Q2 : Explain the importance of philosophical and historical foundation in curriculum development in

nation Foundations are the forces that influence the minds of curriculum developers, which affect the
content and structure of the curriculum. These forces are beliefs and orientations as well as conceptions
of learning and the needs of society. Foundation of curriculum is rooted with the foundation of
education THE IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY FOUNDATION IN CURRICULUM Educators, curriculum
makers and teachers must have espoused a philosophy or philosophies that are deemed necessary for
planning, implementing, and evaluating a school curriculum. The philosophy that they have embraced
will help them define the purpose of the school, the important subjects to be taught, the kind of
learning students must have and how they can acquire them, the instructional materials, methods and
strategies to be used, and how students will be evaluated. Likewise, philosophy offers solutions to
problems by helping the administrators, curriculum planners, and teachers make sound decisions. A
person’s philosophy reflects his/her life experiences, social and economic background, common beliefs,
and education. When John Dewey proposed that “education is a way of life”, his philosophy is realized
when put into practice. Now, particularly in the Philippines, Dewey’s philosophy served as anchor to the
country’s educational system. THE IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL FOUNDATION IN CURRICULUMS The
history of one’s country can affect its educational system and the kind of curriculum it has. If we are
going to trace the formal beginning of curriculum, we get back in time to Franklin Bobbit’s book entitled,
“The Curriculum” which was published in 1918. From the time of Bobbit to Tyler, many developments in
the purposes, principles and contents of the curriculum took place. Please read the Six Famous
Curriculum Theorists and their Contributions to Education for more information. Curriculum can be
defined in a variety of ways, one can approach the evaluation and creation of curriculum through more
than one foundational lens: philosophical, historical, psychological, and sociological. All four of these
hold importance in influencing curriculum and instruction. However, it is the philosophical foundation
which holds the greatest importance because it is through one’s philosophical perspectives that the
historical, sociological, and psychological foundations are both perceived and applied. Philosophical
Foundation : The philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of
education, as well as the roles of the various participants. While all foundations propose to set goals of
curriculum, philosophy presents the manner of thinking from which those goals are created. One’s
driving philosophy suggests if education should develop the individual or enforce group norms (Ornstein
& Hunkins, pp. 34-36); if it is to enforce group norms, it further defines if that should be the norms of
the current set or a move towards changing those norms. Philosophies vary in perception of truth,
ranging from absolute to relative, and from moralistic to scientific (34-37). In all of this, one’s philosophy
defines the role of the teacher, ranging from all-knowing authoritarian to that of a mentor, and the role
of the student, ranging from an obedient vacant vessel to an individual worthy of actively engaging in
one’s own educational process. As we look through the lens of history, we see how philosophies have
gained and waned in popularity in society, and how even psychological research is embraced, ignored,
or even rejected based on philosophical standings of the time. Historical Foundation : Exploring the
historical foundations of curriculum can promote a sense of freedom and encourage educational reform.
Reviewing the history of education allows us to step outside of the here and now, gaining a bigger
picture and seeing ourselves within it, realizing that the field of education must remain dynamic in order
to be effective. Throughout history, curricular choices have been made out of necessity and to meet the
specific needs of society at the time. Also, it is through history that we see how predominant
philosophies have defined a society’s values, which in turn determined the current purposes of
education. Through history, we learn that programs are considered pioneering due to the different
philosophies to which others subscribe. In reviewing history, it becomes apparent that this has been the
case throughout the centuries. Ideas can change, and a group can break free of faulty suppositions;
history shows that what is now isn’t necessarily what needs to remain. In history, we see why and how
things came to be, how the demographics of a particular committee can have longreaching impact
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 82), and also that some traditions - such as grading (70) - are relatively new
concepts after all.
(B): Describe in detail the role of physiological foundation in curriculum of Pakistan?

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS IN CURRICULUM OF PAKISTAN By providing a basis for understanding

the teaching/learning process, educational psychology deals with how people learn. By implication, it
emphasizes the need to recognize diversity among learners. However, it is also true that people share
certain common characteristics. Among these are basic psychological needs which are necessary for
individuals to lead a full and happy life. In this section, we shall be talking about the major learning
theories and their contribution to curriculum development. Besides, we shall touch upon the basic
psychological needs of individuals and reflect on their translation into curriculum. We shall at this
juncture remind ourselves that our main thrust will be on the contributions made by the theories of
learning for curriculum development. Therefore make it clear that we are not, right now, interested in
studying the theories of learning in detail, which has classified the major theories of learning into the
following groups: i) Behaviorist theories which deal with various aspects of stimulus- response and
reinforcement scheme; ii) Cognitive theories which view the learner in relationship with the total
environment; and iii) Phenomenology which emphasizes the affective domain of learning. Their
contribution to curriculum development. i) Behaviorism and curriculum The behaviorist school, which
represents traditional psychology, is rooted in a corresponding philosophical speculation about the
nature of learning. It has particularly dominated psychology in the first half of the twentieth century.
After a few decades of being in the wilderness lt has recently gained currency once again with the
advent of individualized education. Without going into the details we shall touch upon the main,
characteristic features of the behaviorist school of thought. Essentially, learning is considered a habit-
formation and teaching is regarded as arranging learning experiences in such a way as to promote
desirable behavior. Further, behaviorism maintains that what is learnt in one situation can be
transferred to other situations as well. Broadly, behaviorists advocate that: behavior is likely to be
influenced by the conditions under which learning takes place; attitudes to and abilities of learning can
change or improve over time through the application of proper stimuli; learning experiences can be
designed and controlled to create desired learning; selective reinforcement is essential; and rote
learning and memorization of knowledge are unnecessary. Because each individual has specific needs
and interests related to his or her self-fulfillment and self-realisations, there can't be a generally
prescribed humanistic curriculum. Humanistic learning may enhance the mental health of the learners,
harmonize personal feelings among students and teachers, and improve various aspects of human
awareness among students, teachers, and curriculum specialists, yet its processes rely mainly on
personal experiences and subjective interpretations that leave them open to criticism. Therefore, there
is a great need to examine and understand what is relevant in humanistic curricula. Please note that
most textbook writers tend to be cognition-oriented. However, one should propose that behaviourist
components are needed for planning and developing a sound curriculum. Further, humanistic
components of teaching and learning must also be incorporated into the curriculum. Let us say,
therefore, that each theory of learning has something significant to contribute towards explaining
various aspects of human behavior and learning. Basic human needs and curriculum Physical well-being
and health are generally recognized and frequently dealt with through various programmes such as
those on fitness, nutrition and health problems. Mental health needs such as those pertaining to
acceptance, belonging, security and status have been widely studied but little emphasized in the area of
curriculum. In this sub-section, we shall touch upon just two points which concern the topic under
consideration: i) Self-actualization; and ii) Developmental tasks. Here, we shall discuss these and draw
inferences as to how each one contributes to the enrichment of a curriculum. i Self-actualization The
notion of self-actualization characterizes individuals’ need for self- fulfillment in life by
actualizing/achieving their own potential. A curriculum should therefore provide learning activities that
allow students to identify themselves with those things they can do well. It should also assist them to
succeed in other activities that are difficult for them. Learners are thus helped to find personal meaning
in the learning experience. Those responsible for curriculum development must pay attention to the
concept of selfactualization. We all recognize the importance of school/college and community based
goals for learners. Self- actualization on the other hand includes satisfying the desire to know and
understand in relation to personal needs and interest. Moreover it has been noticed that when personal
purposes are ignored, learners seem to be less successful in meeting the set goals. If curricular plans
reflect a balance between institutional and personal needs, the impact on both may be substantially
enhanced. ii) Developmental tasks We can define a developmental task as a task which arises in relation
to a certain period in the life of an individual, success in which leads to his/her happiness and to success
in later tasks, while failure in it leads to unhappiness in the individual and difficulties in subsequent
tasks. This fact is regarded as one of the most specific considerations in organizing tasks. The needs of
individuals are governed by the stage of development and age they have reached, and also grow out of
their need to respond to societal expectations. The implication is that educators/curriculum planners
should understand behaviors manifested by a learner indicating her/his readiness and need to deal with
a particular developmental task. As we facilitate the learners' success in these need tasks, their overall
success can be ensured. Further, in developing a curriculum, the development of an environment in
which learners feel genuinely secure should be ensured. When a curriculum develops such an
environment, learning takes place smoothly because the needs of students and what has been provided
by the curriculum are complementary to each other. In our discussion of the psychological foundations,
we dealt with the contribution made by learning theories towards curriculum and also tried to see how
much more effective a curriculum may be framed if we consider the nature of basic human need while
forming it. TRENDS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT To understand contemporary curricular problems
and proposals, it is ideal that we acquaint ourselves with the history of curricular thought and practice
that stretches back to antiquity. However, let us start this section with the assumption that we rarely
find histories that focus exclusively on curriculum and, therefore, turn to an overview of general
histories of education in an effort to get a few glimpses of the history of curriculum. The curriculum field
may be viewed as a formal area of academic inquiry, but as a basic human interest, its concerns are
perennial. Parents and other members of society throughout history have wondered how best to help
their young ones grow and mature. Their response to this problem constitutes an unwritten history of
informal curricular thought and action. As societies became more formal and as institutions developed
within them to meet specialized needs, schools/colleges evolved to help students grow more efficiently,
to introduce them to the ways of their society and to help them acquire an understanding of their
cultural heritage. If we recall the earlier sections, curriculum has always been and continues to be
influenced by educational philosophers, besides societal needs. In the ancient times, though a formal
curriculum (of the shape it has obtained today) did not exist; young people were oriented towards
meeting cultural and social demands. Depending on the influence of educational philosophies, however,
curriculum-content for such orientations varied from one period to the other. Tracing the historical
antecedents of curriculum may give us a framework of its gradual growth. However, for our immediate
purposes we shall restrict ourselves to an overview of the twentieth century curriculum and a
speculation of the possible future trends in curriculum development. Twentieth century curriculum Early
20th century curriculum affirmed the shift in emphasis from sectarian education to liberal education.
Traditionally, curriculum was confined to religion-related orientations and classics. Gradually, more and
more subjects were added to the curriculum. As the focus was on mental discipline, social needs,
student interest or capabilities were given little emphasis. Further, during this period,
compartmentalization and not interdisciplinary subject matter was considered the norm. There was an
unwillingness to recognize the values of arts, music, physical and vocational education. This was based
on the theory that these subjects had little mental or disciplinary value. If we pause for a moment here
and think, we shall realize that even though we offer vocational, industrial and/or technical programmes
now, there is a tendency to consider traditional academic programmes superior to them. Gradually,
demands were made for curricular changes. Industrial development led a growing number of educators
to question changes, as well as the authenticity of the traditional curriculum and its emphasis on mental
discipline. This shift was also influenced by the scientific movement in child psychology (which focused
on the whole child and learning theories in the 1900’s). The argument that classics had no greater
disciplinary or mental value than other subjects eventually appeared and meant that mental discipline
(which emphasized drill and memorization) was no longer considered conducive for the overall growth
and development of children. In essence, societal changes and the emerging demands there from; the
stress on psychology and science; and the concern for social and educational reform made evident the
need for a new curriculum. Thus, the aims of education went hand in hand with the particular type of
society involved: conversely, the society that evolved influenced the aims of education. Thus, the early
twentieth century was a period of educational reform characterized by the following: i) Idea of mental
discipline was replaced by utilitarian modes of thought and scientific inquiry. ii) Curriculum tended not
to be compartmentalized but to be interdisciplinary. iii) Curriculum tended not to be static but dynamic-
changing with the changes in society. iv) Needs and interest of students came to be considered of
primary importance. And now curriculum is viewed as a science with principles and methodology not
just as content or subject matter. Possible future trends Keeping in view the prevalent political,
economic and academic climate, it is not difficult for us to visualize (of course, only to a certain extent)
future trends and the influence they may have on education, particularly on curriculum development.
(However, we should also confess here that such a speculation is fraught with risks that normally go with
it.) Although in this Unit we have been underlining the fact that social changes will have a vital role in
determining a curriculum. If the present day growth of information is any indication the information
flow will increase rapidly in the future. Clearly, the increasing flow of information negates the traditional
notion of content-mastery. Students, therefore, will need to acquire critical thinking, and problem
solving abilities rather than static and/or absolute knowledge and skills of factual recall. Further, in the
21st centuries, the need for change will accelerate. For example, it took us more than one century to
shift from an agricultural society to an industrial one. But it took hardly two decades to shift from an
industrial to an information society. In the main, there will be radical changes in the socio-academic
ecology of school/college environment. Barring a few, if any, schools/colleges have so far been
functioning as bastions of autocracy with little importance given to students' needs and teachers'
competence. Because of the changing societal needs and greater awareness of the need for purpose-
oriented education, the needs of every individual in the school/college will have to be recognized. In
other words, there will be a change in the treatment of students as a homogeneous entity. Rapid growth
in information will result in the emergence, every now and then, of varied curricula for purposes of re-
education and retaining. The number of consumers will obviously be more than the programmes
available. In such a situation, the mode of the teaching/learning process cannot be the one which is
prevalent now, i.e., face-to-face. Obviously, a viable alternative mode is distance education.
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS IN CURRICULUM OF PAKISTAN Curriculum is influenced by psychology.
Psychology provides information about the teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to
how a curriculum be organized in order to achieve students’ learning at the optimum level, and as to
what amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the curriculum. The
following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum development: 1.
BEHAVIORISM Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject
matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The use of drills and
repetition are common. For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and
routine. Though many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it had in our
educational system. 2. COGNITIVISM Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information,
monitor and manage their thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are: How
do learners process and store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions? How
much information can they absorb? With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-
solving and thinking skills and popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive
thinking, discovery learning, among others. 3. HUMANISM Humanism is taken from the theory of
Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory. This group of psychologists is concerned
with the development of human potential. In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the
product; focuses on personal needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings
and environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that learners are
human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment. They are neither machines
nor animals. A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must
be crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well. 4. SOCIOLOGY
AND CURRICULUM There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum
because the school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal institutions that
educate the people, there are other units of society that educate or influence the way people think,
such as families and friends as well as communities. Since the society is dynamic, there are many
developments which are difficult to cope with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and
understand the changes not only in one’s country but in the world as well. Therefore, schools must be
relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address
the diversities of global learners, the explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational
reforms and policies recommended or mandated by the United Nations. However, it is also imperative
that a country must have maintained a curriculum that reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations
for national identity. No matter how far people go, it is the country’s responsibility to ensure that the
school serves its purpose of educating the citizenry. In the main, there will be radical changes in the
socio-academic ecology of school/college environment. Barring a few, if any, schools/colleges have so
far been functioning as bastions of autocracy with little importance given to students' needs and
teachers' competence. Because of the changing societal needs and greater awareness of the need for
purpose-oriented education, the needs of every individual in the school/college will have to be
recognized. In other words, there will be a change in the treatment of students as a homogeneous
entity. Rapid growth in information will result in the emergence, every now and then, of varied curricula
for purposes of re-education and retaining. The number of consumers will obviously be more than the
programmes available. In such a situation, the mode of the teaching/learning process cannot be the one
which is prevalent now, i.e., face-to-face. Obviously, a viable alternative mode is distance education