Authority for its
concurrence, a scheme estimated to involve a capital expenditure exceeding such
sum, as may be fixed by the Central Government, from time to time, by notification.

• The Authority (CEA) shall, before concurring in any scheme submitted to it under
sub-section (1) have particular regard to, whether or not in its opinion,
a. the proposed river-works will prejudice the prospects for the best ultimate
development of the river or its tributaries for power generation, consistent with
the requirements of drinking water, irrigation, navigation, flood-control, or
other public purposes, and for this purpose the Authority shall satisfy itself,
after consultation with the State Government, the Central Government, or such
other agencies as it may deem appropriate, that an adequate study has been
made of the optimum location of dams and other river-works;
b. the proposed scheme meets the norms regarding dam design and safety.
• Where a multi-purpose scheme for the development of any river in any region is in
operation, the State Government and the generating company shall co-ordinate their
activities with the activities of the person responsible for such scheme in so far as
they are inter-related.

Page 3 of 352
 REGULATORY PROVISIONS
Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC)

It regulates the Tariff and Operation & Maintenance (O&M) of Hydro Power
projects of Central Sector and Inter-State Stations.

State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs)

They regulate the Tariff and Operation & Maintenance (O&M) of Hydro Power
projects of State Sector.

RIVER BASINS IN INDIA

760
680 72
360 0 800 840

INDUS RIVER
SYSTEM
BRAHMAPUTRA
320 C H I N A RIVER SYSTEM
( T I B E T )
960
880 920
GANGA RIVER
SYSTEM
280 DELHI
NEPAL
BHUTAN

240 BANGLA
DAMODAR DESH

MYANMAR
200
CENTRAL INDIAN
RIVER SYSTEM

WEST FLOWING
RIVER SYSTEM EAST FLOWING
RIVER SYSTEM

SHARAVATHI

KUTTIYADI

PERIYAR

Page 4 of 352
 PLAN-WISE HYDRO CAPACITY ADDITION

Five Year Plan

Sector
10th Plan 11th Plan 12th Plan

Central 4495 1550 2584

State 2691 2702 2276

Private 700 1292 619

Total 7886 5544 5479

GROWTH OF INDIAN HYDRO POWER SECTOR

State Private
Central
S. No. Year Sector Sector Total (MW)
Sector (MW)
(MW) (MW)

1 2014-15 736 - - 736

2 2015-16 480 610 426 1516

3 2016-17 80 1555 24 1659

4 2017-18 390 200 205 795

5 2018-19 110 30 - 140

Grand Total 1796 2395 655 4846

10

10

Page 5 of 352
 ISSUES INVOLVED IN SLOW PACE OF HYDRO DEVELOPMENT

 Environment and Forest issues

 Land Acquisition & R&R Issues
 Inadequate Infrastructural facilities
 Law & Order / Local issues
 Geological Surprises
 Natural Calamities
 Inter-State Issues
 High Tariff of Hydro Projects
 Levying of Water Cess
 Other Emerging Issues

11

HYDRO –ELECTRIC PROJECT

A project which harnesses power from

water flowing under pressure through a
prime mover called Water Turbine.

 May be conceived exclusively for power

generation; OR

 Power could be one of the benefits along

with flood control, irrigation, drinking
water supply etc. (multi-purpose
project).
12

Page 6 of 352
 TYPICAL HYDRO STATION

Draft Tube

Tail Race
Channel

13

HYDRO POWER PROJECT LAYOUT

Power
Penstock House
s

Diversion
Tunnels

Switchyard

14

Page 7 of 352
 TYPICAL HYDRO STATION

15

BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING

Hydroelectric Project (HEP) : The project which harnesses power from
water flowing under pressure through the prime mover known as water
turbine which rotates generator.

Run-of-River Schemes (ROR) : Run-of-River schemes are the schemes

either having pondage sufficient to meet diurnal variation of power
demand or no upstream pondage.

Storage based HE Schemes : Schemes with reservoir to store excess

water in high flow period for utilisation during low flow periods.

Pumped Storage HE Schemes : Schemes with two reservoirs, upper &

lower wherein water flows from upper reservoir to lower reservoir during
generation and vice versa during pumping

Multi-purpose Reservoir: Multi-purpose purpose means a reservoir

capable of and intended for use for more than one purpose like Irrigation,
Power Generation, Navigation and Flood Control etc.
16

Page 8 of 352
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING
Full Reservoir Level (FRL) : The normal highest reservoir level that is
utilised for power generation.

Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL) : The level below which the reservoir
will not be drawn down in power projects.

Maximum Water Level (MWL) : It is the full reservoir level including

Flood moderation component and Freeboard level.

Gross Storage : It is the total storage in the reservoir corresponding to FRL.

Live Storage : Live Storage means all storage above Dead Storage between
FRL and MDDL.

Dead Storage : Dead Storage means that portion of the storage which is not
used for power generation purposes i.e. the storage below MDDL.

17

DIAGRAM OF HYDRO ELECTRIC SCHEME

FRL

MDDL

Intake

Maximum
Head

Minimum
Head
Water
Conductor
System

18

Page 9 of 352
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING
E-flow : Environmental flows are water flows required to sustain freshwater
and estuarine ecosystems and the human livelihoods and well being that depend
on these ecosystems. For example: Minimum e-flow notification of MoWR for
upper reaches of River Ganga are 20%, 25% & 30% of Monthly Average Flow
observed during each of preceding 10-daily period in Dry, Lean & High Flow
Season respectively.
Also, MoEF&CC notifies e-flows based on project to project basis.
Design Head : The head at which the turbine will operate to give the best
overall efficiency under various operating conditions.

Gross Head : The difference of elevations between water surfaces of the

forebay/ dam and tailrace under specified conditions.
Net Head : The head chargeable to the turbine less all hydraulic losses in water
conductor system.

19

BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING

90% Dependable Year: The 90 percent dependable year is termed as the year
in which the annual generation has the probability of being equal to or exceeds
90 per cent of the time on annual basis during the expected period of operation
of the scheme. For determination of 90% dependable year, the total energy
generation in all the years for which hydrological data is available is arranged
in descending order and the (N+1) x 0.9th year would represent the 90 percent
dependable year where N is the number of days.

Firm Power : Firm Power in case of storage based hydro projects means the
power which can be generated continuously in 90% of the years for which
discharge data is available. In case of ROR projects, it is the power
corresponding to the minimum mean discharge at the site of the plant in 90%
dependable year.

Water Conductor System (WCS): It is the system through which water is

carried from the dam to power house. It may consist of tunnels, canals,
forebays, pressure shafts/ penstocks, surge tank and inlet valves etc.

20

Page 10 of 352
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING
Intake: Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the
reservoir/ forebay and directs it into the HRT/ penstocks. There are different
types of intake structures available and selection of type of intake structure
depends on various local conditions.

Head Race Tunnel (HRT): A channel/tunnel, which carries the water for all
units from Dam/ Desilting Chamber to the powerhouse for power generation.

Penstock: A closed conduit or pipe for conducting water of each unit to the
powerhouse.

Butterfly Valve: A valve consisting of a rotating circular plate or a pair of

hinged semicircular plates, attached to a transverse spindle and mounted inside
a pipe in order to regulate or prevent flow in water conductor system.

Main Inlet Valve: Main inlet valve works as the gate valve/isolating valve in
the water conductor system. It is located before turbine and allows water flow
from penstock to turbine. MIV acts as closing valve and cuts the flow of water
during an emergency trip
21

BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING

Tail Race Tunnel (TRT): A channel or tunnel that carries the water from the
turbine exit (draft tube) back to the river.

Minimum Mean Discharge (MMD) : In case of HE Projects in Indus Basin,

the average discharge for each 10-day period ( 1st to 10th, 11th to 20th and 21st to
the end of the month) is worked out for each year for which discharge data,
whether observed or estimated, are proposed to be studied for purpose of
design. The mean of the yearly values for each 10-day period will then be
worked out. The lowest of the mean values thus obtained is taken as the
Minimum Mean Discharge.

Pondage: Pondage means Live Storage of only sufficient magnitude to meet

fluctuations in the discharge of the turbines arising from variations in the daily
and the weekly loads of the plant.

Power House: Power House is a building housing the turbines, generator, and
control and protection equipment etc. including auxiliaries for operating the
machines.

22

Page 11 of 352
 BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING
Design Energy: Energy generated in 90% dependable year with 95%
availability of installed capacity.

Secondary Energy : Secondary Energy represents the additional energy

generation in any year over and above the Design Energy.

Carry Over Operations : When good flows available are stored in the
reservoir for use in lean flow years.

Annual Operations : Also called Year to Year operation in which reservoir is

brought down to MDDL at the end of each hydrological year.

Installed Capacity (MW/ MVA) : The total of the capacities shown on the
name-plates of the generating units in a hydropower plant

Annual Load Factor: The ratio of number of units actually generated in a year
to number of units which would have been generated for the given installed
capacity is called as Annual Load Factor for the station.

23

BASIC TERMINOLOGY OF HYDRO POWER ENGINEERING

Daily Load Factor: The ratio of number of units actually generated in a day to
number of units which would have been generated for the given installed
capacity during the day is called as Daily Load Factor for the station

Power Factor : The ratio of the actual electrical power dissipated by an AC

circuit to the product of the r.m.s. values of current and voltage. The difference
between the two is caused by reactance in the circuit and represents power that
does no useful work.

24

Page 12 of 352
 REGION-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF H.E. POTENTIAL
TOTAL: 145320 MW (ABOVE 25 MW)

25

HYDRO-ELECTRIC POTENTIAL - REGION-WISE

Region Potential Capacity Capacity Developed Capacity under

(MW) Construction

Total > 25 MW Conv. % Conv. %

(MW) (MW)

Northern 53395 52263 19023 36.40 5516 10.55

Western 8928 8131 5552 68.28 400 4.92

Southern 16458 15890 9689 60.97 1060 6.67

Eastern 10949 10680 4923 46.09 1253 11.73

NE Region 58971 58356 1427 2.45 2600 4.45

Total 148701 145320 40614* 27.95 10829** 7.45

*In addition 4785 MW of Pumped Storage Capacity is also in operation

** In addition 1580 MW Pumped Storage is under construction 26

26

Page 13 of 352
 PUMPED STORAGE POTENTIAL AND DEVELOPMENT

Nos. Capacity (MW)
Identified potential in 1980s 63 96,529.6* 
Not found feasible  15 29,930 
Additional Schemes identified subsequently 23 15,820
Revised PSP  potential   71 82,419.6 

Potential  Under Constn. 
Region Developed (MW)
(MW) (MW)
Northern 8,185 (5 Nos.) 0 1000 (1 No.)
Western 32,209 (31 Nos.) 1840 (4 Nos.) 80 (1 No.)
Southern 12780.6 (13 Nos.) 2005.6 (3 Nos.) 500 (1No)
Eastern 12345 (12 Nos.) 940 (2 Nos.) 0
North Eastern 16900 (10 Nos.) 0 0
Total                              
82419.6 (71 Nos.) 4785.6 (9 Nos.)** 1580  (3 Nos.)
*Original identified potential was 96,524 was enhanced due to revised capacity of Nagarjun Sagar PSP (705.6
MW).
*In addition 2 Nos. of schemes namely Paithan(12 MW) and Ujjaini(12 MW) in Aurangabad and Solapur in
Maharashtra are also under operation.

27

TYPE-WISE SUMMARY OF HYDRO PROJECTS

IN OPERATION (45399 MW)

28

Page 14 of 352
 CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRO POWER PROJECTS
BASED ON INSTALLED CAPACITY

MAJOR SCHEMES
Schemes with installed capacity > 100 MW.
MEDIUM SCHEMES
Schemes with installed capacity ‐ 25 MW to 100 MW.
SMALL SCHEMES
Schemes with installed capacity ‐ 2 MW to 25 MW.
MINI SCHEMES
Schemes with installed capacity ‐ 100 KW to 2 MW.
MICRO SCHEMES
Schemes with installed capacity upto 100 KW.

29

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STORAGE

RUN-OF-RIVER SCHEMES
Schemes with very little or no storage (Daily/
Weekly)

STORAGE SCHEMES
Schemes with reservoir to store excess water in
high flow period for utilization during low flow
periods.

PUMPED STORAGE SCHEMES

Schemes with two reservoirs ,upper & lower,
water flows from upper reservoir to lower
reservoir during generation and vice versa
during pumping
30

Page 15 of 352
 CLASSIFICATION OF WORKS IN HYDRO ELECTRIC PROJECTS
 CIVIL WORKS
Dam works, Intake structure, Diversion Tunnel, Head Race Tunnel, Power
House building, Tail Race Tunnel

 HYDRO‐MECHANICAL WORKS
Gates, Valves etc.

 ELECTRO‐MECHANICAL WORKS
Turbines, Generators, Control, Protection equipment and other auxiliaries

 BALANCE OF PLANT (BOP)

Switchyard, POT Head Yard, SCADA, Fire Fighting System, HT (above
650 V) Cables, LT (below 650 V) Cables, Protection & Metering System (Relay
& Meters), Unit Auxiliary Transformers (UATs), Station Auxiliary Transformers
(SATs)

31

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF HYDRO SCHEMES

 DAM WITH CONTROL WORKS
Dams are constructed for storage of water and to create head.
 STORAGE RESERVOIR
Water available from a catchment area is stored in reservoir for
producing power according to the requirement throughout the year.
 DESILTING CHAMBER
It is a chamber in which the sediment particles up to a specified grain size
and above would settle ( by slowing down their velocity ) thereby allowing
relatively silt‐free water to flow into the head race tunnel.

 WATER CONDUCTOR SYSTEM (HRT AND PENSTOCK)

The system through which the water is carried from the dam to the
power house.
 GATES
A barrier that regulates water released from a reservoir to the power
generation unit.


32

Page 16 of 352
 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF HYDRO SCHEMES

VALVES
The sluicing valves control the water flowing to the downstream and
automatic isolating valves stop the water flow when the electrical
load is suddenly thrown off from the plant. Automatic isolating valve
only operates during emergency to protect the system from burst
out.
POWER HOUSE
Building housing the turbines, generator, control, protection
equipment and other auxiliaries .
TAIL RACE
Water way to carry water back to the river
SWITCHYARD
Power generated is pooled in switchyard & transmitted to load
centers.

33

STORAGE AND RUN-OF-RIVER PROJECTS

34

Page 17 of 352
 PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS

Power In during
charging

Upper Reservoir

Substation

Motor
Height Operation
Shaft

Pump /Turbine

Lower Reservoir

Flow of Electricity

Flow of Water

35

PUMPED STORAGE PROJECTS

Power out during

discharging

Upper Reservoir

Substation

Height Generator
Shaft Operation

Pump /Turbine

Lower Reservoir

Flow of Electricity

Flow of Water

36

Page 18 of 352
 CLASSIFICATION OF ROR PROJECTS

Run-of-River Scheme without Pondage

A hydro electric power generating scheme that
uses the flow of the stream as it occurs.

Run-of-River Scheme with Pondage

A hydro electric power generating scheme
with sufficient pondage for meeting daily or
weekly variation of power demand.

37

CLASSIFICATION OF STORAGE PROJECTS BASED ON

FUNCTIONS
Multi-purpose Project
Power may be one of the benefits along with
Flood Control, Irrigation, Navigation, Drinking
Water Supply etc.

Purely Hydro-electric Project

Project is conceived exclusively for power
generation.

38

Page 19 of 352
 BASICS OF POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

Power Potential Studies are carried out for

assessment of the available power potential
and likely benefits from a scheme based on:

 a certain set of inflows and head conditions

 corresponding to fulfillment of certain objectives/

constraints

 ensuring optimum development of river/basin

potential.

39

POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES OF R-O-R PROJECTS

Power is calculated using the relation:-

P=9.81 *Q*Hn*n
where

P is Power generated in kW
Q is Discharge in Cumecs
n is overall efficiency of TG units
Hn is Net Head acting on turbine

Net Head= Gross Head – Losses in Water Conductor System

Gross head= Reservoir level-Tail Water Level (Francis)
= Reservoir level-Centre Line of Turbine (Pelton)

40

Page 20 of 352
 SELECTION OF FRL & MDDL

FRL is selected mainly based on :

 Techno-economic considerations
 Submergence in the Reservoir Area
 Tail Water Level of Upstream Developments
 Geological Constraints in raising Dam Height

MDDL is selected mainly based on:

 MDDL in case of ROR schemes is selected mainly from
consideration of Pondage Requirements for Peaking
Operation of the Proposed Station.
 In case of Storage Schemes, techno-economic and other
aspects like (New Zero Elevation) & turbine operational
limits are also considered.

41

SELECTION OF 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

 Flow data is arranged, hydrological year-wise

 Unrestricted Energy Potential is worked out for
all the years (N) and is arranged in Descending
Order.
 If flow data are Available for ‘n’ no. of years,
then Nth year would constitute 90%
Dependable Year :

Nth Year = (n+1) * 0.9

42

Page 21 of 352
 POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES
(R-O-R SCHEMES WITHOUT PONDAGE)
 Work Out 90% dependable year.

 For 90% dependable year, work out energy benefits

corresponding to alternative of installed capacities

 Select installed capacity after carrying out “Incremental

Analysis ” corresponding to the most attractive alternative

 Select unit size by considering:

 Pattern of generation in various periods
 Transportation constraints, if any

43

POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

(R-O-R SCHEMES WITH PONDAGE)
 Work Out 90% dependable year.

 For 90% dependable year, work out energy benefits

corresponding to alternative of installed capacities

 Select installed capacity after carrying out “Incremental

Analysis“ corresponding to the most attractive alternative
with due consideration to lean period power output and load
factor.

 Select unit size by considering Transportation constraints, if

any

 Hourly operation of the pondage is carried out to work out

pondage requirements for daily/ weekly peaking

44

Page 22 of 352
 REQUIREMENT OF PONDAGE

“Pondage may be defined as the holding back and

releasing later of water at the dam of a water power
development project to:
 equalize daily or weekly fluctuations in river flow or
 permit irregular hourly use of water by the wheels to
accord with fluctuations in load demand.
Fluctuations in river flow may be :
(1) natural, due to rainfall or snow melting or
(2) artificial, due to pondage of water at other plants
upstream".
Source : Water Power Engineering by H.K. BARROWS
(Third edition 1943-reprinted in 1980) :- Tata McGraw-
Hill (Pg. 180)

45

ADVANTAGES OF PONDAGE
&
OPERATING PATTERN OF DAILY PONDAGE
 Flexibility in operation of the Plant
 Higher Capacity
 Greater Energy Benefits

14

12
Pondage (Mcum)

10

8 Pondage
Required
6

0
21-22
22-23
23-24
0-1
1-2
2-3
3-4
4-5
5-6
6-7
7-8
8-9
9-10
10-11
11-12
12-13
13-14
14-15
15-16
16-17
17-18
18-19
19-20
20-21

Hours of Operation

46

Page 23 of 352
 CALCULATIONS & FACTORS AFFECTING PONDAGE

CALCULATIONS
 Work out minimum flows in 90% dependable year.
 Estimate design discharge corresponding to installed capacity.
 Estimate required Pondage capacity based on hourly operation of the
Plant based on the desired load demand pattern.

FACTORS AFFECTING
 Number of blocks of peak operation (Higher the number of blocks,
lesser is the Pondage required)
 Quantum of natural inflows
 Designed Outflows from the power house.

47

CASE STUDY FOR R-O-R PROJECT

DS-II

Rishi DS-I Rangit

Khola River

Surge shaft
Power House

48

Page 24 of 352
 SELECTION OF DAM SITE & THE FRL
For location of dam, the following two options were
studied:
 Option - I - Near Rishi restricting the FRL to EI. 468 m for
safeguarding the religious structures at Tatopani and Hot
Spring.

 Option - II - about 250m upstream of Tatopani with FRL of

493 m to avoid submergence of religious structures at
Tatopani and Hot Spring. This alternative would have
exploited full potential available downstream of Rangit
Stage III project.

49

RANGIT-IV – ISSUE OF TATOPANI

Tatopanai Dam

Hot spring

50

Page 25 of 352
 GUIDELINES FOR HYDROLOGY CHAPTER FOR PREPARATION OF
DPR (As per CWC Guidelines for preparation of DPR for
Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects,2010)
A- Classification by storage behind the structures
A-I : Diversion projects without pondage
A-2 : Diversion projects with pondage
A-3 : Within the year storage projects
A-4 : 'Over the year' storage projects
A-5 : Complex system involving combinations of 1
to 4 above mentioned.

51

GUIDELINES FOR HYDROLOGY CHAPTER FOR PREPARATION OF

DPR
Type of project Description Minimum length of data
of ‘A’ for use
Diversion projects A1 10 years
without pondage
Diversion projects A2 10 years
with pondage
Within the year A3 25 years
storage projects
'Over the year' A4 40 years
storage projects
Complex system A5 depending upon the
involving predominant element (A 1 to
combinations of 1 to 4 A4)
above mentioned.

52

Page 26 of 352
 DATA/ PARAMETERS OF STUDY

 Hydrological Year - June to May

 Inflow Data - 26 Years
 FRL - 468 m
 MDDL - 458 m
 Avg. Gross Head - 118.67 m
 Head losses in WCS - 15 m
 Net Head - 103.67 m
 Overall TG Efficiency - 92%
 Avg. Tail Water Level - 346 M

53

SELECTION OF 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

Unrestricted Unrestricted  
Year Energy Year Energy Potential
Potential (MU) MU)
1-2  743.58   14-15  782.52  
2-3  634.90   15-16  867.34  
3-4  747.53   16-17  934.22  
4-5  676.14   17-18  1063.34  
5-6  865.54   18-19  989.59  
6-7  750.79   19-20  856.40  
7-8  868.48   20-21  1098.16  
8-9  765.86   21-22  1319.62  
9-10  766.51   22-23  1286.65  
10-11  814.11   23-24  1217.90  
11-12  649.20   24-25  1761.46  
12-13  618.42   25-26  905.00  
13-14  687.43   26-27  703.24  

54

Page 27 of 352
 SELECTION OF 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR
S. Year Annual S. Year Annual
No. Unrestricted No. Unrestricted
Energy Energy
Potential (MU) Potential (MU)
1   24-25  1761.46   14   10-11  814.11  
2   21-22  1319.62   15   14-15  782.52  
3   22-23  1286.65   16   9-10  766.51  
4   23-24  1217.90   17   8-9  765.86  
5   20-21  1098.16   18   6-7  750.79  
6   17-18  1063.34   19   3-4  747.53  
7   18-19  989.59   20   1-2  743.58  
8   16-17  934.22   21   26-27  703.24  
9   25-26  905.00   22   13-14  687.43  
10   7-8  868.48   23   4-5  676.14  
11   15-16  867.34   24   11-12  649.20  
12   5-6  865.54   25   2-3  634.90  
13   19-20  856.40   26   12-13  618.42  
90% Year = (n + 1) * 0.9th Year
=  24.30   (24th Year)

55

SUMMARY OF POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

FOR 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW)

70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Annual
Energy 376.9 412.7 446.8 479.6 511.0 540.8 567.4 590.9 608.1
MU)
Potential
Exploited 58.1 63.6 68.8 73.9 78.7 83.3 87.4 91.0 93.7
(%)
Incremental
Energy - 35.8 34.1 32.8 31.4 29.8 26.6 23.5 17.2
(MU)
Incremental
Energy - 3577 3408 3280 3148 2984 2623 2356 1715
(kWh/kW)

56

Page 28 of 352
 PATTERN OF POWER OUTPUT IN 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

250

225

200
POWER OUTPUT (MW)

175

150

125
Firm Power – 16.98 MW
100

75

50

25

II I
II
III
III

III
I

I
III
II

III

II
I

II

I
II

II
.

b.
.

.
.

.
ct

ec
n

pr
n.
ug

p.

.
ov
.

b.
.
ly

.
.

ay
ar
ct

ec
n

pr
ug

Fe
Ju

Ja
Se

A
Fe
Ju

Ju

M
O

M
D

A
A

PERIOD

Un-Restricted Power Restricted to 120 MW

57

PATTERN OF ENERGY GENERATION IN

90% DEPENDABLE YEAR
700

600
ANNUAL ENERGY (MU)

500

400 0.6204

300

200

100

0
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

INSTALLED CAPACITY (MW)

58

Page 29 of 352
 PATTERN OF INCREMENTAL ENERGY GENERATION (kWh/ kW) IN
90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

PATTERN OF INCREMENTAL ENERGY GENERATION

(kWh/ kW) IN 90% DEPENDABLE YEAR

4500

4000

3500
INCREMENTAL ENERGY (KWh/kW)

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160

INSTALLED CAPACITY (M W)

59

POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES - CONCLUSIONS

 It is seen that incremental energy

generation shows a decreasing pattern for
installed capacities beyond 120 MW.

 It is, further, seen that incremental Energy

(KWh/KW) tends to fall sharply for
installed capacities beyond 120 MW.

60

Page 30 of 352
 SELECTION OF INSTALLED CAPACITY

Selected as 120 MW based on :

 Incremental Analysis

 Load Factor (about 14.15%-Minimal and

51.44% Annual)/ Firm Power
Considerations (about 16.98 MW)

 Potential Exploited (More than 83%)

61

DESIGN ENERGY GENERATION

Month Inflows Unrestricted Energy Design Peaking
Potential Generation with Energy with Hrs.
IC=120 MW 95% m/c
Availability
(Cumecs) MW MU MU MU
Jun. I 128.14 119.89 28.77 28.77 27.33 23.43
Jun. II 154.10 144.18 34.60 28.80 27.36 24.00
Jun. III 146.66 137.22 32.93 28.80 27.36 24.00
July. I 165.56 154.90 37.18 28.80 27.36 24.00
July. II 175.77 164.45 39.47 28.80 27.36 24.00
July. III 217.73 203.71 53.78 31.68 30.10 24.00
Aug. I 161.78 151.37 36.33 28.80 27.36 24.00
Aug. II 161.78 151.37 36.33 28.80 27.36 24.00
Aug. III 119.95 112.23 29.63 29.63 29.63 22.45
Sep. I 156.37 146.30 35.11 28.80 27.36 24.00
Sep. II 149.56 139.93 33.58 28.80 27.36 24.00
Sep. III 138.47 129.56 31.09 28.80 27.36 24.00
Oct. I 101.18 94.66 22.72 22.72 22.72 18.93
Oct. II 256.66 240.14 57.63 28.80 27.36 24.00
Oct. III 81.65 76.39 20.17 20.17 20.17 15.28
Nov. I 37.55 35.13 8.43 8.43 8.43 7.03
Nov. II 34.40 32.18 7.72 7.72 7.72 6.44
Nov. III 30.24 28.29 6.79 6.79 6.79 5.66

62

Page 31 of 352
 DESIGN ENERGY GENERATION
Month Inflows Unrestricted Potential Energy Design Energy Peaking
Generation with with 95% m/c Hrs.
IC-120 MW Availability
(Cumecs) MW MU MU MU
Dec. I 23.18 21.69 5.21 5.21 5.21 4.34
Dec. II 18.52 17.33 4.16 4.16 4.16 3.47
Dec. III 18.65 17.45 4.61 4.61 4.61 3.49
Jan. I 18.65 17.45 4.19 4.19 4.19 3.49
Jan. II 18.27 17.09 4.10 4.10 4.10 3.42
Jan. III 18.27 17.09 4.51 4.51 4.51 3.42
Feb. I 18.14 16.98 4.07 4.07 4.07 3.40
Feb. II 19.15 17.92 4.30 4.30 4.30 3.58
Feb. III 18.77 17.57 3.37 3.37 3.37 3.51
Mar. I 18.77 17.57 4.22 4.22 4.22 3.51
Mar. II 18.77 17.57 4.22 4.22 4.22 3.51
Mar. III 18.77 17.57 4.64 4.64 4.64 3.51
Apr. I 18.65 17.45 4.19 4.19 4.19 3.49
Apr. II 18.52 17.33 4.16 4.16 4.16 3.47
Apr. III 21.17 19.81 4.75 4.75 4.75 3.96
May. I 40.19 37.61 9.03 9.03 9.03 7.52
May. II 41.83 39.14 9.39 9.39 9.39 7.83
May. III 55.94 52.34 13.82 13.82 13.82 10.47
Annual
Energy (MU) 649.20 540.84 523.44

63

DIURNAL PONDAGE REQUIREMENTS

Design Net Head 103.67m

Installed Capacity 120 MW
Peaking Discharge 128.25 Cumec
Firm Power 16.98 MW
LF (Minimal-Daily) 14.15%
Peaking Hrs. 3.40 Hrs.
Minimum Discharge Q 18.15 Cumec
Pondage Requirements 1.35 MCM

64

Page 32 of 352
 PATTERN OF HOURLY OPERATION OF PONDAGE

65

COMPARISON OF RANGIT STAGE-IV

WITH AND WITHOUT PONDAGE

Rangit Rangit
with Pondage without Pondage
Firm Power 18 MW 18 MW

I.C. 120 MW 60-70 MW

Unit Size 40 MW 20-25 MW

Cost Civil Cost almost similar in both

Peaking 120 MW Not possible

Annual Energy 540 MU 340-360 MU

66

Page 33 of 352
 SELECTION OF UNIT SIZE

Main Consideration :Transport Constraints

Unit Size Considered: 30 MW, 40 MW & 60 MW
Unit Size selected : 40 MW

Advantages:

• Ease of Transport
• Flexibility of Operation
• Greater availability in case of planned &
Forced Outages

67

RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

OBJECTIVES
These studies involve operation of a reservoir or a group of
reservoirs with past historical inflow data for:
New Schemes
 Selection of optimum level of dam height and Reservoir Parameters
like FRL and MDDL
 Level of firm power and energy generation etc. considering different
operational objectives & constraints

Existing Schemes
 Evolve Suitable Operational Policy

68

Page 34 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

Reservoir simulation studies are categorized as under:

Carry Over Operations:
When good flows available are stored in the reservoir
for use in lean flow years.
Annual Operations:
Also called Year to Year operation in which reservoir is
brought down to MDDL at the end of each hydrological
year.

69

ENERGY POTENTIAL AND FIRM POWER

WITHOUT STORAGE

70

Page 35 of 352
 ENERGY POTENTIAL AND FIRM POWER WITH STORAGE

71

RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

INPUTS
Hydrological Data (Inflow/Evaporation data)

Physical Characteristics (Reservoir Area‐capacity  

characteristics, Tailwater Rating Curve, losses in WCS, 
Electrical and Hydraulic efficiencies etc.)
Operational Constraints (minimum discharge to meet 

irrigation, operation rule curve etc.)
Operational Objectives (no. of permissible failures) 

72

Page 36 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES
INPUT DATA

 Hydrological Flow Data i.e. Monthly/ Ten Daily

arranged in Hydrological Year‐wise (June to

May etc.)
 Evaporation Loss Data i.e. Month‐wise in mm

73

RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

INPUTS DATA
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 
 Reservoir Area‐Elevation and Capacity‐Elevation
Characteristics
 Specify Full Reservoir Level & Minimum
Drawdown level
 Tail Water Level (Fixed Value or Rating Curve)
 Losses in Water Conductor System
 Electrical and Hydraulic efficiencies etc.
74

Page 37 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES
INPUT DATA

OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS
Minimum Discharges to meet environmental or 

other non‐power water requirements like 
Irrigation and Drinking Water Supply etc.
Operation Rule Curve for Moderation of Flood 

Peaks.
Releases for Navigation, if any

75

RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

INPUT DATA

OPERATIONAL OBJECTIVES 

Number of Permissible Failures in simulation 
considering desired level of Dependability.

76

Page 38 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

Dependability Concept
 In any storage scheme, storage capacity is a
function of both targeted draft and the reliability.
 For fixed draft, storage would increase with
increase in level of reliability which means higher
dam height and thus greater cost of project.
 For fixed storage, greater reliability means lower
draft and consequently lesser firm power output.
77

RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

Dependability Criteria
Power ‐ 90%

Irrigation ‐ 75%
Drinking Water Supply &  ‐ 100%
Navigation

78

Page 39 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION STUDIES

OUTPUT

In the form of different variables like 
 Reservoir Levels
 Power house & Spillway discharges
 Evaporation
 Head
 Energy/power generation.

79

STANDARD RESERVOIR OPERATION POLICY

 Select Tentative Firm Power corresponding to

dependable flows and average head conditions.
 Considering the committed releases for
Irrigation, Navigation & Drinking Water Supply
& rule curve for operation of reservoir, simulate
the reservoir, hydrological year‐wise.
 In case no. of failures are less, increase firm
power and simulate the reservoir again.
 In case no. of failures are more, decrease firm
power and simulate the reservoir again.
 Continue the process till objectives are
accomplished.
80

Page 40 of 352
 RESERVOIR SIMULATION POLICY
(CARRY OVER BASIS)
Start Simulation either (i) from beginning of
monsoon with Reservoir at MDDL or (ii) from end
of monsoon with Reservoir at FRL (preferably (i)).
Releases are initially made for firm power or other
objectives and the extra water is stored in the
reservoir for use in lean years .
Reservoir is gradually built up to FRL.
When reservoir is at FRL, any extra water available
is used for generating secondary generation up to
the installed capacity.
Any extra water still available is spilled.
81

RESERVOIR SIMULATION POLICY

(ANNUAL OPERATION)

 Start Simulation either (i) from beginning of monsoon with

Reservoir at MDDL or (ii) from end of monsoon with
Reservoir at FRL (preferably (i)).
 Releases are made for firm power or other objectives &
extra water is stored in the reservoir.
 Reservoir is gradually build up to FRL.
 When reservoir is at FRL, extra water available is used for
generating secondary generation up to the installed
capacity.
 Any extra water still available is spilled.
 During lean flow periods, reservoir is gradually drawn
down so as to be at MDDL at the onset of next monsoon.

82

Page 41 of 352
 SELECTION OF FRL

FRL is selected mainly based on techno‐

economic & and other considerations
like
 Submergence in the Reservoir Area
 Tail Water Level of Upstream
Developments
 Geological Constraints in raising Dam
Height
 Availability of adequate flows

83

SELECTION OF MDDL

In case of Storage Schemes, techno‐economic

and other aspects like silt (New Zero Elevation)
& turbine operational limits are the main
consideration.
(Sometimes, aspects like diameter of Intake,
water cover required to avoid vortex formation
etc. are also considered.)

84

Page 42 of 352
 SELECTION OF MDDL IN STORAGE SCHEMES

85

SELECTION OF 90% Dependable Year

 Annual Energy is worked out for all the years (N)

using simulation model considering operational
constraints and desired operational objectives
corresponding to set of input data.
 Annual Energy Generation is arranged in
Descending Order.
 If the data are Available for ‘n’ no. of years, then
Nth year as below would constitute 90%
Dependable Year :
Nth Year = (n+1) * 0.9 and
Energy Benefits in the Nth year (arranged in
descending order) would constitute energy
benefits in 90% dependable year.
86

Page 43 of 352
 To find 90% Dependable Energy

S. No. Year Annual Energy S. No. Year Annual Energy 

(MU) (MU)
1 1978/79 20987.5 13 1990/91 21479.3
2 1979/80 19319.4 14 1991/92 19735.4
3 1980/81 20547.6 15 1992/93 16295.7
4 1981/82 21573.0 16 1993/94 18386.5
5 1982/83 18611.3 17 1994/95 17136.7
6 1983/84 18971.7 18 1995/96 20739.6
7 1984/85 19965.2 19 1996/97 21634.3
20 1997/98 18492.8
8 1985/86 20261.8
21 1998/99 20404.9
9 1986/87 18570.8
22 1999/00 19859.9
10 1987/88 18156.2
23 2000/01 19411.7
11 1988/89 18862.4 24 2001/02 18822.6
12 1989/90 21279.0 25 2002/03 16862.8

87

TO FIND 90% DEPENDABLE ENERGY

ARRANGE IN DESCENDING ORDER
S. No. Year Annual Energy  S. No. Year Annual Energy 
(MU) (MU)
1 1996/97 21634.3 13  2000/01 19411.7
2 1981/82 21573.0 14 1979/80 19319.4
3 1990/91 21479.3 15 1983/84 18971.7
4 1989/90 21279.0 16 1988/89 18862.4
5 1978/79 20987.5 17 2001/02 18822.6
18 1982/83 18611.3
6 1995/96 20739.6
19 1986/87 18570.8
7 1980/81 20547.6
20 1997/98 18492.8
8 1998/99 20404.9
21 1993/94 18386.5
9 1985/86 20261.8 22 1987/88 18156.2
10 1984/85 19965.2
23 1994/95 17136.7
11 1999/00 19859.9
24 2002/03 16862.8
12 1991/92 19735.4 25 1992/93 16295.7
90% Dep. Year Energy  = 17136.7
90% Dep. Year =  (25+1)*0.9=23.4
i.e., 23rd year
88

Page 44 of 352
 SELECTION OF INSTALLED CAPACITY

Main Consideration :
• Techno‐economic considerations like
incremental cost‐benefit analysis
• System Considerations like lean period
load factor determined by power
absorption studies

89

SELECTION OF UNIT SIZE

Main Consideration :
Transport Constraints
Other Considerations:
• Techno‐economic Consideration.
• System Considerations.
• Size of Cavity in case of UG Power House 
especially in Himalayan Region.
• Space Considerations.
• Greater availability in case of Planned & 
Forced Outages

90

Page 45 of 352
 Case Study

91

ASSUMPTIONS/ CONSIDERATIONS
IN THE STUDIES FOR KOLODYNE-I

 Hydrological Year‐ June to May.                        
 Tail Water Level ‐ 176.3.m (Constant)
 Overall TG Efficiency ‐ 90% (Constant)
 Head Loss in WCS ‐ 2.5m (Constant)
 Dependability Criteria ‐ 90%
 New Zero Elevation ‐ 279 m
 Constraint on Dam Ht.‐ 420 m (Submergence 
of plain land)

92

Page 46 of 352
 SALIENT FEATURES
KOLODYNE HE PROJECT ST.-I

Location Lunglei distt, Mizoram
River Mat River
I.C.  120 MW
Gross Storage‐ 514 MCM (at FRL‐390m)
Live Storage 395 MCM
Annual Runoff‐Max                 
2008 MCM
Min.    726 MCM 
Average 1116 MCM
Max. Net Head (m) about 210 m

93

NATURAL INFLOWS( CUMECS)

Year Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May

1‐2 63.7 69.6 83.8 73.3 40.1 11.0 5.3 1.0 0.5 0.9 1.4 4.0
2‐3 18.8 72.7 98.0 66.7 36.7 6.4 3.9 1.7 1.0 0.8 1.8 8.3
3‐4 38.0 83.3 101.3 120.8 98.0 21.0 6.9 2.8 4.1 3.4 9.5 21.6
4‐5 26.0 58.5 135.4 81.3 68.8 9.6 3.0 1.0 0.8 1.5 3.5 32.5
5‐6 53.5 73.1 52.8 60.0 19.2 0.7 0.8 0.3 0.1 0.5 1.4 12.3
6‐7 43.3 93.5 86.4 70.1 35.3 10.1 2.2 0.5 0.2 0.7 0.7 2.2
7‐8 8.6 90.8 127.3 49.0 25.0 7.8 4.4 1.8 0.3 3.4 5.1 25.5
8‐9 34.6 53.6 93.1 52.5 9.5 5.6 2.5 1.2 1.3 1.9 4.9 45.4
9‐10 73.7 47.3 67.1 67.8 22.8 1.8 1.6 1.1 0.3 1.2 2.1 32.5
10‐11 37.6 54.4 88.6 85.3 47.30 13.9 4.4 5.4 6.0 14.5 85.1 6.7
11‐12 16.8 60.4 46.0 45.7 27.40 4.6 2.7 1.6 0.8 1.1 5.2 77.2
12‐13 197.0 49.5 86.6 98.3 64.50 7.1 5.9 2.4 1.2 2.6 2.9 24.1
13‐14 49.8 63.6 72.2 135.1 219.0 16.9 6.8 5.2 15.0 26.2 109.5 41.9
14‐15 102.2 216.8 96.1 55.2 21.70 6.5 3.0 1.2 0.9 1.2 3.4 7.6
15‐16 32.5 110.6 64.9 72.5 31.8 8.1 2.4 0.7 0.8 2.0 1.4 38.8
16‐17 85.4 66.0 76.4 52.6 45.8 22.0 9.8 2.9 3.6 3.5 33.4 54.5
17‐18 107.8 45.2 92.6 41.6 16.1 7.7 3.1 2.2 2.4 3.1 3.1 68.9
18‐19 39.0 115.3 50.1 73.6 40.4 54.7 13.9 2.3 2.7 14.0 51.5 79.8
19‐20 106.7 160.4 93.1 56.6 18.7 7.5 3.0 1.3 2.0 2.9 11.0 44.3

94

Page 47 of 352
 AREA-CAPACITY CHARACTERISTICS

Elevation Area Capacity

(m) (Sq.Km.) (Mcum.)
252 0 0
260 0.20 0.80
280 0.85 10.15
300 1.89 37.85
320 2.95 86.35
340 4.19 157.25
360 6.22 258.90
380 8.94 409.40
400 19.89 673.57

95

EVAPORATION LOSSES

Month Evaporation (mm) 
Jan 45.0
Feb 65.0
Mar 122.0
Apr 130.0
May 139.0
Jun 115.0
Jul 111.0
Aug 108.0
Sep 91.0
Oct 80.0
Nov 47.0
Dec 40.0
96

Page 48 of 352
 FRL, MDDL AND FIRM POWER
FRL MDDL Firm Power
(m) (m) (MW)
350 285 13.80
290 13.95
295 13.97
300 14.41
305 14.50
360 300 17.44
304 17.65
308 18.21
312 18.25
316 18.30
97

FRL, MDDL AND FIRM POWER

FRL MDDL Firm Power

(m) (m) (MW)
370 310 22.00
312 22.10
315 23.36
317 23.42
320 23.45
380 318 28.70
320 28.80
322 29.91
325 29.98
327 30.00
98

Page 49 of 352
 FRL, MDDL AND FIRM POWER

FRL  MDDL  Firm Power

(m) (m)  (MW)
390 327 37.49
330 38.10
332 38.20
335 38.30
340 38.35
400 330 45.12
332 46.24
335 46.30
337 48.14
340 48.50
99

FRL, MDDL AND FIRM POWER

FRL MDDL Firm Power

(m) (m) (MW)
410 340 48.55
342 48.60
344 49.95
346 50.00
348 50.21
420 344 49.94
346 49.98
348 50.00
350 50.70
352 50.75
100

Page 50 of 352
 INCREMENTAL FIRM POWER AND ENERGY
FRL MDDL    Firm  Incremental  I.C. Annual Incremental 
(M) (m) Power     Firm Power      (MW) Energy Energy    
(MW) (MW) (GWh) (GWh)

350 300 14.41 ‐ 45 204.78 ‐

360 308 18.21 3.80 55 240.67 35.89
370 315 23.36 5.15 70 280.76 40.09
380 322 29.91 6.56 90 348.77 68.01
390 330 38.10 8.19 120 392.86 44.09
400 337 48.14 10.04 150 421.75 28.89
410 344 49.95 1.81 150 437.60 15.85
420 350 50.70 0.75 150 444.30 6.70

101

COST OF ENERGY GENERATION

FRL Installed  Total Cost       Present  Cost of  Incremental 

(m) Capacity    ( Rs.Crores) Worth of  Generation Cost of 
(MW) Energy ( Rs./kWh) Generation
(GWh) ( Rs./kWh)

350 45 315.50 1760.95 2.52 ‐

360 55 373.00 2069.58 2.53 2.61
370 70 443.00 2414.32 2.58 2.85
380 90 526.50 2999.15 2.47 2.01
390 120 633.50 3378.29 2.63 3.96
400 150 741.50 3626.72 2.87 6.11
410 150 808.44 3763.06 3.02 6.90
420 150 938.93 3820.64 3.45 31.83

102

Page 51 of 352
 INCREMENTAL COST PER MW

FRL I.C.    Cost of  Cost of  Total Cost Increment

(M) ( MW) Civil Works Elect.  Cost per al Cost of 
(Rs.Crores) Works (Rs.Crores) Mw I.C. per 
(Rs.Crores) (Rs.Crs) MW

350 45 257.00 58.50 315.50 7.01 ‐

360 55 301.50 71.50 373.00 6.78 5.75
370 70 352.00 91.00 443.00 6.33 4.67
380 90 409.50 117.00 526.50 5.85 4.18
390 120 477.50 156.00 633.50 5.28 3.57
400 150 546.50 195.00 741.50 4.94 3.60
410 150 613.44 195.00 808.44 5.39 INFINITY
420 150 743.93 195.00 938.93 6.26 INFINIY

103

Results of the Study

Cost of P roje ct pe r MW Incre me nta l Cost of P roje ct pe r MW Incre me nta l Firm P owe r
12
8.0 10.0
Project Cost (Rs. Crs.)

Inc. Firm Power (MW)

7.0 10
8.0
6.0
8
5.0
6.0
4.0 6

3.0 4.0
4
2.0
2.0 2
1.0

0.0 0
0.0
340 360 380 400 420 440 340 360 380 400 420 440
340 360 380 400 420 440

FRL (M) FRL (M ) FRL (M)

Cost of Ge ne ra tion Incre me nta l Cost of Ge ne ra tion Incre me nta l E ne rgy

Incremental Cost (Rs./ kWh)

4
Co st of generation (Rs./

35 70

30 60
Inc. Energy (GWh)

3
25 50
kWh )

20
2 40

15 30
1 10 20

5
0 10

340 360 380 400 420 440 0 0

340 360 380 400 420 440 340 360 380 400 420 440
FRL (M)
FRL (M) FRL (M)

104

Page 52 of 352
 CONCLUSIONS

 The incremental firm power shows an increasing trend

up to FRL‐400M and decreases sharply beyond 400m.
 The incremental energy generation shows an increasing
pattern upto FRL of 380 M and declines further.
 The cost per MW of proposed installed capacity shows
A decreasing trend upto FRL of 400m and rises sharply
beyond 400m.
 The per MW cost of incremental energy is minimum at
FRL of 390m.

105

CONCLUSIONS

 Cost of energy generation is lowest for the FRL of 380

m viz. Rs. 2.47/kWh. It increases marginally for FRL of
390 m and rises sharply beyond 390 m.
 Incremental cost of energy generation viz. Rs.
2.01/kWh is also minimum at FRL of 380 m and shows
an increasing trend for FRL beyond 380 m.
 Therefore, it can be concluded that the FRL of 380m is
the optimum FRL for this project and corresponding
installed capacity of 120 MW should be provided at the
project

106

Page 53 of 352
 SELECTION OF UNIT SIZE

Unit Size Considered:  30, 40 & 60 MW 
Unit Size selected      : 60 MW
Advantages:
• No Transport Constraints envisaged since the 
power house is located close to National 
Highway with bridges of 70 R (This loading consists of 
a tracked vehicle of 700 kN or a wheeled vehicle of total load of
1000 kN as per Indian Road Congress (IRC) Code ) load 
bearing capacity
• Economical due to lower cost per MW  and 
would involve  lesser civil works in power 
house and WCS

107

POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

(PUMPED STORAGE SCHEMES)
 Based on available live storage, constraints on operating levels
of both the reservoirs and average net head, work out Energy
Generation Potential of the reservoir system.
 Based on energy generation potential of the reservoir system
and future peak demand requirements of the state/region,
suitable Installed Capacity can be selected which should
provide peaking capacity in the range of 3-6 hours.
Energy Generation Potential (MWh) = Installed Capacity (MW)
x No. of operating hours
 Select unit size by considering
 Geological constraints for design of water conductor
system, power house etc., if any.
 Transportation constraints, if any.

108

Page 54 of 352
 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

SHARAVATHI HYDRO-ELECTRIC PROJECT-FLOW CHART

CHAKRA RIVER SAVEHAKLU RIVER

CHAKRA DAM SAVEHAKLU DAM

SHARAVATHI RIVER
LINGANAMAKKI DAM

LDPH-2X27.5=55MW

SIRUR BALANCING TALKALALE

KARGAL RESERVOIR DAM GENERATION
ANECUT

VODENBAIL TUNNELS
WORLD FAMOUS
JOG FALLS 293M

4 X 250
4 X 250

MW
MW
MGHE INCLINED PENSTOCKS
4X12+4X18=120MW

SHARAVATHI GENERATING PROPOSED SHARAVATHY

GERUSOPPA DAM STATION 10X103.5=1035MW PSP 8X250=2000 MW

GERUSOPPA DAM POWER HOUSE - PUMPING

4X60MW=240MW
ARABIAN SEA

109

POWER POTENTIAL STUDIES

(SHARAVATHY PSP IN KARNATAKA)
 Sharavathy PSP is being planned on river Sharavathy utilizing
waters of Talaklale reservoir (Upper Reservoir) and Gerusoppa
reservoir (Lower Reservoir)
 Live storage of upper reservoir is 13.9 MCM , out of which 3.2
MCM would continue to be used for existing Sharavathy HEP
(1035 MW)
 Around 10.4 MCM spare live storage is available which could be
used for peaking purpose

110

Page 55 of 352
 DATA/ PARAMETERS OF STUDY

Operating Levels and Storage available at Existing

Reservoirs
Talakalale - Upper reservoir Gerusoppa reservoir

Level  Storage  Level  Storage 

(m) (MCum) (m) (MCum)

FRL 522.12 129.65 FRL 55.00 130.74

MDDL 520.59 115.78 MDDL 43.50 72.04

Live Storage 13.87 Live Storage 58.70

111

DATA/ PARAMETERS OF STUDY

 Head losses in WCS -6m

 Average Net Head - 466 m
 Generating Mode Efficiency - 91.1 %
 Pumping Mode Efficiency - 90 %
 Overall Cycle Efficiency - 80 %

Power in MW (for 6 Hrs of Storage Required (In

peaking operation) MCM)
1000 5.2
1250 6.5
1500 7.8
1750 9.1
2000 10.4

112

Page 56 of 352
 DATA/ PARAMETERS OF STUDY (GENERATING MODE)

Scenario 1: Operating Levels considered for

Operation Simulation
Talakalale - Upper reservoir Gerusoppa - Lower reservoir
Level  Storage  Level  Storage 
(m) (MCu) (m) (MCum)
FRL‐PS  FRL‐PS 
Operation 522.12 129.65 Operation 45.79 82.30

MDDL‐PS  MDDL‐PS 
Operation 521.00 119.39 Operation 43.50 72.04
Pondage for PS  Pondage for PS 
Operation 10.26 Operation 10.26

113

Reservoir Operation Simulation (Generating Mode)

Upper Reservoir

Station  Initial Initial  Outflow Final  Final  Average

Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage from Pond Storage Pond Level Pond Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
1 10.0 2000.0 473.50 522.12 129.65 0.28 129.37 522.09 522.11
2 10.0 2000.0 473.60 522.09 129.37 0.28 129.08 522.06 522.08
3 10.0 2000.0 473.69 522.06 129.08 0.28 128.80 522.03 522.05
4 10.0 2000.0 473.79 522.03 128.80 0.28 128.51 522.00 522.02
5 10.0 2000.0 473.89 522.00 128.51 0.28 128.23 521.97 521.99
6 10.0 2000.0 473.99 521.97 128.23 0.28 127.95 521.94 521.96
7 10.0 2000.0 474.08 521.94 127.95 0.28 127.66 521.91 521.93
8 10.0 2000.0 474.18 521.91 127.66 0.28 127.38 521.88 521.90
9 10.0 2000.0 474.28 521.88 127.38 0.28 127.09 521.85 521.87
10 10.0 2000.0 474.37 521.85 127.09 0.28 126.81 521.81 521.83
11 10.0 2000.0 474.47 521.81 126.81 0.28 126.52 521.78 521.80
12 10.0 2000.0 474.56 521.78 126.52 0.28 126.24 521.75 521.77
13 10.0 2000.0 474.66 521.75 126.24 0.28 125.95 521.72 521.74
14 10.0 2000.0 474.76 521.72 125.95 0.28 125.67 521.69 521.71
15 10.0 2000.0 474.85 521.69 125.67 0.28 125.38 521.66 521.68
16 10.0 2000.0 474.95 521.66 125.38 0.28 125.10 521.63 521.65
17 10.0 2000.0 475.05 521.63 125.10 0.29 124.81 521.60 521.62
18 10.0 2000.0 475.14 521.60 124.81 0.29 124.53 521.57 521.59

114

Page 57 of 352
 Reservoir Operation Simulation (Generating Mode)
Upper Reservoir

Station  Initial Initial  Outflow Final  Final  Average

Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage from Pond Storage Pond Level Pond Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
19 10.0 2000.0 475.24 521.57 124.53 0.29 124.24 521.54 521.56
20 10.0 2000.0 475.33 521.54 124.24 0.29 123.96 521.50 521.53
21 10.0 2000.0 475.43 521.50 123.96 0.29 123.67 521.47 521.49
22 10.0 2000.0 475.53 521.47 123.67 0.29 123.39 521.44 521.46
23 10.0 2000.0 475.62 521.44 123.39 0.29 123.10 521.41 521.43
24 10.0 2000.0 475.72 521.41 123.10 0.29 122.82 521.38 521.40
25 10.0 2000.0 475.81 521.38 122.82 0.29 122.53 521.35 521.37
26 10.0 2000.0 475.91 521.35 122.53 0.29 122.25 521.32 521.34
27 10.0 2000.0 476.00 521.32 122.25 0.29 121.96 521.28 521.30
28 10.0 2000.0 476.10 521.28 121.96 0.29 121.67 521.25 521.27
29 10.0 2000.0 476.20 521.25 121.67 0.29 121.39 521.22 521.24
30 10.0 2000.0 476.29 521.22 121.39 0.29 121.10 521.19 521.21
31 10.0 2000.0 476.39 521.19 121.10 0.29 120.82 521.16 521.18
32 10.0 2000.0 476.48 521.16 120.82 0.29 120.53 521.13 521.15
33 10.0 2000.0 476.58 521.13 120.53 0.29 120.25 521.09 521.11
34 10.0 2000.0 476.67 521.09 120.25 0.29 119.96 521.06 521.08
35 10.0 2000.0 476.77 521.06 119.96 0.29 119.67 521.03 521.05
36 10.0 2000.0 476.85 521.03 119.67 0.29 119.39 521.00 521.02
360.0 10.26

115

Reservoir Operation Simulation (Generating Mode)

Lower Reservoir
Average Average 
Station  Initial Initial  Inflow Final  Final  Pond  Net
Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage into Pond Storage Pond Level Level Head
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m) (m)
1 10.0 2000.0 473.50 43.50 72.04 0.28 72.32 43.57 43.54 472.57
2 10.0 2000.0 473.60 43.57 72.32 0.28 72.61 43.63 43.61 472.47
3 10.0 2000.0 473.69 43.63 72.61 0.28 72.89 43.70 43.68 472.37
4 10.0 2000.0 473.79 43.70 72.89 0.28 73.18 43.76 43.74 472.28
5 10.0 2000.0 473.89 43.76 73.18 0.28 73.46 43.83 43.81 472.18
6 10.0 2000.0 473.99 43.83 73.46 0.28 73.75 43.90 43.87 472.08
7 10.0 2000.0 474.08 43.90 73.75 0.28 74.03 43.96 43.94 471.99
8 10.0 2000.0 474.18 43.96 74.03 0.28 74.31 44.03 44.01 471.89
9 10.0 2000.0 474.28 44.03 74.31 0.28 74.60 44.09 44.07 471.79
10 10.0 2000.0 474.37 44.09 74.60 0.28 74.88 44.16 44.14 471.70
11 10.0 2000.0 474.47 44.16 74.88 0.28 75.17 44.22 44.20 471.60
12 10.0 2000.0 474.56 44.22 75.17 0.28 75.45 44.29 44.27 471.51
13 10.0 2000.0 474.66 44.29 75.45 0.28 75.74 44.35 44.33 471.41
14 10.0 2000.0 474.76 44.35 75.74 0.28 76.02 44.42 44.40 471.32
15 10.0 2000.0 474.85 44.42 76.02 0.28 76.31 44.48 44.46 471.22
16 10.0 2000.0 474.95 44.48 76.31 0.28 76.59 44.55 44.53 471.12

17 10.0 2000.0 475.05 44.55 76.59 0.29 76.88 44.61 44.59 471.03
18 10.0 2000.0 475.14 44.61 76.88 0.29 77.16 44.67 44.65 470.93

116

Page 58 of 352
 Reservoir Operation Simulation (Generating Mode)
Lower Reservoir Average 
Final  Average Net
Time  Station  Initial Initial  Inflow Final  Pond  Pond  Head
Interval Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage into Pond Storage Level Level (m)
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
19 10.0 2000.0 475.24 44.67 77.16 0.29 77.45 44.74 44.72 470.84
20 10.0 2000.0 475.33 44.74 77.45 0.29 77.73 44.80 44.78 470.74
21 10.0 2000.0 475.43 44.80 77.73 0.29 78.02 44.87 44.84 470.65
22 10.0 2000.0 475.53 44.87 78.02 0.29 78.30 44.93 44.91 470.55
23 10.0 2000.0 475.62 44.93 78.30 0.29 78.59 44.99 44.97 470.46
24 10.0 2000.0 475.72 44.99 78.59 0.29 78.87 45.06 45.04 470.36
25 10.0 2000.0 475.81 45.06 78.87 0.29 79.16 45.12 45.10 470.27
26 10.0 2000.0 475.91 45.12 79.16 0.29 79.45 45.18 45.16 470.18
27 10.0 2000.0 476.00 45.18 79.45 0.29 79.73 45.25 45.22 470.08
28 10.0 2000.0 476.10 45.25 79.73 0.29 80.02 45.31 45.29 469.99
29 10.0 2000.0 476.20 45.31 80.02 0.29 80.30 45.37 45.35 469.89
30 10.0 2000.0 476.29 45.37 80.30 0.29 80.59 45.43 45.41 469.80
31 10.0 2000.0 476.39 45.43 80.59 0.29 80.87 45.50 45.48 469.70
32 10.0 2000.0 476.48 45.50 80.87 0.29 81.16 45.56 45.54 469.61
33 10.0 2000.0 476.58 45.56 81.16 0.29 81.45 45.62 45.60 469.51
34 10.0 2000.0 476.67 45.62 81.45 0.29 81.73 45.68 45.66 469.42
35 10.0 2000.0 476.77 45.68 81.73 0.29 82.02 45.74 45.72 469.33
36 10.0 2000.0 476.85 45.74 82.02 0.29 82.30 45.79 45.77 469.25
360.0 10.26

117

Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)

Upper Reservoir
Inflow
Station  Initial Initial  into the  Final  Final  Average
Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage Pond Storage Pond Level Pond Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)

1 10.0 2000.0 381.27 521.00 119.39 0.23 119.62 521.02 521.01

2 10.0 2000.0 381.21 521.02 119.62 0.23 119.84 521.05 521.04

3 10.0 2000.0 381.15 521.05 119.84 0.23 120.07 521.07 521.07

4 10.0 2000.0 381.10 521.07 120.07 0.23 120.30 521.10 521.09

5 10.0 2000.0 381.04 521.10 120.30 0.23 120.53 521.13 521.12

6 10.0 2000.0 380.98 521.13 120.53 0.23 120.76 521.15 521.14

7 10.0 2000.0 380.92 521.15 120.76 0.23 120.99 521.18 521.17

8 10.0 2000.0 380.88 521.18 120.99 0.23 121.22 521.20 521.19

9 10.0 2000.0 380.82 521.20 121.22 0.23 121.44 521.23 521.22

10 10.0 2000.0 380.76 521.23 121.44 0.23 121.67 521.25 521.24

11 10.0 2000.0 380.70 521.25 121.67 0.23 121.90 521.28 521.27

12 10.0 2000.0 380.64 521.28 121.90 0.23 122.13 521.30 521.29

13 10.0 2000.0 380.58 521.30 122.13 0.23 122.36 521.33 521.32

14 10.0 2000.0 380.53 521.33 122.36 0.23 122.59 521.35 521.34

15 10.0 2000.0 380.47 521.35 122.59 0.23 122.82 521.38 521.37

118

Page 59 of 352
 Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)
Upper Reservoir
Inflow
Station  Initial Initial  into the  Final  Final  Average
Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage Pond Storage Pond Level Pond Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
16 10.0 2000.0 380.41 521.38 122.82 0.23 123.04 521.40 521.39

17 10.0 2000.0 380.35 521.40 123.04 0.23 123.27 521.43 521.42

18 10.0 2000.0 380.29 521.43 123.27 0.23 123.50 521.45 521.45

19 10.0 2000.0 380.23 521.45 123.50 0.23 123.73 521.48 521.47

20 10.0 2000.0 380.17 521.48 123.73 0.23 123.96 521.50 521.50

21 10.0 2000.0 380.11 521.50 123.96 0.23 124.18 521.53 521.52

22 10.0 2000.0 380.05 521.53 124.18 0.23 124.41 521.55 521.55

23 10.0 2000.0 379.99 521.55 124.41 0.23 124.64 521.58 521.57

24 10.0 2000.0 379.93 521.58 124.64 0.23 124.87 521.60 521.60

25 10.0 2000.0 379.87 521.60 124.87 0.23 125.10 521.63 521.62

26 10.0 2000.0 379.81 521.63 125.10 0.23 125.32 521.65 521.64

27 10.0 2000.0 379.75 521.65 125.32 0.23 125.55 521.68 521.67

28 10.0 2000.0 379.69 521.68 125.55 0.23 125.78 521.70 521.69

29 10.0 2000.0 379.63 521.70 125.78 0.23 126.01 521.73 521.72

30 10.0 2000.0 379.57 521.73 126.01 0.23 126.23 521.75 521.74

119

Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)

Upper Reservoir
Inflow
Time  Station  Initial Initial  into the  Final  Final  Average
Interval Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage Pond Storage Pond Level Pond Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
31 10.0 2000.0 379.51 521.75 126.23 0.23 126.46 521.78 521.77

32 10.0 2000.0 379.45 521.78 126.46 0.23 126.69 521.80 521.79

33 10.0 2000.0 379.39 521.80 126.69 0.23 126.92 521.83 521.82

34 10.0 2000.0 379.33 521.83 126.92 0.23 127.15 521.85 521.84

35 10.0 2000.0 379.27 521.85 127.15 0.23 127.37 521.88 521.87

36 10.0 2000.0 379.21 521.88 127.37 0.23 127.60 521.90 521.89

37 10.0 2000.0 379.15 521.90 127.60 0.23 127.83 521.92 521.92

38 10.0 2000.0 379.09 521.92 127.83 0.23 128.06 521.95 521.94

39 10.0 2000.0 379.02 521.95 128.06 0.23 128.28 521.97 521.96

40 10.0 2000.0 378.96 521.97 128.28 0.23 128.51 522.00 521.99

41 10.0 2000.0 378.90 522.00 128.51 0.23 128.74 522.02 522.01

42 10.0 2000.0 378.84 522.02 128.74 0.23 128.97 522.05 522.04

43 10.0 2000.0 378.78 522.05 128.97 0.23 129.19 522.07 522.06

44 10.0 2000.0 378.72 522.07 129.19 0.23 129.42 522.10 522.09

45 10.0 2000.0 378.66 522.10 129.42 0.23 129.65 522.12 522.11

450.0 10.26

120

Page 60 of 352
 Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)
Lower Reservoir
Average Average
Station  Initial Initial  Outflow Final  Final  Pond  Pond 
Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage from Pond Storage Pond Level Level Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m) (m)
1 10.0 2000.0 381.27 45.79 82.20 0.23 81.98 45.74 45.77 481.25

2 10.0 2000.0 381.21 45.74 81.98 0.23 81.75 45.69 45.72 481.32

3 10.0 2000.0 381.15 45.69 81.75 0.23 81.52 45.64 45.67 481.40

4 10.0 2000.0 381.10 45.64 81.52 0.23 81.29 45.59 45.62 481.47

5 10.0 2000.0 381.04 45.59 81.29 0.23 81.06 45.54 45.57 481.55

6 10.0 2000.0 380.98 45.54 81.06 0.23 80.83 45.49 45.52 481.62

7 10.0 2000.0 380.92 45.49 80.83 0.23 80.60 45.44 45.47 481.70

8 10.0 2000.0 380.88 45.44 80.60 0.23 80.38 45.39 45.42 481.74

9 10.0 2000.0 380.82 45.39 80.38 0.23 80.15 45.34 45.37 481.81

10 10.0 2000.0 380.76 45.34 80.15 0.23 79.92 45.29 45.32 481.89

11 10.0 2000.0 380.70 45.29 79.92 0.23 79.69 45.24 45.27 481.97

12 10.0 2000.0 380.64 45.24 79.69 0.23 79.46 45.19 45.22 482.04

13 10.0 2000.0 380.58 45.19 79.46 0.23 79.23 45.14 45.17 482.12

14 10.0 2000.0 380.53 45.14 79.23 0.23 79.00 45.09 45.12 482.19

15 10.0 2000.0 380.47 45.09 79.00 0.23 78.78 45.04 45.07 482.27

121

Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)

Lower Reservoir
Average Average
Station  Initial Initial  Outflow Final  Final  Pond  Pond 
Interval Time Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage from Pond Storage Pond Level Level Level
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m) (m)
16 10.0 2000.0 381.27 45.04 78.78 0.23 78.55 44.98 45.02 482.34

17 10.0 2000.0 381.21 44.98 78.55 0.23 78.32 44.93 44.97 482.42

18 10.0 2000.0 381.15 44.93 78.32 0.23 78.09 44.88 44.92 482.50

19 10.0 2000.0 381.10 44.88 78.09 0.23 77.86 44.83 44.87 482.57

20 10.0 2000.0 381.04 44.83 77.86 0.23 77.64 44.78 44.81 482.65

21 10.0 2000.0 380.98 44.78 77.64 0.23 77.41 44.73 44.76 482.72

22 10.0 2000.0 380.92 44.73 77.41 0.23 77.18 44.68 44.71 482.80

23 10.0 2000.0 380.88 44.68 77.18 0.23 76.95 44.63 44.66 482.88

24 10.0 2000.0 380.82 44.63 76.95 0.23 76.72 44.58 44.61 482.95

25 10.0 2000.0 380.76 44.58 76.72 0.23 76.50 44.52 44.56 483.03

26 10.0 2000.0 380.70 44.52 76.50 0.23 76.27 44.47 44.51 483.10

27 10.0 2000.0 380.64 44.47 76.27 0.23 76.04 44.42 44.46 483.18

28 10.0 2000.0 380.58 44.42 76.04 0.23 75.81 44.37 44.40 483.26

29 10.0 2000.0 380.53 44.37 75.81 0.23 75.58 44.32 44.35 483.33

30 10.0 2000.0 380.47 44.32 75.58 0.23 75.36 44.27 44.30 483.41

122

Page 61 of 352
 Reservoir Operation Simulation (Pumping Mode)
Lower Reservoir Average
Final  Average Pond 
Time  Station  Initial Initial  Outflow Final  Pond  Pond  Level
Interval Interval Output Discharge Pond Level Storage from Pond Storage Level Level (m)
No (Minutes) (MW) (cumecs) (m) (MCum) (MCum) (MCum) (m) (m)
31 10.0 2000.0 379.51 44.27 75.36 0.23 75.13 44.21 44.25 483.49

32 10.0 2000.0 379.45 44.21 75.13 0.23 74.90 44.16 44.20 483.56

33 10.0 2000.0 379.39 44.16 74.90 0.23 74.67 44.11 44.14 483.64

34 10.0 2000.0 379.33 44.11 74.67 0.23 74.45 44.06 44.09 483.72

35 10.0 2000.0 379.27 44.06 74.45 0.23 74.22 44.01 44.04 483.79

36 10.0 2000.0 379.21 44.01 74.22 0.23 73.99 43.95 43.99 483.87

37 10.0 2000.0 379.15 43.95 73.99 0.23 73.76 43.90 43.94 483.95

38 10.0 2000.0 379.09 43.90 73.76 0.23 73.54 43.85 43.88 484.02

39 10.0 2000.0 379.02 43.85 73.54 0.23 73.31 43.79 43.83 484.10

40 10.0 2000.0 378.96 43.79 73.31 0.23 73.08 43.74 43.78 484.18

41 10.0 2000.0 378.90 43.74 73.08 0.23 72.85 43.69 43.72 484.26

42 10.0 2000.0 378.84 43.69 72.85 0.23 72.63 43.64 43.67 484.33

43 10.0 2000.0 378.78 43.64 72.63 0.23 72.40 43.58 43.62 484.41

44 10.0 2000.0 378.72 43.58 72.40 0.23 72.17 43.53 43.57 484.49

45 10.0 2000.0 378.66 43.53 72.17 0.23 71.94 43.48 43.51 484.56

450.0 10.26

123

Hydraulic Turbines overview

 Hydraulic turbines :
water turns blades to
produce rotation

 Potential/Kinetic
power Mechanical
Power Electric
power

124

Page 62 of 352
 Hydraulic Turbines overview

Components of a Turbine :
 Runner : rotational part
(Shaft + blades)
 Diffuser (at output) :
channel-shaped increasing
in size
 Distributor : optional
component at the input that
controls the angle of attack

125

THE PELTON TURBINE

 Action turbine
 No diffuser
 High operating head
 The wheel is not
submerged
 The number of
opened nozzle
changes the power

126

Page 63 of 352
 THE FRANCIS TURBINE

 Reaction turbine
 Change of the flow pressure
 Operating head between 20 and 500 meters
 Two main components: upstream guide vanne and
runner

127

THE KAPLAN TURBINE

 Evolution of the Francis

turbine

 The guidvanes and runner

adapted to the waterflow

 High efficiency for a wide

range of water flow

 Can be used as a pump for

Storage pumping

128

Page 64 of 352
 TURBINES RUNNERS

129

CHOICE METHOD OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

 Ns = (120*f)/P, where f: frequency and P: no. of
Poles
 For a same electric frequency
(50 Hz) :
 Low speed  many poles
 High speed  less poles

 Many poles = expensive

4 pairs
750 40 pairs – 75
rpm rpm

130

Page 65 of 352
 CHOICE METHOD OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

 Characteristics of water flow and turbine

Power of the turbine:

Where ρ is efficiency, g is specific gravity, H is
Head and is specific speed
Angular velocity: N

131

CHOICE METHOD OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

Comparison of the specific speed with widely built turbines

N = revolutions per min

P = Power (kW)
H = Head (m)

ns =

132

Page 66 of 352
Environment and Forest issues
Issue:
Due to the considerable time taken in the process of Environment and
Forest Clearances due to various issues relating to e-flows, free flow
stretch requirement, Longitudinal Connectivity etc., commencement
of construction works of Hydro projects often gets delayed.

Suggested solution:
 It is desirable that all the clearances relating to Environment & Forest,
Wildlife etc. should be given in time bound manner.
 The e-flows may be prescribed for hydro projects considering case to
case basis and in a judicious manner.
 Free flow stretch requirements should be based on river gradient and
velocity.
 The e-flows, once prescribed should not be revisited for a project.

133

Land Acquisition & R&R Issues

Issue:
In some of the States like Arunachal Pradesh, Land
records are not available, as such, land acquisition
becomes an issue.
Dislocation of the people from their houses/
workplaces etc. and their resettlement is a sensitive
issue and involves a lot of time and money. Many times
this issue leads to court cases resulting in delay in
project execution/completion.
Suggested solution:
State should play a pro-active role in Land acquisition
and R&R to mitigate the issues.

134

Page 67 of 352
Inadequate Infrastructural facilities
Issue:
Hydro projects are normally located in difficult
terrain having poor accessibility. As such,
substantial time is lost due to lack of adequate
Infrastructural facilities at the project site allotted
to a developer by the State Govt.

Suggested solution:
Adequate infrastructure facilities need to be
developed in the States by concerned agencies,
matching with the schedule of development of
hydro projects to reduce their gestation period.

135

Law & Order / Local issues

Issue:
Protests by the local people against the construction
activities like blasting, muck disposal etc. and demands for
employment, extra compensation etc. often create law
and order problems which delays the commencement and
affects progress of the works.

Suggested solution:
State should play a pro-active role to provide a conducive
environment for construction of hydro projects.
Implementation of various Corporate Social Responsibility
Plans and proper co-ordination with local bodies & State
Authorities can also minimize the issues.

136

Page 68 of 352
Geological Surprises

Issue:
A large number of HE projects has been delayed due to
geological surprises.

Suggested solution:
With the use of latest technologies in Survey &
Investigation and preparation of Bankable DPR, the
geological surprises could be reduced to some extent.

137

Natural Calamities
Issue:
Natural calamities like unprecedented rain / flash
floods, cloud burst, earthquake etc delay the
completion of project.

Suggested solution:
Efficient preparedness and Disaster Management Plan
should be in place to tackle Natural Calamaties.

138

Page 69 of 352
Inter-State Issues

Issue:
Delay in implementation due to inter-state disputes
between the states.

Suggested solution:
Concerned State Governments have to play active role to
resolve the inter-state matters for hydro development in
their states.
Pending resolution of inter-state aspects, some of the
projects could be taken up in Central Sector to avoid time
and cost overruns.

139

High Tariff of Hydro Projects

Issue:
Tariff from hydro projects has tended to be higher in initial years as
compared to other sources of power (conventional as well as
renewable sources) mainly due to construction of complex structures
which have long gestation period, unavailability of loans of lower
interest rate & longer tenures, high R&R cost, infrastructure (roads
& bridges) cost etc. As such, many hydro projects even after
commissioning are facing financial distress due to dishonoring of
PPAs / non-signing of PPAs.

 Suggested solution:By providing Longer tenure and lower interest

bearing loan instruments.
 Excluding cost of enabling infrastructure from project cost for
tariff calculations and reimbursement of the same from
appropriate funds of the concerned department/ entities of the
GOI/ State Govts.
 Extending fiscal/financial incentives to all hydro projects.
140

Page 70 of 352
Levying of Water Cess
Issue:
Levying of water cess by some of the States also affects the
viability of the project and increased the tariff of the order
of 50p-Rs 1/unit.

Suggested solution:
Hydro projects are already contributing significantly towards
the revenue of the state and the decision of the State Govts.
to impose water cess on hydro-electric projects would only
result in increase in tariff making them unviable in some
cases. As such, withdrawal of free power to State Govts.
which charge Water Cess could be considered. Withdrawal of
free power to State Govts. which charge Water Cess could be
considered.

141

Levying of Water Cess

Sl. Power Installed Annual Composite Composite Water
No. Station Capacity Design Tariff for the Tariff with Usage
(MW) Energy year 2018- J&K Water (MCM)
(MU) 19 without usage
water usage charges
charges
1 SALAL 690 3082 1.23 1.12 2.35 360.91
2 URI 480 2587.3 1.64 0.46 2.11 135.37
8
3 DULHASTI 390 1906.8 5.50 0.49 5.99 109.00
4 URI-II 240 1123.7 4.75 0.87 5.61 133.38
7
5 Nimoo Bazgo 45 239.33 9.24 0.64 9.88 14.62

6 Chutak 44 212.93 8.26 0.24 8.50 4.62

7 Sewa-II 120 533.53 4.33 0.19 4.52 9.16
8 Kishanganga 330 1712.9 3.38 0.15 3.52 8.10
6
Total 2339 11399 3.14 0.63 3.77 775.16

142

Page 71 of 352
 Other Emerging Issues

• Non-implementation of Differential Tariff for Hydro

• Need to value unique attributes of Hydro Power - balancing
power, black start capability, reactive power management
capability etc.
• Lack of long-term low interest bearing financing
• Issue of Longitudinal Connectivity

14
3

143

Page 72 of 352
 
 Electro-mechanical
Equipment/Systems in
Hydro Electric Plant

By:
Deepak Sharma
Deputy Director
Central Electricity Authority

General Layout of Project

Page 73 of 352
 Cross-section of Power House

Main Electro-Mechanical Equipment

Page 74 of 352
 Hydraulic Turbines

Turbine

Impulse Turbine Reaction turbine

Tangential flow Axial flow Mixed flow

Pelton Kaplan Francis

Pelton Francis Kaplan

Page 75 of 352
 Turbine Governor
 To regulate the Turbine-Generator from hunting
and instability at all levels and ensures stable
operation under all possible operating conditions
 To control turbine automatically and manually

Main Inlet Valve (MIV)

 Types:
Spherical Valve Butterfly Valve

Page 76 of 352
 Generator & its Excitation
System
 It is of rated output to match the
turbine output.
 Rated in MVA, kV, 3 phase, 50 Hz,
Power Factor and Efficiency
 To be capable of continuously
delivering 10% overload.
 Excitation system will be capable of
continuously supplying the maximum
excitation power required to produce
110% of rated output, at rated
generator voltage, rated power factor
etc.

MAIN STEP UP TRANSFORMER (GT)

 The rating of the transformers shall be matched with the
output of Generator.
 LV side is connected to Generator through Bus Duct
 HV side is connected to Switchyard

10

Page 77 of 352
 Switchyard
 Connected to Main GTs either through XLPE cables or Bus
Duct.
 Purpose to evacuate generated power to the grid
 Main components comprise of:
1. Wave Trap
2. Lightning Arrester
3. Current & Potential Transformers
4. Circuit Breaker
5. Isolator
6. Gantry Towers

11

Mechanical Auxiliary Systems

12

Page 78 of 352
 1. EOT Crane
 Rating is decided by the
heaviest item to be lifted
in power house
 The heaviest item is
usually Assembled Rotor
 EOT crane normally
consists of Main Hook
along with auxiliary hook
and Monorail

13

2. COOLING WATER SYSTEM

 Required for cooling of Oil-Bearings of Turbine &
Generator, GT oil, Ventilation System.
 Types:
1. Open Loop System – if silt content in water is very less
2. Closed Loop System – if silt content in water is very high
3. Mixed Loop System - if silt content in water is high

14

Page 79 of 352
 3. DRAINAGE, DEWATERING & STATION
FLOOD DEWATERING SYSTEM

 Drainage System is used for regular draining of

seepages from power house walls/equipment
 Dewatering System is used for dewatering of Draft
Tube, Penstock below Tail Water Level.
 Flood Dewatering System is used in case of
flooding of Power House due to unforeseen
circumstances
 Submersible type pumps are used for these
systems

15

4. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM

 Provided for generator brakes, turbine shaft seal and
station service requirements

5. Oil Purification System

 Provided for filtration/purification of lubricating oil used
in bearings and transformer oil

16

Page 80 of 352
 6. Ventilation and Air-Conditioning System

 Provided for maintaining proper indoor air quality.

 Use of blowers, exhaust fans, air-washers etc.
such that requisite air changes can be achieved.
 Some areas of the Power House like Control Room
& Conference room etc. are provided with air-
conditioning systems.

17

7. Fire Protection and Detection System

 Provided to timely detection of the occurrence & quick

extinguishing of fire
 Main Types:
1. AUTOMATIC WATER SPRAY SYSTEM
2. FIRE – EXTINGUISHING SYSTEM FROM HYDRANTS
3. PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

18

Page 81 of 352
 8. LIFT

9. MECHANICAL WORKSHOP
EQUIPMENT

10. TEST LABORATORY

11. SECURITY AND SURVEILLANCE

19

Electrical Auxiliary Systems

20

Page 82 of 352
 1. STATION AUXILIARY SUPLY
SYSTEM
 Station Service Transformers – Used for meeting the Station
requirement such as illumination, fire protection system
etc.
 Unit Auxiliary Transformers – Used for supplying power to
Unit Auxiliaries such as cooling water system, lubrication
system etc.
 DG Set- Used in case of emergency and black-start of the
unit, rating of DG set based on minimum power requirement
to start a single unit and essential station auxiliaries.
 Supply from Local Grid

21

2. Illumination System
 To illuminate Power house, Dam site and other areas of the project using
energy efficient lighting system such as LED

3. Grounding System
The Power House, Transformer area and Switch Yard area provided
with interlinked ground mat, by using mild steel flat of suitable
cross section with grounding electrodes to provide protection from
Over voltage and leakage current

22

Page 83 of 352
 4. D.C. Auxiliary Services (220V & 48 V)
 Required for Field Flashing and Electrical Braking.
 Supplies power to measuring instruments.
 Converters are provided for 48V supply from 220V DC
Supply. 48V DC is used for communication purposes.
 Provides Emergency Illumination during unforeseen
circumstances

5. Public Address System

23

Page 84 of 352
 
 PLANNING, ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
OF
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES

(FOR HYDROPOWER PROJECTS)

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Hydropower is a renewable, economic, non-polluting and environment friendly

source of energy. Hydropower Projects require various underground structures such
as tunnels, shafts, caverns etc. which are used for different purposes. Depending on
the type of scheme, the projects could be fully underground or partially underground.
The world’s longest power tunnel is the Head race Tunnel for Nathpa Jhakri
H.E,Project in Himachal Pradesh, which is 10.15m dia and 27.5km long. In Tala
H.E.Project, in Bhutan the Head race Tunnel is 6.8m dia and 23km long. In India, the
widest underground cavern has been made for Srisailam Left Bank Power House
which is 25.7m wide x 236m long x 52m high. The rock mass in which the
underground structures to be constructed is highly anisotropic and discontinuum.
Various geological and geotechnical parameters influence the behaviour of the
underground openings and each design should be carried out considering the site
specific situations. The complex problem of underground structure design is tackled
by utilizing the expertise of various disciplines such as, engineering geology,
geotechnical engineering, structural engineering etc. In this lecture, the analysis and
design of underground structures such as tunnels, shafts, caverns etc. which are
commonly required in hydroelectric power projects are explained.

Page 85 of 352
 2.0 TYPICAL LAYOUT OF SOME HYDROELECTRIC POWER PROJECTS

`
Page 86 of 352
`
Page 87 of 352
 3.1 COMPONENTS IN A TYPICAL UNDERGROUND HYDROPOWER PROJECT

 Diversion dam
 Diversion tunnel
 Intake structure
 Underground sedimentation basin
 Headrace tunnel
 Headrace surge shaft
 Pressure shaft
 Caverns for powerhouse, transformers etc.
 Tailrace tunnel
 Tailrace surge shaft
 Outfall structure
 Switchyard
 Network of interconnecting tunnels and adits

3.2 TUNNELS

• These are underground passages made without removing the overlying rock.
• Constitutes one of the most important and challenging component, particularly in
the run-of-river schemes in the Himalayas
• Tunnels can either have pressure flow or free flow or both

Shapes of the tunnels

 Circular section
 D-Shaped section
 Horse shoe section
 Modified horse shoe section

The particular cross section to be adopted depends on the following factors:

`
Page 88 of 352
 o Geologic conditions along the alignment
o Hydraulic requirements
o Structural considerations and
o Functional requirements

D-SHAPED
CIRCULAR

HORSE -SHOE

MODIFIED HORSE -SHOE

`
Page 89 of 352
 3.2 SHAFTS

`
Page 90 of 352
`
Page 91 of 352
`
Page 92 of 352
 3.3 CAVERNS (POWER HOUSE , TRANSFORMER HALL ETC.)

4.1 UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE – FAILURE MECHANISMS

Due to creation of an underground opening, readjustment of the pre-existing

state of stress and displacements takes place and unless adequate rock support
is not provided, the structure could fail.

For an underground opening, the failure can occur mainly in two ways. These
are :
I. Structurally- controlled and / or
II. Stress- controlled

`
Page 93 of 352
 4.2 Structurally- controlled Failure.

 jointed rock masses at relatively shallow depth.

 wedges falling from the roof or sliding out of the sidewalls of the
openings.
 wedges formed by intersecting structural features, such as bedding
planes and joints.
 Unless steps are taken to support these loose wedges, the stability of the
opening may deteriorate rapidly and the structure could fail.
 unidirectional body force ie., gravity.

ROOF WEDGE SIDE WALL WEDGE

The design approach consists of the following:

• Determination of average dip and dip direction of significant discontinuity

sets.
• Identification of potential wedges which can slide or fall from the back or
walls.
• Calculation of the factor of safety of these wedges, depending upon the
mode of failure.
• Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required to bring the factor of
safety of individual wedges up to an acceptable level.

`
Page 94 of 352
 4.3 Stress-controlled failure.

 Excavation at more depth.

 High stresses.
 Rock mass is relatively homogeneous and isotropic.
 The failure is essentially stress related.

5.1 STRESS CONTROLLED INSTABILITY

By assuming the rock mass to be Continuous, Homogeneous, Isotropic and

Linear Elastic material, stress and displacements can be computed for simple
excavation shapes such as circle , elliptical etc.

In-situ stress

The pre existing state of stress in the rock mass before any excavation is carried
out is called the in-situ stress.

The magnitude and directions of in situ stress can be determined by carrying out
in - situ stress measurements. The common methods are;

 Flat jack technique

 Overcoring technique
 Hydro-fracturing method

Closed form solutions for induced stress (which are produced due to the
disturbance caused by the excavation) are available for simple shapes such as
circle, elliptical etc. For complex 3-dimensional excavation geometry, the
induced stresses can be computed by Numerical Methods.

`
Page 95 of 352
 5.1 Circular Excavations- stress and displacements

At the boundary of excavation, r = a,

The radial stress, σ r = 0,
The circumferential stress, σ θ = σ v [ (1+ k) – 2(1-k) cos 2θ]
The shear stress , τ r θ = 0

where , σ h = k . σ v
For the case when the horizontal stress is zero ie., σ h = 0 and hydrostatic stress
field ie., σ h = σ v ,the radial and tangential stress distribution are shown below.

`
Page 96 of 352
 5.2 Elliptical Excavations- stress and displacements

σv

A k. σ v
H

The tangential boundary stresses are given by the following equations:

`
Page 97 of 352
 2.W
σA=σ v [1 - k]
+ A

2.H
σC =σ v [k(1 ) - 1]
+ C

where σ A and σ C are the tangential boundary stresses at location A & C.

A and C are radii of curvature at A & C.

5.3 Design principles from the above closed form analysis:

 Critical stress concentrations increase as radius of curvature of the boundary

decreases. Hence openings with sharp corners should be avoided.
 The optimum shape of opening in a hydrostatic stress field (k=1) is circle.
 Boundary stresses in an elliptical opening can be reduced to a maximum if the
axis ratio of the opening can be matched to the ratio between the in-situ
stresses.
 When the value of k is very low, tensile stresses occur on the boundaries of all
excavation shapes. These tensile stresses will become compressive as the
value of k increases above (approx) k=1/3.

5.4 Stresses around multiple openings.

The creation of an underground opening forces the native stresses and displacements
to readjust. Based on simple elastic theory, it can be seen that this zone of
readjustment can include points that are located upto 5 times the diametrical distance
from the centre of the opening. Thus if another tunnel is located such that the pillar
thickness equals 9 (R1 + R2), where R1 & R2 are the radii of the two adjacent tunnels,
then the readjustment of the stresses and displacements will be independent of the
second tunnel. In actuality, rock is not that homogeneous and as such elastic theory
may not be fully applicable. In practice, if the pillar thickness equals the largest
adjacent tunnel, the multiple openings behaves as a single opening and the stability of
the intervening pillar should be analysed in detail.

6.1 NUMRICAL METHODS FOR STRESS ANLYSIS.

 Used for complicated non uniform or non geometric shapes, tunnel

intersections, bifurcation, stacked tunnels, power house caverns etc.
 Accommodates different material properties including joints, shear zones
`
Page 98 of 352
 & faults.
 Linear or non- linear behaviour
 Time dependent behaviour

Input Parameters for numerical analysis.

 IN-SITU STRESS – vertical / horizontal

 ROCK MASS
 modulus of deformation
 Poisson’s ratio
 uniaxial compressive strength
 density
 mi,mb,s,a - for Hoek & Brown failure criteria
 c,Ø - for Mohr- Coloumb failure criteria
 JOINT PARAMETERS - c , Ø , normal & shear stiffness
 SUPPORT PARAMETERS – for rock bolt , shotcrete etc.

Commonly used software for analysis / design of underground structures:

• EXAMINE 2D / 3D , PHASE 2 - B.E METHOD

• FLAC 3D – FINITE DIFFERENCE METHOD
• UDEC / 3-DEC - DISTINCT ELEMENT METHOD

7.1 FAILURE CRITERIA

7.2 Hoek – Brown failure criteria:
The Hoek – Brown failure criteria is expressed as:

`
Page 99 of 352
 7.3 Mohr-Coloumb failure criteria:

σ1f = σ3 tan 2 (45+Ø/2) + 2 c tan

(45+Ø/2) FACTOR OF SAFETY = σ1f / σ1

7.4 Importance of selection of failure criteria:

The Hoek- Brown failure criterion, which assumes isotropic rock and rock mass
behaviour, should only be applied to those rock masses in which there are
sufficient number of closely spaced discontinuities. When the structure being
analysed is large and the block size is small in comparison, the rock mass can
be treated as a Hoek-Brown material.

Where the block size is of the same order as that of the structure being analysed
or when one of the discontinuity sets is significantly weaker than the others,
Hoek - Brown criterion should not be used. In these cases the stability of the
structure should be analysed by considering failure mechanisms involving the
sliding or rotation of blocks and wedges defined by intersecting structural
features.

8.1 DESIGN OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES:

The various steps involved in the design of an underground opening are:

 Planning of Layout
 Shape / Size of Opening:
Circular, Modified Horse Shoe, Horse Shoe, D-Shape Etc.
 Design of Rock Support System:
Rock Bolts / Rock Anchors / Cable Anchors
Sohtcrete (Plain / Wiremesh / Steel Fibre Reinforced)
Steel Ribs Etc.
 Design of Lining, if Required:
Steel
Concrete (Plain / Reinforced)

`
Page 100 of 352
 8.2 PLANNING OF LAYOUTS OF TUNNELS

For planning the layout of tunnels various factors like geology, minimum rock cover above
the roof of the tunnel, easy accessibility by provision of construction adits etc. will have to
be considered. After dam and the power house locations are finalized, the layout of tunnels
are planned such that the length is the least. Depending upon the type and strength of
rockmass, the rock cover above the tunnel should preferably be restricted to such a depth
that squeezing rock condition should not occur at any stretch of tunnel. For this, we may
have to keep optimum rock cover. Minimum slope for proper natural drainage of water is
also to be considered.

The location and length of construction adits will have to be carefully selected and laid out.
The approximate length of main tunnel from each face of excavation should be kept to a
maximum of 3000 m. As this length exceeds 3000m, the cycle time for excavation
increases very much. Ensuring proper ventilation of farther end of tunnel also becomes
quite difficult. For the same consideration the adit length also should be kept to a minimum.
The adit should preferably have down slope from the tunnel so that the drainage of water
from the tunnel and adit can take place by gravity..Location of portal for adits and tunnels
will have to be done in consultation with the geologist. Volume of open excavation and
overburden at site of portal should be minimum. Rock cover of minimum 2 x diameter of
tunnel is necessary at the portal face of tunnel / adit. The rock mass on the sides and
above the portal should be stable or it should be possible to stabilize the slopes by suitable
treatment by using rock bolts and shotcreting etc.

The minimum rock cover above the roof of the tunnel along its length should be 3 times the
diameter of the tunnel. Overburden is not considered as rock cover. The rock cover
actually required can be designed according to the internal pressure of the tunnel at
different sections. The lining of water tunnels is usually done with concrete either plain or
RCC and sometimes steel depeding on the design requirement. Depending on the
rockmass conditions a portion of internal pressure of water can be transferred to rock and
the lining is designed for the balance internal pressure. The portion of internal pressure
taken by rock is called ‘rock participation’.

8.3 PLANNING OF CAVERNS (POWER HOUSE , TRANSFORMER HALL ETC.)

The planning of underground caverns is made considering the following geological &
geotechnical data:
• Faults
• Shear zones
• Discontinuities
• Joint pattern, spacing, roughness etc.
• In-situ Data
 In-situ stress
 Pore water pressure
• Deformation modulus

`
Page 101 of 352
 Based on the above, the following are decided:

• Deciding layout of power house cavern

• Deciding orientation
• Support system

The orientation of caverns is done from the consideration of (1) structural discontinuities
like joint sets and (2) in-situ stress. The axis of the cavern is placed perpendicular to the
strike of major joint set if structurally controlled failure is expected. In case stress
induced failures are of major concern, as in the case of deep seated caverns, the axis
of the cavern is oriented along the direction of major principal in-situ stress.

In underground Hydro projects, usually the transformers are placed in a smaller

cavern parallel to the main cavern. This has the advantage of reducing the size of main
cavern and isolating the transformers in case of fire. The Electrical designers prefer
placement of both caverns as close as possible to reduce the cost of bus bar which
connect between the generators and the transformers. However placing the two
caverns close together leads to unfavourable stress conditions in the pillar between the
two caverns. By carrying out number of studies, it has been suggested that for weak
rock masses the pillar should not be less than the height of the larger cavern and
wherever possible it should be slightly greater. In very poor rock masses, in which the
overstressed zones are larger, the pillar thickness should be 1.5 times the height of
the larger cavern. These multiple caverns should be subjected to numerical analysis
for confirming the adequacy of the design.

`
Page 102 of 352
 METHODS OF SUPPORT DESIGN

The various methods of support design for tunnels / underground openings can be
grouped under :

- Empirical Methods
- Analytical Methods
- Graphical Methods
- Observational Methods

Empirical Methods

 The empirical approach for the design of support system relates the experience
gained on rock condition and support requirements at previous projects to
conditions anticipated at proposed site.
`
Page 103 of 352
  The empirical approach makes use of statistical analysis of observations.

Rock mass classification which are based on such co-relation are most commonly
used for estimation of rock loads and requirement of support system

Empirical Approach

The Rock Mass Classification Systems could be of the following two types:

a) QUALITATIVE:
Terzaghi’s Rock Load

b) QUANTITATIVE:
 DEERE’S R.Q.D.
 C.S.I.R. (BIENIAWSKI)RMR
 N.G.I (BARTON) ”Q”

Terzaghi’s Rock Load Concept:

GROUND ARCH ASSUMED SUPPORT LOADING

`
Page 104 of 352
 Terzaghi’s Rock Load Classification Table:

Rock Load
S.No. Rock Condition Remarks
factor Hp
1 HARD AND INTACT ZERO light lining reqd. only if spalling or
poping occur.
2 HARD STRATIFIED OR 0 TO 0.5 B light support
SCHISTOSEC load may change erratically from point
3 MASSIVE MODERATELY 0 TO 0.25 B to point
JOINTED
4 MODERATELY BLOCKY 0.25B TO 0.35 no side pressure
AND SEAMY (B+Ht)
5 VERY BLOCKY AND SEAMY 0.35 TO 1.10 little or no side pressure
(B+Ht)
6 COMPLETELY CRUSHED 1.10 (B+Ht) considerable side pressure softening
BUT CHEMICALLY INTACT effect of seepage towards bottom of
tunnel reqs. either continuous support
for lower ends of ribs or circular ribs
7 SQUEEZING ROCK 1.10 TO 2.10 heavy side pressure
(B+Ht) invert struts reqd. circular ribs are
8 SQUEEZING ROCK GREAT 2.10 TO 4.50 recommended
DEPTH (B+Ht)
9 SWELLING ROCK UPTO 250 FT. circular ribs reqd. in extreme cases
IRRESPECTI use yielding support
VE OF VALUE
OF (B+Ht)

• Terzaghi’s method though most commonly used , tends to be subjective

• The geotechnical engineer has to use a considerable amount of judgement while
interpreting rock outcrops or borings
• It is left to the judgement of the user as to how he interprets a particular rock
type and interpretation may differ from person to person

`
Page 105 of 352
 BIENIAWSKI (C.S.I.R.) RMR METHOD

The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR
system:

– Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.

– Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
– Spacing of discontinuities.
– Condition of discontinuities.
– Groundwater conditions.
– Orientation of discontinuities.

GUIDELINES FOR EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT OF TUNNELS

(Size 10M and Construction by drill & Blast)

Rock mass Excavation Rock bolts Shotcrete Steel Sets

Class (20mm diameter, fully

I – Very Good Full face, Generally no support required except spot bolting

Rock 3 m advance.

II – Good rock Full face,1-1.5m advance, Locally, bolts in crown 50 mm in None.

RMR: 61-80 Complete support 20m from 3 m long, spaced 2.5 crown where

III – Fair rock Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4m 50-100 mm None.

RMR: 41-60 1.5-3 m advance in top heading. Long, spaced 1.5-2 m in crown and

Commence support after each In crown and walls 30 mm in

IV – Poor rock Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4-5 m 100-150 mm Light to medium

RMR: 21-40 1.0-1.5 m advance in top Long, spaced 1-1.5 m in crown and ribs spaced 1.5 m

heading. Install support In crown and walls 100 mm in where required.

V – Very poor Multiple drifts 0.5-1.5 m Systematic bolts 5-6 m 150-200 mm Medium to heavy

Rock Advance in top heading. long, spaced 1-1.5 m in crown, ribs spaced 0.75m

RMR : < 20 Install support concurrently in crown and walls 150 mm in with steel lagging

`
Page 106 of 352
 BARTON’S (N.G.I.) “Q” SYSTEM

Barton prepared an index for tunnelling quality of a rock mass and relate this
rock mass quality “Q” to six parameters.

 RQD
 Number of joint sets Jn
 Joint roughness Jr
 Degree of joint alteration Ja
 Water inflow Jw
 Stress condition SRF

RQD Jr  Jw SRF

Q  Jn Ja
The roof and wall support pressures based on “Q’ system are as follows:

1/ 3
2J
1/ 2
Q 1 / 3 2J 1/ 2
n
Ph  n Qw
P ro o f 

3J r 3J r

Proof = ultimate roof support pressure in Kg/cm2

Ph = ultimate wall support pressure in Kg/cm2, and
Qw = wall factor

Range of Q Wall Factor Qw

> 10 5.0 Q
0.1 - 10 2.5 Q
< 0.1 1.0 Q

`
Page 107 of 352
`
Page 108 of 352
 The excavation support ratio (ESR) for different underground excavations are as
follows:

Sl.No. Type of excavation ESR

A. Temporary mine openings, etc. 3-5
B. Vertical shafts
- circular section 2.5
- rectangular / square section 2.0
C. Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydropower ( except
high pressure penstocks), pilot tunnels, drifts and headings for 1.6
large excavations etc.
D. Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway
tunnels, surge chambers, access tunnels etc. 1.3
E. Power stations, major road & railway tunnels, civil defence
chambers, portals, intersections, etc. 1.0
F. Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, sports and
public facilities, factories etc. 0.8

Commonly adopted rock support systems

 ROCK BOLTS / ANCHORS

 CABLE SUPPORTS
 SHOTCRETE : PLAIN / MESH / FIBRE REINFOCED
 STEEL RIBS

Length of rock bolt

L roof = 2 + (0.15 x SPAN/ESR)

L wall = 2 + (0.15 x HEIGHT/ESR)

Spacing of rock bolts to be computed based on the support pressure.

`
Page 109 of 352
 MECHANICALLY ANCHORED ROCK BOLT

RESIN END ANCHORED ROCK BOLT

`
Page 110 of 352
 CABLE SUPPORTS

DRY MIX SHOTCRETE

`
Page 111 of 352
 WET MIX SOTCRETE

MIN. LENGTH AND MAX. SPACING FOR ROCK REINFORCEMENT

(As per U. S. Army Corps Of Engineers)

PARAMETER EMPIRICAL RULES

greatest of:
minimum length
a. two times the bolt spacing
b. three times the width of critical and potentially unstable rock blocks
c. for elements above the spring line :
1) spans less than 20 ft – ½ span
2) spans from 60 ft to 100 ft – ¼ span
3) spans 20 ft to 60 ft – interpolate between 10 ft and 15 ft
lengths, respectively.
d. for elements below the spring line:
1) for openings less than 60 ft. high – use lengths as determined
in ‘c’ above
2) for openings greater than 60 ft high – 1/5 the height

maximum spacing least of :

a. 1/2 the bolt length
b. 1– 1/2 the width of critical and potentially unstable rock blocks
c. 6 ft
minimum spacing 3 to 4 ft

`
Page 112 of 352
 9.1 ROCK-SUPPORT INTERACTION

Rock-support interaction illustrate the interaction between the rock mass

surrounding the tunnel and the support material. It is characterised by the load-
deformation curve of a tunnel and available support curve of the support
material.

Load-Deformation Curve

Tunnel deforms after excavation, at different rate for different rock mass quality.
Support pressure required to limit the deformation changes with deformation;
initial high, decreasing with further deformation. Load-deformation curve can be
produced for a particular tunnel.

`
Page 113 of 352
 Support Pressure Curve
Available support curve is a load-deformation curve of the support material.
It is a property of the reinforcement or support material, e.g., steel and
concrete. In general, steel deforms elastically and after yielding, plastically.

Support Interaction
Load-deformation curve and support pressure curve are analysed together.
Support pressure required to limit deformation is to be provided by the
available support of the support material, i.e., equilibrium.
(a) stiff support; (b) medium support
(c) yielding support; (d) soft support; (e) insufficient support

`
Page 114 of 352
 Ideal Support

A good engineering practise is to allow for deformation, but to control further

displacement beyond necessary. An ideal support is to match the rock load-
deformation curve with the pressure yielded by the support.

`
Page 115 of 352
 10.0 INSTRUMENTATION OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
Instrumentation of underground opening is carried out for one or more of the following
reasons:
 Identification of rock mass or soil properties such as strength, deformability,
anisotropy and alterability.
 Identification of state of stress in rock mass.
 Measurement of loads on support, Deformation etc.
 Long term monitoring of the underground structure.
For any underground project, a well planned instrumentation during the construction is
essential for monitoring the rock mass response. Also this is useful for long term
monitoring after completion of the structure.

11.0 CONCLUSION

For the design of underground structures various methods are available, each having
its own merits and demerits. Depending upon the importance and complexity of the
problem, suitable method should be selected. Numerical methods are increasingly
becoming a more popular engineering tool for underground structure design because of
their capability to simulate actual rock mass conditions. However, it must be kept in
mind that stability of an excavation depends on number of factors and the results of
design based on the empirical methods, numerical methods etc. should be verified by
sound engineering judgement and practical experience.

*********

`
Page 116 of 352
 
 DESIGN OF POWER INTAKES

POWER INTAKES

Intake structures are constructed at the inlet of Penstocks, tunnels, outlet

conduits etc. to draw water from the reservoir, fore bay, canal etc. in a satisfactory
manner.

1.1 Functions of Intake Structure:

An intake structure serves the following functions:

i) Prevents entry of trash, debris, ice, boulders, logs of wood etc. into the
conveyance system. This is achieved by providing a trash rack at the
entrance.
ii) Controls the flow of water into the conveyance system by providing a
gate or a valve.
iii) Enables smooth, easy and turbulence free entry of water into the water
conductor system. This is achieved by providing a bell mouth entry at
the inlet mouth. This also enables to minimise the head loss at
entrance.
iv) Minimises sediment entry from the river into the conveyance system.
For this purpose, special devices like silt traps and silt excluders are
provided.

2.1 Types of Intake Structures

Depending upon the type of power plant and its layout, intake structures may
be broadly classified as,

i) Run-of-river intakes

Such intakes are provided for run-of-river plants. A trash rack, made out of
steel flats and sections is provided in front of the bell mouth entry to
prevent entry of floating debris like grass, leaves, trees etc., and boulders
etc. into the water conductor system. The control valve or gate is installed
immediately after the bell mouth. A stop log is provided upstream of gate
for repairs of the gate. In case of silty rivers, de-silting arrangements are
also provided.

Page 117 of 352

 RUN‐OF‐RIVER INTAKES 

ii) Canal Intakes

In a canal power house, generally the power house is located in a bye-

pass channel taken from the main canal. Provisions like trash racks,
stop logs, gates as in the case of run-of-the-river intakes are made for
canal intakes also. Anoopgarh, Suratgarh and Mangrol power houses
in the Indira Gandhi Canal are typical Canal Power Houses.

Page 118 of 352

 CANAL  INTAKES 

iii) Reservoir Intakes

This type of intake structure is provided for entry to penstock and tunnels
taking off from a reservoir.

Depending upon the head above the centre line of penstock, the reservoir
intakes are categroised as,
a) Low head, if head is upto 15 m.
b) Medium head, if head is 15 to 30 m.
c) Height head , if head is more than 30 m.

The different types of the reservoir intakes are

1) Dam Intakes

Intake for concrete and masonry dams may have a semi-circular shape in
plan and a general cage like structure. The intake structure may rest against

Page 119 of 352

the face of the dam and at bottom may be supported on rock or on a slab
cantilevering from the dam. Figure shows a typical cage-shaped intake and
semi-circular type intake. Penstocks are embedded in the body of the dam.
Provisions like trash rack, bell mouth at entry, stop logs, gate etc. are
provided. The alignment of the intake may be either horizontal or inclined.
The minimum depth of water above the center line of penstock is to be more
than 0.8 times the entrance height, he.

DAM  INTAKES 

2) Intakes in reservoir independent of dams.

When the intake is provided on a hill slope, this arrangement may be

provided. The intake for tunnels taking off from reservoir falls under this
type. Good rock exposure is an advantageous situation. A very economical
layout for such an intake can be evolved. The provisions as in dam intakes
are also provided for this type of intake.

INTAKES INDEPENDENT OF DAM Page 4 of 18

Page 120 of 352

 SEMI CIRCULAR  INTAKE 

3) Re-entrant type of Intake

This type of intake is adopted :

a) on upstream face of dam;
b) in open channel with flat bottom; and
c) where the width of dam is inadequate to accommodate the intake.

4) Shaft Intakes or glory hole intake

This type of intake is provided for earth dams. In this type, a vertical shaft
constructed in the reservoir site which carries water to the penstock tunnel
feeding the Power House. The components of a shaft intake are
a) entrance structure with trash rack
b) vertical shaft, followed by an elbow and transitions connecting the shaft
with tunnel.
c) intake gate and stop log.
d) access tunnel to the intake structure for entering it from top of dam under
submerged conditions.

Page 5 of 18

Page 121 of 352

 5) Tower Intakes

Such intakes are provided when it is not convenient to provide the simple intake
directly on the upstream of the dam. They are also used when a large
discharge is to be handled or when there is a wide fluctuation in the water
levels. The tower may be accessed from the dam through a bridge, if the tower
is situated near by the dam. Trash rack, stop-log, gates etc. are provided within
he tower itself. The tower should be designed for hydrostatic pressure, seismic
forces, wind pressure, dead and live loads etc.

TOWER  INTAKE 

3.1 Components of Intake structure

The main components of an intake structure are :

i) Trash rack
ii) Trash rack supporting structure
iii) Stop logs and control gates
iv) Anti vortex arrangements
v) Bell mouth and transition.

i) Trash racks

Trash rack is a metal screen provided at the intake to prevent entry of floating debris
like grass, leaves, trees, timber etc. into the water conductor system. In cold
countries entry of ice sheets are also prevented, trash racks are sometimes heated
up to melt the accumulated ice. Each screen consists of vertical trash bars welded
to space bars consisting of flat/channel sections. The screens are assembled in
small panels for easy handling for maintenance. Figure shows the general
Page 6 of 18

Page 122 of 352

arrangement of trash rack. The trash bars are of mild steel flats with rounded edges
at both upstream and downstream for smooth flow. The spacing of trash bars
depends upon the type of turbine, its dimension and the peripheral speed of the
runner.

Trash bars should be so spaced that the net opening between them should be at
least 5 mm less than the minimum opening between turbine runner blades.

The trash rack should also be designed to withstand the effect of submerged jets in
the case of pumped storage scheme. The spacing of the bars should be adjusted so
that the ratio of forcing frequency to natural frequency of bar is less than 0.6.

The design loads for trash racks are the dead weight of the assembly, the water
pressure and dynamic pressure of the floating materials. An unbalanced pressure is
also developed on account of partial or total clogging of the racks. Mosonyi (5),
suggests a differential head of 1 to 2 m under normal conditions and 4 to 5 m under
exceptional conditions.

U.S.B.R. (8), recommendations are that the racks are to be designed to fail at 12 m
differential hydraulic head for deeply submerged intakes and where submergence is
6 m or less, the head is to be taken as 2/3 rd the maximum depth of submergence.
Deeply submerged trash racks may be designed for heads up to 6m.

As per IS 9761 for the design of trash rack piers, ribs and screens a differentia head
of 3-6 m may be adopted depending upon the efficiency of cleaning of racks being
adopted.

Trash racks are to be cleaned frequently. For small stations with depth of racks 4 to
5 m, and where the floating material is small, manual cleaning is possible. If the
floating material is large and height of trash rack structure is more, mechanical
cleaning machines are deployed for cleaning.

The velocity of flow in front of the screen has to be of such a value as to minimise the
loss of head. Further higher velocity may cause vibration in trash rack structures
and may lead to its failure. The velocity of flow through the rack may be about 0.75
m/s. if manual raking is resorted to and 1.5 m/s if the cleaning is by mechanical
raking.

Page 7 of 18

Page 123 of 352

TRASH RACK 

TYPICAL INTAKE STRUCTURE 

TRASH RACK CLEANING MACHINE 

TRASH RACK 

Page 8 of 18

Page 124 of 352

ii) Trash rack supporting structure

This is a reinforced concrete structure of columns (piers) and beams on which the
trash rack screens rest. The structure may be vertical or inclined with respect to the
axis of the penstock joining the intake as shown in the figure.

The designs of the supporting structure are done considering the loads transferred
by the trash rack, dead load of structure, dead and live load of the operating
platform/top slab. A differential water head of 3 to 6 m is considered depending
upon the efficiency of cleaning of trash racks being adopted. The columns and
beams coming in the flow direction are so shaped as to affect smooth flow.

The shape of trash rack structure may be so adopted to meet the requirements of
the head works layout and head loss. For instance, for high dams with nearly
vertical upstream face, semi-circular trash rack structure is usually preferred to
provide the required trash rack area economically. For low dams or diversion
structures, a straight trash rack is usually preferred. However, model studies
required for suitability of shape and size of piers and beams of trash racks should
also aim at to prevent dead zones of water and uneven or irregular flow patterns in
the tunnel, formation of dimples, dye core and air core vortices, water circulation and
other flow irregularities during operation in pumping, turbine or combined modes
under symmetrical and asymmetrical operation of unit.

No part of the trash rack structure should fall within 80 percent of the intake height,
he, from the centre point of intake.

For an upright semicircular intake structure ,the racks should be located on a

semicircle in plan with a minimum radius of 1.142 8 b e, where, be is the width of
opening.

For an inclined semicircular intake structure, the racks should be located on a

semicircle or a plane perpendicular to the axis of the structure and satisfying the
other criteria as for the upright structure. In plan the racks would be laid out on an
ellipse, the semi-major axis of which should have a minimum value of (1.1428 b e /
Cos ), where , is the inclination of the trash rack axis to the vertical. The semi
minor axis of the structure is parallel to the dam face and would have a value of
1.142 8 be. The trash rack screens should be inclined in a three dimensional plane
with a bottom corner of the tower screens resting over the base footing.

Suitable fillet should be provided below the lowest screens to plug the gap and
effectively support the weight of the trash rack over the entire base.

For shaft intakes ,the racks should be located at 0.8 D1 from the centre of the
bellmouth, where D1 is the inlet diameter of the bellmouth.

The piers and beams of the trash rack supporting structure should be sharp nosed
and should be streamlined about the required structural section.

The approach apron should not be placed closer than 30 percent of the intake
height he from the lower edge of the intake orifice.

Page 9 of 18

Page 125 of 352

iii) Stop logs and control gates

These are provided for regulation of flow into the water conductor system. Stop logs
are used when the intake gate needs maintenance and repairs. Grooves for stop
logs and gates are provided generally in the intake body or piers.

The operating platform of stop log and gates are kept at such a level that the
equipments are approachable for operation under all conditions.
The control gate may be installed at the entrance or after the bell mouth section. In
the former type, the gate may be operated from the top of the dam and in the later
case, generally, it is operated through a shaft or gate gallery provided in the body of
the dam.

An air vent downstream of intake gate should be provided. The air vent should be so
designed as to admit air at the rate the turbine is discharging water under full gate
conditions.

The area of air vent may be fixed by the following formula:

D (3/2)
Q S(
F t )
750 000c

Where
2
F = Area of air vent pipe in m ,
Q =Maximum discharge through penstock. Discharge of air through penstock is
taken as 21 to 22 percent of penstock discharge,
S =factor of safety against collapse of pipe (normally assumed between 3 and 4),
D =diameter of penstock in m,
t =thickness of penstock in m, and
c =co-efficient of discharge through inlet (0.5 for ordinary type of intake valves and
0.7 for short air inlet pipes).

iv) Anti vortex arrangements

These are elements provided to prevent formation of vortex at the intake. They may
consist of reinforced concrete vertical fins constructed parallel to each other,
Dinorwic louvered type ,or perforated breast walls. The details of these
arrangements are finalised through model studies.

The requirement of water cover may be reduced with the provision of such anti -
vortex devices.

For the design of perforated breast wall, anti-vortex louvers and vertical fins, a
minimum of 1 m differential head may be adopted.

Page 10 of 18

Page 126 of 352

 Anti vortex ( parallel fins) 

Anti vortex ( perforated wall) 

v) Bell mouth and transitions

The entrance is shaped in the form of a bell mouth so as to have a smooth flow and
reduce losses. As already mentioned, the intake may be inclined or vertical with
respect to the dam axis.

Shape of inlet

Penstock and conduits entrances are designed to produce an acceleration similar to

that found in a jet issuing from a sharp edged orifice. The surfaces are formed to
natural contraction curve and the penstock or conduit is assumed to be the size of
the orifice jet at its maximum contraction.
Page 11 of 18

Page 127 of 352

The normal contraction of 40 percent (coefficient of contraction C c = 0.6) is to be
used in high and medium head installations, 30 percent (Cc = 0.7) for low head
installations and 50 percent for (Cc = 0.5) for re-entrant type intake.

Opening area

The opening area at the inlet = (Penstock area / Cc x Cos ),

where,  = angle of inclination of penstock centre line to horizontal, as shown in
figure

Height and width of opening

The height, he at entry is calculated from the distance above and below the
intersection of the penstock centre line with the face of the entrance (As shown in
figure, for lower and upper nappe and side flaring).

1
h1 D[(1.21tan2 0.0847)1/ 2 1.1tan ]
2cos 

0.791
h 2 D[ ( 0.077 tan )]
cos 

Page 12 of 18

Page 128 of 352

 D is dia of penstock

The opening height, he = h1 + h2

The width of opening, be =(Area/ he)

Shape of opening

As already mentioned the inlet should be streamlined to minimise the losses. The
profile of the roof and floor should approximate to that of a jet from the horizontal
slot. The profile is generally an ellipse given by the equation,

x2 y2
 1
(1.1D)2 (0.291D)2

The profile of sides should be such that it should generally be followed by equation:

x2 y2
 1
2 2
(0.55be ) (0.2143be )

While providing side flaring it may be ensured that the size of opening at entry does
not create any structural problem with the size of dam block or structure. In case the
dam block or structure in which the intake is to be accommodated has restrictions,
the dimensions of side flaring should be restricted to that extent.

Transition

In order to obtain hydraulically efficient design of intake transitions from rectangular

section to a circular section conduit, the transition should be designed in accordance
with the following requirements:

a) Transition or turns should be made about the centre line of mass flow and should
be gradual.
b) Side walls should not expand at a rate greater than 5 o from the centre line of
mass flow.
c) All slots or other necessary departures from the neat outline should normally be
outside the transition zone.

Page 13 of 18

Page 129 of 352

Centre Line of Intake

Formation of vortices at the intake depends on a number of factors such as

approach geometry, flow conditions, velocity at the intake, geometrical features of
trash rack structure relative submergence depth and withdrawal Froude number, etc.

The geometry of the approach to the power intake should be such that it can
ensure economy, and better hydraulic uniform flow condition. The flow lines should
be parallel, having no return flow zone and having no stagnation. Velocity
distribution in front of penstock should be uniform.

To prevent vortices, the centre line of intake should be so located as to

ensure submergence requirements given in Fig.18, which has been developed by an
evaluation of minimum design submergence at prototypes operating satisfactorily.

For large size intakes at power plants:

v
(Fr = ---------- < 1/3)
gD

especially at pumped storage system, a submergence depth, h = 1 to 1.5 times the

intake height or diameter is recommended.

For medium and small size installations (Fr > 1/3), especially at pump sumps,
submergence requirements may be calculated using the formula:
h
---- = 0.5 + 2 Fr
D

Page 14 of 18

Page 130 of 352

The recommendations are valid for intakes with proper approach flow conditions.
With well controlled approach flow conditions, with a suitable dimensioning and
location of the intake relative to its surroundings and with use of anti-vortex devices
submergence requirements may be reduced below the limits recommended above.
However, recourse to hydraulic model studies may be taken to determine more
accurate value depending on the specific parameters of the particular structure.

Page 15 of 18

Page 131 of 352

4.0 TYPICAL DESIGN FOR AN INTAKE STRUCTURE INCLUDING
TRASH RACK

A typical design is given below:

DESIGN DISCHARGE Q 135 m3/s

DIA OF penstock D 5.35 m
COEFF OF CONTRACTION Cc 0.6
AREA OF penstock A = pi()*D^2/4 22.48 m2
Angle of Penstock with horizontal Theta 25 degree
OPENING AREA A1=A/(Cc*Cos(theta)) 41.34 m2
HEIGHT OF THE OPENING He =H1+H2 8.224 m
FOR 25 DEGREES H1 3.3625 m
H1=((1.21*(TAN(RADIANS(Theta)))^2+0.0847)^0.5+
1/(2*COS(RADIANS(Theta)))-1.1*TAN(RADIANS(Theta)))*D
H2 4.86143 m
H2 =D*(0.791/(COS(RADIANS(Theta)))+0.077*TAN(RADIANS(Theta)))
HEIGHT OF THE OPENING He =H1+H2 8.224 m
WIDTH OF THE OPENING Be = A1/He 5.027 m
ADOPT 8.224 X 5.027 M OPENING

Fixation of CL of Penstock
FRL 75.5 m
MDDL 74 m
Hs =0.3He 2.467 m

Center Line of Penstock = X 65.509 m

He 8.224 m
Top of the Bell Mouth = X+He/2 68.8715 m
Bottom of the Bell Mouth = X-He/2 60.648 m
Top of the Trashrack Strcuture 76.2 m

Page 16 of 18

Page 132 of 352

SHAPE OF BELLMOUTH
adopted
X = 1.1 D 5.885 5.885 m
Y = 0.291 D 1.557 1.557 m
Ro = =0.077*D 0.412 0.412 m
Horiz Distance of Point A from base line of Dam 7.1607 m
Inclined Distance of Point A from base line of Dam 7.9009 m
Elevation of Point A 62.17 m

EQUATION OF ELLIPSE
EQUATION FOR PLAN adopted
X = 0.55 Be 2.765 2.765 m
Y = .2143 Be 1.077 1.077 m
Min Distance 0.4 Be 2.011 2.011 m
Total Width after plan Flare profile #NAME? 7.181 m

ADOPT SEMICIRCULAR TYPE OF INTAKE STRUCTURE

MIN RADIUS OF TRASH RACK 1.1428Be 5.74 m
MIN RADIUS OF TRASH RACK 0.8 He 6.579 m
VEL IN penstock V 6.005 m/s
APROACH VEL Va 0.9 m/s
MAX RADIUS OF TRASH RACK R=0.354*He(V/Va)^0.5 7.52 m
ADOPT RADIUS 7.6 m

Page 17 of 18

Page 133 of 352

Trash Rack Strcuture Dimensioning
Width of Trash Rack Groove 0.32 m
radius upto the centre line of trash rack R’’ 7.76 m
angle of trash rack Structure 180 degrees
TRASH RACK Perimeter =2PI()*R’’ 24.38 m
no of bays 6
6 BAYS OF WIDTH=perimeter/no of bays 4.1586 m
Width of the Trashrack frame 3.711 m
Clear Span 3.331 m
TOTAL HEIGHT OF THE TRASH RACK STRUCTURE 19.671 m
NO. of tiers 5
5 TEIRS OF HEIGHT 3.934 m
3.671 3.904 m
ADOPT3671 x 3904 MM TRASH RACK
Trash Bar Design
THICKNESS OF BARS t 0.012 m
no of divisions 6
EFFECTIVE LENGTH L 0.6507 m

RATIO L/T <70 54.22 SAFE

Runner Dia 4.5 m
SPACING OF BARS C/C 0.15 0.112 m
LOAD ON BAR W 0.672 T/M
BM M=WL^2/10 0.0285 T-M
FAILURE STRESS fy*(1.23-0.0153*L/T) 660.6 kg/cm2
SAFE STRESS 0.6fy*(1.23-0.0153*L/T) 396.4 kg/cm2
Z REQUIRED 7.18 CM3
width of trash bar 7.5 CM
Z PROVIDED 11.25 CM3
CHANNEL SECTION DESIGN
Differential Head for Design 7m
LOAD ON CHANNEL W 4.555 t/m
EFFECTIVE SPAN L 3.671 m
MAX MOMENT M=WL^2/10 6.137 T-M
Z REQD Z=M/f 371.929 CM3
Z - PROVIDED ISMC 300 424 CM3

PROVIDE 75x 12 MM ROUNDED STEEL FLAT AT CLEAR SPACING OF 100 MM

ISMC300 AS FRAME
Check for Velocity through trash rack
Beam size 0.6 m
gross area 331.14 m2
Actual Area of trash bar and frame 81.9 m2
net area 70% of gross area or act 231.8 m2
net area (actual) 249.24 m2
clogged area 50% net area 124.62 m2
vel through gross area 0.41 m/s
vel through net area (actual) 0.54 m/s
vel through clogged area 1.08 m/s

Page 18 of 18

Page 134 of 352

 
 DESIGN OF DESILTING CHAMBERS

INTRODUCTION

Most of the rivers carry heavy sediment load in suspension and as bed load.
The suspended load, especially the sharp edged fine sand (quartz) transported by
rivers in mountain reach causes rapid wear of turbine runner blades/buckets due to
abrasion. This abrasion tendency increases with the head. In course of time this
may result in shut down of units for considerable duration thereby causing enormous
loss of power and revenue. Therefore, it is necessary to provide necessary
arrangements for exclusion of sediments from the water. De-silting basins, also
known as silting tanks, settling basins, sediment traps, decantation chambers are
used for this purpose.

1.1 Types of desilting basins

Desilting basins can be classified into various types as,

i) Natural or artificial based on the mode of construction

ii) Manual or mechanical or hydraulic removal of deposition, on the basis
of the method of cleaning.
iii) Continuous or intermittent, on the basis of mode of operation.
iv) Open channel or closed conduit on the basis of type of flow.
v) Single or multiple unit, on the basis of configuration /layout.

UNDERGROUND DESILTING CHAMBERS FOR 
NATHA JHAKRI H.E. PROJECT (HP) 

Page 135 of 352

 TYPICAL  GRAVITY FLUSHING IN SETTLING BASIN 

2.1 Hydraulic design of desilting basin

Apart from the settling efficiency and flushing system, in the hydraulic design
the flowing aspects are to be taken into consideration:

i) Location and orientation

Desilting basin is to be located as near the head works / intake as possible to

achieve the desired control and minimize sedimentation , but not too near the
intake / head works as it would lead to turbulence downstream of the intake /
head regulator. Moreover, the required head for flushing may not be available
in the immediate vicinity of the head works in the case of hydraulic flushing.
The basin is to be located in the reach where at least a straight length of ten
times the average width of the channel or diameter of the inlet tunnel is
available on the upstream, to achieve satisfactory distribution of flow.

ii) Inlet arrangement

The flow area in the desilting basin is required to be increased for reducing
the velocity to induce settlement. The increase in area is achieved by suitable
horizontal or vertical divergence. For wide basins an expansion ratio of flatter
than 1: 4 to 1: 5 is to be adopted for obtaining satisfactory distribution of flow.

Page 136 of 352

In case of deep basins in the tunnels, bed slope has to be steeper than that of
the slope provided for wide basin to prevent deposition along the bed. In
such cases a bed slope of 1 : 2.5 to 1 : 3 may give satisfactory results.

iii) Grids and other flow distribution devices

Grids / screens or other flow equalizing devices are provided at the end of
inlet transition to reduce the turbulences and inequalities in the flow
distribution. Screens / grids break large eddies into small ones. Screens
having openings up to 60 to 80 per cent of gross flow area at the location of
screen may be used for initial design. When the intermittent flushing is
adopted, the bottom level of the grid has to be above the depth of flow during
the flushing.

iv) Size of basin

The velocity of flow in the basin is required to be reduced to induce

settlement. The flow area, i.e. the width and the depth of the basin is to be
designed for limiting the velocity given by the critical velocity concept or to
keep the shear stress below the critical tractive force for the size of the
particle for which the basin is designed. Generally, a flow through velocity of
0.3 m/sec for removal of sediment coarser than 0.2mm and 0.15m/sec for
removal of particles up to 0.1mm dia. is considered in the design.

v) Fall velocity of particles

The fall velocity of sediment particles is to be obtained by laboratory analysis

of suspended sediment particles collected at site. The length of the desilting
basin depends upon the horizontal distance traveled by the particle within the
time needed for the particle to fall from the top layer of the flow to the bed of
the desilting basin. For preliminary design the, estimation of fall velocity may
be obtained from Sundry’s curve .

vi) Sediment removal functions

The main criteria for efficient settling of sediment in a basin is the fall velocity,
but due to the turbulence in the flow the actual fall velocity is reduced and its
estimation is very difficult. Subsequently based on diffusion and probability
theory several functions are proposed by Lamble, Rouse, and Camp which
are justifiable and are not based on the assumption of uniform distribution of
suspended sediment along the vertical.

vii) Outlet arrangement

Proper arrangements are to be made at the outlet for skimming of the

relatively less sediment laden top layers of flow. The settling efficiency
improves with provision of wider outlets having higher sill level. The center
line of the outlet should coincide with the axis of the desilting basin for uniform
with drawl of flow over the entire widths of the basin. Narrow outlets or outlets
located on the side, leads to a reduction in the effective length of the basin.

Page 137 of 352

viii) Bed slope in the case of intermittent flushing

For efficient flushing of the sediment, a velocity many times more than the
forward velocity of flow, during settling is required to be generated in the entire
basin. A steeper bed slope is therefore required for conveyance of the flow
with a small hydraulic depth.

ix) Size of the flushing outlet in the case of intermittent flushing

The sill of the flushing outlet has to be flush with the bed of the desilting basin
at the downstream end for transporting sediment in the channel. The flushing
outlet should have an over all width equal to the bed width of the basin at out
let.

x) Size and slope of the hoppers

In case of continuous flushing system, the bed of the desilting basin is divided
into a number of hoppers. In wide basins, more than one row of the hoppers
may be necessary. The slope of the hoppers is required to be steeper than
the angle of repose of the suspended sediment to allow the sediment to slip
into the openings at the bottom connecting to the flushing conduits / pipes
underneath. The width of the hopper is thus related to the depth of the hopper,
size of the opening at bottom of hopper and bed width of the basin. In the
case of narrow desilting basins, instead of individual rectangular hopper, a
continuous hopper bottom side with sediment accumulation trench below is
preferable. The spacing of the openings between the flushing trench and
flushing conduit is decided in such a way that the top of the dunes formed
between the successive openings would not protrude in the settling zone
above.

xi) Size of flushing conduit

Generally velocities larger than 3 m/sec are provided in the flushing systems.
The velocity should increase towards the downstream with addition of flow
from the basin to the flushing trench. Normally, 10 to 20 percent of the inflow
discharge is used for flushing of the basin from which the size of the flushing
conduit can be decided.

xii) The size and spacing of the openings, from the hopper bottom to
flushing conduit.

The first opening from the desilting basin to flushing conduit is required to be
larger to allow for the higher rate of deposition and larger size of particles.
The size of the first opening has to be adequate to pass about 20 to 30 % of
the flushing discharge with a velocity of 3m/sec. The size of the flushing
conduit at the beginning should have the same area. The total area of the
opening can be estimated for passing the remaining discharge with a velocity
of 3 m /sec. The size of the openings is progressively decreased towards
downstream as concentration and size of the sediment settling goes on
decreasing towards downstream.

Page 138 of 352

 For this purpose, however, the total number of openings are required to be
estimated. From the observations made in the models, it is seen that the
dunes of the deposition are formed in the flushing trench of desilting basin.
The base width of the dunes in the direction of flow is about 3 times the height
of the dune. The height of the dune on the bed flushing trench is to be fixed in
such a way that it should not obstruct the flow in the settling zone. Taking into
consideration the permissible top level of the dunes and the bed level of the
flushing trench in the basin, the spacing of the openings can be estimated.
Due to the slope of the flushing trench, the permissible depth of the dune may
increase progressively towards downstream, advantage of which can be taken
for increasing the spacing either for reducing the number of openings or
reducing the flushing discharge or combinations of both.

Smaller size materials settling near the outlet end form a reverse ramp at the
upstream edge of the skimming weir. The last opening has therefore to be a
little larger than the opening just on its upstream.

xiii) Escape Channel / tunnel

The velocities in the escape channel has to be more or at least equal to the
velocities in the flushing system at its outlet at the tail end of the desilting
basin. The hydraulic parameters such as width, depth and slope may be
calculated on the basin of Maning’s’ formula with appropriate roughness
corresponding to the bed forms and its adequacy verified for the desired rate
of sediment transport for the course material using appropriate sediment
transport formula adopting the guidelines given by ASCE( 5 )

In the case of escape tunnels, the adequacy of the size may be ascertained
and the head loss calculated using the criteria given for the design of flushing
conduit.

xiv) Location Of Flushing

Outlet

In the case of the escape channel, the sill level in the escape channel should
be such that it discharges freely in the river during floods also. If the slope of
the flushing channel is flatter than the slope of the river, which would generally
be the case in the case of diversion works in hilly streams, the outfall may be
shifted further down to satisfy the above requirement. In the case of the
tunnel, it may get submerged during the floods. However, it may be
ascertained that the residual energy in the tunnel after allowing for the head
loss is adequate for letting out the desired discharge in the river. In both the
cases the outfall should be located in the forward region of the flow along the
bank or on the concave bank of the bend for further efficient transport of the
sediment in the river.

3.0 Model Studies

Stilling basins are designed based on broad guidelines, assumptions and

Page 139 of 352

experiences. Verification of these assumptions and adequacy of the layout

Page 140 of 352

 as well as other design aspects is, therefore, required to be assessed by
conducting studies in physical hydraulic models. These studies are generally
conducted in geometrically similar scale rigid bed models for open channel
type desilting basins. In the case of closed conduit type basins, transperant
Perspex material is used for convenience of fabrication and for visualization of
the flow in the basin.

DESILTING BASIN DIMENSIONS- EXAMPLE

Design a settling basin for a powerstation utilising the river of a water carrying
sediment. The basin have to be designed to remove particles of size 0.2 mm and
above. The design discharge is 15 m3/s.

Criticle veocity (limiting flow through velocity) can be obtained from Camp equations
as :
V a d
where V = flow through velocity in m/s
d = diameter of particle up to which sediment load is desired to be removed
a = constant which is
0.36 for d >1 mm
0.44 for 1mm > d> 0.1 mm
0.51 for 0.1 m > d
Take height of desilting chamber as 8.75 m
Use Rouse diagram for fall velocity as:

Use suitable assumptions

Page 141 of 352

Solution.

Critical velocity V = 0.44(0.2) 1/2 = 0.196 m/s

In designing the basin, a flow through velocity is taken as 0.2 m/s

From H. Rouse diagram, for a particle size of 0.2 mm fall velocity is = 0.023 m/s.

Denoting the depth of the basin by ‘h’ and its width by ‘b’, the discharge passing
through the basin is

Q = b.h.v m3/s.
where ‘v’ is the flow through velocity.

The second equation expressing the relation between the settling velocity ‘w’ in the
basin and the settling time ‘T’ is

T= h/w sec

Also retention period should not be less than settling time. The required length of the
basin is thus:

L=vT m

Combining these equations, L = h v/w

L = 8.75 x 0.2/.023 = 76.1 m

Provide length L = 77 m

and width b = Q/h v

= 15/ (8.75 x 0.2)
= 8.57 m
Provide width = 8.6 m

Check :

Settling time = 8.75/0.023 = 380 secs

Discharge conveyed during this time= 380 x 15 = 5700 cum

Volume of desilting chamber = h b L
= 8.75 x 8.6 x 77
= 5795 cum
So the size of desilting basin is :

77m (L) x 8.6m(b) x 8.75m(h)

Page 142 of 352

DESILTING CHAMBERS FOR TALA . H.E. PROJECT, BHUTAN

Tala H.E. project comprises of a concrete 92m gravity diversion dam near Honka for
diversion of 171m3/s of water for generation of 1020 MW of electricity at 820m net
head. There are three side intakes on right river bank, each of which feed three
underground desilting chambers. The spillway complex housed, in the central portion
of dam comprises of five sluices and one overflow spillway near the left bank would
be able to pass the SPF at reservoir water level(RWL) El. 1367m.The 22.25
kilometre concrete lined headrace tunnel is second longest in the Himalayas.

Desilting arrangement

Underground Desilting basin complex is consisting of three chambers. Each fed

byindependent inlet tunnels. The maximum width and maximum depth of basin is
18.5 m and 13.92 m respectively. Settling length is 250 m. The design is aimed to
exclude particle size above 0.2 mm. The inlet tunnel which is on right bank and have
designed for 171 m3/s and includes 20% flushing discharge. The incoming flow to
basin diverse in all direction through a 39.44 m. inlet transition and vertically through
1V:2H transition. The outlet of basin converges through 17.646 m transition outlet.
The outlet discharge of the desilting basin in head race tunnel is 142.5 m3/s which
fed into 22.97 km HRT.

Desilting complex 

Page 143 of 352

 Cross Section of desilting chamber 

Model Studies of Tala Desilting Chambers

Physical model studies for desilting chamber has been carried outat Central Water
and Power Research Station, Pune. One unit of desilting chamber from inlet to HRT
and flushing tunnel, hydraulic model study on 1:30(G.S.) scale model, reproduced
partly in fibre glass and partly in transparent Perspex, was carried out at same place.
Three numbers of flushing tunnels having size of 0.5m(W) X 1.2m (H) at upstream

Page 144 of 352

end and 0.75 m(W) X 1.2 m (H) at the downstream end were also reproduced in the
model. Openings of different size at different spacing were provided in the slab
separating flushing tunnel and the desilting basin. Initially design discharge of 57
m3/s was run and coarse sediment with high concentration was injected from
upstream of inlet and Model was also run for 10% extra discharge at inlet.

It was found that the overall size and shape of the basin is adequate for 90%
settlement of material coarser than 0.2 mm diameter. It was also seen that the
flushing tunnels below desilting basins were adequate for flushing of the settled
sediment. Studies for efficiency of flushing tunnels beyond desilting basin are carried
out on a separate model.

*********

Page 10 of 10

Page 145 of 352

 
 ‐Manish Rathore
Deputy Director

Page 146 of 352

 Intake

TRT /  Intake 
TRC Tunnels

D/S 
Desilting 
Surge 
Chamber
Tank
Components 
WCS of a HE  SFC / 

Power 
Project SFT
House  HRT / 
(Surface /  HRC
UG)

Pressure  U/S 
Shaft /  Surge 
Penstock Tank
BVC

ƒ To carry the water from reservoir to turbines for

generating Power and finally joining the river through tail
race system

Page 147 of 352

 Type of the Scheme

Maximum utilization of available hydro potential

Topography of the site

Geology of the site

Overall Economy of the scheme

Should be short 
Sh ld b   h t  Capable of 
C bl   f 
to Reduce cost  utilizing the  Hydraulically 
and Increase  maximum hydro  Stable
efficiency potential

Overall  Shorter length of  Structurally 

Economical steel lined section Stable

Page 148 of 352

Page 149 of 352
Page 150 of 352
Page 151 of 352
Page 152 of 352
ƒ Surge tank is the forebay provided for water hammer relief,
pressure regulation,
regulation flow regulation and improvement in speed
regulation of the machines.
ƒ Functions
ƒ Reflects incoming pressure waves
ƒ Decreases cycle time of pressure wave in the penstock
ƒ Start‐up/shut‐down time for turbine can be reduced (better
response
p to load changes)
g )

ƒ Design
ƒ Hydraulic
ƒ Structural

Page 153 of 352

ƒ Purpose
ƒ To speedd up excavation process
ƒ Ventilation
ƒ To shorten travel path for trucks carrying muck
ƒ Increase in overall economy

ƒ Requirements
ƒ Length should be kept as less as possible
ƒ Must be of size so as to accommodate construction
machinary

ƒ Must be plugged after construction in case of Hydraulic tunnels

Page 154 of 352

Page 155 of 352
ƒ Shape of tunnel
ƒ Circular
ƒ D‐shape
ƒ Horse shoe
ƒ Modified horse shoe

ƒ Factors deciding
g shape
p of tunnel
ƒ Geological conditions along the alignment
ƒ Hydraulic requirements
ƒ Structural considerations
ƒ Functional requirements

ƒ Tunnel alignment should be kept straight as far as

possible. And if it is not possible to avoid the curves in the
tunnel, the radius of the curve should be at least in the
range of 2.5 D to 5 D.

ƒ The weak zones, foliations and major joint sets should be

as oblique to the alignment as possible

ƒ Alignment should be set such that minimum horizontal

and vertical rock cover is available on all points along the
tunnel

Page 156 of 352

ƒ Hydraulic tunnels are concrete lined to prevent weathering
effect on surrounding rock and get smooth hydraulic conditions
and not to take external loads.
ƒ However sometimes in very poor rock conditions RCC Lining
may be provided to counter the external rock and water
pressures.

ƒ Concrete Lining
ƒ For HRT,
HRT Surge Tanks,
Tanks TRT and other low pressure tunnels
ƒ Max velocity allowed 3 to 5 m/s
ƒ Steel Lining
ƒ For high pressure tunnels
ƒ Max velocity upto 6.5 m/s allowed

ƒ Cross section of tunnel

ƒ Number of penstock / HRT
ƒ Diameter of penstock / HRT
ƒ Head Losses calculations:
ƒ At trash rack
ƒ At intake entrance
ƒ Friction losses
ƒ At bends
ƒ At branches /Y‐pieces
ƒ At reducers and expansions

Page 157 of 352

ƒ Plain cement concrete
ƒ PCC not cracked ; Rock not cracked
ƒ PCC cracked ; Rock not cracked
ƒ PCC cracked ; Rock cracked
ƒ Reinforced cement concrete
ƒ RCC not cracked ; Rock cracked
ƒ RCC cracked ; Rock cracked
ƒ Crack parameters
ƒ Crack spacing
ƒ Crack width

ƒ Consolidation grouting

ƒ Contact grouting

Page 158 of 352

ƒ Types
ƒ Basedd on location
l
▪ Surface penstock
▪ Embedded penstock
▪ Buried penstock
▪ Penstock in tunnels
ƒ Based on fabrication
▪ Riveted
Ri t d
▪ Welded

ƒ Design
ƒ As per CWC manual

Typical underground and 
surface penstock combination

Page 159 of 352

Pressure shaft of 
Punatsangchhu‐I HEP

Penstock of Nagarjuna Sagar HEP

Page 160 of 352

ƒ It should stand against maximum internal pressure
i l di water
including t hammer
h and
d surge effects.
ff t

ƒ It should stand against external pressure, if any, without

buckling.

ƒ It should have required impact strength to be able to

deform pplasticallyy in the p
presence of stress concentrations
at notches and bends.

ƒ It should have good weldability without preheating.

ƒ It should not require any stress relieving after welding.

ƒ Normal
ƒ All operations
ti that
th t are likely
lik l to
t occur severall times
ti during
d i
the life of the penstock are termed as normal.
ƒ Intermittent
ƒ Intermittent condition includes those during filling and
draining of penstocks and maximum surge in combination
with pressure rise during normal operation.
ƒ Emergency
ƒ The emergencyg y conditions are those in which one of the
pressure control equipment malfunctions.
ƒ Exceptional
ƒ Those conditions in which various control devices
malfunction in the most unfavorable manner are called
exceptional

Page 161 of 352

ƒ Normal
Vdesign <  Vu/3  OR  0.6Vy whichever is less.

ƒ Intermittent
Vdesign <  0.4Vu OR  2Vy/3  whichever is less

ƒ Emergency
Vdesign <   2Vu /3
/ OR  0.9Vy whichever is less
hi h  i  l

ƒ Exceptional
Vdesign <  Vy

Page 162 of 352

Page 163 of 352
Page 164 of 352
Page 165 of 352
Page 166 of 352
Page 167 of 352
Page 168 of 352
Page 169 of 352
 Thank You

Page 170 of 352

 
 ‐Manish Rathore
Deputy Director

Surge
S rge
Shaft

HRT

Reservoir

Pressure
Shaft

Turbine

Page 171 of 352

ƒ What is transient condition…??
ƒ Flow condition during change from one steady state to 
another steady state
ƒ Rapidly varying Unsteady flow 

ƒ During transients, fluctuation of pressure & velocity 
occurs at a point
  t    i t

ƒ Transients die out due to 
ƒ friction in the system

ƒ In hydroelectric projects, transients are caused by change 
in boundary conditions at turbines.
ƒ Sudden load acceptance
ƒ Sudden load rejection
ƒ Tripping of turbines

ƒ D i  t
During transients, pressure rise/drop is the main concern 
i t     i /d  i  th   i    
for the design of water conductor system & turbines

Page 172 of 352

Page 173 of 352
 K /U
a
ª K D
 2 º
«¬1  E . e 1  P »¼ 
Where,   a  = Wave velocity
K = Bulk modulus of water
U = Water density
E = Modulus of elasticity of conduit 
D = Diameter of conduit
e = Wall thickness of conduit
P = Poisson’s ratio of conduit material

For rigid conduits a  = 1440 m/s

In tunnels, a = 1200 – 1400 m/s

In surface penstocks, a = 700 – 1000 m/s

ƒ Equation of motion & continuity in a pipe are

gA w H wQ wQ wH fQ. | Q |
.  0  gA  0
c 2
wt wX wt wx 2 DA
Eq. of Continuity  Eq. of Momentum

ƒ Most common method for solving equations is method of 
characteristics.
ƒ The
Th methodth d off characteristics
h t i ti is i a technique
t h i f solving
for l i
partial differential equations. Typically, it applies to first‐
order equations. The method is to reduce a partial
differential equation to a family of ordinary differential
equations along which the solution can be integrated from
some initial data.

Page 174 of 352

 PD Equations are transformed into ODEs

gA dH dQ fQ | Q |
  0
a dt dt 2 DA
C+
dx
 a
dt

 gA dH dQ fQ | Q |
  0
a dt dt 2DA
C‐
dx
a
dt

and finally into algebraic equations
C+: Hp = a a f't
( QA  H A )  QP  QA. | QA |
gA gA 2DA
C‐: Hp = a § a · f't
QP ¨¨ HB  QB ¸¸  .QB. | QB |
gA
A © A ¹ 2DA
gA 2DA
HP = CP + BQP a f't
Where B= CP= HB  BQB  . QB. | QB |
HP = CM ‐ BQP gA 2DA
Cm= HA  BQA  f't . QA. | QA |
2DA

Page 175 of 352

Equation of motion in pipe

L dQ fLQ. | Q |
h= 
gA dt 2 gDA2

dH
QS= AS
dt

Equations have to be solved using numerical technique.

a) Pressure head vs. time at the valve

b) Pressure head vs. time at the midpoint.

c) Pressure head vs. time just inside the pipe at the reservoir.

Figure 2-3. Pressure head vs. time at three locations along the pipe.

Page 176 of 352

 VELOPE
ESSURE EN
PRE
MAXIMUM
' h

STEADY STATE HGL

MINIM
UM P
RESS
URE
ENVE
LOPE

' h

HEAD RACE TUN

NEL
RESERVOIR

PR
ES
250.00

SU
ER
Head at turbine end (m)

SH
200.00

AF
T
150.00

100.00

TURBINE
50.00

0.00
0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00
TIME (SEC)

ƒ For Tc > 2L/a ΔH 2.L.V

g Tc
g.
ƒ To control speed rise of turbines, maximum pressure rise 
at turbine is restricted
ƒ Permissible pressure rise 
ƒ Francis turbine   35% ‐ 40% 
ƒ Pelton turbine 15%‐ 20%
15%

ƒ What if 
Actual Pressure Rise > Allowable Pressure Rise  ???

Page 177 of 352

ƒ To control pressure rise, surge tank is provided in the 
water conductor system, between turbine and reservoir

ƒ To minimise the pressure rise, surge tank shall be provided 
as close to the Power House as possible
SURGE TANK

HEAD RACE TUNN

EL
RESERVOIR
PR
E
SS
UR
E
SH
AFT

TURBINE

Page 178 of 352

ƒ Pressure and speed regulation in turbine

ƒ Flow regulation

ƒ And to protect tunnel upstream of surge tank from water 
hammer pressures

ƒ Simple

ƒ Restricted Orifice

ƒ Differential 

ƒ Surge tank with expansion galleries

ƒ Air cushion surge tank

Page 179 of 352

Page 180 of 352
Page 181 of 352
ƒ For stability of oscillations, Thoma criteria should be 
satisfied
As > Ath
2
Ath = L. At V1
.
h f . Ho 2g

L = Length of tunnel
At = area of tunnel
  f t l
hf = head loss in tunnel
V1 = Velocity in tunnel
Ho = Net head on turbine 

Page 182 of 352

ƒ To know water level oscillations in surge tank, surge analysis 
can be carried out separately for reservoir HRT surge tank 
can be carried out separately for reservoir‐HRT‐surge tank 
system

Equation of motion in pipe
L dQ fLQ. | Q | dH
h  =  ;  QS  = A S
gA dt 2 gDA 2 dt

ƒ Equations are solved using numerical technique. 

ƒ Generally, transient analysis of complete water conductor 
system is carried out to know pressures at different points 
including water level oscillations in surge tank

ƒ Surge tank shall be designed to accommodate maximum and 
minimum water levels anticipated under worst conditions
ƒ To obtain maximum upsurge level the worst of following two 
conditions shall be considered

ƒ Full load rejection at FRL (100 – 0 – 0)

ƒ Specified load acceptance followed by full load rejection at 
th  i t t  f 
the instant of maximum velocity in HRT
i   l it  i  HRT at FRL
t FRL ( 66 –
( 66  100 –
 
0)
ƒ Lower value of coefficient of friction shall be taken during 
analysis

Page 183 of 352

 Condition 100 – 0 – 0 Condition 66 – 100 ‐ 0

Q Q

t t

ƒ To obtain minimum down surge level, the worst of 
following two conditions shall be considered 

ƒ Specified load acceptance at MDDL ( 66 – 100 – 100)

ƒ Full load rejection at MDDL followed by specified load 
acceptance at the instant of maximum negative velocity in 
HRT ( 100 – 0 – 33)

ƒ Higher value of coefficient of friction shall be taken during 
analysis

Page 184 of 352

 Condition 66 – 100 – 100 Condition 100 – 0 ‐ 33

Q Q

t t

SURGE TANK

PE
SSURE ENVELO
MAXIMUM PRE
' h

STEADY STATE HGL

MINIM
UM P
RESS
URE E
NVEL
OPE

' h

HEAD RACE TUN

NEL
RESERVOIR
PR
ES
SU
RE
SH
AF
T

TURBINE

Page 185 of 352

Head loss through orifice is given by
2
hor = Qo
2
Cd 2 . Ao .2 g
Where 
Qo = Maximum discharge through turbines

Ao = area of orifice

Cd = Coefficient of discharge (varies from 0.6 to 0.9)

Area of orifice is so chosen as to satisfy the condition of Calame and Gaden
for maximum flow
Z 1 Z 3
 hf d hor d  hf
2 4 2 4
L At
Z Vo .
g As

For stability of oscillations, Thoma criteria should be satisfied
As > Athds
d

Athds = L. At V 2
.
hf . Ho 2g
L = Length of tail race tunnel
At = area of tail race tunnel
hf = head loss in  tail race tunnel
V = Velocity in tail race tunnel
Ho = Net head on turbine 

Page 186 of 352

1. Calculate Thoma Areas for U/s and D/s Surge Tanks

2. Calculate As1 and As2 by assuming Ct

Ct may be assumed as 0.7 for preliminary designs

3. Calculate ratio of time periods T1/ T2

To avoid resonance, 1.2 < T1/ T2 < 0.8

ƒ Lining should be designed for internal pressure
ƒ Lining should be safe under external pressure when shaft 
is empty

Internal Pressure = Corresponding to maximum water level

External pressure = Higher of existing water table or saturation level in 
rock around Surge shaft corresponding to static water
level in surge shaft.

Page 187 of 352

Page 188 of 352
ƒ A pressure vessel with a back up compressor that maintains the volume 
of gas in the unit to cater for pressure changes

ƒ The air follows the reversible polytropic relation
H Vn = Constant
(for isothermal process, n = 1.0 & for adiabatic process, n = 1.4)

ƒ Size of air volume to control maximum pressure and the size of liquid 
py g y y
volume to avoid emptying the tank is determined by transient analysis.

ƒ For stability, minimum area of chamber shall be
A = n.H.Ath where H is absolute pressure head

Page 189 of 352

ƒ Can be installed close to turbines

ƒ The water hammer pressures induces by sudden changes 
in load are small as the penstock length from air chamber 
to turbines is less.

ƒ Length of water conductor system reduces.

ƒ The air cushion surge chambers require an air compressor 
tto compensate for possible air leakage
  t  f   ibl   i  l k

ƒ Air may get dissolved in turbulent water mass and the 
chamber may prove to be a source of cavitation damage 
to the machine

ƒ The air in the chamber may slowly become poisonous (low 
y y p (
oxygen content, possible content of H2S from the 
deposits of organic material). This will in no way damage 
the machine but care should be taken that the gases form 
chamber are not cleared through the machine hall.

Page 190 of 352

ƒ The chamber does not completely reflect the water 
hammer waves.

ƒ Unlike conventional surge tanks, air cushion surge 
chambers need regular monitoring of air volume & 
pressure.

ƒ To avoid air leakage, surrounding rock mass needs to be 
properly grouted and SFRS / concrete lining is generally 
required.

Page 191 of 352

 Thank You

Page 192 of 352

 
SURVEY AND INVESTIGATION FOR PLANNING OF HYDROPOWER PROJECTS
S K Das
Director, HCD(NW&S) Dte.

OBJECTIVE

 Assessment of Feasibility of Project.

 Finalize the location of components - To evaluate and optimize the layout of the
project.
 Data for designing the project components - To collect sufficient quantitative and
qualitative geological and geotechnical information.
 Data to plan suitable construction methodology.
As per BIS 12182:1987, the planning of Hydro-electric projects is done in such a way that full
service life of the project should not be less than 25 years and feasible life shall not be less than
70 years.
 Survey and Investigation of the proposed hydro power project site is the preliminary
requirement that needs to be met by using state-of the-art scientific tools and
techniques
 Hydropower Project completion time is estimated approximately 6-8 yrs from
inception. But, generally it takes 10 -20 yrs in completion.
 The process of preparation of Detailed Project Report shall be completed in a period
of 30 months from inception of the project.
 Construction period is generally taken 5 yrs.
Importance of Survey & Investigation
 Delays are very common in hydropower projects due to various reasons which produces
cost overrun of the project in lacs per day.
 A large number of HE projects are delayed due to geological surprises.
 Geological surprises take place in hydro projects mainly due to inadequate investigation.
 However, geological surprises cannot be completely ruled out even after adequate
investigation.
 Thorough survey and investigation would minimise geological surprises and delay of the
project may be minimised and thus cost overrun also.
The main components of a typical hydroelectric scheme are:
 Diversion structure dam/weir/trench weir, etc.
 Intake
 Desilting basin
 Water conductor system
 Surge shaft
 Pressure shaft/penstock
 Power house
 Tail race system

Page 193 of 352

DETAILED PROJECT REPORT (DPR) Stage S & I:

After establishment of the feasibility of the Project, DPR stage Survey & Investigation is
done and included in the Inception Report. The Inception Report is submitted for approval
of concerned chapters by CWC/CEA/CSMRS/GSI. All these approved chapters are included in
the DPR.

Survey
Types of Survey
 Topographical surveys of river, reservoir, head works, colony layout, head race
tunnel/channel, power house, switchyard, surge shaft, tail race
tunnel/channel, adits, penstock etc. considering different water levels Extent of
surveys, scales and contour intervals for various components. Detailed topographic
surveys of the project area, reservoir area, quarry & burrow areas, infrastructure and
muck disposal areas & river cross section and power house area.Remote sensing
studies and satellite imageries also provide land use pattern, geo-morphological
features and drainage system of the basin.
 Archaeological surveys in the reservoir area.
 Mineral surveys in the catchment areas.
 Right of way surveys for the reservoirs. These shall cover survey for right of
approach roads, which may be claimed by owners to various structures above FRL.
 Communication surveys
 Geology & geo-technical
 Geophysical
Geophysical methods are employed as an aid to geological investigations for
assessment of in-situ conditions and engineering properties of the rockmass mainly
by using seismic and electrical methods. These methods provide subsurface

Page 194 of 352

 information which include depth of overburden, depth and quality of rockmass,
major faults, folds, dykes and water saturation conditions.

 Seismicity
Regional and local seismicity is to be discussed with relevant plates. Site specific
seismic parameters are to be determined. MEQ studies and active fault studies are
to be conducted, if required.
 Foundation investigations of different structures/components of the project
indicating boreholes details, soil/rock strata etc.
 Construction materials survey
 Hydrological and meteorological River gauging stations on the river and the
tributaries.
 Ecological and Environment including wild life, fish culture etc.

TOPOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

River Surveys
L-Section (1:10,000 horizontal scale and 1:100 vertical scale) upto MWL+5m or to a point up
to which the back water effect is likely to extend, whichever is less, from the dam axis in the
upstream direction and 10 km downstream from the axis giving HFL, deep pools, rapid rock
outcrops etc.

Dam site
Dam site are covering up to 500m u/s and 500m d/s of the dam axis extending up to an
elevation of dam top + ¼ of dam height, depending on the geological requirement and slope
stability including abutment stripping. The scale of the maps may vary from1:500 to 1:2000
depending upon the size of the area. The contour interval should be 1m to 5m depending on
the topographical characteristics of the valley.

Survey for tunnel

 The project area maps are used for initial geological mapping and fixing of alignment
of tunels, adits etc. in consideration with the required rock cover.
 For detailed studies and layout finalization 100 m to 400 m wide strip along the
tunnel alignment in a scale of 1:2000 to 1:5000 is considered.
 Survey for Adit portals may be carried out in a scale of 1:200 in 50 M width on either
side of Adit alignment.
 Adit portal may be located in areas where sufficient space is available for provision
of infrastructure facilities for the works.
Other Surveys

Page 195 of 352

 Generally for power house, switch yard,construction lay down area, quarries, surge shaft
area, generally topographical maps on a scale of 1:1000 to 1:2000 are considered
adequate depending upon the size of area

Project area map

 If the project area is spread upto 5 km, a scale of 1:5000 is adequate.

 For project spread upto 10 km, normally a scale of 1:10,000 is considered and for
bigger area, a scale of 1:15,000 is adequate.

Table 1.
(CWC guidelines for DPR preparation SURVEYS: Extent, Scales,
Contour intervals, etc.)

Sl.N Descriptio Area to be covered / Extent of Scale Contour Remarks

o n Surveys Horizontal Vertical Interval

1. River Upstream 1:10000 1:100 Leveling at 50m or less

Surveys L-Section upto MWL +5m or to 1:10000 1:100 interval.
L- section a point up to which the back water Maximum historical
effect is likely to extend from the observed HFL
axis of the structure, whichever is Deep pools and their bed
less . In case of any head works level, rock outcrops.
situated upstream within MWL + 5 -do-
m or the farthest point affected by
back water.
Downstream 10 km from the axis
of the structure
2. Reservoir i) Contour plan covering an 1:2000 - 1 or 2 or 3 Contour intervals for,
area upto an elevation of to m5 slope less than 10o to
MWL+5m 1: 10000 horizontal – 1 m or less,
(depending slope 10o to 30o – 2 m, and
on the total slope more than 30o – 3
area ) m.

Page 196 of 352

2. Dam and Topographic plan of the site with 1:1000 - 1 or 2 or 3 As per item 2 above.
Dyke contours, covering the area upto m Leveling to be at least at
4H on upstream and downstream 10m grids.
of the axis OR a minimum of 250m
on the upstream and 500 m on the
downstream of the axis, and
extending upto MWL+2H where H
is the height of dam.

Sl.No Descripti Area to be covered / Extent of Scale Contour Remarks

on Surveys Interval
Horizontal Vertical

1. Canal and i) L-Section 1:2000 1:100 - Leveling at 50 m or less

Water ii) Cross-Section at 50 m 1:2000 1:100 - interval
Conducto interval 1:1000 0.5 -do-
r System iii) Strip Contour Plan to cover Block leveling on 50 m or
150 m on either side of the less grid basis depending
centre line of the canal or upon the slope of the
depending upon the land.
requirement whichever is
more.
2. Power Contour plan of the site to cover 1:1000 - 0.5 or 1 Contour intervals for,
House, full area of the component(s) or 2 or 3 slope less than 10o to
Switch alternative layouts. m horizontal – 1 m or less,
Yard, slope 10o to 30o – 2 m,
Surge and slope more than 30o
Shaft, – 3 m.
Tailrace Block levelling on 50 m
etc, or less grid basis
depending upon the
slope of the land.
3. Tunnel & i) Contour Plan of the area 1:1000 to - 1 or 2 or Contour interval as per
Adit covering the length of the 1:10000 3m Item 2 above.
tunnel & 500 m on either Block leveling as per
side of the centre line of Item 1 (iii) above in case
the tunnel/adit including of ground surveys.
approach, portal and Vertical scale depending
dump areas. upon steepness of the
ii) L-Section slope and drop
4. Penstocks i) Contour Plan of the area 1:1000 - 1 or 2 or Contour interval as per
covering the length of the 1:1000 1:100 or 3m Item 2 above.
structures and 150 m on 1:200 or Block leveling as per
either side of the centre 1:500 or Item 1 (iii) above.
line of penstocks. 1:1000 Vertical scale depending

Page 197 of 352

 ii) L-Section upon steepness of the
slope.

Hydrological & Meteorological Survey

These surveys are carried out to establish
 Rainfall
 Gauge
 Discharge
 Sediments
 Water quality
 Evaporation
 Availability of water for the benefits envisaged
 Design flood for various structures
Hydrological studies
 Gauge and Gauge and discharge observation data for at least 10 yrs at project site.
 Sediment data for the period of minimum 3 yrs for suspended load, bed load and
catchment characteristics.
 Chemical and petrographic analysis of river water.
 Design flood, diversion flood, sedimentation studies, Tail water rating curve, Area
capacity Curve, design storage and key reservoir levels for each site.

Hydrological Data required for civil design

 Design flood discharges at locations of diversion structure and confluence of tailrace
& river.
 Design discharge in power Intake
 PMF, FRL, MDDL and TWL
 Sediments data (size, shape and concentration) for dead storage of reservoir, design
of silt flushing arrangement and turbine
Environment and Forest surveys
These surveys / studies are carried out on the following aspects
 Environmental survey
 Forest area involved
 Wild life
 Likely displaced persons
 Environment impact assessment
 Environment management plan

Page 198 of 352

 INVESTIGATION
GEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
To evaluate:
(a) Ground water conditions
(b) Engineering properties of the overburden and rocks.
(c) Stability of slope adjacent to the excavations.
(d) Landslides, rock falls and avalanches.
(e) Groutability of the geological medium.
(f) Liquefaction and settlement aspects.
Regional Geology, Geomorphology and tectonics of the project area and its vicinity.
The site specific geological mapping is prepared from existing GSI map and by intensive
surface traverses of the project area and also with the aid of aerial photographs & satellite
imagery, for coverage of inaccessible area comprehensively.
Geological mapping required to:
 Assess the physical and structural characteristics of the rock mass.
 Delineate rock overburden contact.
 Collect geotechnical parameters for rock mass characterization.

Surface mapping and sub-surface geological exploration to provide information regarding;

 Types of soil and rock mass
 The location, sequence, thickness and aerial extent of each soil/rock stratum,
including a description and classification.
 The depth and type of bedrock as well as the location, sequence, thickness, aerial
extent, altitude, depth of weathering, soundness, and description of rock in each
rock stratum within the depth of exploration.
 Joints, weakness zones, shear zones, folds and faults and their trends.
 Likely existence of hot or cold springs, presence of any gas.
LABORATORY AND IN-SITU TESTS AS REQUIRED
LAB TESTS ON IN-SITU TESTS
LAB TESTS ON
ROCK SAMPLES
SOIL SAMPLES

Page 199 of 352

Manual examination Unconfined compressive Shear strength parameters
Natural moisture content strength Modulus of deformation
Liquid and plastic limits Modulus of elasticity Seismic wave velocity
Specific gravity Specific gravity and porosity Bearing capacity test
Particle size distribution Water absorption Permeability test
Bulk density Slake durability index In-situ stress
Permeability Shear and ultrasonic Blasting test
Consolidation characteristics velocities Vibration study
Swelling test Shear strength of infilling Groutability test
Strength characteristics material
Compaction test Swelling
Relative density Joint stiffness
Minerological composition Petrographic study
Chemical analysis
 To determine the geotechnical parameters like unconfined strength, shear strength,
bearing capacity, permeability, water tightness of rock, principal stress, modulus of
elasticity, poisson ratio, deformation modulus etc for designing dam, tunnel,
underground cavern,adits and slope protection work.
 To know the bedrock configuration and rockmass condition of the foundation media.
 To determine characteristics of foundation material.
 To know the nature of riverine material, identify liquefiable zones (if any) present
below the foundation.
 To out out the presence of huge boulder/rock blocks as fluvio-glacial deposit/
landslide debris etc
 To work out the support system along the cut slope for the dam foundation on both
the banks.
 To know the details on bedrock configuration, rockmass condition and depth of
overburden/ cutoff along axes etc. of both u/s and d/s cofferdam.
 To assess bedrock depth, nature of bedrock .
 To assess in situ stress
 Orientation of the tunnel with respect to regional strike and weak zones of the rock
formation, maximum and minimum cover over tunnel alignment, joint sets, low
cover and highcover zones, weak/shear/fault zones likely to be encountered, vertical
and lateral rock covers at all nala crossings etc
 consolidation and curtain grouting.
 To assess the rockmass condition, depth of grout curtain and detect any adverse
features like fault/shears etc below the dam body that may endanger the stability
 To know the efficacy of grouting as well as to determine spacing, orientation of grout
holes for
Exploratory Drilling (Bore holes):
 Nos. and depths of drill holes for different components required as per CWC
guidelines.
 Assessment of depth of overburden and quality of bedrock.
 Permeability tests for overburden are done in drill holes.

Page 200 of 352

  Groutability test is done to determine the groutability characteristics at the site.
 Geological logging of Drill holes by geologist.
Preparation of Test Specimens
 The rock core & boulder specimens for various laboratory tests were prepared in
accordance with relevant provisions of IS: 9179-1979. Core specimens of 54mm dia
were drilled out from rock boulders for testing purpose.
 Rock cores of 54/42 mm dia. were cut to proper length, meeting the requirements of
the requisite length/diameter ratio and their ends were planed and polished using
polishing and lapping Machine
Grain Density

 The test is conducted as per IS: 13030-1991 “Method of Test for Laboratory
Determination of Water Content, Porosity, and Density & Related Properties of Rock
Material”.
 The rock core samples were crushed and ground to a grain size not exceeding 150
microns.
 Three representative specimens of about 15 g each of the pulverized material were
used for evaluation of grain density. Test results based on average of 3 tests.

Point Load Strength Index

 The test was conducted as per IS: 8764-1998 “Method for the Determination of
Point Load Strength Index of Rocks”. The cylindrical cores were tested axially keeping
the length to diameter ratio of 0.30 to 1.0. The load was applied to the specimen
such that failure occurred within 10-60 seconds and the failure load P was recorded
Elastic Parameters(Modulus of Elasticity & Poisson’s Ratio)

The test is conducted as per IS: 9221-1979 “Method for the Determination of Modulus of
Elasticity & Poisson’s Ratio of Rock Materials in Uniaxial Compression”. The test specimens
comprised of right circular cylinders with length to diameter ratio of 2. Axial and
circumferential deformations were determined using data obtained by electrical resistance
strain gauges. Tangent Modulus and Poisson’s Ratio were determined at 50% of the
ultimate stress.

Triaxial Compression Tests for determination of material constant ‘mi’

The test was carried out as per IS: 13047-1991 “Method for Determination of Strength of
Rock Materials in Triaxial Compression”. The test specimens comprised of right circular
cylinders with length to diameter ratio of 2. The rock core specimens were tested at

Page 201 of 352

different confining pressures.The purpose of conducting triaxial test was to determine the
material constant mi for intact rock as

Geophysical Explorations:

 Seismic refraction surveys to ascertain the depth and type of overburden and to
assess the quality of subsurface strata.
 The guidelines for site specific studies as outlined by National Committee on Seismic
Design Parameters (NCSDP) may be adhered.
 Site specific seismic parameters are finalized (CWPRS)
Construction Stage S &I
 To assess the actual parameters of specific component and to carry out required
modification in Design.
 Large scale foundation grade mapping for dam, progressive 3D geological logging of
ongoing tunnels, probe holes on the tunnel face etc are carried out during this stage.
 Foundation grade geotechnical mapping of earth & rockfill dam is done on 1 :500
scale
 3-D geological logging of diversion tunnel is carried out on 1: 100 scale.For Concrete
Dam, Power House Excavation, Tunnel Excavations, foundation grade geotechnical
mapping and geological logging is done on 1 :100 scale

Table-2
MoWR/CWC Guidelines for Preparation of Detailed Project Reports
(a) Earth and Rock-fill Dam
Minimum Pattern of Drilling
Spacing of drill holes/Pits/Drifts Depth of drill holes/Pits/Drifts

Page 202 of 352

 (i) Drill holes along the axis 150 m or less Depth equal to half the height of Dam at the
apart, with intermediate pits to delineate elevation of the hole or 5 m in the fresh rock
weak and vulnerable strata with a whichever is less. About two holes to be
minimum number of 3 to 5 holes in the extended deep (equal to the maximum height of
gorge portion and additional two on each the dam in the absence of rock at higher
abutment parallel to the flow. elevation or 5 m in fresh rock whichever is
higher), in the gorge portion and one each in
Drift on each abutment at about 60 m abutments.
elevation interval at a minimum of one each on Drifts to be extended 5m in geologically sound
each abutment. strata for keying the dam in the absence of rock.

(b) Masonry & Concrete Dam

Minimum Pattern of Drilling
Spacing of drill holes/Pits/Drifts Depth of drill holes/Pits/Drifts

(i) Drill holes along the axis at 100 m 10 m in the fresh rock (proved by geophysical
interval or less apart to delineate weak or any other suitable method). About two holes
and vulnerable strata with a minimum to be extended deep (equal to the maximum
number of 3 to 5 holes in the gorge height of the dam in the absence of rock at
portion and additional two on each higher elevation), in gorge portion and one each
abutment parallel to the flow. in abutments.
(ii) 2-3 drill holes down stream of spillway. 10m in high rock or equal to maximum height
(iii) Drifts on each abutment at about 60m of dam in absence of rock.
elevation interval with a minimum of 10 m in the fresh rock (proved by geophysical or
one on each abutment. any other suitable method).

(c) Tunnels
Spacing of drill holes/Pits/Drifts Depth of drill holes/Pits/Drifts

(i) Drill holes one at each of the portal and Drill holes 5-10m below the tunnel grade of
adit sites and additional at least one maximum possible depth
every 1-5 km interval depending upon
the length of the tunnel 10 m in the fresh rock or upto tunnel face.
(ii) Drifts on each abutment at about 60m
elevation interval with a minimum of
one on each abutment.

(d) Barrage and Weirs

Page 203 of 352

Spacing of drill holes/Pits/Drifts Depth of drill holes/Pits/Drifts

(i) Drill holes along the axis 150 m or less Drill hole 1.5-2 times maximum head of water
apart, with intermediate pits to below the average foundation level or 5m in the
delineate weak and vulnerable strata fresh rock whichever is less.
with a minimum number of two Rock to be proved by geophysical or any other
additional holes on each abutment method.
parallel to the flow.

(e)Power House
Spacing of drill holes/Pits/Drifts Depth of drill holes/Pits/Drifts

Two to four or more drill holes and/or drifts Drill holes one to two times the maximum
covering the area to satisfactorily portray the width of the structure or 5-10 m in the fresh
geological condition and delineate weak and rock proved by geophysical or any other method
vulnerable zone, if any. whichever is less.
For underground Power house the strata shall
be examined by the explorations with adequate
number of drill holes.
If found feasible and necessary accordance to
the site conditions, one drift with cross cuts may
be excavated at the roof level to prove fresh
rock conditions along the length and breadth of
the cavity structure.

Page 204 of 352

 
 PUMPED STORAGE SCHEME

It is another viable alternative to meet the peak demand. Energy is

required to pump water from lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. So

operation of a pumped storage scheme is possible only when off-peak surplus

power is available in the system.

In this type of development water is lifted from lower reservoir into an

upper reservoir using surplus energy during low demand and is released from

the upper reservoir during high demand to generate power. Either separate

turbine and pump are used or a reversible turbine which can act as a pump

also may be used. Reversible reaction turbines upto a head of 500 m are

available. The efficiency of pumped schemes is low (of the order of 67 %)

hence this peak power is costly.

To find suitable sites for two reservoirs is an important factor in

planning such a scheme. The principal types of pumped storage schemes

developed so far can be grouped into three groups.

(i) Recirculating type

(ii) Mixed or multi use type

(iii) Water transfer type.

These are shown in enclosed figure. Type II are more common. Tehri,

Sardar Sarovar, Nagarujan Sagar, Puralia projects are under construction.

The pumped storage potential in India is estimated as 93000 MW. Power

plants for 4000 MW are under construction. A Detailed note on pumped

storage development is annexed.

I
Page 205 of 352
 ANNEXURE – I

The advent of an ever-increasing number of large base-load generating

units and the growth of high peak load demand has greatly increased the

need for flexible peak load generating capacity. This peak load generating

capacity could be provided by either quick start generating units such as

combustion turbines, combined cycle units, diesels, and small common

header compressed air, and batteries.

Another effective alternative is to convert low cost surplus off peak

electric power into peak power. Pumped hydro is one of the methods to do

this conversion, although it is relatively expensive to install and the number of

suitable sites is also limited.

The use of hydro pumped storage facilities to meet peaking capacity

has been growing at an increasing rate in some countries. In addition, these

schemes can contribute to the overall electric power system by performing the

function of load regulation, quick response reserve capacity to off-set short

term generation or transmission outage and increase overall system energy.

Because of their high effectiveness in utilization of power system, large

capacity, high head, high speed, pumped storage power plants (PSPP) are

now being constructed in the world. It is also gaining momentum in India.

Definition of Pumped Storage:

Pumped storage scheme is a combined pumping and generating plant;

hence it is not a primary producer of electrical power but, by means of the

conversions, stores the surplus power of the network and returns it in peak

load periods.

II
Page 206 of 352
 In this scheme water generates power during peak demand, while the

same water is pumped back in the reservoir during lean demand period. The

provision is based on economics of operation and the availability of enough

spare capacity in the grid to operate the machines as pump in the low load

period.

Types of Pumped Storage Scheme

a. Storage or Re-circulating type: water from reservoir A (Fig a) is

used to produced power at station P and the discharge through

tailrace is stored in reservoir B. During lean periods, the water from

reservoir B is pumped back to A which later produces energy in

time of need.

Fig. a

b. Pondage or Multi-use type: in addition to the pumping back of

reservoir B to reservoir A for producing peak power at station P1,

some water of reservoir B is also used to produce power at station

P2 in the downstream (Fig b). Release from P2 will meet other water

needs in the downstream.

III
Page 207 of 352
 Fig b

c. Part Head or Water Transfer type: water of reservoir B is pumped

to an elevated reservoir A in another valley. The water of reservoir

A is utilized to produce power at station P in a third valley (Fig. c).

Fig c

Here we consider the type of Multi-use Pumped Storage, It means

there are some release from down stream reservoir to meet the requirement

of several other interests. This type of pumped storage schemes is more

common.

Role of Pumped Storages Schemes

The role of pumped storage schemes in a power system is described in

the following paragraph. These have all the merits of a hydropower station

plus some additional advantages as is evident from the following.

Most Efficient and Practical means for Storing Large Quantity of Energy

IV
Page 208 of 352
 Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes have proved technologically

the most attractive method of storing excess system thermal energy during off

peak hours and returning it to the system during peak hours. Although net

extra energy production is not involved in pumped storage schemes, the

conversion of otherwise excess night energy into high productive peak energy

has provided the economic base for these schemes. Thus these schemes

provide the most efficient and practical means for storing large quantity of

energy. These plants spread in value between base power and peak power.

Reduction in system Minimum Loading

During off peak hours, when the load is low, some of the base load

units may have to run at part load. If the minimum load is low enough, the

sum of minimum operating levels of the committed base load units may still

exceed the minimum load level. In this situation, the base load energy will be

dumped or is forced to sell to the neighboring utilities at very low rates. If

pumped storage scheme is available in the system, this dump energy can be

used for pumping operation. Even if the system does not need that stored

energy during the peak, having stored that energy allows the utility to sell it on

peak to utilities at a profit.

Improvement in Efficiency and Economy of the Thermal Power Stations

The operation of thermal and nuclear power plants at very low load

(during off peak period) would adversely affect the efficiency of the power

system, power plant life and fuel consumption per KWh generated. Thus

increasing number of large base load thermal and nuclear power plants,

which cannot be operated at low loads due to economic reasons would need

construction of pumped storage power projects. The pumped storage

V
Page 209 of 352
schemes improve the plant load factor, efficiency and durability of thermal

units and reduce severe cycling of these units and hence they improve the

operational performance of thermal power plants. These allow thermal

generating units to operate at nearly constant output all the time and at the

best efficiency instead of ramping up and down for the daily load cycle. This

translates into lower thermal and mechanical stresses on the boiler and

turbine. Reduction in wear and tear on an expensive base load unit can

prolong its life, lower its maintenance costs, and improve its availability. All

these benefits can result into significant cost savings. Frequent starting and

stopping of thermal generating unit's results in the economic losses as well as

adverse effects of the equipments. Thus the pumped storage hydroelectric

schemes help in improving the operational and economic performances of

thermal plants by creating favorable conditions in the power system, which

facilitate base load operation of thermal/nuclear power plants.

Spinning Reserve Benefits

Spinning reserve benefits come from the fact that pumped storage

schemes have a fast response time. Spinning reserve provided by thermal

units is costly because it forces a thermal unit to be operated at part load,

which is inefficient, when pumped storage system is not generating at full

load, its unused generating capacity can be used to meet the utility's spinning

reserve requirements. Efficiency for pumped storage is not as sensitive to part

load as that of thermal plant. Even if the pumped storage units are not

generating, as long as there is water in the upper reservoir, the full rating of

storage generating capacity is credited towards spinning reserve.

VI
Page 210 of 352
 Thus, these schemes provide system-spinning reserve at no cost by

operating the installation at partial load. When operated in this manner, the

PSPP in many cases can achieve overall power system savings by redacting

the portion of the required spinning reserves assigned to operating units and

standby in steam electric plants. These schemes serve extremely well with

their reserve capacity to maintain the power supply in case of failure of

thermal and nuclear generating units or in case where there is an

unanticipated high demand for electric power due to the availability to come

rapidly on line at full load from no-load synchronized spinning reserve in as a

little as 15 seconds.

Power Generation Load Leveling

As there may be severe fluctuations in the daily power consumption

patterns, it has become increasingly necessary to optimize the various type of

electric power generation in order to achieve the most cost efficient supply of

electricity. Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes can make this possible by

utilizing power from thermal and nuclear generation facilities at night (off peak

hours) to pump water from lower reservoir to upper reservoir, where it can

repeatedly be used to generate power during peak demand hours.

In a power system without pumped storage generation, electricity

power generation like thermal and nuclear are also primarily to meet peak

demand. When the fluctuation in the demand become severe, the repeated

start up and shut down required to make the required generation output

adjustment result in high fuel costs and lower performance level for these

power plants.

VII
Page 211 of 352
 In a power system with PSPP, the power needs during peak demand

periods can be met by these pumped storage schemes. In this way the

system enables to modify the high and low extremes in operating levels of

thermal and nuclear power plants, thus facilitating a load leveling effect, which

may result in an increased operating efficiency and reduced costs. Therefore,

although the pumped storage schemes consume more energy than they

generate and do not increase power system energy supply unless there is

natural inflow into upper reservoir, these schemes level the peak and valleys

of a typical electricity utility load curve and provide emergency power. These

schemes create an artificial demand in the power system at low load periods

by pumping water from lower pond to upper pond, which is then utilized to

generate power to meet peak demands.

Voltage and Power Factor Correction

Voltage and power factor correction are additional operating benefits of

pumped storage schemes, when the pumped storage units can operate in a

voltage regulation mode like a synchronous condensor and can reduce losses

as well as maintain the quality of services to customers.

Improved System Reliability

System operating reliability can be improved by having a pumped

storage scheme in the system. The availability of a pumped storage plant is

much higher than that of combustion turbines. The speed at which a

reversible unit can be brought on line makes it ideal for covering for forced

outages of thermal units in the system.

VIII
Page 212 of 352
Output Adjustment Capabilities

Another continually growing importance/role of the pumped storage

hydroelectric schemes is there availability for providing a quick employable

reserve source of power and possibility for enabling load frequency

regulations. Electricity is normally supplied at a frequency of 50 Hz. However

this frequency is not constant, as it declines when supply capacity falls short

of demand and increases in demand when supply is in excess of demand in

the power system. Failure to keep supply and demand of the electricity can

have an adverse effect on electrical and electronic equipment connected as

the loads and may even cause power failures. Therefore the adjustment of

generation output in response to demand fluctuations is an important way of

ensuring the supply of high quality power at suitable frequency. The important

characteristics of PSPP (to reach maximum output within a very short period,

say 3 to 5 minutes of start up and adjustment in their output within a matter of

seconds) make them more flexible than thermal and nuclear power plants.

Environmentally Friendly

Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are environmentally friendly.

These schemes generate electric power by regulating water between upper

and lower regulating reservoir. Once the water has been stored, it can be

used repeatedly without changes in water levels downstream, except during

the initial filling of the reservoirs. Thus the pumped storage hydroelectric

schemes have got very limited, if any adverse effect on environment of the

region and help in reducing pollution and others adverse effects which are

otherwise likely to results from the development of alternative sources of

energy for meeting the peak requirements. Further configuration of pumped

IX
Page 213 of 352
storage schemes in mountain regions often provides for underground location

of powerhouse and other key elements of the system, thus avoiding disruption

of scenery and minimizing the esthetic impact of the new structure.

Other Attributes Offered by Pumped Storage Power Plant

The pumped storage hydroelectric schemes are economically

advantageous because they convert low value, low cost, off peak energy to

high value, on peak capacity energy and highly flexible peaking power. In

addition these schemes are comparatively more flexible from the

considerations of selection of their sites. These schemes require much less

capital investment. Low investment, ruggedness in nature, easiness in

maintenance due to simplicity in mechanism, flexibility in operation and design

(short term peaking, spinning or ready reserve), high reliability, and hydrologic

independence etc. are other attributes offered by PSPP.

DEVELOPMENT PUMPED STORAGE IN INDIA

Trend of Development

It was Sixth Plan, when the first pumped storage hydroelectric scheme

Nagarjunasagar (7 x 100 MW) in Andhra Pradesh was installed in India. First

six units of 100 MW each of the project were commissioned in the Sixth Five

Year Plan in the existing conventional Nagarjunasagar powerhouse (having

one conventional unit of 110 MW already in operation). However, the units of

the scheme are being operated as conventional units due to non-availability of

the tail pond dam. Paithon (1 x 12 MW) in Maharashtra was the second

pumped storage hydroelectric scheme installed in India during the same Plan.

Thus, the total Hydro installed capacity under pumped storage schemes was

612 MW at the end of Sixth Five Year Plan.

X
Page 214 of 352
 The seventh unit of 100 MW at Nagarjunasagar pumped storage

scheme and all the four units of Kadamparai pumped storage scheme

(4 x 100 MW) in Tamil Nadu, aggregating to 500 MW were commissioned

during Seventh Five Year Plan. Thus, the total hydroelectric installed capacity

under pumped storage schemes was stepped up to 1112 MW at the end of

Seventh Five Year Plan.

Kadana Stage I (2 x 60 MW) pumped storage scheme in Gujarat and

reversible Panchet Hill, second unit of 40 MW under Damodar Valley

Corporation in Bihar were commissioned in 1990-91. Thus the total

hydroelectric installed capacity under pumped storage schemes in operation

as on 31st March 1992 (at the end of the Annual Plans 1990-91 and 1991-92)

rose to 1272 MW.

During the Eight Five Year Plan, two pumped storage scheme, viz. –

Ujjani (1 x 12 MW, commissioned), Bhira PSS (1 x 150 MW, rolled on 29th

March 1995) and unit of 1 of 60 MW of Kadana Stage II (rolled on 31st March

1996). These on adding raising pumped storage installed capacity to 1494

MW on 31st March 1997.

Future Development

Four sanctioned pumped storage schemes and unit 2 of 60 MW

Kadana Stage II in the existing Kadana Stage I PSS in Gujarat with an

aggregate installed capacity of 3310 MW are under various stages of

construction in India. These schemes are Ghatgar (2 x 125 MW) in

Maharashtra, Sardar Sarovar RBPH (6 x 200 MW) in Gujarat, Srisailam LBPH

(6 x 150 MW) in Andhra Pradesh, Purulia PSS (4 x 225 MW) in West Bengal.

XI
Page 215 of 352
 In addition to these Central Electricity Authority has cleared two

pumped storage scheme, viz.- Bhivpuri PSS (1 x 90 MW) in Maharashtra and

Tehri Stage II (4x 250 MW) in Uttaranchal with an aggregate installed capacity

of 1090 MW.

Further, Central Electricity Authority has identified 56 additional

potential sites for development of pumped storage schemes with a probable

installed capacity of 93,920 MW.

World Scenario of Pumped Storage Schemes Development

Pumped storage hydroelectric schemes has its beginning in

Switzerland, where the first pure pumped storage plant was constructed in

1904. This system of pumped storage power generation had separate

turbine/generator and pump motor installation. The generator-motor system

(tandem type) for combined usage as generator and motor was developed in

1910 and used in Italy.

In country like Germany where thermal power was main, the pumped

storage power schemes were completed for the purpose of daily or weekly

regulations so as to make effective the midnight surplus capacities of thermal

power station and of imparting adaptability to be quick coping with fluctuations

in power demand.

In 1925 a plant having greater capacity began operating in Federal

Republic of Germany. In 1930s the first pumped storage plant in Japan was

built.

To improve the economics of PSPP, reversible pump-turbines were

developed in 1930s. Research and development of this type were carried out

in various countries resettled in the introduction of high efficiency, high head,

XII
Page 216 of 352
large capacity of pumped storage power stations. Today practically all

pumped storage power stations have adopted this type.

The first significant progress in pumped storage (the beginning of

single runner reversible pump/turbine development) was identified on the

early 1940s in Brazil. The early 1950s saw the advent of the era of increased

pumped storage construction. Canadian power authority developed the

Niagara Falls installations, the first truly daily/nightly cycle pumped storage

plants with reversible units. This plant was converted from existing

hydroelectric installations demonstrating the technological advancement in

pumped storage developments.

Before 1960, there were about 40 PSPP with an aggregate

approximate installed capacity of 2700 MW. At the end of 1974 additional 90

number of pumped storage power plants with a combined total installed

capacity 10 times greater were in operation and many were in various stages

of construction.

There are 290 PSPP with an aggregate installed capacity of about

82800 MW in operation in the world. USA has the credit of having the largest

numbers of PPSP (38 number with 18091 MW total installed capacity). The

second largest numbers of PSPP in operation are in Japan (38 number with

17005 MW total installed capacity). The third largest producer of PSPP is Italy

(20 number with 6449 MW total installed capacity), followed by Germany (35

number with 5688 MW total installed capacity).

The unit capacity-wise, World's largest capacity of pump-turbine unit

(398 MW) is installed at Helms PSPP in USA, installed in 1984. The second

XIII
Page 217 of 352
largest unit size (386 MW) is also in USA at Racoon Mountain installed in

1979.

There are 42 PSPP with an aggregate installed capacity of about

27400 MW in various stage of construction in the World. Maximum numbers

of PSPP under construction are in Japan (8 number with 5480 MW total

installed capacity).

About 550 number of PSPP aggregating to about 392,000 MW

installations have been planned allover the world. Japan has planned the

largest number of PSPP (440 number with 329,116 MW total installed

capacity) for future development.

Reservoir Operation Study

The reservoir operation table is the result of reservoir operation study,

which is also termed as working table shows the pattern of the inflow of water

into the reservoir, and demand for the corresponding period, surplus to be

stored or released during period. This is to be studied for the optimum

utilization of the runoff A correctly prepared operation table can show at a

glance how the reservoir is going to behave after it has been put into

operation. Operation table is very useful part of the project and should not be

over looked. It will also prove the adequacy of the capacity of the reservoir

tentatively fixed earlier.

The reservoir operation plan is devised to achieve the greatest value or

benefit from the storage capacity. The plan must be based on:

a. Knowledge of the flow characteristic of the stream.

XIV
Page 218 of 352
b. The purpose or purposes of the reservoir must be analyzed to

determine, how the hydrograph of flow should be altered to produce

the greatest benefits.

c. Special considerations, such as the effect of sudden releases of stream

flows and long sustained flows from the reservoir on agricultural

developments and other interests in the valley below the reservoir.

The cooperation of two or more water uses generally permit savings

large enough to make multi purpose storage reservoir economically attractive.

The manner in which the coordination of different purposes is realized

is controlled by the most important utilization of storage character of the sites

determines this in turn. For instance, power generation is usually considered a

secondary benefit in comparison to the other uses, but in some instances,

power is the main objective. In such cases, the flood moderation capacity is

provided as the surcharge capacity, so that any restriction on power

generation should be precluded.

A multi purpose operation does not differ essentially from the single

purpose one. Identical principles apply to each water use without any regard

to other uses, which are served by the same reservoir. The main difference is

the necessity of allocating the specific capacity for each of the uses served.

For pumped storage power project, operation is based on the principle

of power generation by exchange of the water between two impoundment.

These impoundments are often man made, resulting from the damming of a

free flowing stream. This scheme uses the energy of stored water to generate

and store electric power.

XV
Page 219 of 352
Decision on Operating Criteria

The success of the pumped storage power development depends on

the availability of the pumping up energy. Therefore the pumping up energy

should be carefully studied to ensure the availability of it.

When total firm output of the base load power stations linked to the

power system exceeds the off period demand, the difference becomes the

availability of pumping up energy.

The pumping energy resources can be calculated based on demand

projection, the power development projects and daily load curve on the typical

highest load days and the lowest load days and the lean period. The

difference between the daily loads curved produced for future demand and

the base load during the night can be evaluated as pumping energy

resources.

From projected typical daily load curve characteristic and availability of

electric power, decision can be taken regarding:

- The hours during which and time when the surplus energy would be

available in a day for pumping water from lower reservoir to the upper

reservoir utilizing this surplus energy and therefore to decide number of

pumping hours.

- The load curve would also indicate the deficit energy duration in hours

and its period in order to use the available amount of water for the peak

power generation.

XVI
Page 220 of 352
 
 Abhinav Srivastava
Deputy Director
HCD(E&NE)
CWC

WHAT IS HYDRO POWER?

• The term ‘hydro’ is the Greek word for water and hydropower is the
energy contained in water .

• Hydropower is considered a renewable energy source.

• Hydropower transforms the potential energy of a mass of water flowing

in a river or stream with a certain vertical fall (termed the “head”).

• The power output from the scheme is proportional to the flow and to the
head

Page 221 of 352

HOW A HYDROELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM WORKS 
The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is converted into
electric energy using a turbine generator. Inside the generator, the
shaft of the turbine spins a magnet inside coils of copper wire. It is a
fact of nature that moving a magnet near a conductor causes an
electric current.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYDROPOWER PLANTS :
Classification of hydropower plants

According to According to
According to According to According to According to
hydrological transmission
Capacity head purpose facility types
relation system

Large Isolated
High Run-of-River
Single
Single purpose
Medium Connected to
grid
Reservoirs
Medium
Cascade
Small
Multi purpose

In-stream
Mini Low

Micro Pumped
storage

Pico

Page 222 of 352

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CAPACITY:

LARGE: >100 MW
MEDIUM: 25 – 100 MW
SMALL: 1-25 MW
MINI: 100 KW - 1MW
MICRO: 5 – 100 KW
PICO: < 5 KW

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING  TO HEAD

LOW HEAD < 30 m

Page 223 of 352

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING  TO HEAD

MEDIUM HEAD 30 – 300 m

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING  TO HEAD

HIGH HEAD > 300m

Page 224 of 352

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

SINGLE STAGE- When the run

off from a single hydropower plant
is diverted back into river or for
any other purpose other than power
generation

CASCADE SYSTEM- When two

or more hydropower plants are used
in series such that the runoff
discharge of one hydro power plant
is used as the is a intake discharge
of the second hydro power plant

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

Multi-purpose Project
• Power generation may be one of the benefits along
with Flood Control, Irrigation, Navigation,
Drinking Water Supply etc.

Purely Hydro-electric Project

• Project is conceived exclusively for power
generation.

10

Page 225 of 352

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

Run of River Project

• As the name implies, the project is planned as run of the river.

• Water is diverted from the river, routed through the water
conductor system and finally water after generation of power
is thrown back to the river at a lower level on down stream.
• It takes advantage of the drop in elevation that occurs over a
distance in the river and does not involve water storage.
• Power generation fluctuates with the river flow and the firm
power is considerably low, as it depends on the minimum
mean discharge.
• Canal power projects are also run-of-river projects.

11

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

Storage Project

• Storage projects provide storage or pondage and thereby,

evens out stream flow fluctuations and enhances the water
head.

• It increases firm power and total power generation by

regulating the flow.

12

Page 226 of 352

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

Pump Storage project

• Pump storage projects involve reversible turbines, which can

generate power from water of upper reservoir during peak hours
and pump back water from lower reservoir to the upper reservoir
during off peak hours.

13

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HYDROLOGICAL RELATION 

Pump Storage project

• These projects are advantageous in power system of mix type,
which have thermal and nuclear power houses in addition to
hydro power projects.
• Pump storage project utilizes the off peak surplus power of the
grid in
• lifting the water from
• lower reservoir to higher
• reservoir and generates
• power during peak hours
• thus flattening the load
• curve.

14

Page 227 of 352

HYDRO DEVELOPMENT‐ IMPORTANT TERMS

• FRL (FULL RESERVOIR LEVEL)

FRL is the Upper level of the reservoir (selected based on
techno-economic& submergence considerations)

• MDDL (MINIMUM DRAWDOWN LEVEL)

Lowest level up to which the reservoir level could be
drawn down to withdraw waters for energy generation
(selected from considerations of silt & turbine operational
limits)

• GROSS STORAGE
Total storage capacity of the reservoir

15

HYDRO DEVELOPMENT‐ IMPORTANT TERMS

• DEAD STORAGE
Reservoir storage which cannot be used for generation and is
left for silt deposition( below MDDL)
• LIVE STORAGE
The storage in the reservoir which is available for power
generation (between FRL & MDDL)
• FIRM POWER
Continuous power output in the entire period of hydrological
data at 90% dependability
• FIRM ENERGY
Energy generated corresponding to firm power

16

Page 228 of 352

HYDRO DEVELOPMENT‐ IMPORTANT TERMS

• Peak Energy
Electric energy supplied during periods of relatively high system
demands.

• Off-peak Energy
Electric energy supplied during periods of relatively low system
demands.

• Load Factor
Ratio of the average load over a designated period to the peak-load
occurring in that period

• Diurnal Storage
Storage required to meet daily variations in load demand. It depends
upon the minimum flows and peak discharges.

17

HYDRO DEVELOPMENT‐ IMPORTANT TERMS
• Design Head
The head at which the turbine will operate to give the
best overall efficiency under various operating
conditions.
• Gross Head
The difference of elevations between water surfaces of
the forebay/ dam and tailrace under specified
conditions.
• Net Head
The gross head chargeable to the turbine less all
hydraulic losses in water conductor system.

18

Page 229 of 352

 1 • Diversion structure dam/weir

2 • Intake Structure

3 • De‐silting arrangement

4 • Power channel or Head Race tunnel

5 • Surge shaft or forebay

6 • Pressure shaft or penstock

7 • Power House Complex

8 • Tail Race system
19

20

Page 230 of 352

 Dam/Barrage
• The dam/ barrage is used for delivering/diverting the water to the water
conductor system for power generation

21

INTAKES

22

Page 231 of 352

 Trash rack

Gate shaft  Parts of  Bell mouth 

with air vent Intake opening

Transition

23

Intake
• The intake is an arrangement to divert the water from the 
reservoir to the water conductor system. The objectives of 
intake design are:
• to prevent entry of trash, debris and other floating matter in the 
water
• to prevent or reduce the silt when water is required for power 
generation which is likely to damage the runner blade.
• to ensure smooth hydraulic conditions and to minimize the head 
loss

24

Page 232 of 352

 Intake Parameters

• Shape / Size
• The shape should follow the profile of the jet entering the opening 
• Normally shape is an ellipse
• Shape is usually rectangular
• Size is set to keep entry velocity 0.6 to 1 m/s

• Location
• Has to be above the dead storage level 
• It should be sufficiently below the MDDL

25

PLAN OF INTAKE

26

Page 233 of 352

 ELEVATON OF INTAKE

27

Trash Rack
• What is trash rack
• screen provided at the entrance of the intakes 
• to prevent the entry of any trash that would not pass through the smallest 
opening in the machine

• Hydraulic considerations
• Flow through velocity 0.6 –0.9 m/sec.
• Spacing of bars less than opening between turbine blades.
• Piers and ribs to be streamlined 
• Designed for a differential head of 1/2H or 6m. whichever is minimum.

28

Page 234 of 352

DESILTING BASIN

29

DESILTING CHAMBER
30

Page 235 of 352

 Desilting Basin

• Purpose
• To remove the suspended silt load from the water
• To prevent the damaging effect on the turbines

• Designed to
• Settle particles of a size larger than particular size

• Location
• Usually provided just d/s of the intake structure

31

De‐silting Chamber Cross Section

32

Page 236 of 352

WATER CONDUCTOR SYSTEM

33

Water Conductor System

• Purpose
• To carry the water from de‐silting basin to the surge tank / forebay

• WCS Types
• Channels
• Trapezoidal / Rectangular
• Tunnels
• Circular / D‐shape / Horse shoe / Modified horse shoe

34

Page 237 of 352

 Tunnel Design

• Hydraulic Design
• Pressure flow‐Velocity should not be excessive
• Roof of tunnel should always be below energy gradient line

• Structural Design
• Rock surrounding the tunnel should be stable
• Supported using rock bolts / shotcrete / steel ribs / lattice girders

35

36

Page 238 of 352

SURGE TANK

37

Surge Tanks

• Purpose
• Water hammer relief
• Pressure regulation
• Flow regulation
• Machine speed regulation

• Design
• Hydraulic design
• Structural design

38

Page 239 of 352

 Surge Tanks 1. To determine the shape, size and 
water level fluctuations, during 
upsurge and downsurge.

• Purpose 2. The height of the surgetank
• Water hammer relief provided should be atleast 1.5m 
• Pressure regulation above the highest surge level 
• Flow regulation and 2.0m below the lowest surge 
• Machine speed regulation level.

3. It shall be made sure that there 
• Design is no vortex formation at the 
• Hydraulic design lowest water level in the surge 
• Structural design tank and the Head race tunnel 
does not get exposed for entry 
of air during the downsurge.

39

Surge Tanks

• Purpose Surge tank is normally an 
• Water hammer relief open excavated concrete 
• Pressure regulation lined cylinder. It should be 
• Flow regulation
• Machine speed regulation
designed for

1. lateral rock cover
• Design
• Hydraulic design 2. Internal loads
• Structural design 3. External loads including 
front pressure

40

Page 240 of 352

PENSTOCK / PRESSURE SHAFT

41

Penstock /  Pressure Shaft

• Used to transfer the water from fore‐bay or surge tank to the 
powerhouse
• Design  of penstock
• Designed to resist the total internal pressure consisting of static and water 
hammer pressure
• If subjected to outside pressure, then the thickness shall be checked for 
buckling

• Penstock specials
• Bifucation piece, trifrucation piece, bends, expansion joints, reducer, 
bulkheads, thrust collars, etc.

42

Page 241 of 352

 Penstock /  Pressure Shaft

43

POWER HOUSE

44

Page 242 of 352

45

Power House

• Houses all generators and appurtenant machinery

• Components
• Machine hall / Service bay / Auxiliary bay or control bay
• Sub structure / Super structure 

• Design of power house
• Design for gentry loads, external loads, machine loads, etc.

• Turbines
• Impulse, Reaction and Gravity turbines 

46

Page 243 of 352

47

48

Page 244 of 352

 Surface Power House

49

TAIL RACE SYSTEM

50

Page 245 of 352

 Tail Race System

• Last part of the water conductor system

• Minimum tail water level is critical for design of turbines

• Usually tail water pool is provided

• Downstream surge tank may be required depending on length of TRT

51

Thank You
52

Page 246 of 352

 
 Central Water Commission (CWC)

UNDERGROUND EXCAVATIONS –
ROCK FORMATION - GENESIS
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS – BASED ON ITS GENESIS
ROCKMASS – DIFFERENT FROM ROCK
ROCK DISCONTINUITY
INTRODUCTION TO JOINTS

ABHINAV SRIVASTAVA
Deputy Director
HCD (E&NE) Dte , CWC (HQ)

Central Water Commission (CWC)

ROCK FORMATION - GENESIS

Upper Crust

5-10 km thick
Solid State & Very Brittle
All Phenomenon – Tectonic Activity/
Volcanic Eruption observed here

Lower Crust

10-30 km thick
Liquid Molten State
Movement of this layer causes all
Disruptions/Discontinuities in Rocks

Page 247 of 352

 Central Water Commission (CWC)

ROCK FORMATION - GENESIS

IGNEOUS ROCKS

Toughest , Competent
Sound UCS (>200 MPa) and E (75 GPa)

Intrusive Igneous Rocks >> Extrusive

Igneous Rocks

TEXTURE

Minerals are Homogenously Mixed

May be Fine and Coarse Grained

Depending on Rate of Cooling.

Granite & Basalt

3

Central Water Commission (CWC)

ROCK FORMATION - GENESIS

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Not Tough Enough

Not So Sound UCS (50-100 MPa)
and E (40 GPa)

Has Weak Planes of Schistosity

TEXTURE

Minerals are bedded in Layers

Non Homogenous and thus

Anisotropic

Sandstone and Limestone

4

Page 248 of 352

 Central Water Commission (CWC)

ROCK FORMATION - GENESIS

METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Toughness
Igneous ><Sedimentary

Good Enough UCS (150-200 MPa) and E

(50 GPa)

Shows Weak Planes of Schistosity

TEXTURE

Non Homogenous and thus

Anisotropic

Marble and Slate

ROCK AND ROCK MASS

Page 249 of 352

 ROCK AND ROCK MASS

DISCONTINUITY
 Joints
 Fractures
 Faults
 Shear zones

Makes rock discontinuous

Makes rock anisotropic
Makes rock stress dependent

FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH OF

ROCK MASS
 Nature of discontinuities
 Location of discontinuities
 Orientation of discontinuities

o Deformability
o Strength
o Permeability

Page 250 of 352

 A ROAD CUTTING IN ROCK

ROCK BLOCKS

10

Page 251 of 352

 JOINTING

11

SYNCLINE & ANTICLINE

12

Page 252 of 352

 FAULTS

13

UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE –
FAILURE MECHANISMS
For an underground opening, the failure can occur
mainly in two ways:

•Structurally‐ controlled  and / or

•Stress‐ controlled

14

Page 253 of 352

 STRUCTURALLY- CONTROLLED FAILURE.

• jointed rock masses at relatively shallow 
depth.
• wedges falling from the roof or sliding out of 
the sidewalls of the openings. 
• wedges formed by intersecting structural 
features, such as bedding planes and joints.
• Unless steps are taken to support these loose 
wedges, the stability of the opening may 
deteriorate rapidly and the structure could 
fail.
• unidirectional body force ie., gravity.

15

STRUCTURALLY‐ CONTROLLED   FAILURE

ROOF WEDGE SIDEWALL WEDGE

16

Page 254 of 352

 STRUCTURALLY‐ CONTROLLED   FAILURE
Design Approach
• Determination of average dip and dip direction of      
significant discontinuity sets.

•Identification of potential wedges which can slide or fall 
from the back or walls.

•Calculation of the factor of safety of these wedges, 
depending upon the mode of failure.

• Calculation of the amount of reinforcement required to 
bring the factor of safety of individual wedges up to an 
acceptable level. 

17

STRUCTURALLY‐ CONTROLLED   FAILURE

Identification of potential wedges

• size, shape and orientation of the opening

• orientation of the significant discontinuity sets.

Calculations tedious due to 3D geometry of the

problem
Use of computer programs like UNWEDGE

18

Page 255 of 352

 STRUCTURALLY‐ CONTROLLED   FAILURE

19

STRUCTURALLY‐ CONTROLLED   FAILURE

20

Page 256 of 352

 STRESS-CONTROLLED FAILURE.

• Excavation at more depth. 

• High stresses. 

• Rock mass is relatively homogeneous and isotropic.

• The failure is essentially stress related.  

21

Closed form solutions for induced stress:

• For simple shapes such as circle, ellipse etc. closed

form solutions for induced stress are available.

• For complex 3‐dimensional excavation geometry,

the induced stresses can be computed by Numerical
Methods.

22

Page 257 of 352

 Circular Excavations -

Stresses and Displacements

23

24

Page 258 of 352

 At the boundary of excavation,  r = a,

The radial stress, σ r  = 0,

The circumferential stress, 
σ θ = σ v  [ (1+ k) – 2(1‐k) cos 2θ]

The shear stress , τ r θ = 0

where , σ h =  k . σ v

25

For the case when the horizontal stress is 
zero ie.,     σ h  = 0  and

Hydrostatic stress field ie., 
σ h  = σ v ,

The radial and tangential stress distribution 
are shown below. 

26

Page 259 of 352

27

Elliptical Excavations-
stress and displacements
σv
C

A k.σ v
H

28

Page 260 of 352

 The tangential boundary stresses are given 
by the following equations:

σ A = σ v [1 + √(2.W/ρA)‐ k]

σ C = σ v [k{1 + √(2.H/ρC) } ‐ 1]

where  σ A  and σ C are the tangential 
boundary stresses at location A & C.
ρA and ρC are radii of curvature at A & C.

29

ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS

SOME IMPORTANT OBSERVATIONS
From the elastic stress 
analysis it can be seen that:
σt
When distance( r / r1 ) more 
than  4 , the stress 
increment is very less. 
Hence practically the extent 
of the disturbed zone can 
be taken as twice  the width 
of the opening. 
σr
The stress around the opening 
are independent of the 
elastic constants of rock 
material and radius of the 
opening. It depend on ( r / 
r1 )  only.

30

Page 261 of 352

 GEOLOGICAL & GEOTECHNICAL DATA
• Faults
• Shear zones
• Discontinuities
• Joint pattern, spacing, roughness etc.
• In-situ Data
In-situ stress
Pore water pressure
• Deformation modulus

31

IN-SITU STRESS:
The pre existing state of stress in the rock mass before any
excavation is carried out is called the in-situ stress.

The common methods for determination of magnitude and

directions of in situ stress are:

• Flat jack technique

• Overcoring technique

• Hydro-fracturing method

32

Page 262 of 352

 Stresses around multiple openings.

•The zone of readjustment can include points that are 
located upto 5 times the diametrical distance from the 
centre of the opening.

•Thus if another tunnel is located such that the pillar 
thickness equals 9 (R1 + R2), where R1 & R2 are the radii 
of the two adjacent tunnels, then the readjustment of 
the stresses and displacements will be independent of 
the second tunnel.
•

33

In actuality, rock is not that homogeneous and

as such elastic theory may not be fully
applicable. In practice, if the pillar thickness
equals the largest adjacent tunnel, the multiple
openings behaves as a single opening and the
stability of the intervening pillar should be
analysed in detail.

34

Page 263 of 352

 ROCK PILLAR BETWEEN CAVERNS
•For weak rock masses the pillar should not be less than 
the height of the larger cavern 

•In very poor rock masses, in which the overstressed 
zones are larger, the pillar thickness should be 1.5 times 
the height of the larger cavern. 

•These multiple caverns should be subjected to 
numerical analysis for confirming the adequacy of the 
design.

35

ROCK PILLAR BETWEEN CAVERNS

36

Page 264 of 352

 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR
STRESS ANALYSIS

•Used for complicated non‐uniform or non‐
geometric shapes, tunnel intersection, 
bifurcation, stacked tunnels, power house 
caverns etc.
•Accommodates different material properties 
including joints, shear zones & faults.
•Linear or non‐ linear behavior
•Time dependent behavior

37

NUMERICAL METHODS FOR STRESS

ANALYSIS
•INPUT PARAMETERS
•IN‐SITU STRESS – vertical / horizontal
•ROCK MASS – modulus of deformation
• Poisson’s ratio
• uniaxial comp. strength
• density
• mi,mb,s,a ‐ for Hoek & Brown failure criteria
• c , Ø            ‐ for Mohr‐ Coloumb failure criteria
•JOINT PARAMETERS ‐ c , Ø , normal & shear  
• stiffness
•SUPPORT PARAMETERS‐ for rock bolt,  shotcrete etc.

38

Page 265 of 352

 NUMERICAL METHODS FOR STRESS
ANALYSIS
•COMMONLY  USED  SOFTWARES:

•EXAMINE  2D / 3D , PHASE 2 ‐
• FEM, B.E METHOD

•FLAC 2D/ 3D – FDM

•UDEC / 3‐DEC   ‐ DISTINCT ELEMENT METHOD

39

FAILURE CRITERIA

40

Page 266 of 352

 FAILURE CRITERIA

• MOHR‐ COLOUMB FAILURE CRITERIA:

• σ1f  = σ3 tan 2 (45+Ø/2) + 
• 2 c tan (45+Ø/2) 

• FACTOR OF SAFETY = σ1f  / σ1 

41

Importance of selection of failure criteria:

•
• The Hoek‐ Brown failure criterion, which 
assumes isotropic rock and rock mass behaviour, 
should only be applied to those rock masses in 
which there are sufficient number of closely spaced 
discontinuities. When the structure being analysed 
is large and the block size is small in comparison, 
the rock mass can be treated as a Hoek‐Brown 
material.

42

Page 267 of 352

 Importance of selection of failure criteria:
• Where the block size is of the same order as that 
of the structure being analysed or when one of the 
discontinuity sets is significantly weaker than the 
others, Hoek ‐ Brown criterion should not be used. 
In these cases the stability of the structure should 
be analysed by considering failure mechanisms 
involving the sliding or rotation of blocks and 
wedges defined by intersecting structural features.

43

DESIGN OF UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES:

•Steps involved are:

•Planning of Layout
•Shape / Size of Opening:
• Circular, Modified Horse Shoe, Horse 
• Shoe, D‐Shape Etc.
•Design of Rock Support System:
• Rock Bolts / Rock Anchors / Cable Anchors
• Sohtcrete (Plain / Wiremesh / Steel Fibre 
• Reinforced) Steel Ribs Etc.

•Design of Lining, if Required:
•Steel
•Concrete (Plain / Reinforced)

44

Page 268 of 352

 PLANNING OF LAYOUT
Considerations:
•geology, 
•minimum rock cover above the roof of the tunnel 
•easy accessibility by provision of construction adits. 
• The approximate length of main tunnel from each face of excavation
should be kept to a maximum of 3000 m.
• adit length also should be kept to a minimum
• slope for proper natural drainage of water

45

PLANNING OF LAYOUT
Location of portal for adits and tunnels in 
consultation with the geologist
Rock cover of minimum 2 x diameter of tunnel is 
necessary at the portal face of tunnel / adit.
stabilize the slopes by suitable treatment by using 
rock bolts and shotcreting etc.

46

Page 269 of 352

 TALA HYDROELECTRIC PROJECT, BHUTAN

47

PLANNING OF CAVERNS
(POWER HOUSE , TRANSFORMER HALL ETC)
The planning of underground caverns is made considering the following 
geological & geotechnical data:
• Faults
• Shear zones
• Discontinuities
• Joint pattern, spacing, roughness etc.
• In-situ Data
• In-situ stress
• Pore water pressure
• Deformation modulus

Based on the above, the following are decided:
Deciding layout of  power house cavern
Deciding orientation
Support system

48

Page 270 of 352

 PLANNING OF CAVERNS
(POWER HOUSE , TRANSFORMER HALL ETC)
orientation of caverns

•structural discontinuities
like joint sets
•in-situ stress.

The axis of the cavern is placed perpendicular to the 
strike of major joint set if structurally controlled failure is 
expected. In case stress induced failures are of major 
concern, as in the case of deep seated caverns, the axis of 
the cavern is oriented along the direction of major 
principal in‐situ stress. 

49

SUPPORT DESIGN.

• EMPERICAL METHODS
• ANALYTICAL METHODS
• GRAPHICAL METHODS
• OBSERVATIONAL METHODS

50

Page 271 of 352

 EMPIRICAL METHODS
THE EMPIRICAL APPROACH FOR THE DESIGN OF SUPPORT SYSTEM 
RELATES THE EXPERIENCE GAINED ON ROCK CONDITION AND 
SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS AT PREVIOUS PROJECTS TO 
CONDITIONS ANTICIPATED AT PROPOSED SITE.

THE EMPIRICAL APPROACH MAKES USE OF STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 
OF OBSERVATIONS.

ROCKMASS CLASSIFICATION WHICH ARE BASED ON SUCH CO‐
RELATION ARE MOST COMMONLY USED FOR ESTIMATION OF 
ROCK LOADS AND REQUIREMENT OF SUPPORT SYSTEM

51

EMPIRICAL APPROACH

ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
• DEERE’S R.Q.D.
• TERZAGHI’S ROCK LOAD • C.S.I.R. (BIENIAWSKI)RMR
• N.G.I (BARTON) ”Q”

INVOLVES JUDGEMENT OF ROCK MASS

52

Page 272 of 352

 QUALITATIVE ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

TERZAGHI’S ROCK LOAD CLASSIFICATION :

ONE OF THE EARLIEST ROCK CLASSIFICATION

SYSTEMS FOR ESTIMATION OF LOADS TO BE
SUPPORTED BY STEEL ARCHES IN TUNNELS

53

TERZAGHI’S ROCK LOAD CLASSIFICATION IS

DIVIDED
INTO NINE ROCKMASS CATEGORIES :

• HARD AND INTACT

• HARD STRATIFIED OR SCHISTOSE
• MASSIVE MODERATELY JOINTED

 MODERATELY BLOCKY AND SEAMY

 VERY BLOCKY AND SEAMY
 COMPLETELY CRUSHED BUT CHEMICALLY INTACT

 SQUEEZING ROCK MODERATE DEPTHS

 SQUEEZING ROCK GREAT DEPTHS
 SWELLING ROCKS

54

Page 273 of 352

 TERZAGHI’S ROCK LOAD CONCEPT

GROUND ARCH ASSUMED SUPPORT LOADING

55

TERZAGHI’S ROCK LOAD CLASSIFICATION

S.No Rock Load
Rock Condition Remarks
. factor Hp
1 HARD AND INTACT ZERO LIGHT LINING REQD. ONLY IF SPALLING
OR POPING OCC.
2 HARD STRATIFIED 0 TO 0.5 B LIGHT SUPPORT
OR SCHISTOSEC LOAD MAY CHANGE ERRATICALLY FROM
3 MASSIVE 0 TO 0.25 B POINT TO POINT
MODERATELY
JOINTED
4 MODERATELY 0.25B TO 0.35 NO SIDE PRESSURE
BLOCKY AND SEAMY (B+Ht)
5 VERY BLOCKY AND 0.35 TO 1.10 LITTLE OR NO SIDE PRESSURE
SEAMY (B+Ht)
6 COMPLETELY 1.10 (B+Ht) CONSIDERABLE SIDE PRESSURE
CRUSHED BUT SOFTENING EFFECT OF SEEPAGE
CHEMICALLY TOWARDS BOTTOM OF TUNNEL REQS.
INTACT EITHER CONTINUOUS SUPPORT FOR
LOWER ENDS OF RIBS OR CIRCULAR RIBS
7 SQUEEZING ROCK 1.10 TO 2.10 HEAVY SIDE PRESSURE
(B+Ht) INVERT STRUTS REQD. CIRCULAR RIBS
8 SQUEEZING ROCK 2.10 TO 4.50 ARE RECOMMENDED
GREAT DEPTH (B+Ht)
9 SWELLING ROCK UPTO 250 FT. CIRCULAR RIBS REQD. IN EXTREME
IRRESPECTIVE OF CASES USE YIELDING SUPPORT
VALUE OF (B+Ht)

B-tunnel span(m); Ht- Ht of the opening (m) ; Hp-Ht of loosened rock mass above tunnel
crown developing load
56

Page 274 of 352

 • Terzaghi’s method though most commonly used
tends to be subjective

• The geotechnical engineer has to use a

considerable amount of judgement while
interpreting rock outcrops or borings

• It is left to the judgement of the user as to how he

interprets a particular rock type and interpretation
may differ from person to person

57

To assist the engineer in quantitatively

classifying rock for engineering purpose i.e. for
estimation of rock loads, the following systems
have been found to be more useful :-

 Deere’s R.Q.D. Classification

 Bieniawski (C.S.I.R) RMR Method

 Bartons (NGI ) “Q” System

58

Page 275 of 352

 DEERE’S R.Q.D. CLASSIFICATION

• The existence of discontinuities is an important

feature of rock as a geologic material and Deere
(1970) proposed a relationship between the
numerical value of R.Q.D. and rock mass quality
and corresponding rock loads expected in the
opening.

59

Total Length of core run = 200 cms

RQD Length of core pieces > 10cm length

Total length of core run

38 + 17 + 20 + 35 x 100
200
= 55%

60

Page 276 of 352

 WHEN NO CORE IS AVAILABLE BUT DISCONTINUITY
TRACES ARE VISIBLE IN SURFACE EXPOSURES OR
EXPLORATION ADITS, THE R.Q.D. MAY BE ESTIMATED
FROM NO. OF DISCONTINUITY PER UNIT VOLUME

RQD = 115 – 3.3 Jv

•RQD IS A DIRECTIONAL DEPENDENT PARAMETER

AND ITS VALUE MAY CHANGE SIGNIFICANTLY
DEPENDING UPON THE BOREHOLE ORIENTATION.

•THE USE OF VOLUMETRIC JOINT COUNT CAN BE

QUITE USEFUL IN REDUCING THIS DIRECTIONAL
DEPENDENCE.

61

SUPPORT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TUNNELS IN ROCK

( 20 Ft to 40 Ft DIAMETER) BASED ON R.Q.D.(CONVENTIONAL
TUNNELING) From Deere, et al28
ALTERNATIVE SUPPORT SYSTEMS
RQD
Steel Sets Rock Bolts Shotcrete
EXCELLENT None to Occasional light set None to None to Occassional Local
RQD > 90 Rock Load (0.0,0.3)B Occassional Application 2 - 3 in.

GOOD Light Sets 5Ft to 6Ft CTR. Patterns 5 Ft to 6 Occasional Local

75<RQD<90 Rock Load (0.3 to 0.6)B Ft Centers Application 2 to 3 inch

FAIR Med. To Heavy Sets on 2 – 4 Pattern 3-5Ft CTR 4 inch or more on crown &
50<RQD<75 Ft CTR. sides
Rock Load (0.6-1.3)B
VERY POOR Heavy circular sets on 2 ft Pattern 3 Ft 6inch or more whole section
RQD< 25 Excluding CTR Center combine with med to Heavy
squeezing or swelling Rock Load (2.0 to 2.8)B sets
ground
VERY POOR Very Heavy Circular Sets on Pattern 2ft to 3ft 6inch or more whole section
Squeezing or swelling 2ft CTR combine with med to Heavy
Rock load upto 250ft sets

62

Page 277 of 352

 • The R.Q.D. approach has limitations in areas where the
joints contain thin clay fillings or weathered materials.
These clay seams result in unstable rocks though the
joints may be widely spaced giving a high R.Q.D. and
low loads.

• In addition, R.Q.D. does not take direct account of

other factors such as joint orientation which may result
in Rock Loads in the form of “ STRUCTURALLY
CONTROL - LED INSTABILITIES” even for very
good rock with very high R.Q.D.

63

BIENIAWSKI (C.S.I.R.) RMR METHOD

The following six parameters are used to classify a

rock mass using the RMR system:

•Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.

•Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
•Spacing of discontinuities.
•Condition of discontinuities.
•Groundwater conditions.
•Orientation of discontinuities.

64

Page 278 of 352

 A. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS AND THEIR RATINGS
Parameter Range of Values
1 Strength of intact Point-load >10 Mpa 4-10 MPa 2-4 Mpa 1-2 Mpa For this low range
rock material Strength uniaxial compressive
index test is preferred
Uniaxial 5-25 1-5 <1
>250 MPa 100-250 50-100 25-50 MPa MP
comp. MPa
strength MPa MPa MPa a
Rating 15 12 7 4 2 1 0
2 Drill core Quality RQD 90%-100% 75%-90% 50%-75% 25%-50% < 25%

Rating 20 17 13 8 3

3 Spacing of discontinuities > 2m 0.6 - 2 m 200-600mm 60-200mm < 60mm

Rating 20 15 10 8 5

4 Very rough Slightly rough Slightly rough Slickensided Soft gouge > 5mm thick
Condition of discontinuities surfaces surfaces surfaces surfaces Or
(See E) Not Continuous Separation < 1 Separation < Or Gouge < 5 Separation > 5mm
No separation mm 1mm mm thick Continous
Unweathered Slightly Highly Or Separation
wall rock weathered walls weathered walls 1-5m

Rating 30 25 20 10 0

5 Inflow per None < 10 10-25 25-125 > 125

Ground Water 10m
Tunnel length
(l/m)
(Joint water 0 < 0.1 0.1 -0.2 0.2 – 0.5 > 0.5
press)/(Major
principal )
General Completely Damp Wet Dripping Flowing
conditions dry

Rating 15 10 7 4 0

65

INFLUENCE OF ORIENTATION ON THE

STABILITY OF UNDERGROUND OPENING

UNFAVOURABLE FAVOURABLE
ORIENTATION ORIENTATION

66

Page 279 of 352

 MEANING OF ROCK CLASSES

Class Number I II III IV V

Average 20 yrs for 1 year for 1 week 10 hrs for 30 min for
stand-up 15m span 10m span for 5m 2.5m 1m span
time span span
Cohesion of > 400 300-400 200-300 100-200 < 100
rock mass
(kPa)
Friction > 45 35-45 25-35 15-25 <15
angle of
rock mass
(deg)

67

RMR Vs ROCK LOAD

Bieniawski himself did not relate

RMR value to the prediction of rock
load for design of tunnel support.
Unal (1983) suggested following
formula to calculate rock load
P = [100 – RMR] γ B
100
Where
P = rock load or support pressure
γ = rock density
B = tunnel width

68

Page 280 of 352

 Stand-up time Vs roof span for various rock mass classes as per
CSIR geomechanics classification (Bieniawski)

69

GUIDELINES FOR EXCAVATION AND SUPPORT OF TUNNELS

(Size 10M and Construction by drill & Blast)

Rock mass Excavation Rock bolts Shotcrete Steel Sets

Class (20mm diameter, fully
grouted)

I – Very Full face, Generally no support required except spot bolting

Good 3 m advance.
Rock
RMR: 81-100
II – Good Full face,1-1.5m advance, Locally, bolts in 50 mm in None.
rock Complete support 20m from crown crown
RMR: 61-80 face. 3 m long, spaced 2.5 where
m with occasional required.
III – Fair rock Top heading and bench wire mesh. bolts 4m
Systematic 50-100 mm None.
RMR: 41-60 1.5-3 m advance in top Long, spaced 1.5-2 m in crown
heading. Commence support In crown and walls and
after each Blast. Complete with wire mesh in 30 mm in
support 10m from Face. Crown. sides

IV – Poor Top heading and bench Systematic bolts 4-5 100-150 Light to medium
rock 1.0-1.5 m advance in top m mm ribs spaced 1.5
RMR: 21-40 heading. Install support Long, spaced 1-1.5 m in crown m
concurrently with In crown and walls and where required.
excavation, 10 m from face. With wire mesh 100 mm in
sides.
V – Very poor Multiple drifts 0.5-1.5 m Systematic bolts 5-6 150-200 Medium to heavy
Rock Advance in top heading. m long, spaced 1-1.5 mm in ribs spaced
RMR : < 20 Install support concurrently m in crown and crown, 0.75m with steel
withExcavation. Shotcrete walls with wire 150 mm in lagging and fore
as soon as possible after mesh. Bolt invert. sides, and poling if
blasting. 50 mm required. Close
on face. invert.

70

Page 281 of 352

 BARTON’S (N.G.I.) “Q” SYSTEM
Barton prepared an index for tunnelling quality of a rock mass
and relate this rock mass quality “Q” to six parameters.

• RQD
• Number of joint sets Jn
• Joint roughness Jr
• Degree of joint alteration Ja
• Water inflow Jw
• Stress condition SRF

71

RQD Jr X
Jw
Q = X
Jn Ja SRF

Block Inter Block Active

Size Shear Stress

72

Page 282 of 352

73

74

Page 283 of 352

75

76

Page 284 of 352

77

78

Page 285 of 352

79

ROCK MASS QUALITY FOR TUNNELLING

Q Group Classification
10 - 40 Good
40-100 1 Very good
100-400 Extremely good
400-1000 Exceptionally
good
0.1-1.0 Very poor
1.0-4.0 2 Poor
4.0-10.0 Fair
0.001-0.01 Exceptionally poor
0.010-0.10 3 Extremely poor

80

Page 286 of 352

 “Q” vs SUPPORT PRESSURE

1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 3
2 J n Q 1/ 3 2 J n Qw
Proof  Ph 
3J r 3J r
Proof = ultimate roof support pressure in 
Kg/cm2
Ph = ultimate wall support pressure in Kg/cm2, 
and
Qw = wall factor
Range of Q Wall Factor Qw
> 10 5.0 Q
0.1 - 10 2.5 Q
< 0.1 1.0 Q

81

CORRELATION BETWEEN SUPPORT PRESSURE & “Q”

82

Page 287 of 352

83

84

Page 288 of 352

 A SAMPLE PROBLEM
A permanent mine opening with span 15.0m
RQD 90
Jn 4
Jr 3
Ja 1.0
Jw 1.0
SRF 15
From the above data , find (i) Rock mass quality Q value
(ii) Rock support rquired

85

SOLUTION

Q = (RQD/Jn) x (Jr/Ja) x (Jw/SRF)

= (90/4) x (3/1) x (1/15)
= 4.5 (Fair Rock)
Rock Support Required
For permanent mine opening ESR = 1.6
Equivalent Dimension ,De= (Span/ESR) = 15/1.6 =9.4
For this De=9.4 & Q=4.5, from Barton’s chart
The support category (4) with rock bolt spacing 2.3 m and
unreinforced shotcrete 40mm to 50mm.

86

Page 289 of 352

87

88

Page 290 of 352

 good fair
BARTON'S "Q" assume Q 10 4
Joint roughness Jr 1.5 1.5
– SYSTEM Barton'sMax support pressure KN/m2 Pr=(2/Jr)/Q^(1/3)*10 61.89 83.99
AMPLE Design rock load
ALCULATION Good Rock 61.89 KN/m2

Fair Rock 83.99 KN/m2

2.Design of Rock Bolt (Bolt Capacity, w.r.t design rock load) Good rock Fair rock
Design rock load on roof (KN/m2) 61.89 83.99
Finished Width of Cavern D 13.9 13.9
Excavation thickness Te 0.6 0.6
Excavation span of section (m) B 15.1 15.1
Excavation height of section (m) H 15.1 15.1
Mean rock density Wr 27 27
Excavation support ratio ESR 1 1

Equivalent dimension De 15.1 15.1

Bolt length in m Lroof 4.265 4.265

Provide 8m long Rock

bolts

Yield strength of bolt (KN/m2) Fy 500 500

Allowable stress of bolt (KN/m2) Fa 275.0 275.0

Spacing of 32 dia bolt (sq parten)<l/2) S 1.89 1.62

89

EXCAVATION SUPPORT RATIO (ESR)

• A.Temporary mine openings, etc. 3–5

• B.Vertical shafts - circular section - 2.5

rectangular / square section - 2.0

• C.Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydropower

• ( except high pressure penstocks), pilot tunnels, drifts and headings for large
excavations etc.
1.6
• D.Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway tunnels,
surge chambers, access tunnels etc.
1.3

• E. Power stations, major road & railway tunnels, civil defence chambers,
portals, intersections, etc. 1.0

• F.Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, sports and public

facilities, factories etc.
0.8

90

Page 291 of 352

 COMMONLY ADOPTED ROCK SUPPORT
SYSTEMS ARE THE FOLLOWING

• ROCK BOLTS / ANCHORS

• CABLE SUPPORTS
• SHOTCRETE : PLAIN / MESH /
FIBRE REINFOCED
• STEEL RIBS

91

LENGTH OF ROCKBOLT

L roof = 2 + (0.15 x SPAN/ESR)

L wall = 2 + (0.15 x HEIGHT/ESR)

•SPACING OF ROCK BOLTS TO BE COMPUTED

BASED ON THE SUPPORT PRESSURE

92

Page 292 of 352

 MECHANICALLY ANCHORED ROCK BOLT

93

RESIN END ANCHORED ROCK BOLT

94

Page 293 of 352

 CABLE SUPPORTS

95

DRY MIX SHOTCRETE

96

Page 294 of 352

 WET MIX SOTCRETE

97

Central Water Commission (CWC)

WHERE TO LOOK FOR–

A. WEBSITE OF NORWEGIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (NGI)

B. ENGINEERING IN ROCKS FOR SLOPES FOUNDATION AND
TUNNELS – T RAMAMURTHY
C. IS CODES : 4880_1 TO 7, 5878_1 TO 7, 13365_1 & 2 , 15026
D. HANDBOOK BY NGI ON BARTON’S Q SYSTEM
E. ON-GOING CONSTRUCTION H E PROJECTS PUNATSANGCHU-I
& II, BHUTAN (DESIGN CONSULTANCY BY CWC)
F. LIBRARY OF CENTRAL WATER COMMISSION

THANK YOU
ABHINAV SRIVASTAVA
Deputy Director
HCD (E&NE) Dte , CWC (HQ)

98

Page 295 of 352

 
 HYDRAULIC MODELLING TECHNIQUES

Kiran T. More
Scientist ‘B’
Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune – 411 024, India
E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The construction of dams involves huge capital cost and recurring expenditure of maintenance. The
dam hydraulics should be optimized functionally and economically before the execution of
construction work. The most reliable method of investigation of flow over spillways is performing
experiments on scaled physical models. A physical model is a scaled representation of a hydraulic
flow situation. Physical hydraulic models are commonly used during design stages to optimize a
structure and to ensure a safe operation of the structure. They have an important further role to
assist non-engineering people during the `decision-making' process. A hydraulic model may help the
decision-makers to visualize and to picture the flow field, before selecting a `suitable' design.
In civil engineering applications, a physical hydraulic model is usually a smaller-size
representation of the prototype (i.e. the full-scale structure). The rapidly varied flows with complex
geometry, supercritical velocities due to high heads leading to cavitations damages, intense
turbulence causing hydrodynamic forces on the spillway structure are normally investigated by
physical models. Various factors influencing the design and selection of scales for Froudian models,
construction methodology, measurement techniques adopted and planning of model studies are
described in this lecture note.

Hydraulic Modelling

A lack of understanding of physical processes or complex boundary conditions in many

fluid mechanics/ hydraulics problems which are not amenable to numerical or analytical
techniques are investigated by physical models. Physical model studies are indispensable
tools to optimize various components of reservoir and appurtenant structures. The
hydraulic design of various components of a river valley project involves two types of
problems viz. site specific problems and problems connected with complex hydraulic flow
phenomena. The site-specific problems are due to topography at the site, availability of
foundation, nature of soil and rock strata etc. The problems associated with complex flow
phenomena are many viz. non uniform flow in the approach portion creating vortices,
rapidly varied flow because of complex geometry, high velocities due to high heads leading
to cavitations damages, high turbulence causing hydrodynamic forces on the structure and
erosion of the river bed and banks downstream, flow induced vibration for wide range of
operating conditions. These problems at present cannot be dealt analytically and therefore
they have to be tackled by conducting studies on physical models of these structures. For

Page 296 of 352

number of decades the art of hydraulic modelling has been an important tool in solving
complex hydraulic problems. It entails, with a degree of sophistication that varies with the
objective of the investigation, the use of a scaled model for replicating flow and fluid-
transport processes in diverse natural flow systems and for evaluating the performance of
hydraulic structures and hydraulic machines. The following situations are common subjects
for modeling: water movement and sediment transport in rivers and coastal zones; the
hydraulic performance of water intakes, spillways, and outlets; flow around various objects;
flow through, or in, various conduits or flow-regulating devices; performance of turbines,
pumps, and other hydro machines; performance of floating structures or ships; and
effluent-mixing processes.

An advantage of a hydraulic model is its potential capacity to replicate many features of a

complicated flow situation. There are many situations for which there is little recourse other
than hydraulic modeling to make design or operational decisions involving expensive and
complex hydraulic works. Such situations particularly arise when, for a variety of reasons,
complex flow patterns or intricate transport processes are involved, and reliable answers
cannot be obtained by means of analytical solution or computer simulation.

Modelling Techniques

 Terms of reference for model studies

 Method of solution
a. Physical model
b. Combination of physical and mathematical model
c. Desk study
 Number and types of models
a. Models with fixed/movable bed
b. Three/two dimensional models
 Scale of model
 Factors influencing scale of model
a. Space
b. Head
c. Discharge

Page 297 of 352

 Similitude and Design of Spillway Model

Principles of similitude form the basis of designing a model so that model results can be
converted to prototypes. Hydraulic similitude is indispensable in physical modelling,
regardless of whether the model study involves basic research of fluid flow or hydraulic
design of structures such as spillways. Full model –prototype similitude requires
satisfaction of the following conditions.
1. Geometric similitude, whereby the ratio of all homologous (geometrically equivalent)
length dimensions is equal and where only similarity in form is involved;
2. Kinematics similitude, whereby at geometrically homologous points in model and
prototype, velocities and accelerations are in a constant ratio; and,
3. Dynamic similitude, whereby, in addition to kinematics similitude, the force polygons
are similar at geometrically equivalent points for model and prototype.

If dynamic similitude is satisfied, kinematics similitude automatically follows. In the following

discussion, the subscripts r, m, and p denote ratio, model, and prototype values,
respectively. Uniform laminar flow is a relatively uncommon exception for which flow inertia
is not important. The discussion pertains to situations of geometric similitude, for which all
length scales are equal. The primary parameter for geometric similitude is the length ratio

Lp
Lr  (1)
Lm

which must be constant for all parts of the model and prototype. As a consequence of
geometric similitude, the area, A, ratio is

Ar  L2r (2)

and the volume, , ratio is

  L3r (3)

For kinematics similitude, the velocity ratio, Ur, and the acceleration ratio, Ar must be
constant at all homologous points of the model and the prototype. The commensurate
ratios are
Lr
Ur  (4)
Tr

Page 298 of 352

 Ur L
ar   r2 (5)
Tr Tr
in which the time ratio, Tr, is
Tp
Tr  (6)
Tm

Dynamic similitude involves the force ratio, Fr Forces arise in modeling due to a variety of
physical phenomena (friction, surface tension, pressure, gravity, and so on). Inertial force is
always important when flows accelerate or decelerate because of changes in flow area or
turbulence.

Newton's second law relates inertial force to mass, M, and acceleration, a. Expressed in
ratio form

Fr  M r a r (7)

The mass ratio can be written in terms of a density, ρ, ratio and the length ratio

M r   r  r   r L3r (8)

Thus Newton's second law can be expressed in the following significant form

Ur
Fr   r L3r (9)
Tr

Because the time ratio can be written from Eq. (4) in terms of the length ratio and velocity
ratio, Eq. (9) reduces to

Fr   r L2r U r2 (10)

The inertial force as expressed in Eq. (10) is relevant to any flow situation, except uniform
laminar flow.

When a scaling law is valid, a condition of similarity exists between model and prototype.
The simple and fundamental nature of the foregoing scale ratios enable the similitude
principles to provide scaling laws with which the data obtained with relatively inexpensive
model tests may be extrapolated accurately to aid the design of usually expensive and
large prototypes.

Mainly there are four types of forces acting on the fluid, those due to gravitation, viscosity,

Page 299 of 352

 surface tension and elasticity. Perfect similarity of fluid motions and hydrodynamics
between a model and its prototype is practically an impossible task, but results are
invariably compatible within the desired accuracy. It has now been established that
application of Froude law leads to kinematic and dynamic similitude simulating the fully
developed turbulent flow in an undistorted geometrically similar model. Success in
achieving the desired results from a model study in the shortest time and with the least cost
depends largely on the design of the model. The first and most important step in the design
is the careful selection of a model scale. Small models may be used advantageously in
preliminary studies to give direction to the primary investigation. Although, a large model is
more useful than a small one, and improves the accuracy of measurements, but at some
point the cost and difficulty of operation will offset the advantage of large size.

U 0L
1. Reynolds number, Re 


U0
2. Froude number, Fr 
 gL



 U o2 L
3. Weber number, We 

U 2
4. Euler number, Eu  o

po

Spillway models are built geometrically similar to their prototypes. The force of gravitation
causes flow of water in open channel and hence dynamic similitude is closely approximated
according to the Froude‟s law. With the same fluid (water) in the prototype and model
complete similarity of all forces is not possible resulting in scale effects. Following are the
important phenomena for which scale effects are encountered in modelling of spillways:

Page 300 of 352

 friction, air entrainment, turbulence, cavitation, fluid-structure interaction and local scour
downstream of spillway.
In a Froudian model where viscous and surface tension forces are ignored, scale effects
may influence the results if a very small model is used. This is because the effects of
viscous and surface tension forces become increasingly important as the scale of a
phenomenon reduces. Small Froudian models should be avoided to ensure that viscous
and surface tension forces do not distort the Froudian similarity. For example, a model
should not be so small in size that a flow, which is turbulent in the prototype, becomes
laminar in the model. The Froude number and the Reynolds number each define unique
relationships between the scale ratios Lr, Tr and Ur. They cannot be simultaneously satisfied
without manipulating fluid properties, which at best is a difficult proposition. In Froudian
models, Reynolds number is always smaller than the prototype value. It is established by
many investigators that if a model is big enough to simulate large eddies (inertial eddies) so
as to ensure turbulent flow conditions in the model, many hydraulic parameters are
independent of Reynolds number if Re >5x105. It is believed that a model Reynolds number
of at least 5x105 and above will minimize the scale effects.

This essentially requires that the ratio of inertia to gravity forces be the same in model and
prototype. It also may be viewed as a ratio of water velocity, U, to shallow-water wave
velocity, (gY)1/2, in a channel of depth Y. The Froude-number similarity criterion prescribes
Frp Ur
Fr   1
Frm Yr
Note that, as most models are subject to the same gravitational field that prevails at full
scale, gr = 1. The resultant scales consequent to Froude number criterion (above Eq.) are
summarized in the following table. The Froude-number criterion sets the scale ratios, other
than geometric scale.
Scale Relationship Based on Froude Number Similitude with  = 1

Page 301 of 352

 SELECTION OF SCALE FOR A SPILLWAY MODEL

SALMA DAM SPILLWAY, AFGHANISTAN

SL.NO. SCALE HEAD SPAN DISCHARGE Depth of

overflow MWL-
m 1 CUMEC CFS CrestEl
PROTO 95.84 8M 2100 12.34m

1 30 3.194667 0.266667 0.426006 15.04429 0.411

2 45 2.129778 0.177778 0.154592 5.459383 0.274

3 50 1.9168 0.16 0.118794 4.195172 0.247

4 55 1.742545 0.145455 0.093608 3.305735 0.224

5 60 1.597333 0.133333 0.075308 2.65948 0.206

6 75 1.277867 0.106667 0.043109 1.522375 0.165

7 90 1.064889 0.088889 0.027328 0.965092 0.137

8 100 0.9584 0.08 0.021 0.741609 0.123

OMKARESHWAR DAM SPILLWAY, MADHYA PRADESH

SL.NO. SCALE HEAD SPAN DISCHARGE Depth of

overflow MWL-
m 1 CUMEC CFS Crest El m
PROTO 49.62 20m 88315 20.02

1 50 0.9924 0.400 4.996 176.43 0.400

2 75 0.6616 0.267 1.813 64.02 0.267

3 90 0.551333 0.222 1.149 40.59 0.222

4 100 0.4962 0.200 0.883 31.19 0.200

5 110 0.451091 0.182 0.696 24.58 0.182

6 125 0.39696 0.160 0.506 17.85 0.160

7 150 0.3308 0.133 0.320 11.32 0.133

Surface-tension effects start to become important if We is of order 100 or less. This occurs
when the radius of surface curvature is small in comparison to liquid thickness or depth, for
instance, for liquid drops, bubbles, capillary flow, ripple waves, and very shallow flows in
small hydraulic models. The air water flow is a function of Weber number. The hydraulic
models constructed according to Froudian criterion would not be able to simulate the air
entrainment. In order to simulate air entrainment in the model, the models are required to

Page 302 of 352

be constructed to a scale ranging from 1:10 to 1:15 so as to achieve Weber number of
about 500.

The scale of the model is chosen depending upon availability of space, discharge and
head. Spillway models are scaled to provide flow depth over the crest of at least 75 mm for
the design normal operating head to reduce the effect of viscosity and surface tension. In
general, large models rather than small models should be built, as permitted by available
space, operating head and water supply. Sometimes, cost and operational difficulties
dictate the selection of model scale. The model scale for medium sized spillway would be
around 1:50 to 1:60.

Classification of Spillway Models

Spillway models can be classified either as two-dimensional sectional model built in a glass
sided flume or three-dimensional comprehensive model constructed in a model tray and
incorporating entire spillway, non-overflow dam, part of reservoir and river downstream
including other structures. The sectional model, usually built to a large size and
incorporating 2 to 4 spans is required for determining discharging capacity, pressures on
crest and other appurtenances and for testing various alternative designs of energy
dissipater. Detailed measurements of discharge, pressure, velocity and force as well as
facility of visual observation of flow conditions through glass are the main advantages of a
sectional model. Desired modifications could easily be carried out in a sectional model,
rather than in a 3-D model. The comprehensive model enables study of general flow
conditions upstream and downstream of the spillway, pattern of operation of spillway gates,
flow conditions in the vicinity of ancillary structures such as training walls, power house tail
race, earth dam toe etc. Studies with erodible bed downstream of spillway also give
qualitative indication of scour and requirement of protection.

Data Requirements for Model Studies

For conducting model experiments, it is necessary to obtain correct information from the
prototype. The entire operation of the model depends on the equality of the prototype data.
The data would help in establishing the model prototype conformity pattern and to enhance
the predictability of the model. Generally, the following prototype data would be required for
planning, construction of spillway models and conducting model studies.

1. Maximum design outflow discharge for spillway and energy dissipater.

Page 303 of 352

 2. Gauge-discharge (Tail Water Rating) curve at about 200 to 300 m downstream
of the spillway up to the maximum outflow discharge.
3. Index plan showing location of dam and course of river for about 1 km
upstream and 1 km downstream, water spread, tributaries upstream and
downstream of the site, important structures etc.
4. Cross sections of the river at about 50 m interval for a distance of 1000 m
upstream and downstream of the dam axis. If the approach is curved
immediately upstream, the cross section should extend at least 150 m beyond
the curve.
5. A plan showing river course, dam complex, power intake, position of river
cross sections and base line
6. Layout plan : Dam layout plan showing the chainages along the dam axis for
the important structures such as left and right end of the spillway with
reference to a baseline connected to the dam axis and location and orientation
of the power intake.
7. Spillway section with details such as upstream and downstream crest profiles
giving equations and radii of curves, tangent points, slopes and dimensioned
details of energy dissipator. cross sections of the non-overflow section of the
dam
8. Details of spillway gates and piers in plan and sections including distance of
trunnion axis of radial gate with reference to dam axis/crest axis, gate seat
elevation, geometric profile of breast wall and details of stoplog groove.
9. Details of power intake including plan and sections of bellmouth entrance,
transition, trashrack piers and rib beams, dimensions of gate grooves.

Construction Methodology of Model

Having determined the scale ratio, construction of the model requires following
considerations :

 Materials of construction
 Construction accuracy and other requirements
 Extent of river topography to be reproduced in the model including nearby structures

A model need not be made of the same materials as the prototype. If surfaces over which
water flows are reproduced in shape and the roughness of the surfaces is approximately to
scale (in fact smoother in the model than corresponding to prototype roughness), the model
will usually be satisfactory. Generally, the riverbed is made up of smooth cement plaster;

Page 304 of 352

spillway, non-overflow section of the dam etc in masonry with neat plaster, spillway piers in
teakwood, radial gates in sheet metal and outlets are fabricated in transparent perspex.

Close tolerances, particularly in critical areas such as spillway crests, tangent points,
energy dissipating appurtenances, model dimensions etc are essential. Greatest accuracy
should be maintained where there will be rapid changes in direction of flow and very high
velocities occur. The profiles of spillways and their allied structures are finished to their final
shape with the help of metallic templates fixed in alignment and elevation. Piezometers are
generally welded to the templates so that their alignments are secured. The finishing of
piezometers in models should be done meticulously to prevent measurement errors that
would result from improper installation. Complicated curves for bell mouths of sluice
spillways, breastwalls, bends and transitions can be made from Perspex which has been
heated in oven and reshaped by pressing between the male and female concrete moulds.

It is not possible to reproduce the entire reservoir upstream of spillway nor it is necessary
to do so. For the spillways located in the main river gorge with practically straight river
course, reproduction of about 600 to 800 m reach is usually adequate. Where the river has
appreciable curvature immediately upstream of dam, or where the spillway is located on a
flank, so that obliquity of flow approaching the spillway is likely to occur, special care must
be taken to incorporate these features. On the downstream, the river reach to be
incorporated would be slightly beyond the section of stage-discharge measurement in the
prototype.

Operation of Model

Once the model is ready for experimentation, the operating programme of the model
should be carefully planned to evaluate the performance of the proposed design. The
operating programme can be divided into two phases:

 Adjustment phase
 Experimental phase

The adjustment phase includes preliminary trials to identify model defects and
inadequacies. The need for partial redesign, revision or shifting of measuring instruments is
often indicated by these trial runs. The experimental phase includes regular model studies
after removing all the defects observed during the adjustment phase. Generally, the
following aspects are studied on spillway models:

Page 305 of 352

Approach flow conditions: To observe if the flow approaching the spillway is generally
uniform and if not, to find out its effect on functioning of spillway, dam and differential
pressures on spillway piers etc.

Photo 1: Approach Flow Conditions u/s of spillway

Discharging capacity: Calibration curves for spillway and schedule of operation of gates

Figure 1: Typical discharging capacity curves

Page 306 of 352

Pressure Distribution: Pressures on crest profile and other appurtenant structures to
ascertain that no dangerous sub-atmospheric pressures leading to cavitation damage exist

Figure 2: Typical pressure distribution along centre line of spillway

with Stilling basin as EDA

Photo 2: Height of training walls vis-à-vis water surface profiles

Design of training walls and divide walls: Water surface profiles along the training walls
and divide walls to finalize their profiles.

Page 307 of 352

 Photo 3: Necessity of divide walls

Operation of Gates: Schedule of operation of gates

Photo 4: Spillway Operation with divide walls

Energy dissipation efficiency: Performance of energy dissipater assessed from visual

observation, development of scour, flow concentration, velocities, etc.

Page 308 of 352

 Photo 5: Spillway Operation with ski-jump bucket as EDA

Photo 6: Spillway Operation with stilling basin as EDA

Scour d/s of Spillway: The flip bucket type of energy dissipator downstream of spillway is
suitable for locations where the tail water depth is low and hard rock is available. It dissipates
energy by throwing the jet of water at a sufficient distance away from the spillway bucket.
Scour hole is usually formed downstream of the point of impingement of ski-jump jet. The
main parameters affecting the performance of the ski-jump bucket are radius and lip angle of
the bucket, discharge intensity, hydraulic head acting at the bucket lip and tail water level.
Retrogression of the scour hole may endanger stability of the structure. Generally, concrete
Page 309 of 352
apron of about 15m to 20m is provided to protect the toe of the dam from undermining due to
the flow cascading over the lip of the bucket. Analysis of scouring in rocky bed downstream
of spillway with ski-jump bucket is complicated due to the complex hydraulic and geological
conditions. An accurate evaluation of the parameters determining the erosion resistance of
the rock is difficult. The prediction of the scour depth to ensure the safety of dam is
necessary.

Pre-excavated plunge pools are provided d/s of ski jump bucket to minimize the scour
damage particularly important for the spillways in Himalayan region where geology is fragile
and gorges are narrow. The pre-excavated plunge pool geometry need to be evolved from
model studies and has to be based on expected natural scour geometry. The design is
based on study of pulsating pressure propagation into slab joints/seals, dynamic
propagation underneath concrete slabs due to water hammer effects.

Various Empirical Formulae for Scour Depth

Photo 7: Scour Pit at Model

Page 310 of 352

Assessment of Discharge for Construction Stages of Spillway
The construction of concrete dam is phased out over several years. During the intervening
period floods are required to be passed over the partly constructed dam blocks, because the
diversion arrangements provided cater only for normal river flows which are 5 to 10% of
1:100 year outflow flood. The floods are passed over the partly completed spillway blocks
having various elevations. Ideally all the blocks should have been constructed to the same
level to have favourable flow conditions upstream and downstream of the partly completed
spillway blocks. However, it has been observed that the construction of each spillway block
proceeds independently and due to many restrictions imposed on the construction for
placing of concrete at site, the spillway blocks at the onset of monsoon are at varying levels.
The estimation of upstream reservoir water level for the design construction stage flood is
very crucial. This is particularly so because the coefficient of discharge that would realize in
such a condition would depend on width and length of the blocks, the elevation difference
between adjoining blocks, and the approach depth of the blocks.

Photo 8: Partly completed Spillway Operation with temporary crest profiles

Flows over a completed profile of a spillway are very different from the flow over a partly
completed spillway. The unequal distribution of discharge over the spillway monoliths result
in violent flow conditions not envisaged in the design. Hence, the flow conditions over the
spillway and downstream are quite different from those expected in the completed stage and
can cause serious damage downstream by way of abrasion, erosion, undermining and uplift
of panels due to hydrodynamic forces. The flow conditions have the potential to cause large
scale damage. The jet of water springs from the downstream edge of the truncated spillway
and impinges on the floor of the energy dissipator at the toe of the spillway causing damage.
Training the flow over spillway blocks is of paramount importance due to the destructive
power of the jet flowing over it. Provision of temporary humps on the spillway monoliths can
up to a certain extent help in guiding the flow over the blocks and ensure shear flow. Some

Page 311 of 352

arrangement is needed to make the nappe cling to the spillway glacis for as high a discharge
as possible. Model studies play an important role in estimating the discharging capacity of
the uneven blocks in the direction of flow, the interaction of flow passing over two blocks
having different elevations and the head over each block. Hydraulic model studies at
CWPRS have demonstrated the usefulness of temporary crests in the form of humps at the
downstream edge of the truncated spillway to guide the flow and minimize the damage.

Photo 9: Partly completed Spillway Operation with temporary crest profiles

(Model and prototype flow similarity)

Figure 3: Temporary crest profiles over partly completed spillway blocks

Page 312 of 352

Measurement Techniques

The discharges on the hydraulic models of spillway are measured on the standing wave
flume or Rehbock weir using hook gauge of 0.1 mm least count in a stilling well. The
accuracy of discharge measurement would be around ±2%. Water levels are measured
using pointer gauges fitted with a vernier scale having a least count of 0.1 mm. Reservoir
water surface elevations are measured at a location far enough to be free from drawdown
and other effects. Tail water levels are measured by a hook gauge having a graduation of
0.1 mm mounted in a stilling well at a distance of about 4 to 5 m downstream of dam axis.
Tail water adjustments are made at the downstream end of the model using wooden strips of
varying widths or adjustable tailgate. Piezometers (copper tubes) of 3 to 5 mm diameter are
provided on the spillway surface along the center of the span for measurement of pressures.
Pressures are measured by connecting rubber tubes to the piezometers and to open tube
manometers with vertical water columns and could be directly converted to prototype
pressure head in meters of water using scaled water manometer board placed by the side of
the model.

Sources of Errors and Precautions Needed

Sources of errors in measurements taken during model studies are numerous. Predicting or
calculating these errors is most important in establishing the reliability of the studies. A first
source of possible error is in the accuracy of model construction. For example, an improperly
built spillway crest causes a systematic error in the depths measured for discharges over the
crest. An error of plus or minus 1 millimeter in the model construction causes an error in the
depth measurement that may be 50 to 100 times larger when converted to a prototype value
(upscaling error). A second source of error comes from the instrumentation. Each
measurement system-discharge, depth, pressure, velocity, etc. should be evaluated for its
probable range of error. Defective zero setting of pointer gauge or hook gauge results in
systematic error, which should be checked periodically. The reading error of a pointer gauge
is strongly influenced by the distance between the gauge and the observer, the angle which
it is read, turbulence of the water and the gradation unit of the gauge.

Accurate and easily understood fabrication drawings for various model components prevent
time-consuming errors in construction. Drawings should contain sufficient information to
allow the fabrication of a model conforming to the design specifications for the structure.
Close tolerances are observed in critical locations such as spillway crests, tangent points

Page 313 of 352

and transition curves. Greatest accuracy should be maintained where there will be rapid
changes in direction of flow and where high velocities will prevail. In the course of preparing
the template assembly, piezometer tubes are soldered or fastened along the profiles of
selected templates. If the spillway crest is to be formed with mortar, the pressure taps are
closed with lightly fitting plugs before applying the mortar and grout. Upon completion of the
model, each tap should be carefully reopened and then finished flush with the surface of the
spillway. The finishing of piezometers in models should be done meticulously to prevent
measurement errors that would result from improper installation. Piezometers are relatively
inexpensive and should be provided in generous numbers to adequately define the critical
pressure locations.

Numerical Modelling of Spillway Flows

Traditionally, spillway flows are investigated using physical models. The drawbacks
associated with physical model studies of spillways are: cost of construction, delay in time
for fabrication and construction of model parts and conducting experiments and the difficulty
in changing structural details of various components of the spillway while doing parametric
studies. Acquiring necessary insight and understanding the complete hydrodynamics of flow
features over spillway by physical models requires sophisticated instrumentation to capture
data which is expensive, cumbersome and time consuming. Some scale effects are
associated with the physical models for modelling of air water flows. Numerical modelling
has been sparsely used in this field due to the complex nature of the flow. The rapid growth
in the field of computer technology in terms of computer memory and processing speed has
enabled numerical modeling of spillway flows as a viable complementary tool to physical
modeling of spillway flows. Simulation of flow over the spillway is possible with advanced
CFD software as two phase air-water flow can be modelled.

Numerical Investigations

Spillway flows are essentially rapidly varied flows near crest with pronounced curvature of
the streamlines in vertical direction. Two processes simultaneously occurring in the flow
down the crest are: formation and gradual thickening of the turbulent boundary layer along
the profile and gradual increase in the velocity and decrease in the depth of main flow.
Because of the changes of flow boundaries in a short distance, vertical acceleration plays a
dominant role in the flow as compared to shear resistance at the solid boundary. The main
difficulties while solving the spillway problem numerically are: rapidly varied flow, existence
of both subcritical and supercritical flows, development of turbulent boundary layer, unknown

Page 314 of 352

free surface and air entrainment. As both subcritical and supercritical flows exist in spillway
flow problems, numerical method capable of capturing shock wave should be used. The
Navier–Stokes equations can describe virtually any flow problem. However, they are the
most difficult to solve. In the last two decades, simulation techniques based on the Navier–
Stokes equations have been applied to a large number of flow problems with suitable
assumptions and approximations. The rapid development in the computer technology has
made the computational fluid dynamics an effective and economical tool for solving various
problems in Fluid Mechanics. Computational Fluid Dynamics is a branch of science, which
deals with replacing the differential equations governing the fluid flow, into set of algebraic
equations. Theses algebraic equations are solved with the help of digital computers. CFD
can be a very useful tool to minimize the efforts and expenses of physical modelling as it
consumes less time and gives accurate results once the CFD model is validated. It provides
good control over all the flow (geometric and dynamic) parameters. It is also cost effective.
However, one cannot replace the physical model at this stage, since the validation of the
CFD model is done using the results of the physical model.

The basic equations for fluid flow are based on the law of mass, momentum and energy. The
equation of conservation of mass or continuity equation and the Navier-Stocks equations
form the basis of the continuum model of the fluid flow.

Continuity Equation

The equation for conservation of mass, or continuity equation, can be written as follows:

(11)

Equation 5 is the general form of the mass conservation equation and is valid for
incompressible as well as compressible flows. The source Sm is the mass added to the
continuous phase from the dispersed second phase (e.g., due to vaporization of liquid
droplets)  is the fluid density and ν is the fluid velocity.

Momentum Equation

Conservation of momentum in an inertial (non-accelerating) reference frame is described as:

(12)

Page 315 of 352

   
Where p is the static pressure,  is the stress tensor (described below), and  g and F
are the gravitational body force and external body forces (e.g., that arise from interaction

with the dispersed phase), respectively. The stress tensor  is given by

(13)

Where „μ’ is the molecular viscosity, „I’ is the unit tensor, and the second term on the right
hand side is the effect of volume dilation.
Some of the methods used to calculate the spillway flow found in literatures have adopted
some kind of assumptions in order to simplify the computation. Owing to the weak suitability
of Finite Difference Method (FDM) to the curvilinear solid geometries, its application to the
gravity driven free surface flows with arbitrary curved solid boundaries is severely restricted.
Meanwhile, Finite Volume Method (FVM), Finite Element Method (FEM) and Boundary
Element Method (BEM) that have excellent suitability to the curved solid boundaries have
been widely used. Many popular CFD codes use the finite volume method. While the finite
difference and finite element methods start from the differential form of the governing
equations, the finite volume method discretizes the Navier-Stokes equations directly in the
integral form, ensuring the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy both locally at the
discrete cell level and globally over the entire flow domain. Conservation is important for
capturing shocks and other flow discontinuities accurately in high-speed compressible flow
simulations, and therefore it is the strength of finite volume method.

Free Surface Modeling

In general the motion of the fluid is represented either by Lagrangian or Euler representation.
In the Lagrangian calculation, the grid moves with the computed element velocities, while in
Eulerian calculation it would be necessary to compute the flow field through the fixed mesh.
Free surface flows are more complex than closed conduit flows. The reason is that the free
surface is a dependent variable so that various streamline curvatures can create widely
variable pressure distributions over the cross section. Rapidly varied flow such as flow over
spillway having large streamline curves exerts non-hydrostatic pressure distribution over the
section. It is important to track the free surface accurately to solve the flow numerically over
the spillway. Tracking involves, locating the surface, defining the surface as a sharp interface
between the water and air and applying the boundary condition at the interface. There are
different means for tracking the free-surface boundary condition. Volume of Fluid (VOF) is
one of them and used in the present study.

Page 316 of 352

Volume of fluid (VOF) Method

The idea for this approach (Hirt and Nichols, 1981) originated as a way to have the powerful
volume-tracking feature of the MAC method without its large memory and CPU costs. The
VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more fluids (or phases) are not interpenetrating
. For each additional phase that is added to the model, a variable is introduced: the volume
fraction of the phase in the computational cell. In each control volume, the volume fractions
of all phases sum to unity. The fields for all variables and properties are shared by the
phases and represent volume-averaged values, as long as the volume fraction of each of the
phases is known at each location. Thus the variables and properties in any given cell are
either purely representative of one of the phases, or representative of a mixture of the
phases, depending upon the volume fraction values. In other words, if the qth fluid's volume
fraction in the cell is denoted as αq, then the following three conditions are possible:

q  0: The cell is empty (of the qth fluid).

q  1: The cell is full (of the qth fluid)

0  q  1: The cell contains the interface between the qth fluid and one or more other fluids.

Based on the local value of q , the appropriate properties and variables will be assigned to

each control volume within the domain. If the amount of fluid in each cell is known, it is
possible to locate surfaces, as well as determine surface slopes and curvatures.

Turbulence Modelling

Turbulent flows are characterized by fluctuating velocity fields. These fluctuations mix
transported quantities such as momentum, energy, and species concentration, and cause
the transported quantities to fluctuate as well. Since these fluctuations can be of small scale
and high frequency, they are computationally too expensive to simulate directly in practical
engineering calculations. Instead, the instantaneous (exact) governing equations can be
time-averaged, ensemble-averaged, or otherwise manipulated to remove the small scales,
resulting in a modified set of equations that are computationally less expensive to solve.
However, the modified equations contain additional unknown variables, and turbulence
models are needed to determine these variables in terms of known quantities. There are
three major approaches to predict turbulent flows, viz. Statistical Turbulence Modelling
(STM), Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS) (Tannehill et

Page 317 of 352

al., 1997). Statistical turbulence models based on the Reynolds- Averaged Navier-Stokes
(RANS) equations represent transport equations for the mean flow quantities only, with all
the scales of the turbulence being modelled.

There are many turbulence models available such as:

 Spalart-Allmaras model
 k-ε models

 Standard k-ε model

 Renormalization-group (RNG) k-ε model
 Realizable k-ε model
 k-ω models
 Standard k-ω model
 Shear-stress transport (SST) k-ω model
 v2-f model
 Reynolds stress model (RSM)

No single turbulence model is universally accepted as being superior for all classes of
problems. The choice of turbulence model will depend on considerations such as the physics
encompassed in the flow, the established practice for a specific class of problem, the level of
accuracy required, the available computational resources, and the amount of time available
for the simulation.

Boundary and Initial Conditions

Boundary conditions are the most important and critical aspects of the numerical modelling.
Utmost care has to be taken in the formulation of boundary conditions so that the physical
phenomenon could be represented satisfactorily. It is important that the boundary conditions
accurately represent what is physically occurring for a given flow condition. Boundary
conditions specify the flow variables or their gradients on the boundaries of computational
flow domain.

Upstream Boundary Condition

The upstream boundary can be set up at a flow inlet at which the reservoir water level but
the incoming discharge and/or velocity are unknown. This section should be far away from
the spillway to avoid the reflection effect.

Page 318 of 352

Downstream Boundary Condition

The downstream boundary should be located based on the range of the interested domain.
For the study of the spillway crest and the aerator region, the downstream condition will have
no effect on the upstream flow since the flow over the downstream slope of the spillway is
supercritical. However, the downstream section has to be chosen far downstream of the end
of the spillway so that the ski jump jet/hydraulic jump is fully formed.

Solid Boundary Condition

The interface between the fluid and solid boundary is considered as closed boundary. It is
also called as wall boundary. There are three kinds of solid boundary conditions:

 Full slip boundary condition

 Partial slip boundary condition and
 No slip boundary condition

The full slip means that tangential velocity at the inner grid is equal to tangential velocity on
the solid surface; while no slip means tangential velocity on the solid surface is zero; for
partial slip condition, a wall function should be used. There is no flow across solid
boundaries. Selection of the three alternatives depends on the nature of governing
equations, relative magnitude of the grid size and the boundary layer thickness in the flow
domain.

Initial Condition

Before starting the solution, an initial guess has to be provided for the solution flow field. An
accurately assumed velocity and free surface profile will accelerate the convergence of the
computations.

Operating Conditions

Operating pressure is defined at the atmospheric pressure. The operating density is

specified as 1.223 m3/s, as air was the primary phase out of the two phases viz. air and
water.

Convergence and Stability

Page 319 of 352

Numerical computations often have spurious oscillations in space and time or both. If the
 computed values within a time step exhibit variations over a distance comparable to cell
width or time comparable to the time increment, the accuracy of the computed results is not
reliable. It is said that the solution has not converged. To prevent this, certain restrictions in
terms of the mesh sizes x, y or aspect ratio of the cells x , or the time increment t
y
and weighted coefficients is required to be made (Courant and Friedrichs, 1948). For
accuracy, mesh increments are to be chosen small enough to resolve the spatial variation in
all dependent variables. Depending upon the nature of problem, it may be necessary to
select the finer grids near the wall boundaries.

Once the mesh is chosen, the choice of the maximum time increment allowable for stability
is governed by several restrictions. First the fluid cannot move more than one cell in one
time increment. This gives the condition,

(14)

 x and y are the lengths of any given cell in x and y directions. u and v are the velocity

components in x and y directions. The minimum is with respect to every cell in flow domain.
The stability of the computations is controlled by the Courant-Friedrichs-Levy condition
(Courant et al, 1967):


(15)

Where  is the control volume and si is the surface area of the control volume.
The maximum allowable time step can be estimated by using the following equation:

(16)
Where, 0 < Cr < 1


11.12 Air Water Flow Modelling

Hydraulic structures can be operated safely and efficiently if due attention is paid to both water
flow as well as the simultaneous movement of air in the system. The difference in the

Page 320 of 352

density of air and water is very large viz. water density 1000 kg/m3 and air density 1.223
kg/m3. Therefore, they are usually well separated by a sharp interface. However, a number
of flow configurations lead to an intense mixing across this surface. This process is called
air entrainment. A self-aerating flow configuration continuously produces air bubbles by
mechanical action, which is subsequently carried away by the flow if the transport capacity of
the water flow is sufficiently high. All these bubbles which are entrained but cannot be
transported by the flow will escape through the water surface (detrainment). Thus air
entrainment, transport capacity and detrainment are interrelated. The region of detrainment
may or may not be near the region of entrainment and it depends on the water flow
conditions and their transport capacity. Figure 4 shows the schematic representation of air
entrainment, detrainment and transport processes in an open channel flow.

Figure 4: Air Entrainment, Detrainment and Transport Processes in Open Channel,

(Kobus H., 1984)

Air Water Flow in Spillways

Normally a region of clear water is observed where the water enters the chute or spillway.
Then, at some distance downstream, the water suddenly takes on a milky appearance. The
“White Water” begins where the turbulent boundary layer from the floor intersects the water
surface. The validity of this assumption has been verified by many researchers. The flow
down a long spillway can be divided into a number of distinct regions:

1. A regime of no air concentration where the turbulent boundary layer has not reached
the water surface.

Page 321 of 352

 2. A regime of developing air entrainment in which the air concentration profiles
are not constant with distance.

3. A regime of fully developed air entrainment in which the air concentration

profiles are constant with distance.
In the non-aerated region close to the spillway crest the boundary layer grows from
the spillway floor. Outside the boundary layer the flow in predominantly irrational and
the water surface in smooth and glassy. At the point where the boundary layer
reaches the free surface, the surface becomes disturbed and entrainment by multitude
of vortices in the turbulent flow commences. This point is called the point of inception.
Downstream of the start of air entrainment a layer containing a mixture of both air and
water gradually extends through the flowing fluid.

Closure

A lack of understanding of physical processes or complex boundary conditions in

many fluid mechanics/ hydraulics problems which are not amenable to numerical or
analytical techniques are investigated by physical models. Various factors influencing
the selection of scales for Froudian models, construction methodology, measurement
techniques adopted and planning of model studies are briefly described in this
chapter. Physical model studies have been indispensable tools to optimize various
components of spillway structure as they are able to replicate many features of
complex flow features of spillways. Various hydraulic design aspects such as
discharging capacity, pressures and water surface profiles and energy dissipation
arrangement are considered to evolve hydraulically efficient design of spillway.

References

1. Courant, R. and Friedrichs, K.O. (1948). “Supersonic flow and shock waves.”
Inter Science Publishers, New York.
2. Courant, R. and Friedrichs, K.O. and Lewy, H. (1967). “On the partial
differential equations of mathematical physics.” IBM Journal of Research and
Development, Vol. 11, pp: 215-234.
3. Hirt, C.W. and Nichols, B.D. (1981). “Volume of Fluid (VOF) method for the
dynamics of free boundaries.” Journal of Computational Physics, 39, pp:201-
225.

Page 322 of 352

4. Hubert Chanson (1999), “The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow ”, Arnold, 338
Euston Road, London NW1 3BH, UK.

5. Khatsuria, R. M. (2004). “Hydraulics of spillways and energy dissipators.”

Marcel Dekker Publication, New York.
6. Kobus H. (1984). “Local air entrainment and detrainment” Symposium on scale
effects in modeling hydraulic structures, Esslingen, Germany, paper 4.10 pp 1-
10
7. Tannehill, J. C., Anderson, D. A. and Pletcher, R. H. (1997). “Computational
fluid mechanics and heat transfer.” 2nd edition, Hemisphere Publishers
8. WES Hydraulic Design Criteria (1977) Low monolith diversions ,
Discharge Coefficients -Sheet 711

Page 323 of 352

 
 ‐Manish Rathore
Deputy Director

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)

Page 324 of 352

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)
ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)

ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer

Page 325 of 352

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)
ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer
ƒ Contact Analysis

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)

ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer
ƒ Contact Analysis
ƒ Vibration, Frequency, Buckling

Page 326 of 352

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)
ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer
ƒ Contact Analysis
ƒ Vibration, Frequency, Buckling
ƒ Soil Seepage / Consolidation

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)

ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer
ƒ Contact Analysis
ƒ Vibration, Frequency, Buckling
ƒ Soil Consolidation
ƒ CFD Analysis

Page 327 of 352

ƒ Static (linear and non‐linear)
ƒ Dynamics (Implicit, Explicit)
ƒ Heat Transfer
ƒ Contact Analysis
ƒ Vibration, Frequency, Buckling
ƒ Soil Consolidation
ƒ CFD Analysis
ƒ Multi‐physics Analysis

ƒ Linear dynamics:
ƒ Natural frequency extraction
ƒ Modal superposition
ƒ Harmonic loading
ƒ Response spectrum analysis
ƒ Random loading

ƒ Nonlinear dynamics:
ƒ Transient dynamics with implicit integration

Page 328 of 352

ƒ Multiphysics with Abaqus/Standard:
ƒ Thermal‐mechanical analysis
ƒ Structural‐acoustic analysis
ƒ Linear piezoelectric analysis
ƒ Thermal‐electrical (Joule heating) analysis
ƒ Thermal‐electrical‐structural analysis
ƒ Fully or partially saturated pore fluid flow‐deformation
ƒ Fluid‐structure interaction

ƒ Abaqus/Explicit
ƒ Simulates high speed dynamic 
events such as drop tests.
▪ Explicit algorithm for updating the 
mechanical response.
ƒ Also a powerful tool for quasi‐static 
metal forming simulations.
metal forming simulations
▪ Annealing is available for multistep 
forming simulations

Page 329 of 352

ƒ Special features of Abaqus/Explicit: Coupled Eulerian‐
Lagrangian (CEL)
ƒ Define a domain in which material can flow for an Eulerian
analysis
▪ Flow problems
▪ Structural problems with extreme deformation
Eulerian mesh

rod material

ƒ Database structure
ƒ You can have
h multiple
l l database
d b on one computer
ƒ One database can have multiple models
ƒ You can work with only one database at a time
ƒ If you want to work with multiple models, keep all of them in
one database
ƒ One model can have multiple parts
ƒ One
O model d l can have
h onlyl one assembly
bl (created
( t d by
b calling
lli
parts)
ƒ Model
ƒ Contains parts, materials, sections, assembly, surfaces,
steps, loads, BCs, fields, interactions, meshes.

Page 330 of 352

 Part Property Assembly

Create the part  Define materials Position parts for 

geometry (and regions  initial configuration.
Define additional 
for sections, if 
part regions
necessary)
Define and assign 
sections to parts or 
regions
Step Interaction Load

Define analysis steps  Define contact and  Apply loads, BCs, 

and output requests other interactions on  and ICs to regions 
regions or named sets,  or named sets; and 
and assign them to  assign them to 
steps in the analysis  steps in the analysis 
historyy historyy

Mesh Job Visualization

Split  assembly into  Submit, manage,  Examine results

meshable regions  and monitor 
and mesh analysis jobs

ƒ Commands issued during an Abaqus/CAE session are saved in journaling files

g Python
containing y p
scripts.

Replay (.rpy) file All commands executed during a session,

including any mistakes, are saved in this
file.

Journal (.jnl) file All commands necessary to recreate the

most currently saved model database
(.cae) are saved in this file.

Recover (.rec) file All commands necessary to recreate the

model database (.cae) since it was most
recently saved are saved in this file.

ƒ Journaling files can be modified in any way appropriate for the Python
language.

Page 331 of 352

ƒ First thing to do after opening ABAQUS is to set work
di t
directory

ƒ Models are feature based and parametric

ƒ Use shortcut keys for view manipulation

ƒ Always
y look for the dialogue
g box at the bottom for
pending commands

ƒ All inputs and outputs in ABAQUS are entered without

units… maintain your units throughout the project

ƒ Since, all inputs and outputs in ABAQUS are entered

without units… maintain one of the following system of
units throughout the project

Page 332 of 352

 Thank You

Page 333 of 352

 
 Introduction to Phase2
Manish Rathore
Deputy Director
Narmada Control Authority, Indore

Introduction

Phase2 is a powerful 2D elasto-plastic finite element stress analysis program for underground or
surface excavations in rock or soil. It can be used for a wide range of engineering projects and
includes support design, finite element slope stability and groundwater seepage analysis. Complex,
multi-stage models can be easily created and quickly analyzed, for example: tunnels in weak or
jointed rock, underground powerhouse caverns, open pit mines and slopes, embankments, MSE
stabilized earth structures, and much more. Progressive failure, support interaction and a variety of
other problems can be addressed.
Phase2 offers a wide range of support modeling options. Liner elements can be applied in the
modeling of shotcrete, concrete, steel set systems, retaining walls, piles, multi-layer composite
liners, geotextiles and more. New liner design tools include support capacity plots which allow you
to determine the safety factor of reinforced liners. Bolt types include end anchored, fully bonded,
cable bolts, split sets and grouted tiebacks. One of the major features of Phase2 is finite element
slope stability analysis using the shear strength reduction method.
This option is fully automated and can be used with either Mohr-Coulomb or Hoek-Brown strength
parameters. Slope models can be imported / exported between Slide and Phase2 allowing easy
comparison of limit equilibrium and finite element results. Phase2 includes steady state, finite
element groundwater seepage analysis built right into the program. There is no need to use a
separate groundwater program. Pore pressure is determined as well as flow and gradient, based on
user defined hydraulic boundary conditions and material conductivity. Pore pressure results are
automatically incorporated into the stress analysis.
Material models for rock and soil include Mohr-Coulomb, Generalized Hoek-Brown and Cam-Clay.
Powerful new analysis features for modeling jointed rock allow you to automatically generate
discrete joint or fracture networks according to a variety of statistical models.

Phase2 is a 2-dimensional elasto-plastic finite element program for calculating stresses and
displacements around underground openings, and can be used to solve a wide range of mining,
geotechnical and civil engineering problems, involving:

Page 334 of 352

 • Excavations in rock or soil
• Multi-stage excavations (up to 300 stages)
• Elastic or plastic materials
• Multiple materials
• Bolt support
• Liner support (shotcrete / concrete / piles / geosynthetics)
• Constant or gravity field stress
• Jointed rock / construction joints
• Plane strain or axisymmetry
• Groundwater (piezo lines, ru values or finite element seepage analysis)
• Finite element slope stability
• And much more…

Phase2 uses Finite Element theory to perform analysis. Following chart represents different methods
using which underground excavations/structures can be analyzed.

Page 335 of 352

User Interface of Modeler

User Interface

User Interface for Interprete

User Interface

Page 336 of 352

Important Inputs required in different types of analysis

Project settings
Boundary conditions

 Plain strain / axisymmetric
Loading
 Stages  Field stress

Boundaries  External load
 Openings
Properties
 External  Materials
 Materials  Support system
 Stages

Excavate and assign material

Mesh

Assign support system

Analyze
 Graded

Interprete
 Mesh modification

Project settings
Loading

 Groundwater-FEM  Ponded water load

Boundaries  External load, if any
 External
Properties
 Materials  Hydraulic properties

Mesh  Material properties
 Uniform
Analyze
 Mesh modification
Interprete

Boundary conditions

Hydraulic BC

Page 337 of 352


Project settings
Loading
 Strength Reduction  Gravity
 External load, if any

Boundaries
Properties
 External  Material properties
 Materials  Material must not be
purely elastic

Mesh
Define SSR search area, if
 Uniform/Graded needed
 Mesh modification  Analysis->SSR

Analyze

Boundary conditions
Interprete

Page 338 of 352

 
 ‐Manish Rathore
Deputy Director

Page 339 of 352

Page 340 of 352
Roof Wedge Wall Wedge

Page 341 of 352

ƒ Falling or sliding of 
wedges or blocks 
released by intersecting 
discontinuities. 

ƒ This type of failure is 
structurally controlled 
failure, generally occur in 
hard rock

Page 342 of 352

 Design Methods

Empirical Observational Graphical Analytical

Quantitative Finite Element

Closed Form
Finite
Qualitative
Difference Numerical
Boundary
Ground - support
Element Interaction
Hybrid
Element

Page 343 of 352

 Design Methods

Empirical Observational Graphical Analytical

Quantitative Finite Element

Closed Form
Finite
Qualitative
Difference Numerical
Boundary
Ground - support
Element Interaction
Rocscience Unwedge Hybrid
Element

ƒ Unwedge is designed to be a quick, interactive and simple

to use tool for the analysis of the geometry and the
stability of underground wedges

ƒ These wedges are defined by intersecting structural

discontinuities in the rock mass surrounding an
underground excavation.

Page 344 of 352

ƒ Unwedge should be used to analyze wedge failure around
excavations constructed in hard rock,
rock where discontinuities are
persistent.
ƒ It is assumed that displacements take place at the
discontinuities, and that the wedges move as rigid bodies with
no internal deformation or cracking.
ƒ The wedges are tetrahedral in nature, and defined by three
intersecting discontinuities. A maximum of three structural
planes can be analyzed at one time.
time If more than three major
planes are identified for the analysis of the structural data, then
all combinations of these planes should be considered.
ƒ All of the discontinuity surfaces are assumed to be perfectly
planar.

ƒ Discontinuity surfaces are assumed to be persistent,

therefore
th f the
th discontinuities
di ti iti defining
d fi i the
th wedge
d do d nott
terminate within the region where the wedges are
formed. The implication is that no new cracking is required
in the analysis of wedge movement.
ƒ The underground excavation is assumed to have a
constant cross section along its axis.
ƒ The default analysis
y is based upon
p the assumption
p that the
wedges are subjected to gravitational loading only. Effect
of field stress is not taken by default.
ƒ Unwedge always initially calculates the maximum sized
wedges which can form around the excavation.

Page 345 of 352

ƒ Project Settings
ƒ D fi  O
Define Opening Section (Add Opening Section / Import DXF)
i  S ti  (Add O i  S ti  / I t DXF)
ƒ Input Data > Tunnel Axis Orientation , Unit Weight
ƒ Input Data > Joint Orientations
ƒ Input Data > Joint Properties
ƒ Assign Joint Properties
ƒ 3D wedge view
ƒ Wedge Information
ƒ Support Design (Bolts / Shotcrete
pp g ( / // Pressure))
ƒ Iterate Support Design
ƒ Advanced Features: 
ƒ Combination
ƒ Field Stress
ƒ Tunnel Axis Plot 

Thank You

Page 346 of 352

 
 Introduction to Water Hammer And Mass Oscillation (WHAMO)
Manish Rathore
Deputy Director (SM)
Narmada Control Authority, Indore

Introduction

Fluid distribution systems and hydropower plants can be severely damaged by water hammer.
Water hammer defined as the forceful slam that occurs in pipes when a sudden change in fluid
velocity creates a significant change in fluid pressure. Water hammer can destroy hydraulic
machines and cause pipes / penstocks to rupture. Water hammer can be avoided by designing and
operating these systems such that unfavorable changes in water velocity are minimized. The
WHAMO computer program has been developed to assist engineers in mitigating water hammer by
simulating Water Hammer And Mass Oscillation in fluid networks that convey fluids such as water.
Some typical applications for WHAMO include analysis of hydropower plants, pumping facilities, jet
fueling systems and wastewater collection systems. The program determines time varying flow and
head (transients) in a network which may include pipes, valves, pumps, turbines, pump-turbines,
surge tanks, and junctions arranged in any reasonable configuration. Such transients are generated
due to any variation in the operation of a hydraulic machine or valve within the network, or due to
changes in the head or discharge at boundaries of the network. WHAMGR is an associated graphics
program used for creating time history plots from WHAMO simulations.

Objective

The objective of the WHAMO program is to perform dynamic simulation of fluid distribution
networks comprising of components such as pipes, valves, pumps, turbines, pump-turbines, surge
tanks, and junctions. The program calculates time varying flows, pressures, and heads throughout
the network.

The WHAMO Modelling System

It is very important to understand some basics about how WHAMO is structured and how it works.
The complete WHAMO modeling system includes two separate programs interconnected via data

Page 347 of 352

files. These are the main WHAMO simulation program (whamo.exe) and the WHAMGR graphics
package (whamgr.exe). The main WHAMO simulation program may receive input from an ASCII text
file that has been created with any word processor (like notepad, textpad, etc.). The WHAMGR
graphics package reads the output file produced by the WHAMO simulation program and allows the
user to print the output and/or display it to the computer screen. A variety of display options are
available. These will be described later in the manual.

The Main WHAMO Simulation Program

The main WHAMO simulation program uses an implicit finite difference method for calculating time-
varying flows and pressures throughout the network that is being modeled. Numerical techniques
used to approximate partial differential equations such as the water hammer equations can be
generally classified as implicit or explicit. Implicit methods generally require simultaneous solution of
a set of equations while explicit formulations can be solved directly. Explicit methods are
constrained according to system geometry to work at computational time steps which are typically
very small, while the implicit methods are not so constrained. Implicit methods require greater
computational effort per time step because of the necessity of solving simultaneous equations. The
amount of effort required for a simulation can be reduced by varying the length of the time step
during the simulation (which is allowed in WHAMO). Any initial, high frequency water hammer
response in a system should be modeled with short time steps, but in simulations where the water
hammer dissipates and mass oscillation becomes predominant, the time step can be greatly
increased during the simulation with no significant loss of accuracy.

The following basic elements form the program modules:

1. A set of building block subroutines which represent the one-dimensional continuity and
momentum equations for compressible liquid flow in closed conduits.
2. A set of building block routines which represent the head discharge relations across typical
elements such as hydraulic machines, valves, and junctions.
3. A set of input routines which accept a description of the preceding elements and their
interconnection.
4. A set of organizational routines which restructure the input data into a matrix form
representative of the system to be modeled, and a routine for solving the resulting
equations.

Page 348 of 352

 5. A set of computational routines which automatically generate an initial steady-state
condition for the system, consistent with input boundary conditions.
6. A set of output routines which allows the program user to specify the type, amount, and
form of computational results to be produced. Output may be printed in either a tabular or
graphical form, exported to a spreadsheet, or saved as an ASCII text file. Where simulations
are long, time steps short, or the system complex, the program produces a huge amount of
output, therefore the user may select the locations and parameters for which an output
history is desired.

WHAMO follows certain basic steps during a simulation run. These are:
1. Read and check input data — The user's commands and associated data are read in. The
data are processed as necessary and checked for errors.
2. Build system connectivity — The user's specifications of the system structure are
reinterpreted to a form compatible with computation. The resulting system is checked to
insure that it is physically reasonable.
3. Display input data and system structure — All data input as well as the system structure and
other information determined by the program are printed in tabular form. This allows easy
verification of the input data by the user.
4. Steady state generation — An initial, steady state condition compatible with the specified
boundary and operating conditions is determined for the system.
5. Transient simulation — System response to specified transient machine operation or
boundary condition is simulated. Computational difficulties are monitored by the program's
self-checking algorithms.
6. Output — The simulation results are printed or stored for later processing according to the
user's instructions.

The WHAMO program considers a hydraulic system as constructed of a number of individual

components of various types, interconnected in a particular network configuration. This information
is supplied to the program by the user through a input data file. The model further requires
specification of system boundary conditions and operating conditions for the simulation period.
These data are interpreted and processed by the program and computations are performed to
simulate the transient state hydraulics of the system.

Page 349 of 352

WHAMO system elements

The basic physical elements considered by WHAMO fall into four main categories:
• Flow elements
• Turbomachines
• Boundary elements
• Junctions.

Altogether, nearly 20 specific element types are available to the user for construction of a system.
For each element type, the model employs special forms of mathematical equations to represent
the hydraulics of a given component. These equations are utilized in pairs, one based on the
continuity principle and one based on the momentum (or energy) conservation principle as applied
to a particular element. When the user specifies an element of a particular type, he must designate a
name by which it can be referenced and supply data on the properties which are relevant to the
hydraulics or mechanics of that element. For example, the length, diameter, roughness, and celerity
of a conduit must be specified. Simply stated, enough data must be supplied for an element that
continuity and momentum equations can be written under all conditions to be simulated.

Main elements used typically for transient analysis are as follows:

1. Flow elements: Conduits, variable diameter conduits, dummy elements, control valves, etc.
2. Boundary elements: Reservoirs, surge tanks, flow boundaries, etc.
3. Junctions

Why use WHAMO?

WHAMO is used to run transient analysis in water conductor system (WCS). By running transient
analysis, we get very accurate results in terms of velocity, discharge, pressure, HGL, etc. at different
points in WCS and how these parameters change with respect to time. This data is then used to
design the structures like tunnel lining, steel liner, thrust collars, bifurcation pieces. Transient
analysis is also performed to work out dimensions of surge tanks.

Installing and running WHAMO

WHAMO is free to download from internet. The software contains one binary executable file. There
is no need to install it on pc, and it can be simply run by running the executable file. Input file is
programmed in any text editor (like notepad, textpad, notepad++, etc.) and then the path of input

Page 350 of 352

file is given when prompted by WHAMO.exe. After running the program, an output file is created in
text format.

Programming a system in WHAMO

The input file has to be created in text format. General format of input file looks as follows:

SYSTEM
 SYSTEM command is used to define entire water conductor system. It includes creation of
nodes (like intermediate nodes, junctions, etc.), creation of ELEMENTS between nodes (like
conduits, valves, etc.) and creation of ELEMENTS at nodes (like reservoir, surge tank, turbine,
etc.)
 Second step in SYSTEM is to define ELEMENT properties. All properties of all elements
defined in above steps are defined in this step.

SCHEDULE
 This command is used to define SCHEDULE properties. This is generally used to define the
time variation of flow at boundary conditions (like at turbines)

HISTORY, PLOT, SNAPSHOT
 These commands are used to define output request. HISTORY is used to get history of a
particular parameter at a particular point for the entire time of simulation in specified time
step.

DTCOMP, DTOUT, TMAX
 These commands are used to define computational parameters. DTCOMP is the command
to specify the time interval for computation purpose. DTOUT is used to specify the time
interval for output. DTMAX is used to specify the maximum time for which analysis is to be
performed.

Page 351 of 352

Sample WHAMO input file
RESERVOIR DEFENITION
SYSTEM
EL HW AT 1

EL C1 LINK 1 2
EL C1 LINK 2 3 HEAD RACE TUNNEL DEFINITION
EL C1 LINK 3 4

JUNC AT 4 JUNCTION DEFENITION

EL D1 LINK 4 5 SURGE TANK AND ORIFICE DEFINITION
EL ST AT 5

EL C2 LINK 4 6
EL C3 LINK 6 7 PRESSURE SHAFT
EL C4 LINK 7 8

EL FB1 AT 8 BOUNDARY CONDITION DEFENITION

NODE 1 ELEV 5614
NODE 2 ELEV 5614
NODE 3 ELEV 5614
NODE 4 ELEV 5614
NODE 5 ELEV 5614 KNOWN NODE ELEVATIONS
NODE 6 ELEV 5614

NODE 7 ELEV 4993

NODE 8 ELEV 4993
CONDUIT
FINISH RESERVOIR PARAMETERS PARAMETERS
RESERVOIR ID HW ELEV 5787 FINISH

CONDUIT ID C1 LENGTH 4702.6 NUMSEG 35 DIAM 34.12 FRICT 0.0100 CELER 4700 FINISH
CONDUIT ID C2 LENGTH 164.00 NUMSEG 10 DIAM 17.06 FRICT 0.0100 CELER 3700 FINISH
CONDUIT ID C3 LENGTH 620.00 NUMSEG 10 DIAM 17.06 FRICT 0.0100 CELER 3700 FINISH
CONDUIT ID C4 LENGTH 392.00 NUMSEG 10 DIAM 17.06 FRICT 0.0100 CELER 3700 FINISH
CONDUIT ID D1 DUMMY DIAM 19.222 ADDEDLOSS CPLUS 1.234 CMINUS 1.234 FINISH

FLOWBC ID FB1 QSCHEDULE 1 FINISH

SURGETANK ID ST DIAM 103.67 ELTOP 5971.0 ELBOTT 5614.0 FRICT 0.0085 CELER 4700
FINISH
SURGE TANK PARAMETERS
SCHEDULE
QSCHEDULE 1
TIME 0.0 Q 14601 FLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
TIME 10.0 Q 0.0
TIME 2000.0 Q 0.0
FINISH

PLOT ELEM ST ELEV NODE 5 PRESSURE HEAD NODE 3 Q FINISH

OUTPUT REQUEST
HISTORY ELEM ST ELEV NODE 5 PRESSURE HEAD NODE 3 Q FINISH

CONTROL
DTCOMP 0.2 DTOUT 0.2 TMAX 100.0
DTCOMP 1.0 DTOUT 1.0 TMAX 2000.0 CONTROL PARAMETERS
FINISH

GO
GOODBYE

Page 352 of 352

 रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी
पुणे ि थत रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी, के द्रीय जल आयोग की एक
िविश ट सं था है । जल संसाधन क्षेत्र से जड
ु े रा य तथा के द्र
सरकार म िविवध तर पर कायर्रत अिभयंताओं के प्रिशक्षण के क्षेत्र
म रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी एक “उ कृ ट के द्र” के प म कायर् कर
रही है । रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी जल संसाधन के िवकास एवं प्रब धन
के क्षेत्र म अ प एवं म यम अविध के पा यक्रम के िनयिमत
आयोजन के साथ-साथ के द्रीय जल अिभयंत्रण (वगर् ‘क’) सेवा के
अंतगर्त चयिनत अिधकािरय के िलए ल बी अविध का प्रवेशन
कायर्क्रम भी आयोिजत करता है ।

रा ट्रीय जल अकादमी की वेबसाइट http://nwa.mah.nic.in से इस

संबंध म अिधक जानकारी प्रा त की जा सकती है ।