GEOMATICS MODULE

Yaoundé, June 2013

Unit 5
Geodetic datums
An overview

Vincenzo Sepe
1
 Geodetic datums

Geodetic datums define the size and shape of the Earth and the origin and orientation
of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth.

Hundreds of different datums have been used to frame position descriptions since the
first estimates of the earth's size were made by Aristotle. Datums have evolved from
those describing a spherical earth to ellipsoidal models derived from years of satellite
measurements.

Modern geodetic datums range from flat-earth models used for plane surveying to
complex models used for international applications which completely describe the size,
shape, orientation, gravity field, and angular velocity of the Earth. While cartography,
surveying, navigation, and astronomy all make use of geodetic datums, the science of
geodesy is the central discipline for the topic.

Referencing geodetic coordinates to the wrong datum can result in position errors of
hundreds of meters. Different nations and agencies use different datums as the basis for
coordinate systems used to identify positions in geographic information systems, precise
positioning systems, and navigation systems. The diversity of datums in use today and
the technological advancements that have made possible global positioning
measurements with sub-meter accuracies requires careful datum selection and careful
conversion between coordinates in different datums.
ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 2
The Figure of the Earth
Geodetic datums and the coordinate reference systems based on them were
developed to describe geographic positions for surveying, mapping, and
navigation. Through a long history, the "figure of the earth" was refined from flat-
earth models to spherical models of sufficient accuracy to allow global exploration,
navigation and mapping. True geodetic datums were employed only after the late
1700s when measurements showed that the earth was ellipsoidal in shape.

geoid Reference ellipsoid

The ellipsoid of rotation

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Geometric Earth Models
• Early ideas of the figure of the earth resulted in descriptions of the earth as an oyster
(The Babylonians before 3000 B.C.), a rectangular box, a circular disk, a cylindrical
column, a spherical ball, and a very round pear (Columbus in the last years of his life).

• Flat earth models are still used for plane surveying, over distances short enough so
that earth curvature is insignificant (less than 10 kms).

• Spherical earth models represent the shape of the earth with a sphere of a specified
radius. Spherical earth models are often used for short range navigation (VOR-DME)
and for global distance approximations. Spherical models fail to model the actual shape
of the earth. The slight flattening of the earth at the poles results in about a twenty
kilometer difference at the poles between an average spherical radius and the measured
polar radius of the earth.

•Ellipsoidal earth models are required for accurate range and bearing calculations over
long distances. Loran-C, and GPS navigation receivers use ellipsoidal earth models to
compute position and waypoint information. Ellipsoidal models define an ellipsoid with
an equatorial radius and a polar radius. The best of these models can represent the
shape of the earth over the smoothed, averaged sea-surface to within about one-
hundred meters.
ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 4
Reference Ellipsoids

Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by semi-major (equatorial radius) and flattening
(the relationship between equatorial and polar radii).
Other reference ellipsoid parameters such as semi-minor axis (polar radius) and
eccentricity can computed from these terms

Reference Ellipsoid
Parameters
ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 5
ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 6
 Earth Surfaces
The earth has a highly irregular and constantly changing surface. Models of the surface of the
earth are used in navigation, surveying, and mapping. Topographic and sea-level models
attempt to model the physical variations of the surface, while gravity models and geoids are
used to represent local variations in gravity that change the local definition of a level surface

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 7

 Earth Surfaces

The topographical surface of the Earth is the actual surface of the land and sea at some moment
in time. Aircraft navigators have a interest in maintaining a positive height vector above this surface

Sea level is the average (methods and temporal spans vary) surface of the oceans. Tidal forces
and gravity differences from location to location cause even this smoothed surface to vary over the
globe by hundreds of meters.

Gravity models attempt to describe in detail the variations in the gravity field. The importance of
this effort is related to the idea of leveling. Plane and geodetic surveying uses the idea of a plane
perpendicular to the gravity surface of the earth, the direction perpendicular to a plumb bob pointing
toward the center of mass of the earth. Local variations in gravity, caused by variations in the
earth's core and surface materials, cause this gravity surface to be irregular.

Geoid models attempt to represent the surface of the entire earth over both land and ocean as
though the surface resulted from gravity alone. Bomford described this surface as the surface that
would exist if the sea was admitted under the land portion of the earth by small frictionless
channels.

The WGS-84 Geoid defines geoid heights for the entire earth.

The U. S. National Imagery and Mapping Agency (formerly the Defense Mapping Agency)
publishes a ten by ten degree grid of geoid heights for the WGS-84 geoid.

By using a four point linear interpolation algorithm at the four closest grid points, the geoid height
for any location can be determined ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 8
 meters

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WGS 84 geoid heights.
The National Imagery and Mapping Agency. The 0.25 degree model of the WGS-84
Geoid (1441 by 721 grid points).

Shaded Relief of NIMA 0.25° WGS-84 Geoid

Height Model ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 10
Global Coordinate
Systems

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Coordinate systems
Coordinate systems used to specify locations on the surface of the Earth have been
used for centuries.

In the western countries, the equator, the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and then
lines of latitude and longitude were used to locate positions on the earth. Eastern
cartographers like Phei Hsiu used other rectangular grid systems as early as 270 A. D.

Various units of length and angular distance have been used over history. The meter is
related to both linear and angular distance, having been defined in the late 18th century
as one ten-millionth of the distance from the pole to the equator

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Latitude, Longitude, and Height

The most commonly used coordinate system today is the latitude, longitude, and
height system.

The Prime Meridian and the Equator are the reference planes used to define latitude
and longitude.

Equator and Prime Meridian ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 13

Latitude, Longitude, and Height
The geodetic latitude (there are many other defined latitudes) of a point is the angle from
the equatorial plane to the vertical direction of a line normal to the reference ellipsoid.

The geodetic longitude of a point is the angle between a reference plane and a plane
passing through the point, both planes being perpendicular to the equatorial plane.

The geodetic height at a point is the distance from the reference ellipsoid to the point in
a direction normal to the ellipsoid.

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 14

Earth Centered, Earth Fixed X, Y, and Z

Earth Centered, Earth Fixed Cartesian

coordinates are also used to define three
dimensional positions.

Earth centered, earth-fixed, X, Y, and

Z, Cartesian coordinates (XYZ) define
three dimensional positions with respect
to the center of mass of the reference
ellipsoid.

The Z-axis points toward the North

Pole.

The X-axis is defined by the

intersection of the plane define by the
prime meridian and the equatorial plane. ECEF X, Y, and Z

The Y-axis completes a right handed

orthogonal system by a plane 90° east of
the X-axis and its intersection with the
equator
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Geodetic Datums

Datum Types
Datum types include horizontal, vertical and complete datums.

Datums in Use
Hundreds of geodetic datums are in use around the world.
The Global Positioning system is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84).
Parameters for simple XYZ conversion between many datums and WGS-84 are
published by the Defense mapping Agency.

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Reference Ellipsoids
Ellipsoid Semi-major axis 1/flattening
From
Airy 1830, 6377563.396 299.3249646
NIMA
Modified Airy 6377340.189 299.3249646

Australian National 6378160 298.25

and
Bessel 1841 (Namibia) 6377483.865 299.1528128
MADTRAN
Bessel 1841 6377397.155 299.1528128

Clarke 1866, 6378206.4 294.9786982

Clarke 1880, 6378249.145 293.465

Everest (India 1830)" 6377276.345 300.8017

Everest (Sabah Sarawak) 6377298.556 300.8017

Everest (India 1956) 6377301.243 300.8017

Everest (Malaysia 1969) 6377295.664 300.8017

Everest (Malay. & Sing) 6377304.063 300.8017

Everest (Pakistan) 6377309.613 300.8017

Modified Fischer 1960 6378155 298.3

Helmert 1906 6378200 298.3

Hough 1960 6378270 297

Indonesian 1974 6378160 298.247

International 1924 6378388 297

Krassovsky 1940 6378245 298.3

GRS 80 6378137 298.257222101

South American 1969 6378160 298.25

WGS 72 6378135 298.26

WGS 84 6378137 298.257223563

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 17
 Region of
Datum Ellipsoid dX dY dZ eX eY eZ #S
use
Burkina
Adindan Clarke 1880 -118 -14 218 25 25 25 1
Faso
Cameroon
Adindan Clarke 1880 -134 -2 210 25 25 25 1

Adindan Clarke 1880 -165 -11 206 Ethiopia 3 3 3 8

Adindan Clarke 1880 -123 -20 220 Mali 25 25 25 1
MEAN
FOR
Adindan Clarke 1880 -166 -15 204 5 5 3 22
Ethiopia;
Sudan

Adindan Clarke 1880 -128 -18 224 Senegal 25 25 25 2

Adindan Clarke 1880 -161 -14 205 Sudan 3 5 3 14

Afgooye Krassovsky 1940 -43 -163 45 Somalia 25 25 25 1

Ain el Abd 1970 International 1924 -150 -250 -1 Bahrain 25 25 25 2

Saudi
Ain el Abd 1970 International 1924 -143 -236 7 10 10 10 9
Arabia
American
American Samoa
Clarke 1866 -115 118 426 Samoa 25 25 25 2
1962
Islands
Cocos
Anna 1 Astro 1965 Australian National -491 -22 435 25 25 25 1
Islands

Antigua
Antigua Island Astro
Clarke 1880 -270 13 62 (Leeward 25 25 25 1
1943
Islands)

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 18

 Region
Datum Ellipsoid dX dY dZ eX eY eZ #S
of use
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -153 -5 -292 Burundi 20 20 20 3
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -125 -108 -295 Lesotho 3 3 8 5
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -161 -73 -317 Malawi 9 24 8 6
MEAN
FOR
Botswana
; Lesotho;
Malawi;
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -143 -90 -294 20 33 20 41
Swazilan
d; Zaire;
Zambia;
Zimbabw
e
Swazilan
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -134 -105 -295 15 15 15 4
d
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -169 -19 -278 Zaire 25 25 25 2
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -147 -74 -283 Zambia 21 21 27 5
Zimbabw
Arc 1950 Clarke 1880 -142 -96 -293 5 8 11 10
e
MEAN
FOR
Arc 1960 Clarke 1880 -160 -6 -302 20 20 20 25
Kenya;
Tanzania
Arc 1960 Clarke 1880 -157 -2 -299 Kenya 4 3 3 24
Taanzani
Arc 1960 Clarke 1880 -175 -23 -303 6 9 10 12
a
Ascension Island Ascensio
International 1924 -205 107 53 25 25 25 2
1958 n Island
Astro Beacon E 1945International 1924 145 75 -272 Iwo Jima 25 25 25 1
St Helena
Astro DOS 71/4 International 1924 -320 550 -494 25 25 25 1
Island
Astro Tern Island Tern
International 1924 114 -116 -333 25 25 25 1
(FRIG) 1961 Island

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Astronomical Station Marcus
International 1924 124 -234 -25 25 25 25 1
1952 Island
Australian Geodetic Australia;
Australian National -133 -48 148 3 3 3 105
1966 Tasmania

Australian Geodetic Australia;

Australian National -134 -48 149 2 2 2 90
1984 Tasmania
Ayabelle Lighthouse Clarke 1880 -79 -129 145 Djibouti 25 25 25 1
Efate &
Bellevue (IGN) International 1924 -127 -769 472 Erromang 20 20 20 3
o Islands
Bermuda 1957 Clarke 1866 -73 213 296 Bermuda 20 20 20 3
Guinea-
Bissau International 1924 -173 253 27 25 25 25 2
Bissau
Bogota Observatory International 1924 307 304 -318 Colombia 6 5 6 7
Indonesia
(Bangka
Bukit Rimpah Bessel 1841 -384 664 -48 & -1 -1 -1 0
Belitung
Ids)
Antarctica
(McMurd
Camp Area Astro International 1924 -104 -129 239 -1 -1 -1 0
o Camp
Area)
Campo Inchauspe International 1924 -148 136 90 Argentina 5 5 5 20
Phoenix
Canton Astro 1966 International 1924 298 -304 -375 15 15 15 4
Islands

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Datum Shifts
Coordinate values resulting from interpreting latitude, longitude, and height values based on
one datum as though they were based in another datum can cause position errors in three
dimensions of up to one kilometer

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 21

Datum Conversions
from ECEF XYZ to Latitude, Longitude, and Height

• Datum conversions are

accomplished by various methods.

• Complete datum conversion is

based on seven parameter
transformations that include three
translation parameters, three
rotation parameters and a scale
parameter.

• Simple three parameter

conversion between latitude,
longitude, and height in different
datums can be accomplished by
conversion through Earth-Centered,
Earth Fixed XYZ Cartesian
coordinates in one reference datum
and three origin offsets that
approximate differences in rotation,
translation and scale
ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 22
Datum Conversions

Conversion from

Latitude, Longitude, and

Height

to

ECEF XYZ

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 23

XYZ Three Parameter Datum Conversion

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 The Standard
Molodensky
formulas

The Standard
Molodensky formulas
can be used to convert
latitude, longitude, and
ellipsoid height in one
datum to another datum
if the Delta XYZ
constants for that
conversion are available
and ECEF XYZ
coordinates are not
required.

ENSTP – Unit 5 geomatics: datums 25