UNIT I - AC CIRCUITS AND POWER SYSTEMS

1. Prove that for balanced supply and unbalanced load of 3-phase system,

two wattmeters are sufficient to measure power. [MAY/JUNE’09][NOV/DEC’09]

[MAY/JUNE’11] [NOV/DEC’11][NOV/DEC’13][NOV/DEC’14] [MAY/JUNE’16]
 This method requires only two wattmeters to measure the three phase power
in balanced as well as unbalanced loads.

 are the RMS phase load voltages.

 are the RMS line currents. These currents will lag behind their
respective load voltages by an angle Φ(An inductive load is considered)

From the phasor diagram,

Add the two wattmeter readings W1 and W2,

The sum of two wattmeter readings is equal to the three phase power.

Subtract the two wattmeter readings W1 and W2,

1
2. Show that. From the basic principle,

(i) In a star connected network, line voltage = 3 times the phase

voltage

(ii) In a delta connected network, line current = 3 times the phase

current.

Draw the phasor diagram in each case. [NOV/DEC’11]

Star connected Network:

In star connection, one terminal of each is connected together at a common

point and other three terminals are connected to external load through three
conductors called lines. The common point is called neutral point or star point.

Three phase balanced star connected load:

Consider a balanced system, so that the magnitude of current and voltage of each
phase will be same.

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Relationship between VL& Vph

Consider the line voltage VRY,

From the phasor diagram, the phase angle between VR and –VY is 60°
2 2
VRY  VR  VY  2V RVY cos 60
2 2 1
V RY  V L  V ph  V ph  2V ph V ph 
2
2
V L  3V ph  3 V ph
Power  3 V L I L cos 

Delta connected Network:

In delta connection, the start of one coil is connected to the finish of the
next coil, the result is delta connection. The delta connection gives 3 phase 3 wire

3
supply system. The phases are connected between the line terminals. The voltage
between any two lines is the line voltage.

Three phase balanced delta connected load:

Relationship between IL& Iph

4
Apply KCL at node R,

3. A symmetrical three phase, three wire 400V supply is connected to a delta

connected load. Impedances in each branch are
Z RY  100, Z YB  1045 and Z BR  2.560 . Find its equivalent star
connected load. [MAY/JUNE’14]

Solution:

Z RY  1030   8.66  j 5 
Z YB  1045  7.07  j 7.07 
Z BR  2.560  1.25  j 2.17 
Z RY  Z YB  Z BR  8.66  j 5  7.07  j 7.07  1.25  j 2.17  16.98  j14.24  22.1640 
Z RY Z BR 1030  2.560 2590
ZR     1.12850  0.725  j 0.864 
Z RY  Z YB  Z BR 22.1640 22.1640
Z YB Z RY 1045  1030 10075
ZY     4.5135  3.693  J 2.588 
Z RY  Z YB  Z BR 22.1640 22.1640
Z BR Z YB 2.560  1045 25105
ZB     1.12865  0.476  j1.022 
Z RY  Z YB  Z BR 22.1640 22.1640

4.Draw and explain the structure of electrical power system?(or)Draw a single

line diagram of a typical a.c power supply scheme and explain.[NOV/DEC’04]
[APR/MAY’11][NOV/DEC’11][MAY/JUNE’12][NOV/DEC’13][MAY/JUNE’14]
[NOV/DEC’15][NOV/DEC’16][MAY/JUNE’16][NOV/DEC’17]

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 The flow of electrical power from the generating station to the consumer is
called electrical power system. It consists of the following components, as shown
in fig(a).
 Generation
 Transmission system
 Distribution system
Generation:
The generation of electrical energy is the conversion of one form of energy into
electrical energy. Electrical energy is generated in hydro, thermal and nuclear
power stations. Sometimes, electrical energy is generated from non-renewable
energy sources like wind, waves, and fossil fuels and solar. The generating
voltages are usually 6.6 kV, 10.5 kV, 11 kV, 13.8 kV, 15.75kV
Transmission system:
It supplies only large blocks of power to bulk power station or very big
consumers. It interconnects the neighboring generating station into power pool.
Design of transmission line based on transmission voltage levels, resistance
and reactive of the lines, interference with neighboring circuits, strength of
supports, sag calculations and tension
Primary Transmission:
If the power is transmitted through the transmission line without stepping
up the generated voltage, the line current and power loss would be high. So the
generated voltage is stepped up to higher value by using step up transformer
located in substations known as sending end substations near the generating
station.Fig(a) Single line diagram of power system.

The high voltage transmission lines transmit the power from sending end
substation to receiving end substation.

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 Primary transmission voltages are 110kV or 132 kV or 220 kV or 400 kV or
765 kV. It uses 3 phase, 3 wire system.

Secondary transmission:
At the receiving end substation, the voltage is stepped down into 22 kV or
33 kV or 66 kV using step down transformers. The secondary transmission forms
the link between the receiving end substation and secondary substation. It uses 3
phase, 3 wire system and the conductors used are called as feeders.

Distribution system:
The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers
in an area to the transmission lines is called distribution system. A distribution
station distributes the power distributes the power to domestic and commercial.
Primary distribution:
At the secondary substations, the voltage level is stepped down into 11kV or
6.6kV using step down transformers. The primary distribution forms the link
between the secondary substation and distribution station. Big consumers like
factories and industries; the distributor transfers the power directly. It uses 3
phase, 3 wire system.
Secondary distribution:

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 At the distribution substations, the voltage is stepped down into 400 V (For
three phase) or 230 V (For single phase) using step down transformers. A
distributer is a conductor from which tappings are taken from for supply to the
consumers.
A Service main is generally a small cable which connects the distributer to
the consumer’s terminals. It uses 3 phase, 4 wire system.

5. Explain the connection schemes of distribution system. [NOV/DEC’04]

[NOV/DEC’05] [NOV/DEC’06] [MAY/JUNE’07] [NOV/DEC’07] [NOV/DEC’09]
[DEC’09] [MAY/JUNE’10] [NOV/DEC’10] [MAY/JUNE’12] [NOV/DEC’12]
[NOV/DEC’13][MAY/JUNE’14] [NOV/DEC’14][NOV/DEC’15]
Radial Distribution system:
When the distributor is connected to the substation at one end only with the
help of feeder is called radial distribution system. The feeders, distributors and
service mains are radiating away from the substation are called radial system as
shown in fig (a).
There are combinations of one distributor and one feeder connecting that
distributor to the substation. Distributor 1 is connected only at one end to
substation through a feeder at point A. This system is used for short distances
only.

Advantages:
 The initial cost is low
 Useful when generation is at low voltage.
 Simplest as is fed at only one end.
Disadvantages:
 The end of the distributor nearest to the substation will be heavily loaded.
 The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to
serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
 The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. So
any fault on the feeder cuts off the supply to the consumer.
Ring main distribution system:
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The
loop circuit starts from substation bus –bars, makes a loop through the area to be
served and returns to the substation. The feeder covers the whole area of supply in
the ring method.
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  The feeders of the ring main distribution
system are AB, BC, CD, DE and EA.
 The distributors are connected at A, B, C,
D and E. Each distributor is supplied by
the two feeders and hence the design is
similar to the two feeders in parallel at
different paths.
 If there is any fault on any part of the
feeder, still the consumers will keep on
getting continuous supply.
Advantages:
 Due to load variations, the voltage fluctuation is less at the far end
 Better Reliability
 It gives continuity of supply, when fault occurs at any one of distributor.
 Great saving in copper
Interconnected system:

When the feeder system is energized by

two or more than generating stations or
substations is called interconnected system.
Advantages:

 Better reliability.
 It gives continuity of supply.
 During peak load, any area can be fed from other generating stations.
Therefore reserve power capacity reduces and efficiency increases.

6. Explain the overlapping of protective zones with neat sketch. (May/June

07, Nov/Dec07, May/June 14, Nov/Dec15, May/June16)

A power system contains generators, transformers, busbar, transmission

and distribution lines, etc. There is a separate protective scheme for each piece of
equipment or element of the power, such as generator protection, transformer
protection, transmission line protection, busbar protection, etc. Thus, a power
system is divided into a number of zones for protection. A protective zone covers
one or at the most two elements of a power system.

The protective zone are planned in such a way that the entire power system
is collectively covered by them, and thus, no part of the system is left unprotected.
The various protective zones of a typical power system as shown in fig(a).

9
 As shown in Fig(a). protective zones must overlap each other, failing which a
fault on the boundary of the zones may not lie in any of the zones and hence no
circuit breaker would trip. Thus the overlapping between the adjacent zones is
unavoidable. If a fault occurs in the overlapping zone in a properly protected
scheme, more circuit breakers than the minimum necessary to isolate the faulty
element of the system would trip. A relatively low extent of overlap reduces the
probability of faults in this region and consequently, tripping of too many breakers
does not occur frequently.

The protection provided by the protective relaying equipment can be categorized

into two types as:

 Primary Protection
 Backup Protection:

Primary Protection:

There is a suitable protective scheme for each zone. If a fault occurs in a

particular zone, it is the duty of the primary relays of that zone to isolate the faulty
element. The primary relay is the first line of defence.If due to any reason, the
primary relay fails to operate, and there is a back-up protective scheme to clear
the fault as a second line defence.

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 The causes of failures of a protective scheme may be due to:

 Failure in circuit breaker

 Failure in protective relay
 Failure in tripping circuit
 Failure in d.c tripping circuit
 Loss of voltage or current supply to the relay
When the primary protection is made inoperative for the maintenance purpose, the
backup protection acts like a main protection.

Backup Protection:

Backup Protection is the second line of defense in case of failure of the

primary protection.

It is designed to operate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying

will be given enough time to function if it is able to. Thus referring above figure,
relay A provides back-up protection for each of the four lines. If a line fault is not
cleared by its relay and breaker, the relay A on the group breaker will operate after
a definite time delay and clear the entire group of lines. It is evident that when
back-up relaying functions, a larger part is disconnected than when primary
relaying functions correctly. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the
better maintenance of primary relaying.

7. Explain in detail about the protection scheme.

A protective scheme is used to protect an equipment or a section of the line.

It includes one or more relays of the same or different types. The following are the
most common protective schemes which are usually used for the protection of a
modern power system.

i) Over current protection

ii) Distance protection
iii) Carrier –current protection
iv) Differential protection
Over current protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of distribution lines, large
motors, equipment, etc. It includes one or more over current relays. An over
current relay operates when the current exceeds its pick-up value.

Distance protection

Distance protection is used for the protection of transmission or sub –

transmission lines, usually 33kv, 66kv, and 132kv lines. It includes a number of
distance relays of the same or different types. A distance relay measures the
distance between the relay location and the point of fault in terms of impedance,
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reactance, etc. The relay operates if the point of faults in terms of impedance,
reactance, etc. The relay operates if the point of fault lies within the protected
section of the line. There are various kinds of distance relays. The important types
are impedance, reactance and mho type. An impedance relay measures the line
impedance between the fault point and relay location. A reactance relay measures
reactance, and a mho relay measures a component of admittance.

Carrier –current protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of EHV and UHV lines,
generally 132kv and above.

A carrier signal in the range of 50-500kc/s is generated for the purpose.

A transmitter and receiver are installed at each end of a transmission line to be
protected. Information regarding the direction of the fault current is transmitted
from one end of the line section to the other. Depending on the information, relays
placed at each and trip if the fault lines within their protected section. Relays do
not trip in case of external faults. The relays are of distance type and their tripping
operation is controlled by carrier signal.

Differential protection

This scheme of protection is used for the protection of generators,

transformers, motors of very large size, bus zone, etc.C.T’s are placed on both
sides of each winding of a machine. The outputs of their secondaries are applied to
the relay coils. The relay compares the current entering a machines winding and
leaving the same. Under normal conditions or during any external fault, the
current entering the winding is equal to the current leaving the winding. But in
the case of an internal fault on the winding, these are not equal. This difference in
the current actuates the relay. Thus the relay operates for internal faults and
remains inoperative under normal conditions or during external faults. In case of
bus zone protection, C.T’s are placed on the both sides 9of the bus bar.

8. Explain in detail about the Power Factor Improvement

Electrical Power Factor

In general power is the capacity to do work. In electrical domain, electrical

power is the amount of electrical energy that can be transferred to some other
form (heat, light etc) per unit time. Mathematically it is the product of voltage drop
across the element and current flowing through it.

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 Considering first the DC circuits, having only DC voltage sources, the
inductors and capacitors behave as short circuit and open circuit respectively in
steady state. Hence the entire circuit behaves as resistive circuit and the entire
electrical power is dissipated in the form of heat.

Here the voltage and current are in same phase and the total electrical
power is given by

Now coming to AC circuit, here both inductor and capacitor offer certain
amount of impedance given by,
The inductor stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy and
capacitor stores electrical energy in the form of electrostatic energy. Neither of
them dissipates it. Further there is a phase shift between voltage and current.
Hence when we consider the entire circuit consisting of resistor, inductor and
capacitor, there exists some phase difference between the source voltage and
current. The cosine of this phase difference is called electrical power factor.
This factor (-1 < cosφ < 1 ) represents the fraction of total power that is used to do
theusefulwork.

The other fraction of electrical power is stored in the form of magnetic

energy or electrostatic energy in inductor and capacitor respectively.
The total power in this case is,

This is called apparent power and its unit is VA (Volt Amp) and denoted by
‘S’.
A fraction of this total electrical power which actually does our useful work is
called as active power. It is denoted as ‘P’.

P = Active power = Total electrical power.cosφ and its unit is watt.

The other fraction of power is called reactive power. This does no useful work, but
it is required for the active work to be done. It is denoted by ‘Q’ and
mathematicallyisgivenby,

Q = Reactive power = Total electrical power.sinφ and its unit is VAR (Volt
Amp Reactive).

This reactive power oscillates between source and load.

13
To help understand this better all these power are represented in the form of

triangle.

Mathematically, S2 = P2 + Q2 and electrical power factor is active power /

apparent power.

Power Factor Improvement

The term power factor comes into picture in AC circuits only. Mathematically it is
cosine of the phase difference between source voltage and current. It refers to the
fraction of total power (apparent power) which is utilized to do the useful work
called active power.

Cosφ=active power/reactive power

Need for Power Factor Improvement

 Real power is given by P = VIcosφ. To transfer a given amount of power at
certain voltage, the electrical current is inversely proportional to cosφ.
Hence higher the pf lower will be the current flowing. A small current flow
requires less cross sectional area of conductor and thus it saves conductor
and money.
 From above relation we saw having poor power factor increases the current
flowing in conductor and thus copper loss increases. Further large voltage
drop occurs in alternator, electrical transformer and transmission and
distribution lines which gives very poor voltage regulation.

 Further the KVA rating of machines is also reduced by having higher power
factor as,

KVA=KW/ Cosφ

 Hence, the size and cost of machine also reduced. So, electrical power
factor should be maintained close to unity.

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Methods of Power Factor Improvement

 Capacitors:
Improving power factor means reducing the phase difference between
voltage and current. Since majority of loads are of inductive nature, they
require some amount of reactive power for them to function. This reactive
power is provided by the capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to
the load. They act as a source of local reactive power and thus less reactive
power flows through the line. Basically they reduces the phase difference
between the voltage and current.

 SynchronousCondenser:
They are 3 phase synchronous motor with no load attached to its shaft. The
synchronous motor has the characteristics of operating under any power
factor leading, lagging or unity depending upon the excitation.

 For inductive loads, synchronous condenser is connected towards load side

and is overexcited. This makes it behave like a capacitor. It draws the
lagging current from the supply or supplies the reactive power.

 PhaseAdvancer:
This is an ac exciter mainly used to improve pf of induction motor. They are
mounted on shaft of the motor and is connected in the rotor circuit of the
motor. It improves the power factor by providing the exciting ampere turns
to produce required flux at slip frequency. Further if ampere turns are
increased, it can be made to operate at leading power factor.

9. Give the relation between Vph AND VL, IPh and IL for a star circuit.
STAR CONNECTION:

In this kind of interconnection, the starting ends or finishing ends (Similar

ends) of three coils are connected together to form the neutral point. Or Star
Connection is obtained by connecting together similar ends of the three coils,
either “Starting” or “finishing”. The other ends are joined to the line wires. The
common point is called the neutral or Star Point, which is represented by N. Star
Connection is also called Three Phase 4 wires (3-Phase, 4-Wires) system.

If a balance symmetrical load is connected across three phase voltage

system in parallel, then the three currents will flow in neutral wire which
quantities would be same, but they would be differ by 120° (out of phase), hence
the vector sum of these three currents = 0.

15
The voltage between any two terminals or Voltage between Line and Neutral (Star
Point) is called Phase voltage or Star voltage. And the voltage between two Lines is
called Line to Line Voltage or Line Voltage.

The Diagonal line which divides the parallelogram into two parts, showing the
value of VRY. The angle between VY and VR vectors is 60°.
Hence, if VR = VY = VB = VPH, thenVL = √3 VPH or VL = √3 EPH
 Line voltages are 120° apart from each other
 Line voltages are 30° leading from the corresponding phase voltages

 The angle Ф between line currents and respective line voltages are (30°+Ф),
i.e. each line current is lagging (30°+Ф) from the corresponding line voltage.

therefore, the value of line current is same as in Phase windings to which the line
is connected. i.e.;
 Current in Line 1 = IR
 Current in Line 2 = IY

 Current in Line 3 = IB

16
Since, the flowing currents in all three lines are same, and the individual current
in each line is equal to the corresponding phase current, therefore; I R = IY = IB = IPH
…. The phase current
Line Current = Phase Current IL = IPH

Total active or true power in a three phase AC system;

Total True or Active Power = 3 Phase Power Or P = 3 x VPH x IPH x CosФ

In this system of interconnection, the starting ends of the three phases or coils are
connected to the finishing ends of the coil. Or the starting end of the first coil is
connected to the finishing end of the second coil and so on (for all three coils) and
it looks like a closed mesh or circuit as shown in fig (1).
In more clear words, all three coils are connected in series to form a close mesh or
circuit. Three wires are taken out from three junctions and the all outgoing
currents from junction assumed to be positive.

10. What is meant by tariff? What are the types of tariff? [April/May – 2007]
The tariff is the rate at which the electrical energy is sold. There are various
types of tariffs followed in the market. This post will give the brief idea about
different tariff types.

Tariff – Introduction:

Electrical energy produced by the power system is delivered to a large no

customers. The tariff becomes the attention for the electric supply company. The
company has to ensure that the tariff such that it not only recovers total cost of
producing electrical energy but also earns profit on the capital investment.

Tariff types:

1. Simple tariff
2. Flat rate tariff
3. Block rate tariff
4. Two part tariff
5. Maximum demand tariff
6. power factor tariff
7. Three part tariff
Simple Tariff:

Definition: When there is a fixed rate per unit of energy consumed, it is known
as simple tariff (Uniform Rate Tariff).

 This is the most simplest of all tariff.

 In this type, the price charged per unit is constant.

17
  It means, the price will not vary with increase or decrease in number of
units used.
Disadvantages:

 The cost per unit delivered is high.

 There is no discrimination among various types of consumers.
Flat Rate Tariff:

Definition: When different types of consumers are charged at different uniform

per unit rates, it is said to be Flat rate Tariff.

 In this type, the consumers are grouped into different classes.

 Each class is charged at different uniform rate.
 The different classes of consumers may be taken into account of their
diversity and load factors.
 Since this type of tariff varies according to the way of supply used, separate
meters are required for lighting load, power load etc.

Block rate tariff:

When a given block of energy is charged at a specified rate and the succeeding
blocks of energy are charged at progressively reduced rates is called as block rate
tariff.

 In this type, the energy consumption is divided into many blocks and price
per unit is fixed in each block.
Two Part tariff:

When the rate of electrical energy is charged on the basis of maximum demand
of the consumer and the units consumed it is called two-part tariff.

 In this type, the total charge to be made from the consumer is split into two
components.
 ie, fixed charges and running charges.
 The fixed charges depend upon the number of units consumed by the
customer. Thus the consumer is charged at a certain amount per kW of
maximum demand + a certain amount per kWh of energy consumed.
 Total charges = Rs (X x kW + Y x kWh)
 It is easily understood by the consumer.
 It recovers fixed charges which depend upon the maximum demand of the
consumer independent of the units consumed.
Disadvantages

 Consumer has to pay the fixed charges irrespective of the fact whether he
has consumed or not the electrical energy.
 There is always error in assessing the maximum demand of the consumer.

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Maximum demand tariff:

It is similar to two-part tariff. The only difference is the maximum demand of

the consumer is calculated by installing a maximum demand meter at his
premises. This type of tariff is mostly applied to the bulk consumers.

Power factor tariff:

The tariff in which the power factor of the consumers is taken into account
is known as power factor tariff.

Three part Tariff:

When the total charges to be made from the consumer is split into three
parts, fixed charge, semifixed charge and running charge, it is known as three-
part tariff. This type of tariff is applied to big consumers. The principle objection of
this type of tariff is the charges are split into three components (fixed charge,
charge per kW of maximum demand, charge per kWh of energy consumed)

11. Comparison between underground and overhead transmission cables.

Construction:

Underground cables are more expensive to construct since they have to be

electrically insulated and have protection against moisture, corrosion, mechanical
damage and other environmental impacts from the soil. Construction of the cables
is more complicated compared to the overhead cables which are simple to
construct, and do not require insulation and sheathing. The overhead cables have
lesser requirements and cheaper to construct.

Installation:
The installation of overhead lines on poles is easier and straightforward. However,
the underground cables require digging trenches and this may be complicated by
other utility service lines such as water pipes, oil and gas pipelines, sewer lines.
Other complications may arise due to rocks, loose soil and water along the routes,
making them more expensive to install.

Heat dissipation:
Heat dissipation in underground cables is limited by the layers of insulation and
protection such as armoring and sheaths. Most of the heat is therefore retained
near the cable unlike the overhead cables where most of the heat is released to the
surrounding and automatic natural cooling is provided by the air.

Size of Conductors:

19
Underground cables have larger conductor sizes compared to overhead lines for
the same amount of power. This is due to the fact that the overhead lines have a
natural cooling and hence the ability to carry more power without heating up.

Voltage carrying capacity

The overhead lines are better suited to carry higher voltages compared to the
underground cables, which are limited by the expensive construction and limited
heat dissipation. For these reasons, the underground cables are mostly used for
transmitting up to 33KV.

Fault detection and repair

It is easier to detect and repair faults in overhead cables. It is more complicated

and takes more time to locate and repair the underground systems.

Public safety

Underground cables are safer to the public, animals and environment compared to
the overhead lines i.e. there are no issues such as people getting in contact with
fallen lines. The overhead cables can be brought down and human, animal
intervention, weather as well vegetation such as trees.

The underground cables are less impacted by these conditions and not affected by
trees, animals, accidents, wind, storms and other physical interference that may
lead to broken poles and short circuits or cable breakages.

Effect of lightning discharges

Overhead cables are more prone to lightning strikes whereas the underground
cables are not affected by the discharges.

Interference

Overhead lines interfere with communication lines that are in close proximity,
have corona discharge, radio and TV interference which does not happen with the
underground lines.

Voltage drop

There is more voltage drop in the overheads due to the fact that their cables are of
much smaller diameter than underground cables for the same power delivery.

20
Environmental impact

The underground cables have more environmental and health benefits due
reduced noise and better vegetation management. In addition, they have less
transmission losses, reduced damage and accidents such as wildlife
electrocutions.

UNIT II

TRANSFORMER

1. Discuss in detail the constructional details, principle of operation of a

transformer.[NOV/DEC’06] [NOV/DEC’07][APR/MAY’08][NOV/DEC’09]
[NOV/DEC’11] [MAY/JUNE’13] [NOV/DEC’17]

Transformer is static device, which transforms the electrical power from one
circuit to another circuit without changing the frequency. It operates on the
principle of mutual induction.

Construction of a transformer

The main components of a transformer are,

 The magnetic core

 Primary and secondary windings
 Insulation of windings
 Conservator
 Transformer tank
 Buchholz relay
 Silica gel breather
 Bushings

Magnetic core:

21
  Magnetic core consists of an iron core. The transformer core is generally
laminated and is made out of a good magnetic material like silicon steel.
 The thickness of laminations or stampings varies from 0.35 mm to 0.5 mm.
The laminations are insulated from each other by coating thin coat of
varnish.Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at joints.
For this generally 'L' shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used.
 The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is
further divided into two parts. The vertical position on which coils are
wound is called limb while the top and bottom horizontal portion is called
yoke of the core.

i. Core type transformer

In core-type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are placed

around the limbs of the transformer core. It has two limbs for two windings and is
made up of two L type stampings. The windings are made in cylindrical form and
are placed around the core limbs. First, the low-voltage winding is placed around
the limbs. Over the low-voltage windings are placed the high-voltage windings.

ii. Shell type transformer

In shell-type transformer, the primary and secondary windings are placed

on the central limb of the transformer core. The high voltage winding is placed
between two low voltage windings.

22
 The core is made up of E and I stampings. It has two parallel paths of
magnetic flux.

Primary and secondary windings:

The two windings of the transformer are called as primary and secondary
windings. Generally it is made up of copper.

Insulation:

Paper is still used as the basic conductor insulation. Enamel insulation is

used as the inter turn insulation of low voltage transformer and enameled copper
with paper insulation is used in power transformers.

The oil is used in the transformer protects the paper from dirt and moisture
and removes the heat produced the heat in the core and coils. It also acts as an
insulating medium.

Expansion tank or conservator:

A small auxiliary tank may be connected above the transformer and

connected to main tank by pipe. Its function to keep the transformer tank full of
oil despite of expansion or contraction of the oil with changes in the temperature.

Temperature and oil gauge:

Temperature gauge is used to indicate hot oil or hot spot temperature and
oil gauge is used indicate the oil level present in the tank.

Buchholz relay:

This relay is used to indicate the presence of bubbles in the oil. It is a gas
operated relay gives alarm for minor faults and disconnect the transformer from
supply for major faults.

Breather:

It is used to prevent the entry of moisture inside the transformer tank. It is

filled with calcium chloride or silica gel. Silica gel absorbs the moisture and allows
dry air into tank.

Bushings:

Bushing are fixed in the transformer tank. Connections from the

transformer are brought out by bushings. Porcelain insulators can be used upto
33 kV and above 33 kV capacitor and oil filled type bushings are used.

23
Working principle of a transformer:

       The principle of mutual induction states that when tow coils are inductively
coupled and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced
in the other coil. This e.m.f can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to
it. It consists of low inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked
through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual inductance.
       One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in
which electrical energy is fed with the help of source called primary winding (P).
The other winding is connected to load.
The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.This
winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N 1number of
turns while the secondary winding has N2 number of turns.
        When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an
alternating current. This current produces an alternating flux (Φ)which completes
its path through common magnetic. Thus an alternating, flux links with the
secondary winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an
electromagnetic induction, mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the
secondary winding. If now load is connected to the secondary winding, this e.m.f.
drives a current through it.
       Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an
electrical energy gets transferred from primary to the secondary.
2.Derive the E.M.F equation of the transformer?[NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’10]
[NOV/DEC’10] [APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’13][NOV/DEC’14] [APR/MAY’17]
[NOV/DEC’17]

24
Let

N1= Number of primary turns

N2= Number of secondary turns

 m = Maximum value of flux in the core in wb

Bm= Maximum value of flux density in the core in wb/m2

A = Area of the core in m2

f= frequency of the ac supply in Hz

V1= Supply voltage across primary in volts

V2= Terminal voltage across secondary in volts

I1=Full load primary current in amperes

I2= Full load secondary current in amperes

E1=EMF induced in the primary in volts

E2=EMF induced in the secondary in volts

The applied voltage is alternating in nature, so the flux established is also

an alternating in nature. The flux attained its maximum value in one quarter of
1
T
f

the cycle. (T/4). Average rate of change of flux 

m
1
 4 f m wb / sec

4f

If we assume single turn coil, the value of induced emf/ turn=

4 f m volts
R.M .S Value
Form factor   1.11
Average Value
R.M .S Value  Form factor  Average Value
R.M .S Value of induced emf per turn  1.11 4 f m  4.44 f m volts
R.M .S Value of induced emf in the entire primary winding  E1  4.44 f m  N 1 volts
E1  4.44 f Bm A  N1 volts
R.M .S Value of induced emf in the entire sec ondary winding  E2  4.44 f m  N 2 volts
E2  4.44 f Bm A  N 2 volt

Transformation ratio

25
Fo r an id e al tran sfo rmer
V1  E1 , V2  E 2 , V1 I 1

V2 I E 2 I
 1
; 
V1 I 2 E1 I
E 2 N
 2

E1 N 1

E 2 N I
 2
 1

E1 N 1 I 2

3. With necessary vector diagrams, discuss about transformer on no-load and

loaded conditions.[NOV/DEC’06] [MAY/JUNE’07] [NOV/DEC’09]
[NOV/DEC’12] [APR/MAY’17]

Ideal transformer on no load:

Consider an ideal
transformer on no load i.e.,
secondary is open-circuited as
shown in Fig. Under such
conditions, the primary is simply a coil ofpure inductance. When an alternating
voltage V1 is applied to the primary, itdraws a small magnetizing current I m which
lags behind the applied voltage by90°.
This alternating current Improduces an alternating flux which
isproportional to and in phase with it. The alternating flux links both thewindings
and induces e.m.f. E1 in the primary and e.m.f. E2 in the secondary.The primary
e.m.f. E1 is, at every instant, equal to and in opposition to V 1(Lenz’s law). Both
e.m.f.s E1 and E2 lag behind flux by 90°.
However, their magnitudes depend upon the number of primary and
secondaryturns.
The figure shows the phasor diagram of an ideal
transformer on no load.Since flux fis common to both
the windings, it has been taken as the referencephasor.
The primary e.m.f. E1 and secondary e.m.f. E2 lagbehind
the flux f by 90°. Note that E1 and E2 are in phase. But
E1 is equal to V1and 180° out of phase with it.
Practical transformer on no load:

26
 Consider a practical transformer on no load i.e., secondary on open-circuit.
The primary will draw a small current I0 to supply (i) theiron losses and (ii) a very
small amount of copper loss in the primary. Hence theprimary no load current I 0 is
not 90° behind the applied voltage V 1 but lags it byan angle  0 < 90° as shown in
the phasor diagram.
No load input power, W0 = V1 I0cos  0

The no-load primary current I0 can be resolved into two rectangular components
viz.
(i) The component IW in phase with the applied voltage V1. This is knownas active
or working or iron loss component and supplies the iron lossand a very small
primary copper loss.
Iw  I 0 cos  0
The reactive or wattles or magnetizing component Im lagging behind V1 by 90° .It is
this component which produces themutual flux f in the core.
Im  or  I   I 0 sin  0
2 2
I0  Iw  I
Iw
No load power factor cos  0 
I0
Practical transformer on load:

When the transformer secondary winding is connected to a load, the

secondary current I2 is flowing through the load. The phase angle between the V 2
and I2 depends on type of load.
Resistive load: I2 in phase withV2
Inductive load: I2lags withV2
Capacitive load: I2leads withV2

This fig shows the transformer under no

load condition, Here the primary draws no load
current Io. This Io sets up flux  .

This fig shows the transformer under load

condition, the current I2produces the flux  2 . This

flux 2 opposes the no load flux  and

decreases the no load flux. Due to this induced emf

E1 is reduced and V1 dominates over E1 and
additional current I2’ flows through primary. This

27
current is called load component of primary current. This current is in antiphase

with I2.I2’ establishes a flux 2 ' .

This flux 2 ' is equal in magnitude and


opposite direction of  2 . Hence  2 and

2 ' can

cel each other.

Vector diagram on load

Case (i). Negligible resistances and reactances

Practical transformer with the assumption that resistances andleakage

reactances of the windings are negligible. With this assumption, V 2 = E2and V1 =


E1. Let us take the usual case of inductive load which causes thesecondary

current I2 to lag the secondary voltage V2by . The total

2
primarycurrent I1 must meet two requirements viz.
(a) It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the iron losses in thetransformer
and to provide flux in the core.
(b) It must supply a current I' 0 to counteract the demagnetizing effect ofsecondary
currently I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be such that:
N1I'2 = N2I2

28
 N2
I '2  I2
N1 Note that I'2 is 180° out of phase with I2.
I ' 2  KI 2

Phasor diagrams

Case (ii). Transformer with resistances and reactances

Practical transformer having winding resistances and leakagereactances.

These are the actual conditions thatexist in a transformer. There is voltage drop
inR1 and X1 so that primary e.m.f. E1 is less thanthe applied voltage V 1. Similarly,


there is voltage drop in R2 and X2 so thatsecondary terminal voltage V 2 is less than
the secondary e.m.f. E2. Let us takethe usual case of inductive load which causes
the secondary current I2 to lagbehind the secondary voltage V 2by
2 . The total primary current I 1 must
meettwo requirements viz.
(a) It must supply the no-load current I0 to meet the iron losses in thetransformer
and to provide flux in the core.
29
(b) It must supply a current I' 2 to counteract the demagnetizing effect ofsecondary
current I2. The magnitude of I'2 will be
N1I'2 = N2I2
N 2
I '2  I 2
N1
I '2  KI 2   KI 2

I'2 is 180° out of phase with I2.

The total primary current I1 will be the phasor sum of I'2 and I0.
I1 = I'2 + I0 where I'2 = -KI2
V1 = -E1 + I1 (R1 + jX1) where I1 = I0 + (-KI2)
= -E1 + I1Z1

V2 = E2 - I2(R2 + jX2)
= E2 - I2Z2

Phasor diagrams

Unity p.f Laggingp.f

Leading p.f

30
4. Develop and draw the equivalent circuit of transformer with all its
notations?[NOV/DEC’07] [DEC’08] [NOV/DEC’09] [APR/MAY’10]
[NOV/DEC’10][APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’12][NOV/DEC’14][APR/MAY’15]
[APR/MAY’17]

 Under no load conditions, the primary of a transformer draws no load

current I0. It is mainly used to supply the iron loss and to produce the flux
in the core.
 The effect of iron loss is represented by the non-inductive resistance R0 and
the magnetizing current is represented by X0. Both of them are connected in
parallel with primary winding.
 This circuit is known as exciting branch or no-load branch.

R1, X1 = Primary winding resistance and reactance in Ω

R2, X2 = Secondary winding resistance and reactance in Ω

R0= No load resistance in Ω

X0= No load reactance in Ω

I1= Full load primary current in A

I2= Full load secondary current in A

Io= No load primary current in A

Iw= Working component current in A

31
Iµ= Magnetizing component current in A

E1= Induced emf in primary winding in V

E2= Induced emf in secondary winding in V

K=Transformation ratio

Equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to primary

When secondary parameters are referred to primary, resistances and

reactances are divided by K2, voltages are divided by K and currents are multiplied
by K. This is called the exact equivalent circuit of a transformer.

R2 X2 V1 V1
R2 '  , X 2 ' , R0  , X0  ,
K2 K2 IW I
ZL ZL
ZL ' , V2 '  ,
K2 K2

Approximate equivalent circuit

The no load current I0 is only 1-3% of rated primary current. So I 2’ is

practically equal to I1. Due to this, the equivalent circuit can be simplified by
transferring the exciting branch (R0 and X0) to the left position of the circuit. This
circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit of a transformer.

32
 R01=R1+R2’

X01=X1+X2’

2 2
Z 01  R01  X 01

Equivalent circuit referred to secondary

R02=R2+R1’=R2+R1K2

X02=X2+X1’=X2+X1K2

2 2
Z 02  R02  X 02

33
5. Describe briefly about the open circuit and short circuit test on
transformer.[NOV/DEC’09][APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’11] [NOV/DEC’12]
[MAY/JUNE’13]

Open circuit test:

This test is conducted to determine the iron losses (or core losses) and
parameters R0 and X0 of the transformer. In this test, the rated voltage is applied
to the primary (usually low-voltage winding) while the secondary is left open
circuited.
The applied primary voltage V1 is measured by the voltmeter, the noload
current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by wattmeter. As the normal
rated voltage is applied to the primary,therefore, normal iron losses will occur in
the transformer core. Hence wattmeter will record the iron losses and small copper
loss in the primary.
Since no-load current I0 is very small (usually 2-10 % of rated current). Cu
losses in the primary under no-load condition are negligible as compared with iron
losses. Hence, wattmeter reading practically gives the iron losses in the
transformer. It is reminded that iron losses are the same at all loads.
WO
1. No load power factor Cos  0  
VO  I O
VO  Open circuit voltage in volts
WO  Open circuit power in watts
I O  Open circuit current in Amps
WO V
2.No load magnetzing component reac tan ce X 0   1
I O  Sin0 I
2
WO V V
3.No load magnetzing component resis tan ce R0   1  1
I O  Cos 0 I w WO
WO
4.No load wattful component current  I w  I O Cos0 
V1
5.No load magneti sin g component current  I   I O sin 0 
2 2
IO  I w

Short circuit test:

34
 This test is conducted to determine R01 (or R02), X01 (or X02) and full-load
copper losses of the transformer.
In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-circuited by
a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the primary. The low input
voltage is gradually raised till at voltage VSC, full-load current I1 flows in the
primary.
Then I2 in the secondary also has full-load value since I 1/I2 = N2/N1. Under
such conditions, the copper loss in the windings is the same as that on full load.
There is no output from the transformer under short-circuit conditions. Therefore,
input power is all loss and this loss is almost entirely copper loss. It is because
iron loss in the core is negligibly small since the voltage V SC is very small. Hence,
the wattmeter will practically register the full-load copper losses in the transformer
windings.
V SC
1.Equivalent impedance refered to HV side  Z 02  in 
I SC
W SC
2.Equivalent resi tan ce refered to HV side  R02  in 
I SC 2
3.Equivalent reac tan ce refered to HV side  X 02  Z 0 2 2  R 02 2 in 
V
4.Transforma tion Ratio  K   2
V1
V1  Pr imary voltage in volts
V 2  Secondary voltage in volts
R02
5.Equivalent resis tan ce refered to LV side R 01 
K2
X 02
6 Equivalent reac tan ce refered to LV side X 01 
K2

Efficiency from OC and SC test:

The core loss (Pi) of the transformer can be calculated from open circuit test
and copper loss (Pcu) of the transformer can be calculated from short circuit test.
Now we can find the efficiency of the transformer at any power factor without
loading the transformer.
Full load KVA  p. f
Efficiency 
 Full load KVA  p. f   Pi  Pcu
For any load (n)

Efficiency 
 n  Full load KVA   p. f
 n  Full load KVA  p. f  Pi  n 2 Pcu

6. Explain the voltage regulation of a transformer.

All electrical appliances are designed to operate satisfactorily at constant

voltage. Therefore the transformers from which electric supply is obtained much
maintain their output voltages without variations.

It is the ratio between difference of voltage between no load to full load and
voltage at no load.
Vnoload  Vload
Percentage of voltage regulation (down)   100
Vnoload
Vnoload  Vload
Percentage of voltage regulation (up)  100
Vload

The equivalent resistance and reactance are referred to secondary side

R =R2+R1’=R2+R1K2
02

X =X2+X1’=X2+X1K2
02

35
Lagging power factor load:

OA – Load terminal voltage

AB-Resistive voltage drop

BC – Reactive voltage drop

OC – Input terminal voltage referred to

secondary

V
Primary voltage, 1  I 2 R02  I 2 X 02  V2
K

Consider the right angle triangle OCN,

OC 2  ON 2  NC 2
OC 2   OA  AD  DN    LC  LN 
2 2

2
V1 
   V2  I2R02 cos  I2 X 02 sin    I 2X 02 cos  I 2R02 sin  
2 2

K

The resistive and reactive drops are very small compared to V2, so ignore the last
term which is the square of a differential of very small quantities.
V1
 I2 R02 cos  I2 X 02 sin  V2  V2 '
K
V 'V I R cos  I X sin
% Re gulation  2 2 100  2 02 2 02  100
V2 V2

Similarly the voltage regulation referred to primary side,

I R cos I X sin
% Regulation  1 01 1 01 10
V1

Leading power factor load:

The voltage regulation referred to secondary side,

RI cos  XI sin
% Regulation  2 02 2 02 10
V2
36
Similarly the voltage regulation referred to primary side,

I R cos  I X sin
% Re gulation  1 01 1 01 100
V1

Unity power factor load:

I 1 R01
% Re gulation   100 ( or )
V1
I 1 R02
% Re gulation   100
V2

7. What are the losses in a transformer? Derive

the condition for maximum efficiency.
[MAY/JUNE’07]

In a static transformer, there are no friction and windage losses. The

following losses only occurred in transformer.

Core (or) iron losses:

It includes both hysteresis loss and eddy current loss. Because the core flux
in a transformer remains constants for all loads (1-3% variation from no load full
load). Iron losses can be found from open circuit test of a transformer.

Hysteresis loss, Wh   B1.6 max f V

Eddy current loss, We  PB 2 max f 2 t 2

Hysteresis loss can be minimized by using of high silicon content for the
transformer core. The eddy current loss can be minimized by using thin
laminations of transformer core.

Hysteresis loss depends on

 Frequency
 Volume of the core
 Maximum flux density
Copper losses:
Copper loss due to the ohmic resistance of the transformer windings.
Copper loss is proportional to (current)2 or (kVA)2.

37
 Total copper loss = I12R1+ I22R2= I12R01+ I22R02

Efficiency of a transformer
Output
Efficiency  
Input

: Efficiency  

Efficiency  
Output
Output  Total losses
Input  Total losses

Output
Output  Iron loss  Copper loss

 1
Total losses
Input Input

Condition for maximum Efficiency

Cu los s Wcu  I 1 2 R01 ( o r ) I 2 2 R02
Iro n loss Wi  Hys teresis lo ss  Ed dy cu rrent lo ss  Wh  We
Pr imary inp ut  V1 I 1 co s  1

V1 I 1 co s1  I 1
2 2
I npu t  Loss es R01  Wi I1 R01 Wi
  
  1
V1 cos 1

I npu t V1 I 1 cos 1 V1 I 1 2 cos 
1

Differenti a ting bo th sides with respect to I 1 ,

d R01 Wi
 0  
dI 1 V1 cos 1 V1 I 1
2
co s  1

d
F or  to b e max imu m ,
d I1
 0

R01 Wi

V1 co s1 V1 I 1 2 co s1
2 2
Wi  I1 R01 ( o r ) I 2 R02
Con dition for max ium efficiency ,
C op per loss  I ron lo ss
Wi
The o utpu t current correspo nd in g to max imum efficiency  I 2 
R02

8. Explain the auto transformer.[NOV/DEC’14]

A transformer in which part of the winding is common for both primary and
secondary is known as an auto transformer. The primary is electrically connected
to the secondary as well as magnetically coulpled to it. It is also called as variac.

38
 In the figure, AB is primary winding having N1 turns and BC is secondary
winding having N2 turns. Neglecting the iron losses and no load current.
V2 N1 I1
   K
V1 N2 I2

The current in CB is the vector difference of I2 and I1.

Saving of copper
The weight of copper of any winding depends upon its length and cross -
sectional area. Length of conductor in winding is proportional to its number of
turns and cross - sectional area varies with rated current.

So weight of copper in winding is directly proportional to product of number

of turns and rated current of the winding.

Weight of copper in the section AC proportional to, ( N1  N 2 ) I1

Weight of copper in the section BC proportional to, ( I 2  I1 ) N 2

Total weight of copper in auto transformer proportional to, (N1  N2 ) I1 +

( I 2  I1 ) N 2
39
Weight of copper in ordinary transformer proportional to,

( N1 I1  N 2 I 2 )
Weight of copp er in auto trans forme r (Wa)

Weigh t of co pperin auto tra ns for mer (Wo)
( N1  N 2 ) I 1  N 2 ( I 2  I 1 ) (N 1  2 N 2 ) I1  N 2 I 2
 
N1 I 1  N 2 I 2 N 1I 1  N 2 I 2
( N1  2N 2 ) I 1 N2I 2 N 1  2N 2 I N1 I
  2 2 2
N 2 I1 N 2 I1 N2 I1 N2 I1
  
N1 I1 N2I 2 N1 I N1 I
  2  2
N 2 I1 N 2 I1 N2 I1 N2 I1
N2 I1
Trans fo rmation r atio    K
N I
1 2

1 1 2 2  2K
2  2 2 (1  K )
K K  K  K   (1  K )
1 1 2 2K K

K K K
Weight of copp er in auto trans forme r (Wa)  (1  K )
Weigh t of co pperin auto tra ns for mer (Wo)
Weigh t of copper in a uto tr ansform er (Wa )  (1  K )  Weig ht of copp er in auto trans for mer (Wo)
Saving in copp er  Wo  Wa  Wo  (1  K ) Wo  K Wo
Saving in copp er  K  Weight o f copperin or dina ry tr ans fo mer

Advantages:
Its efficiency is more when compared with the conventional one.
 Its size is relatively very smaller.
 Voltage regulation of autotransformer is much better.
 Lower cost
 Low requirements of excitation current.
 Less copper is used in its design and construction
 In conventional transformer the voltage step up or step down value is fixed
while in autotransformer, we can vary the output voltage as per
out requirements and can smoothly increase or decrease its value as per our
requirement.
Disadvantages:
 If the ratio of transformation K differs from unity, the economic advantages
of auto transformer over two winding transformer decrease.
 The short circuit current in an auto transformer is higher than that in two
winding transformer.
Applications:
 Used in both Synchronous motors and induction motors.
 Used in electrical apparatus testing labs since the voltage can be smoothly
and continuously varied.

9. Explain in detail about per unit value systems.

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of actual value in
any unit and the base or reference value in the same unit. Any quantity is
converted into per unit quantity by dividing the numeral value by the chosen base
value of the same dimension. The per unit value are dimensionless.

The base values can be selected arbitrarily. It is usual to assume the base values
as given below

 Base voltage = rated voltage of the machine

40
  Base current = rated current of the machine

 Base impedance = base voltage /base current

 Base power = base voltage x base current

Firstly the value of base power and the base voltage is selected, and their choice
automatically fixes the other base values.
As

Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in equation (2) we get

Putting the value of base current from the equation (1) in the equation (3) we get

41
Now,

Putting the value of base impedance from the equation (4) in the equation (5) we
will get the value of impedance per unit

Advantages of Per Unit System

There are mainly two advantages of using the Per Unit System.

 The parameters of the rotating electrical machines and the transformer lies
roughly in the same range of numerical values irrespective of their ratings if
expressed in per unit system of their ratings.
 It relieves the analyst of the need to refer circuit quantities to one or other
side of the transformer, making the calculations easy.

10. Write short notes on transformer nameplate details.

Following are the minimum information and Data which to be shown on a

transformer name plate.The standards require the following information and data
for transformers rated above 500 kVA Suppose 1000kVA = 1MVA.
• Name of manufacturer
• Serial number
• year of manufacture
• Number of phases
• kVA or MVA rating

42
• Frequency
• Voltage ratings.
• Tap voltages.
• Connection diagram.
• Cooling class
• Rated temperature in °C
• Polarity (for Single Phase Transformers)
• Phasor or vector diagram (For Polyphase or Three Phase Transformers)
• % impedance.
• Approximate mass or weight of the transformer
• Type of insulating liquid.
• Conductor material of each winding.
• Oil volume (of each transformer Container/Compartment)
• Instruction for Installation and Operation.
11.Explain the construction and working of a 3 phase transformers.(JUNE
2012)
Three-phase transformer

 In a three-phase system, the voltage is lowered or raised either by a bank

of three single phase transformers or by one 3-phase transformers.
 In either case, the windings may be connected in Y-Y, ∆-∆, Y–∆ or – ∆-Y
 For the same capacity, a 3-phase transformer weight less, occupies less
space and costs about 20% less than a bank of three single phase
transformers. Because of these advantages, 3-phase transformers are in
common use, especially for large power transformation.

 The
three
single
phase
core
type
transformers, each with windings (primary and secondary) on only one
leg, have their unwound legs combined to provide a path for returning
flux.
 The primary & secondary are connected in star or delta.

43
  If primary is energized from a 3-phase supply, the central limb carries
the fluxes produced by the 3 phase primary winding.
 Since the sum of the three primary currents at any instant is zero, the
sum of three fluxes passing through the central limb must also be zero.
 Hence no fluxes exist in the central leg and it may be eliminated.
Phase transformation ratio (K) :

It is the ratio of secondary phase voltage to primary phase voltage and is

denoted by K.

K = Secondary phase voltage / primary phase voltage

12. With proper connection and phasor diagrams describe the different ways
of connecting three phase transformers.

Three phase transformer connections.

The most common three phase transformer connections are

1. Star / star connection (Y – Y)

2. Delta / Delta connection ( -)

3. Star / Delta connection (Y -)

4. Delta / Star connection ( - Y)

Star / Star connection:

 In this connection both high voltage side and low voltage side of the transformer
are connected in star.
 The ratio between line voltages of H.V. side and L.V. sides is same as the
transformation ratio of each transformer
 For this connection the line voltage on H.V. side will be in phase with
corresponding line voltage on L.V. side.
 Similarly the phase voltage on H.V. side will be in phase with the corresponding
phase voltage on L.V. side.
 If the connection of L.V. side is changed such that a 2, b2, c2 shorted to form
neutral and a1, b1, c1 are left as line terminals then the corresponding phase and
line voltages on H.V. side and L.V. side will be in phase opposition but the
operation does not change.
 This Y – Y connection is suitable for balanced three phase loads.
 If the loads on the 3 phase transformer are unbalanced, neutral of three phase
transformer is to be connected to the neutral of the generator in the generating
station.

44
  So this method is not suitable for 3 phase 3-wire system.
 This method of connection is most economical for small capacity high voltage
transformers because the number because the number of turns / phase and
the amount of insulation required is less.
 Because phase voltage is only 1/3 of line voltage.
Delta / Delta connection:

 In delta-delta connection the primary side and secondary side are connected in
delta.
 The ratio of line voltages of primary and secondary sides is same as the
transformation ratio of each transformer.
 For the connections, the line voltage on primary side will be in phase with the
corresponding line voltage on secondary side.
 Similarly the phase voltage on primary side will be in phase with the
corresponding phase voltage on secondary side.
 If the connections on secondary side are changed as a 1c2, c1b2 and b1a2 then
corresponding line and phase voltages on primary and secondary side will be in
phase opposition.
 In the connection line voltage is equal to phase voltage on both sides.
 Line current is 3 times phase current on both sides.

45
 In delta-delta connected transformers number of turns required in each phase
winding will be high.
 Cross sectional area of the conductor will be less.
 Therefore it is economical to use this type of connection for high capacity low
voltage transformers.
This connection has the following advantages.

1. The voltage waveform is more sinusoidal, we can reduce the effect of harmonics
in the output voltage using this type of connections.

2. We can easily handle unbalanced load with this type of connection.

3. If any one set of windings become disabled the system can continue to operate
in open delta with reduced available capacity.

Star/Delta connection (Y -):

 In star-delta connection the primary windings are connected in star and

secondary windings are connected in delta.
 The neutral of the primary winding is grounded.
 The ratio between the secondary and primary line voltages is 1 / 3 times the
transformation ratio of each transformer.
 There is a 300 phase shift between corresponding primary and secondary line
voltages.
 Similarly there is a 300 phase shift between corresponding primary and
secondary phase voltages.
 This star-delta connection is used in step down transformers at the receiving
end of transmission lines and distribution substations.
 Since the phase voltage in primary side is 1 / 3 times the line voltage the
number of turns and the insulation required are less.
 Therefore cost is reduced.

46
Delta-Star connection:

 In delta-star connection the primary windings are connected in delta and the
secondary windings are connected in star.
 In this connection it is possible to take fourth wire from the grounded neutral
point. Therefore this type of connection is suitable for 3-phase 4-wire
distribution.
 There is a 300 phase shift between the corresponding primary and secondary
line voltages as well as corresponding phase voltages.
 This type of connection is also suitable for step up transformers.
 Since the phase voltage in the secondary side is 1/3 times the line voltage the
insulation required is less.
13. A single phase, 25Hz transformer has 50 primary turns and 600
secondary turns. The cross sectional area of the core is 400 sq.cm. If the
primary of the transformer is connected to 230V supply. Find (i)The
secondary induced emf. (ii)The flux density (peak) in the core.

Solution:

Given,

f = 25Hz N1 = 50 N2 = 600 E1 = 230V A = 400 Sq.cm = 400  10-4 sq.m

(i)The secondary induced emf (E2)

E2 N2

E1 N 1
N2 600
E 2  E1 .  230 *
N1 50

(ii) Maximum value of flux density (Em)

47
 m  0.414wb
m 0.0414
Bm    1.035wb / sq.m
Z 400 * 10  4
Bm  1.035wb / sq.m

14. The no load current of a transformer is 15A at a power factor of 0.2 when
connected to a 460V, 50Hz supply. If the primary winding has 550 turns,
calculate .The magnetizing component of no – load (i)The iron loss (ii)The
maximum value of the flux on the core

Given Data:

The no – load current Io = 15A Power factor = 0.2

V1 = 460V f = 50Hz N1 = 550

Solution:

i. Magnetizing component of no – load current  I 

I = I o sin o = 15  0.98 = 14.7A

ii. Iron loss ( Wo)

Wo = V1R0 cos o = 460  15  0.2 = 1380 W

iii. Maximum value of the flux (  m)

E1 = 4.44 f  m N1

E1 460
 m=   3.77mwb .
4.44fN1 4.44  50  550

UNIT-III

DC MACHINES

48
1. Explain the constructional details of DC generator discuss its working
principle.[MAY/JUNE’07] [NOV/DEC’09] [APR/MAY’10][APR/MAY’11]
[NOV/DEC’10][NOV/DEC’12] [NOV/DEC’17]

Constructional parts of DC generator:

 Magnetic frame or yoke

 Pole cores and pole shoes

 Pole coils or field coils

 Armature core

 Armature windings or
conductors

 Commutator

 Brushes and bearings

Magnetic frame or yoke:

(i).It provides mechanical support for the

poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine. All the parts of the machine are
enclosed within the frame.

(ii).It carries the magnetic flux produced by

the poles.

In small generators, yokes are made up of

cast iron. But for large machines usually cast
steel or rolled steel is employed, which provides sufficient mechanical strength and
have high permeability.

Pole cores and pole shoes:

The field magnet consists of pole cores and pole

shoes.

The pole cores and pole shoes are built with thin
laminations of annealed steel and are held together
using rivets or under hydraulic pressure.

These magnetic poles are fitted to the yoke using screws.

49
An advantage of pole cores built up of laminations is that eddy current losses in
the pole faces are minimized.

Function of pole shoes

They spread out the flux in the air gap and also reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path at its larger cross section.

They support the exciting coils or field coils.

Pole coils or Field coils:

The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper or strip are former
wound for the correct dimensions. Then, the former is removed and wound coil is
put into place over the core.

When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the poles
which produce necessary flux.

Armature:

The armature consists of armature core and armature windings. The

armature core houses the armature conductors or coils. The armature along with
the conductors rotates under the poles and hence the flux produced by the field
magnets is cut by the armature conductors

To reduce the losses in the armature, low hysteresis steel containing a few
percentage of silicon is used in the armature. To minimize the eddy current losses,
the armature core is laminated. The laminations are about 0.4 mm to 0.5 mm
thick.

In small machines, the stampings are directly keyed in the shaft. These
laminations are perforated for air ducts which permits axial flow of air through the
armature for cooling purpose.

The two types of armature windings are lap winding

50
and wave winding.

Lap winding

In lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected to starting end of
the adjacent coil situated in the same pole pitch. It is preferable for low voltage
and high current generators. In this type connections, number of parallel paths
are equal to number of poles.

Wave winding

It is preferable for high voltage and low current generators.. In this

type connections, number of parallel paths are equal to two

Commutator:

The function of commutator is

collection of current from the armature
conductors. It converts the alternating
current induced in the conductors into
unidirectional current in the load circuit. It is
made up of wedge shaped segments or hard drawn copper insulated from each
other by thin layers of mica.

Brushes and bearings:

The brushes are used to collect the current from commutator and it is
usually made of carbon or graphite and are in the shape of rectangular block. The
brushes are used in the brush holders and mounted over brush holder studs.

Ball bearings are usually employed as they

are reliable in light machines. For heavy duty
machines roller bearings are used.

2. Explain the working

principle of DC generator.[APRIL/MAY
17]

51
 T

The DC generator working on the principle of Faraday’s law of

electromagnetic induction principle, whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux,
an emf is induced in the conductor.

Assume the coil to be rotating in clockwise direction. An emf induced in the

conductor is proportional to rate of change of flux linkages.

When the coil at position 1, the flux linked with coil is maximum but rate of
change of flux linkages is minimum.In this position the coil sides AB and CD
perpendicular to flux lines. So it does not cut the flux. So no induced emf in the
coil at the starting position.

As the coil continues to rotating further,

the rate of change of flux linkages increases,
till position 3 is reached   90 .In this
position the coil sides AB and CDparallel to
flux lines. So the flux linked with the coil is
minimum but the rate of change of flux is
linkages is maximum. Therefore maximum
emf is induced in the coil.

In the next quarter revolution

90 to 180 the flux linked with coil gradually
increases but the rate of change of flux
linkages decreases. So the induced emf in the
coil gradually decreases to zero value. During the first half revolution, the
direction of current flow is ABMLCD

52
 In the next quarter revolution 180 to 270 , the variations in the magnitude
similar to the first half revolution. Its value is maximum when coil is in position 7
and minimum when is in position 1. So the direction of current flow is DCLMBA
.Therefore the current in the generator reverses its direction after every half
revolution.

To make the flow of current unidirectional in the external circuit, the slip
rings are replaced by the split rings.

In the first half revolution, the current flows along (ABMLCD), the brush
contact 1 acts as a positive side and the brush contact 2 acts as a negative side. In
the next half revolution, the positions of brush contacts are reversed. So the
current again flows in same direction. This current is called unidirectional current
but not continuous like pure dc current.

3. Derive an emf equation of DC generator.

Let

 = flux/pole in weber

Z = total number of armature conductors

= No.of slots  No.of conductors/slot

P = No.of generator poles

A = No.of parallel paths in armature

N = Armature rotation in revolution per minute (rpm)

E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature

Eg = Generated emf in any one of the parallel paths

d
Average emf generated per conductor  volt
dt

53
Flux cut/conductor in one revolution d  P Wb

N
No.of revolutions/second 
60

60
Time for one revolution, dt  sec ond
N

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

d PN
E.M.F generated/conductor   volt
dt 60

For wave-wound generator

No.of parallel paths A =2

No.of conductors in one path = Z/2

PN Z ZPN
E.M.F generated/path=   volt
60 2 120

For Lap-wound generator

No.of parallel paths A =P

No.of conductors in one path = Z/P

PN Z ZN
E.M.F generated/path=   volt
60 P 60

In general,

ZN P
Generated E.M.F=  volt A=2 for wave winding and A=P for lap winding
60 A

4. Explain the types of DC generators.

Separately excited DC generator

If the field winding is excited by separate DC supply, then the generator is

called separately excited DC generator. The field winding has large number of thin
wire.

54
 Armature current Ia =Load current IL

Terminal voltage V= Eg – IaRa – Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

Generated emfEg= V + IaRa + Vbrush

Electric power developed = EgIa

Power delivered to load = V Ia

Self excited DC generator

If a DC generator field winding is excited from the armature of the generator

itself, then it is called self excited DC generator. It can be classified into three
typed depending upon how the field winding is connected with armature.

Due to residual flux present in the poles, when the armature is rotated a
small emf produced in the armature winding. The small emf produces field current
in the field winding. Then flux per pole increases. The increased flux increases the
induced emf, which further increases the field current. Because of the cumulative
process, generator produces its rated voltage.

 Shunt Generator
 Series Generator
 Compound Generator

Shunt Generator

In a shunt generator, the field

winding is connected in parallel with
the armaturewinding so that terminal
voltage of the generator is applied
across it. The shuntfield winding has
many turns of fine wire having high
resistance. Therefore,only a part of
armature current flows through shunt
field winding and the restflows through
the load.
Armature current Ia
=IL+Ish

55
 Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage V= Eg – Ia Ra – Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

Generated emfEg = V + Ia Ra + Vbrush

Electric power developed = EgIa

Power delivered to load = V IL

Series Generator
In a series wound generator, the field winding is connected in series
witharmature winding so that whole armature current flows through the
fieldwinding as well as the load. Since the field winding carries the whole of load
current, it has a fewturns of thick wire having low resistance. Series generators
are rarely usedexcept for special purposes e.g., as boosters.

Armature current Ia = IL = Ise

Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage V= Eg – Ia Ra – IaRse –Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

Generated emfEg = V + IaRa+IaRse + Vbrush

Electric power developed = EgIa

Power delivered to load = V Ia (or) V IL

Compound Generator

In a compound-wound generator, there are two sets of field windings on

eachpole—one is in series and the other in parallel with the armature. A
compoundwound generator may be:

56
(a) Short Shunt in which only shunt field winding is in parallel with thearmature
winding
(b) Long Shunt in which shunt field winding is in parallel with both seriesfield and
armature winding

Long shunt Compound Generator Short shunt Compound Generator

Long shunt Compound Generator

Armature current Ia = Ise= IL+Ish

Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage V= Eg – Ia Ra – IaRse –Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

Generated emfEg = V + IaRa+IaRse + Vbrush

Electric power developed = EgIa

Power delivered to load = V IL

Short shunt Compound Generator

Armature current Ia = Ise+Ish

V  Ise Rse
Shunt field current Ish =
Rsh

Voltage across shunt field winding = IshRsh=Eg – Ia Ra –Vbrush

=V + IaRa+IseRse + Vbrush–IaRa –Vbrush=V + IseRse

Terminal voltage V= Eg – Ia Ra – IseRse –Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

Generated emfEg = V + IaRa+IseRse + Vbrush

57
 Electric power developed = EgIa

Power delivered to load = V IL

5. Discuss in detail the most important characteristics of DC shunt, series

and compound generators. [MAY/JUNE’07] [NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’08]
[DEC’08] [NOV/DEC’09] [NOV/DEC’10] [APR/MAY’11] [MAY/JUNE’13]

The characteristics of DC generators are

 Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC)
 Internal or Total Characteristics and
 External Characteristics
1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)
Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-
load saturation characteristic. This characteristic shows the relation between
generated emf at no load (E0) and the field current (If) at the given fixed speed. The
O.C.C. curve is just the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all type
of generators. 

2. Internal Or Total Characteristic (E/I a)

The internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-
load generated emf (Eg) and the armature current (Ia). The on-load generated
emfEg is always less than E0 due to armature reaction. Eg can be determined by
subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-
load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below O.C.C. curve.
3. External Characteristic (V/IL)
The external characteristic curve shows the relation between the terminal
voltage (V) and load current (IL). The terminal voltage V is less than generated
emfEg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit. Therefore the external
characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve.
Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

58
 If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, voltage will
remain constant for any load current. Thus the straight line AB represents the no-
load voltage vs load current IL.
Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the armature current Ia
increasing and it will decrease the induced emf E. The inducedemf is less than the
no-load voltage. The curve AC is called internal characteristics or total
characteristics and it represents the generated emfEg vs. load current I L.
The increasing armature current or load current, the induced emf again
decreases due to armature resistance. The curve AD is called external
characteristics or voltage regulation curve and it represents the terminal voltage
VL.vs. load current IL..
Characteristics of DC shunt Generator
Load characteristics:

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, voltage will

remain constant for any load current. Thus the straight line AB represents the no-
load voltage vs load current IL.
Due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the armature current Ia
increasing and it will decrease the induced emf E. The induced emf is less than
the no-load voltage. The curve AC is called internal characteristics or total
characteristics and it represents the generated emfEg vs. load current I L.
The increasing armature current or load current, the induced emf again
decreases due to armature resistance. The curve AD is called external

59
characteristics or voltage regulation curve and it represents the terminal voltage
VL.vs. load current IL..
Characteristics of DC series Generator
The curve AB shows the open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because,
in DC series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and
load. Hence, here load current is similar to field current. The curve OC represents
internal
characteristics. The drop is
due to armature reaction.The
curve OD represents
external
characteristics. The drop is
due armature and field
resistance.

Characteristics of DC series compound Generator:

Flat compound generator:

If series winding is adjusted so that, terminal voltage remains constant even

the load current is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded

Over compound generator:

60
 If series winding is adjusted so that, increase in load current causes
increase in terminal voltage then the generator is called to be over compounded.

Under compound generator:

If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required
to be flat compounded, then the generator is called to be under compounded

6. Explain the working principle of DC motor.

Motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a mechanical force. The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left
hand rule andmagnitude is given by;
F = BIlnewtons

Where

B = magnetic field intensity in wb/m2

I = Current in amperes

l = Length of the conductor in metres

Basically, there is no constructional difference between a d.c. motor and a d.c.

generator. The same d.c. machine can be run as a generator or motor.

Whenever a current carrying conductor is

placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a force
tending to move it. The magnetic field between two
magnets is shown in fig.
If a current carrying conductor is placed
between two magnetic poles, both the fields will be
distorted.
Above the conductor, the field is weakened
(less flux) and below the conductor, the field is
strengthened. Therefore the conductor tends to
move upwards. The force exerted upwards
depends upon the intensity of the main field flux
and a magnitude of current.

If the field below the conductor is weakened and field

above the conductor is strengthened, then the conductor tends to move
downwards.

61
7. Explain the types of DC motors with neat diagram.[APRIL/MAY 2017]

DC Shunt Motor:

The field winding is connected in parallel with

the armature. The current through the shunt field
winding is not the same as the armature current.

Shunt field windings are large number of

turns of wire having high resistance. Therefore,
shunt field current is relatively small compared with
the armature current.

Load current IL= Ia +Ish

Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage V= Eb+Ia Ra+Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

In shunt motor, flux produced by field winding is proportional to the field

current. Here the voltage is constant and also the flux is constant. So the shunt
motor is called constant speed or constant flux motor.

DC Series Motor:

The field winding is connected in series

with the armature .Therefore, series field
winding carries the armature current. Since
the current passing through a series field
winding is the same as the armature current,
series field windings must be designedwith
much fewer turns than shunt field windings.
Therefore, a series field winding has a
relatively small number of turns ofthick wire
and, therefore, will possess a low resistance.
Armature current Ia = IL = Ise

62
 Terminal voltage V= Eb+Ia Ra+IaRse+ Vbrush

Generally Vbrush is neglected because of very low value.

In this motor, the flux is directly proportional to armature current.

DC compound motor: Long shunt compound motor:

When the shunt winding is so connected that it

shunts the series combination of armature and
series field is called long-shunt connection
Armature current Ia = Ise= IL+Ish

Shunt field current Ish = V/Rsh

Terminal voltage V= Eb+Ia Ra+IaRse+ Vbrush

Short shunt compound motor:

When the shunt field winding is directly

connected across the armature terminals is called
short-shunt connection.
Armature current Ia = Ise+Ish

Shunt field current Ish =

V  Ise Rse
Rsh

Voltage across shunt field winding =

IshRsh=Eb+IaRa+Vbrush

Terminal voltage V= Eb+IaRa+ILRse+ Vbrush

Compound motors again classified into two types

 Cumulative compound motor

 Differential compound motor

Cumulative compound motor

In this type motor, the two field fluxes aid

each other. The flux due to the series winding
strengthens the flux due to the shunt field
winding.

63
Differential compound motor

In this type motor, the two field fluxes

opposite each other. The flux due to the series
winding weakens the flux due to the shunt field
winding.

8. Derive the torque equation for DC motor.

Torque is called twisting or turning force about an

axis. Torque is measured by the product of force
and radius at force which acts.

Consider r = radius of the wheel in metres

F= Circumferential Force in Newton

The force F cause the wheel to rotate at N rpm.

The angular velocity of the wheel is

2N
 rad / sec
60

Torque T = F × r N-m

Work done per revolution =F × distance moved = F× 2πr joules

Power developed,

Work done F  2 r F  2 r 2 N
P     F  r  T  watts
time time for 1 revolution 60 60
N
 N 60 
 rpm  60, rps  , time for 1 revolution  
 60 N 

The torque developed by a DC motor is obtained by looking at the electrical

power supplied to it and mechanical power produced it. It is also called armature
torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature E b Ia.

Power in the armature  Armature torque  

2N ZPN
E b I a  Ta  Eb I a  Ia
60 60  A
ZPN 2N
I a  Ta 
60  A 60
 Z P Ia PZ
Ta   0.159 I a N m
2  A A

64
This is called torque equation of a DC motor. The torque of the DC motor is
directly proportional to the product of flux and armature current.

Shaft torque (Tsh):

The torque developed by the armature is called

armature torque. It is denoted Ta. The full armature
torque is not available for doing useful work. Some
amount of torque is used for applying iron and
friction losses in the motor. This torque is called lost
torque. It is denoted by T f. The remaining torque is
available in the shaft. This torque is known as shaft
torque or useful torque. The armature torque is the
sum of the shaft torque and lost torque.

Ta = Tf+Tsh

The output power of the motor is,

Pout  Tsh  2N

Pout 60 Pout Pout
Tsh     9.55 N m
2N 2 N N
60

9. Explain the characteristics of DC motors. [APRIL/MAY 17][NOV/DEC’17]

The characteristic curves of DC motors are

 Speed – Armature current characteristics
 Torque – Armature current characteristics
 Speed – Torque characteristics
Characteristics of DC Shunt Motors:
Speed – Armature current characteristics
 V  IaRa 
N  K   , The flux Φ is assumed to be constant,
  
so N α Eb. But, back emf is also almost constant, the
speed remains constant. But practically, Φ as well as
Eb decreases wit h increase in load. But, the Eb
decreases slightly more than Φ, and hence the speed
decreases slightly. Generally, the speed decreases by 5
to 15% of full load speed only. And hence, a shunt
motor can be assumed as a constant speed motor.
Torque – Armature current characteristics

65
 It is also called as electrical characteristics. The torque is directly
proportional to armature current and flux. T   Ia .
 Is constant, T  Ia
When the armature current increases, the torque also increases. The dotted
line indicated as a shaft torque.
Speed – Torque characteristics
It is also called mechanical characteristics. It can be
drawn from the above characteristics. When the load
torque increases, the speed is slightly decreases.

Characteristics of DC Series Motors:

Speed – Armature current characteristics
 V  IaRa 
N  K  
  
 V  IaRa 
N  K     Ia
 Ia 
Eb
N
Ia
The flux depends on the field current Ise which is same as the line current, the
flus is not constant with loads. From the above equation, if the armature current
increases, the speed will decrease.
Torque – Armature current characteristics
T   Ia
In DC series motor the torque is directly proportional
to armature current
  Ia
T  Ia 2 before saturetion .S
T  Ia after saturation
At light load, the armature current is small and hence the flux small. But the
armature current increases, the torque increases as the square of the current.
So this characteristics is a parabola. After saturation, the flux is constant. So the
curve becomes straight line.
Speed – Torque characteristics
This characteristic is also called as mechanical characteristic. From the above
two characteristics of DC series motor, it can be found that when speed is high,
torque is low and vice versa.

66
Characteristics of DC Compound Motors:
DC compound motors have both series as well as shunt windings. In a
compound motor series and shunt windings are connected such that series flux is
in direction with shunt flux then the motor is said to be cumulatively
compounded. And if series flux is opposite direction as that of the shunt flux, then
the motor is said to be differentially compounded.
Speed – Armature current characteristics

Torque – Armature current characteristics

Speed – Torque characteristics

10. Explain the speed control of DC motors.

Speed control of DC shunt motor
 V  IaRa 
The speed of the DC motor is N  K  
  
The following methods of speed control methods are
possible in DC motors.
 By varying the resistance in the armature circuit (Rheostaic control)
 By varying the flux in the field winding (Flux control)
 By varying the applied voltage (Voltage control)
By varying the resistance in the armature circuit

67
  A variable resistor Rc is connected in series with the armature circuit. The
speed of the DC motor can be controlled by varying the resistor Rc.
 V  Ia ( Ra  Rc) 
 So the speed of the DC motor equation becomes N  K  
  
 By increasing the controller resistance Rc, the potential drop across the
armature is decreased. Therefore the speed of motor will also decreases.
 This method of speed control is applicable only for less than normal speed
(base speed). By increasing the armature resistance the speed of the motor
can be decreased.
Advantages:
 Simple method of speed control
Disadvantages:
 A large amount of power is wasted in the controller resistance
 The output and efficiency of the motor are reduced
 It results poor speed regulation

By varying the flux in the field winding

1
 The speed of the DC motor is N    , the speed of the DC motor is
  
inversely proportional to flux in field winding.
 By varying the flux, the motor speed can be varied. The flux of the DC motor
can be changed by changing the field current. It is obtained by variable
resistance is connected in series with field winding.
 By varying the field circuit resistance, the shunt field current can be
decreased. So the motor speed can be increased by decreasing the field flux.

68
  This method of speed control can be used for increasing the speed of the
motor above its rated speed.
Advantages:
 The speed control is independent on load machine
 This is an easy, convenient and inexpensive method
Disadvantages:
 There is limit to obtain the maximum speed by this method
 Only speeds higher than the normal speed can be obtained
Ward-Leonard control system:
In this method, M1  is the main motor whose speed control is required. The
field winding of this motor is permanently connected to d.c. supply whereas
armature is supplied with variable voltage so that motor can run at any desired
speed. To provide this variable voltage, motor generator set is used. It consists of
either a.c. or d.c. motor directly coupled to a generator. This motor runs at an
approximately constant speed.
       The output of generator G is fed to motor M 1. The field circuit of this
generator is separately excited from the available d.c. supply through a reversing
switch and a potential divider so that its excitation can be varied from zero to
maximum value. By reversing the direction of the field current of G with the help
of reversing switch, polarity of the generated voltage will be reversed and thus
change in direction of motor M1 also will be achieved.
         

Advantages:
 Forward and reverse speed can be achieved
 A wide range of speed control is possible
 Short time over load capacity is large.
Disadvantages:
 High initial cost
 The overall efficiency is low
 The drive produces noise
 It requires frequent maintenance

69
Speed control of DC series motor
Armature resistance control method

In this method, a variable resistanceis directly connected in series withthe

supply. This reducesthe voltage available across thearmature and hence the speed
falls.By changing the value of variableresistance, any speed below thenormal
speed can be obtained. Thisis the most common methodemployed to control the
speed of d.c. series motors.
Although this method haspoor speed regulation, this has no significance for
series motors because they areused in varying speed applications. The loss of
power in the series resistance formany applications of series motors is not too
serious.

Flux control method

Field diverter
In this method, a variable resistance
(called field diverter) is connected in parallel
with series field winding .Its effect is to shunt
some portion of the line current from the series
field winding, thus weakening the field and
increasing the speed.
The lowest speed obtainable is that
corresponding to zero current in the diverter (i.e., diverter is open). Obviously, the
lowest speed obtainable is the normal speed of the motor. Consequently, this
method can only provide speeds above the normal speed. The series field diverter
method is often employed in traction work.

Armature diverter
In order to obtain speeds below the
normal speed, a variable resistance (called
armature diverter) is connected in parallel
with the armature. The diverter shunts
some of the line current, thus reducing the
armature current. Now for a given load, if Ia
is decreased, the flux f must increase. the

70
motor speed is decreased. By adjusting the armature diverter, any speed lower
than the normal speed can be obtained.

Tapped field control

In this method, the flux is reduced (and hence
speed is increased) by decreasing the number of
turns of the series field winding.The switch can
short circuit any part of the field winding, thus
decreasing the flux and raising the speed.

With full turns of the field winding, the motor

runs at normal speed and as the field turns are
cut out, speeds higher than normal speed are achieved.

Paralleling the field coils

This method is usually employed in the case of fan motors. By regrouping

the field coils, several fixed speeds can be obtained.
11. Explain the operation of three point starter in dc motor. (NOV-05, 07, 09,
10, 12) (MAY-07, 09, 11, 13, 17)

Construction of 3 Point Starter:

Construction wise a starter is a variable resistance, integrated into number of

sections as shown in the figure beside. The contact points of these sections are
called studs and are shown separately as OFF, 1, 2,3,4,5, RUN. Other than that
there are 3 main points, referred to as
1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)

3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)

from there it gets the name 3 point starter

The construction of 3 point starter in further details reveals that, the point 'L'
is connected to an electromagnet called overload release (OLR) as shown in the
figure. The other end of 'OLR' is connected to the lower end of conducting lever of
starter handle where a spring is also attached with it and the starter handle

71
contains also a soft iron piece housed on it. This handle is free to move to the
other side RUN against the force of the spring. This spring brings back the handle
to its original OFF position under the influence of its own force. Another parallel
path is derived from the stud '1', given to the electromagnet called No Volt Coil
(NVC) which is further connected to terminal 'F'.

The starting resistance at starting is entirely in series with the armature. The OLR
and NVC acts as the two protecting devices of the starter.

Working of Three Point Starter

To start with the handle is in the OFF position when the supply to the DC
motor is switched on. Then handle is slowly moved against the spring force to
make a contact with stud No. 1. At this point, field winding of the shunt or the
compound motor gets supply through the parallel path provided to starting
resistance, through No Voltage Coil.
While entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature. The high
starting armature current thus gets limited as the current equation at this stage
becomes Ia = E/ (Ra+Rst). As the handle is moved further, it goes on making contact
with studs 2, 3, 4 etc., thus gradually cutting off the series resistance from the
armature circuit as the motor gathers speed. Finally when the starter handle is in
'RUN' position, the entire starting resistance is eliminated and the motor runs with
normal speed.
This is because back emf is developed consequently with speed to counter the
supply voltage and reduce the armature current. So the external electrical
resistance is not required anymore, and is removed for optimum operation. The
handle is moved manually from OFF to the RUN position with development of
speed.

72
Working of No Voltage Coil of 3 Point Starter:

The supply to the field winding is derived through no voltage coil. So when
field current flows, the NVC is magnetized. Now when the handle is in the 'RUN'
position, soft iron piece connected to the handle and gets attracted by the
magnetic force produced by NVC, because of flow of electric current through it.
The NVC is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in 'RUN' position
against the force of the spring as long as supply is given to the motor. Thus NVC
holds the handle in the 'RUN' position and hence also called hold on coil.
Now when there is any kind of supply failure, the electric current flow
through NVC is affected and it immediately loses its magnetic property and is
unable to keep the soft iron piece on the handle, attracted. At this point under the
action of the spring force, the handle comes back to OFF position, opening the
circuit and thus switching off the motor.
So due to the combination of NVC and the spring, the starter handle always
comes back to OFF position whenever there is any supply problems. Thus it also
acts as a protective device safeguarding the motor from any kind of abnormality.
Disadvantage

This three point starter is not suitable when we have to control the speed of
the motor by connecting a variable resistance in series with the field winding.
When the speed, the no voltage coil will be de-energized and handle will return the
off position. Due to this disadvantage, four point starters is widely used for
starting shunt and compound motors.

12. Explain the operation of four point starter in dc motor. (MAY-05, 06, 10,
12) (NOV-10, 11)

Construction and Operation of Four Point Starter:

A 4 point starter as the name suggests has 4 main operational points, namely
1. 'L' Line terminal. (Connected to positive of supply.)
2. 'A' Armature terminal. (Connected to the armature winding.)
3. 'F' Field terminal. (Connected to the field winding.)
Like in the case of the 3 point starter, and in addition to it there is
4. A 4th point N. (Connected to the No Voltage Coil)
The remarkable difference in case of a 4 point starter is that the No Voltage
Coil is connected independently across the supply through the fourth terminal
called 'N' in addition to the 'L', 'F' and 'A'. As a direct consequence of that, any
change in the field supply electric current does not bring about any difference in
the performance of the NVC. Thus it must be ensured that no voltage coil always
produce a force which is strong enough to hold the handle in its 'RUN' position,
against force of the spring, under all the operational conditions. Such a electric
current is adjusted through No Voltage Coil with the help of fixed resistance R

73
connected in series with the NVC using fourth point 'N' as shown in the figure
above.

Apart from this above mentioned fact, the 4 point and 3 point starters are
similar in all other ways like possessing is a variable resistance, integrated into
number of sections as shown in the figure above. The contact points of these
sections are called studs and are shown separately as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, RUN, over
which the handle is free to be maneuvered manually to regulate the starting
current with gathering speed.

Considering that supply is given and the handle is taken stud No.1, then
the circuit is complete and line current that starts flowing through the starter. In
this situation we can see that the electric current will be divided into 3 parts,
flowing through 3 different points.
i) 1 part flows through the starting resistance (R 1+ R2+ R3…..) and then to
the armature.
ii) A 2nd part flowing through the field winding F.
iii) And a 3rd part flowing through the no voltage coil in series with the
protective resistance R.
So the point to be noted here is that with this particular arrangement any
change in the shunt field circuit does not bring about any change in the no voltage
coil as the two circuits are independent of each other. This essentially means that
the electromagnet pull subjected upon the soft iron bar of the handle by the no
voltage coil at all points of time should be high enough to keep the handle at its
RUN position, or rather prevent the spring force from restoring the handle at its
original OFF position, irrespective of how the field rheostat is adjusted.
This marks the operational difference between a 4 point starter and a 3 point
starter. As otherwise both are almost similar and are used for limiting the starting
current to a shunt wound DC motor or compound wound DC motor, and thus act
as a protective device.

74
Disadvantages:

The only limitation of the four point starter is , it does not provide high
speed protection to the motor. If under running condition, field gets opened, the
1
field current reduces to zero. But there is some residual flux present and N   the
motor tries to run with dangerously high speed. This is called high speeding
action of the motion. in three point starter as NVC is in series with the field, under
such field failure, NVC releases handle to the OFF position.

But in four point starter NVC is connected directly across the supply and its
current is maintained irrespective of the current through the field winding, hence
it always maintains handle in the RUN position, as long as supply is there. And
thus it does not protect the motor from field failure condition which result into the
high speeding of the motor.

13. Explain the operation of two point starter in dc motor. (NOV-10)

Three point and four point starters are used for D.C. shunt motors. In
case of series motors, field and armature are inserted and hence starting
resistance is inserted in series with the field and armature. Such a starter used to
limit the star4ting current in case of dc series motor is called two point starters.
The basic construction of two point starter is similar to that of three point starter
the fact that is has only two terminal namely line (L) and field F. The terminal is
one end of the series combination of field and the armature winding.

75
 The action of the starter is similar to that of three point starter. The
handle of the starter is in OFF position. When it is moved to on, motor gets the
supply and the entire starting resistance is in series with the armature and field. It
limits the starting current. The current through no volt coil energizes it and when
handle reaches to RUN position, the no volt coil holds the handle by attracting the
soft iron piece on the handle. Hence the no volt coil is also called hold on coil.

The main problem in case of dc series motor is it over speeding action

when the load is less. This can be prevented using two point starters. The no volt
coil is designed in such a way that it holds the handle in RUN positions only when
it carries sufficient current, for which motor can run safely. If there is loss of load
then current drawn by the motor decreases, due to which no volt coil losses its
required magnetism and releases the handle. Under spring force, handle comes
back to OFF position, protecting the motor from over speeding. Similarly if there is
any supply problem such that voltage decreases suddenly conditions.

The overload condition can be prevented using overload magnet increases.

This energizes the magnet up to such an extent that it attracts the lever below it.
When lever is lifted upwards, the triangular piece attached to it touches the two
pints, which are the two ends of no volt coil. Thus no volt coil gets shorted, losing
its magnetism and releasing the handle back to OFF position. This protects the
motor from overloading conditions.

14. Draw and explain the operation of universal motor.

A universal motor is a special type of motor which is designed to run on

either DC or single phase AC supply. These motors are generally series wound
(armature and field winding are in series), and hence produce high starting torque.
That is why, universal motors generally comes built into the device they are
meant to drive. Most of the universal motors are designed to  operate at higher
speeds, exceeding 3500 RPM. They run at lower speed on AC supply than they run
on DC supply of same voltage, due to the reactance voltage drop which is present

76
in AC and not in DC.
There are two basic types of universal motor : (i)compensated type and (ii)
uncompensated type

Construction of Universal motor

Construction of a universal motor is very similar to the construction of a DC

machine. It consists of a stator on which field poles are mounted. Field coils are
wound on the field poles.

However, the whole magnetic path (stator field circuit and also armature) is
laminated. Lamination is necessary to minimize the eddy currents which induce
while operating on AC.

The rotary armature is of wound type having straight or skewed slots and
commutator with brushes resting on it. The commutation on AC is poorer than
that for DC. Because of the current induced in the armature coils. For that reason
brushes used are having high resistance.

Working of universal motor:

A universal motor works on either DC or single phase AC supply. When the

universal motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. When
current flows in the field winding, it produces an electromagnetic field. The same
current also flows from the armature conductors. When a current carrying
conductor is placed in an electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force.
Due to this mechanical force, or torque, the rotor starts to rotate. The direction of

77
this force is given by Fleming's left hand rule.

When fed with AC supply, it still produces unidirectional torque.

Because, armature winding and field winding are connected in series, they are in
same phase. Hence, as polarity of AC changes periodically, the direction of current
in armature and field winding reverses at the same time.
Thus, direction of magnetic field and the direction of armature current reverses in
such a way that the direction of force experienced by armature conductors
remains same. Thus, regardless of AC or DC supply, universal motor works on the
same principle that DC series motor works.

Speed/load characteristics

Speed/load characteristics of a universal motor is similar to that of DC series

motor. The speed of a universal motor is low at full load and very high at no
load. Usually, gears trains are used to get the required speed on required load. The
speed/load characteristics are (for both AC as well as DC supply) are shown in the
figure.

Applications of universal motor

 Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum
cleaners, drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.
 The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders etc.

78
79
80
81
82
 UNIT IV

AC MACHINES

1. With neat sketches explain the construction of three phase slip ring and
squirrel cage induction motors. [APR/MAY’08] [NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’08]
[NOV/DEC’09] [APR/MAY’10] [NOV/DEC’10] [NOV/DEC’12] [NOV/DEC’17]

Parts of Induction motor:

The part i.e. three phase windings, which is stationary called stator.

The part which rotates and is connected to the mechanical load through shaft
called rotor.

Stator:

 The stator has a laminated type of construction made up of stampings

which are 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick. The stampings are slotted in its periphery to
carry the stator winding. The stampings are insulated from each other.
 Such a construction essentially keeps the iron losses to a minimum value.
The number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The
built up core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame.
 The choice of material for the stampings is generally silicon steel, which
minimizes the hysteresis loss. The slots in the periphery of the stator core
carries a three phase winding, connected either in star or delta. This three
phase winding is called stator winding. It is wound for definite number of
poles.
 The choice of number of poles depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic
field required. The radial ducts are provided for the cooling purpose.

83
Rotor:

Squirrel cage rotor:

 The rotor core is cylindrical and slotted on its periphery. The rotor consists
of uninsulated copper or aluminium bars called rotor conductors. The bars
are placed in the slots.
 These bars are permanently shorted at each end with the help of conducting
copper ring called end ring. The bars are usually brazed to the end rings to
provide good mechanical strength.
 The entire structure looks like a cage, forming a closed electrical circuit. So
the rotor is called squirrel cage rotor. This rotor is also called as short
circuited rotor.
 The entire rotor resistance is very small. External resistance cannot be
connected in the rotor circuits. Majority of the induction motors are cage
rotors.

      Fan blades are generally provided at the ends of the rotor core. This circulates
the air through the machine while operation, providing the necessary cooling. The
air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible.

       In this type of rotor, the slots are not arranged parallel to the shaft axis but
are skewed

84
Advantages:
 A magnetic hum i.e. noise gets reduced due to skewing hence skewing
makes the motor operation quitter.
 It makes the rotor operation smooth.
 The stator and rotor teeth may get magnetically locked. Such a tendency of
magnetic locking gets reduced due to skewing.
 It increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor.  

Phase-wound rotor:

 In this type
of construction, rotor winding is exactly similar to the stator. The rotor
carries a three phase star or delta connected, distributed winding, wound
for same number of poles as that of stator. The rotor construction is
laminated and slotted. The slots contain the rotor winding.
 The three ends of three phase winding, available after connecting the
winding in star or delta, are permanently connected to the slip rings. The
slip rings are mounted on the same shaft.
 The slip rings are used to connect external stationary circuit to the internal
rotating circuit. So in this type of rotor, the external resistances can be
added with the help of brushes and slip ring arrangement, in series with
each phase of the rotor winding.

85
2. Explain the working principle of three phase induction motor.
[APR/MAY’05] [NOV/DEC’05] [NOV/DEC’06] [NOV/DEC’07] [NOV/DEC’08]
[NOV/DEC’17]

      Induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

      When a three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding, a
rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude is produced. The speed of this
rotation magnetic field is synchronous speed Ns.
120 f
Ns 
P

Where                      f = supply frequency.

                                p = Number of poles for which stator winding is wound.
       This rotating field produces an effect of rotating poles around a rotor. Let
direction of rotation of this rotating magnetic field is clockwise as shown in the
fig(a)

       Now at this instant rotor is stationary and stator flux R.M.F. is rotating. So
it’s obvious that there exists a relative motion between the R.M.F. and rotor
conductors. Now the R.M.F. gets cut by rotor conductors as R.M.F. sweeps over
rotor conductors.
Whenever conductors cuts the flux, e.m.f. gets induced in it. So e.m.f. gets
induced in the rotor conductors called rotor induced e.m.f. This is electro-

86
magnetic induction. As rotor forms closed circuit, induced e.m.f. circulates current
through rotor called rotor current as shown in the Fig (b)
       Any current carrying conductor produces its own flux. So rotor produces its
flux called rotor flux. For assumed direction of rotor current, the direction of rotor
flux is clockwise as shown in the Fig (c). This direction can be easily determined
using right hand thumb rule.

Now there are two fluxes, one R.M.F. and other rotor flux. Both the fluxes
interact with each as shown in the Fig (d). On left of rotor conductor, two fluxes
cancel each other to produce low flux area. As flux lines act as stretched rubber
band, high flux density area exerts a push on rotor conductor towards low flux
density area. So rotor conductor experience a force from left to right in this case,
as shown in the Fig. 1(d), due to interaction of the two fluxes.
        As all the rotor conductors experience a force, the overall rotor experiences a
torque and starts rotating. So interaction of the two fluxes is very essential for a
motoring action. From the Fig (d), the direction of force experienced is same as
that of rotating magnetic field. Hence rotor starts rotating in the same direction as
that of rotating magnetic field.

 3. Draw and explain the slip torque characteristics of three phase induction
motor.[APR/MAY’05][NOV/DEC’06] [NOV/DEC’07] [NOV/DEC’08]
[APR/MAY’11]     
       The induction motor is located from no load to full load, its speed decreases
hence slip increases. Due to the increased load, motor has to produce more torque
to satisfy load demand.
The behavior of motor can be easily judged by sketching a curve obtained by
plotting torque produced against slip of induction motor.
The curve obtained by plotting torque against slip from s = 1 (at start) to s =
0 (at synchronous speed) is called torque-slip characteristics of the induction
motor.
s E 22 R2
      The torque equation of a three phase induction motor is, T 
R22   sX 2 
2

87
 s R2
The input voltage E2 is constant. So the equation becomes T 
R   sX 2 
2 2
2

It consists of three operating regions.

 Stable operating region
 Unstable operating region
 Normal operating region

Stable operating region:

       In stableregion,'s' is very very small. Due to this, the term (s X 2)2 is so small
as compared to R22 that it can be neglected.
s R2
T s As R2 is constant
R22
       Hence in low slip region torque is directly proportional to slip. So as load
increases, speed decreases, increasing the slip. Hence the graph is straight line in
nature.
       At N = Ns , s = 0 hence T = 0. As no torque is generated at N = N s, motor stops
if it tries to achieve the synchronous speed. Torque increases linearly in this
region, of low slip values.
Unstable operating region: 
       In this region, slip is high i.e. slip value is approaching to 1. Here it can be
assumed that the term R22 is very very small as compared to (sX 2)2. Hence
neglecting from the denominator, we get
s R2 1
T  whereR2and X2 are constants
 sX 2  2
s

88
      So in high slip region torque is inversely proportional to the slip. Hence its
nature is like rectangular hyperbola.
       Now when load increases, load demand increases but speed decreases. As

1
speed decreases, slip increases. In high slip region as T  , torque decreases as
s
slip increases.
       But torque must increases to satisfy the load demand. As torque decreases,
due to extra loading effect, speed further decreases and slip further increases.
1
Again torque decreases as T  hence same load acts as an extra load due
s
to reduction in torque produced. Hence speed further drops. Eventually motor
comes to standstill condition. The motor cannot continue to rotate at any point in
this high slip region. Hence this region is called unstable region of operation.
Normal operating region:

The region AC is called normal operating region. The motor is continuously

operated in this region.

 Starting torque (Tst): The torque at speed is zero and sleep is one is called
starting torque
 Maximum torque (Tm): The torque at which the motor produces at slip
s=sm is called maximum torque.
 Full load torque (TFL): The point C is called full load torque. Normally the
full load torque is less than the maximum torque.

5. Explain the double field revolving theory of single phase induction motor?
[APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’12]

       From the fundamental principle, any alternating quantity can be resolved into
two rotating components which rotate in opposite directions and each having
magnitude as half of the maximum magnitude of the alternating quantity.
       In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an
alternating magnetic field having maximum magnitude of Φ1m.
       According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of
the stator flux, each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux

89
i.e. (Φm/2). Both these components are rotating in opposite directions at the
synchronous speed Ns which is dependent on frequency and stator poles.
       Let Φf  is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while Φ b  is
the backward component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these
two components at any instant gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at
the instant. So resultant of these two is the original stator flux.

        

The Fig shows the stator flux and its two components Φ f  andΦb. At start
both the components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.(a). Thus the
resultant ΦR = 0. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at
start.
After 90o, as shown in the Fig.(b), the two components are rotated in such a
way that both are pointing in the same direction. Hence the resultant Φ R is the
algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components. So Φ R = (Φ1m/2) + (Φ1m/2)
=Φ1m. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at θ = 90o as
shown in the Fig(c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the
original alternating stator flux.
       Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors.
Due to cutting of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current.
The rotor current produces rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component
Φf  to produce a torque in one particular direction say anticlockwise direction.
While rotor flux interacts with backward component Φ b to produce a torque in the
clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise torque is
negative.

90
       At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Each torque tries to rotate the rotor in its own direction.
Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start. And hence the single
phase induction motors are not self-starting.
Torque speed characteristics

       It can be
seen that at
start N = 0 and
at that point
resultant
torque is zero.
So single
phase motors
are not self-starting.
       However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant
average torque increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor
starts rotating in that direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial
torque to rotor externally hence some modifications are done in the construction of
single phase induction motors to make them self-starting.
6. Explain the cross field revolving theory of single phase induction motor?

      

91
 Consider a single phase induction motor with standstill rotor as shown in
the Fig. The stator winding is excited by the single phase a.c. supply. This supply
produces an alternating flux Φs which acts along the axis of the stator winding.
Due to this flux, e.m.f., gets induced in the rotor conductors due to transformer
action. As rotor is closed one, this e.m.f. circulates current through the rotor
conductors. The direction of the rotor current is as shown in the fig. The direction
of rotor current is so as to oppose the cause producing it, which is stator flux Φ s.

       Now Fleming's left hand rule can be used to find the direction of the force
experienced by the rotor conductors. It can be seen that when Φ s acts in upward
direction and increasing positively, the conductors on left experience force from
left to right while conductors on right experience force from right to left. Thus
overall, the force experienced by the rotor is zero. Hence no torque exists on the
rotor and rotor cannot start rotating.
       We have seen that there must exist two fluxes separated by some angle so as
to produce rotating magnetic field.
According to cross field theory, the stator flux can be resolved into two
components which are mutually perpendicular. One acts along axis of the stator
winding and other acts perpendicular to it.
       Assume now that an initial push is given to
the rotor anticlockwise direction. Due to the
rotation, rotor physically cuts the stator flux
and dynamically e.m.f. gets induced in the
rotor. This is called speed e.m.f. or rotational
e.m.f. The direction of such e.m.f. can be
obtained by Flemung's right hand rule and this
e.m.f. in phase with the stator flux Φ s. The
direction of e.m.f. is shown in the Fig. This
e.m.f. us denoted as E2N. This e.m.f. circulates
current through rotor which is I 2N. This current
produces its own flux called rotor flux Φr. This axis of Φr is at 90o to the axis of
stator flux hence this rotor flux is called cross-field.

       Due to very high rotor reactance, the rotor current I2N and Φr lags the
rotational e.m.f. by almost 90o .

92
       Thus Φr is in quadrature with Φs in space and lags Φs by 90o in time phase.
Such two fluxes produce the rotating magnetic field.
       The direction of this rotating magnetic field will be same as the direction of
the initial push given. Thus rotor experiences a torque in the same direction as
that of rotating magnetic field i.e. the direction of initial push. So rotor accelerates
in the anticlockwise direction under the case considered and attains a
subsynchronous speed in the steady state.

7. Explain the principle of operation of a split phase induction motor.

 It consists of two stator windings. One is the main winding or running

winding and another is auxiliary winding or starting winding.
 These two windings axes are placed 90 electrical degrees. The auxiliary
winding has high resistance and low reactance. I a is the current flowing
through the running winding and Isis the current flowing through the
starting winding.
 The auxiliary winding is used only for starting period. When the motor speed
is about 75% of synchronous speed, the auxiliary winding is disconnected
from the circuit.
 This is done by connecting a centrifugal switch in the auxiliary circuit. After
this, motor runs because of main winding only.

93
  Upto 75% of speed, main and auxiliary windings are present in the circuit
and after 75% of the speed is attained, only the main winding is present in
the circuit.
 The starting torque of the motor can be increased by connecting a resistance
in series with the auxiliary winding. Split-phase induction motor is also
called resistance start induction motor.
 It is used for loads that require low or medium starting torque.

Applications (Low or medium starting torque)

 Fans

 Washing machines

 Oil Burners

 Small machine tools

 Centrifugal pumps

 Blowers

Characteristics

 The starting torque is 100% to 250 % of the rated value.

 The breakdown torque is upto 300%
 The of power factor of this motor is 0.5 t0 0.65
 The efficiency of the motor is 55% to 65%
 The power rating of this motor is in the range of 0.5 HP to 1HP

8. Explain the principle of operation of a capacitor start single phase

induction motor.

94
  In this type of motor, a capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary
winding. It is also used to get higher starting torque.
 Single phase supply is applied to the two windings. The starting Ia leads the
line voltage, because of the capacitor present in the auxiliary winding.
 The running current Im lags the line voltage. The phase displacement
between the two currents are approximately equal to 90 degree during
starting winding.

 The auxiliary winding is disconnected from the circuit by centrifugal switch

at 75% of the synchronous speed. The capacitor is used during starting
period only.
 The direction of rotation of the motor can be changed by changing the
connections of one of the windings.

Applications (Used for high starting torque loads)

 Compressors

 Conveyors

 Refrigerator

 Pumps

95
  Air conditioning equipment

 Washing machines

Characteristics

 The starting torque is 250% to 400 % of the rated value.

 The breakdown torque is upto 350%
 The of power factor of this motor is 0.5 t0 0.65
 The efficiency of the motor is 55% to 65%
 The power rating of this motor is in the range of 0.125 HP to 1HP

9. Explain the principle of operation of a capacitor run single phase

induction motor.

 In this motor, a capacitor is permanently connected in series with auxiliary

winding. Here the centrifugal switch is not needed and therefore the cost of
the motor is less.
 The capacitor is in the range of 20-50µF.The capacitor is AC paper oil type.
The starting torque has to be sacrificed because the capacitor chosen is a
compromise between the best starting and running conditions.

Advantages:

 High power factor at full load

 High full load efficiency
 Increased pull out torque
 Low full load line current

Applications:

96
  Fans
 Blowers
 Centrifugal pumps

Characteristics:

 The starting torque is 100% to 200 % of the rated value.

 The breakdown torque is upto 250%
 The of power factor of this motor is 0.75 to 0.9
 The efficiency of the motor is 60% to 70%
 The power rating of this motor is in the range of 0.125 HP to 1HP

10. Explain the operation of capacitor start, capacitor run motor with neat
circuit diagrams and speed-torque characteristics. [NOV/DEC’07]
[APR/MAY’08] [NOV/DEC’10]

 In this motor, two capacitors are used. One capacitor Cs is used for starting
purpose and another capacitor Cr is used for running purpose.
 In this motor, we can get high starting torque, because of two capcitors.
 The value of starting capacitor Cs is large and the value of running cpacitor
Cr is small. The running capacitor Cr is permanently in series with auxilary
winding,
 When the motor speed picks up to 75% of synchronous speed, the
centrifugal switch is opened and the starting capacaitor Cs is disconnected
from the circuit.

97
  The capacitor Cs is used for developing high starting torque and the
capacitor Cr is used to improve the power factor.

Advantages:

 High starting torque

 High efficiency
 High power factor

Applications (Used for low noise and high starting loads):

 Compressors
 Pumps
 Conveyors
 Refrigerators

Characteristics:

 The starting torque is 200% to 300 % of the rated value.

 The breakdown torque is upto 250%
 The of power factor of this motor is 0.75 to 0.9
 The efficiency of the motor is 60% to 70%
 The power rating of this motor is in the range of 0.125 HP to 1HP

11. Explain the principle of operation of a shaded pole single phase induction
motor. [NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’08] [NOV/DEC’09] [NOV/DEC’10]

      This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of
salient poles i.e. projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a
copper band on one of its unequally divided part called shading band.

98
 When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.

       The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces
alternating flux. The waveform of the flux is shown in the fig. The distribution of
this flux in the pole area is greatly influenced by the role of copper shading band.
Consider the three instants say t 1, t2 and t3 during first half cycle of the flux as
shown in the fig.

      

At instant t = t1, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due
to the transformer action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band.
This circulates current through shading band as it is short circuited, producing its
own flux. According to lenz's law, the direction of this current is so as to oppose
the cause i.e. rise in current. Hence shading ring flux is opposing to the main flux.
Hence there is crowding of flux in nonshaded part while weakening of flux in
shaded part. Overall magnetic axis shifts in nonshaded part as shown in the fig.

99
        At instant t = t2, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is
almost zero as flux almost reaches to its maximum value. So dΦ/dt = 0. Hence
there is very little induced e.m.f. in the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux
is also negligible, hardly affecting the distribution of the main flux. Hence the
main flux distribution is uniform and magnetic axis lies at the centre of the pole
face as shown in the fig.
        At the instant t = t3, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of
decrease is high which again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This
circulates current through the ring which produces its own flux. Now direction of
the flux produced by the shaded ring current is so as to oppose the cause which is
decrease in flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux means its direction is same as
that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux in the shaded part
as compared to nonshaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts to the middle
of the shaded part of the pole.
       This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently
this produces an effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from
non shaded part of the pole to the shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor
produces the starting torque is low which is about 40 to 50% of the full load
torque for this type of motor. .

      

100
Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but
this type of motor has a lot of lamination as:
 The starting torque is poor.
 The power factor is very low.
 Due to I2R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
 The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the
additional set of shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing
other, direction can be reversed but the method is complicated and
expensive.
 The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are
usually available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.
Application
        These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor
and low efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, by motors,
advertising displays, film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers,
photo copying machines etc.

12. Discuss the construction and working principle of alternator.

[NOV/DEC’17]

Construction:

Stator:

101
 The stator is a stationary armature. This consists of a core and the slots to
hold the armature winding similar to the armature of a d.c. generator. The stator
core uses a laminated construction. It is built up of special steel stampings
insulated from each other with varnish or paper. The laminated construction is
basically to keep down eddy current losses. Generally choice of material is steel to
keep down hysteresis losses. 
       The entire core is fabricated in a frame made of steel plates. The core has
slots on its periphery for housing the armature conductors. Frame does not carry
any flux and serves as the support to the core. Ventilation is maintained with the
help of holes cast in the frame.
Rotor:
Salient pole type:
       This is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out from
the surface of the rotor.
       The poles are built up of thick
steel laminations. The poles are
bolted to the rotor as shown in the
Fig. The pole face has been given a
specific shape. The field winding is
provided on the pole shoe.
These rotors have large
diameter and small axial length.
The limiting factor for the size of the rotor is the centrifugal force acting on the
rotating member of the machine.
As mechanical strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low
speed alternators ranging from 125 r.p.m. to 500 r.p.m. The prime movers used to
drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines.

The salient poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted together and
are fixed to rotor. The pole faces are provided with slots for damper windings. The
damper windings are used to prevent hunting.

102
 The field coils are placed on the pole pieces and connected in series. The
ends of the field windings are connected to a d.c source through slip rings carrying
brushes and mounted on the shaft of the field armature.
Non salient pole type:
This is also called non-salient type or non-projected pole type or round rotor
construction. The rotor consists of small solid steel cylinder, having number of
slots to accommodate the field coil.
The slots are covered at the top with
the help of steel or manganese wedges.
The unslotted portions of the cylinder
itself act as the poles. The poles are not
projecting out and the surface of the rotor is
smooth which maintains uniform air gap
between stator and the rotor.
These rotors have small diameters and
large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral
speed within limits. The main advantage of this
type is that these are mechanically very strong
and thus preferred for high speed alternators
ranging between 1500 to 3000 r.p.m. Such high
speed alternators are called 'turboalternators'.
The prime movers used to drive such type of rotors are generally steam turbines,
electric motors.
Principle of working:
An alternator operates on the samefundamental principle of
electromagneticinduction as a d.c. generator i.e., when theflux linking a conductor
changes, an e.m.f. isinduced in the conductor. Like a d.c.generator, an alternator
also has an armaturewinding and a field winding. But there is oneimportant
difference between the two. In ad.c. generator, the armature winding is placedon
the rotor in order to provide a way ofconverting alternating voltage generated in
thewinding to a direct voltage at the terminalsthrough the use of a rotating
commutator. Thefield poles are placed on the stationary part ofthe machine. Since
no commutator is required in an alternator, it is usually moreconvenient and

103
advantageous to place the field winding on the rotating part (rotor) and armature
winding on the stationary part (stator).
PN
Frequency of induced emf f 
120
13. Derive the expression for the induced emf of an alternator. Discuss the
effect of winding factor on the induced emf. [NOV/DEC’07] [NOV/DEC’09]
[APR/MAY’10] [APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’17]
Let

 = flux/pole in weber

Z = Number of conductors or coil sides in series/phase

Z = 2T, where T is the number of coils or turns per phase

P = No. of poles

f = Frequency of induced emf in Hz.

m
sin
2
Kd= distribution factor =

m sin
2


KC or KP= pitch factor or coil span factor = cos
2

Kf = form factor = 1.11= if e.m.f is assumed sinusoidal

N = Rotor speed in rpm

For one revolution of the rotor each stator conductor is cut by a flux of P Wb

60
d  P and dt 
N

d P  PN
   volt
Average emf induced per conductor dt 60 60
N

PN 120 f
We know that f  (or ) N 
120 P

Substituting this value of N, we get average emf per conductor

 P 120 f
   2 f volt
60 P

104
If there are Z conductors in series/phase, then

Average e.m.f per phase  2 f Z volts  4 fT volts

R.M.S value of e.m.f per phase  1.11  4 fT volts  4.44 fT volts

The above equation is true only, if the winding is concentrated in one slot.
But practically it is not true, as the winding for each phase under each pole is
distributed and for such cases Kp and Kd must be considered.

Actually available voltage/ phase  4.44 Kp Kd fT volts

If the alternator is star connected, then the line voltage is 3 times the phase
voltage.

14. Explain the method of obtaining the voltage regulation of a synchronous

generator using EMF method. [NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’08] [NOV/DEC’09]
[APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’12]

       The method is also called synchronous impedance method of determining the
regulation.
      The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable of driving the alternator at
its synchronous speed. The armature is connected to the terminals of a switch.
The other terminals of the switch are short circuited through an ammeter.
The voltmeter is connected across the lines to measure the open circuit voltage of
the alternator.
       The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c. supply with rheostat
connected in series. The field excitation i.e. field current can be varied with the
help of this rheostat. The circuit diagram is shown.

105
The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.
1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against
the field current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against
field current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.
Armature resistance:
The armature resistance Ra per phase is determined by using direct current
andthe voltmeter-ammeter method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature
resistance (a.c. resistance) is greater than this value due to skin effect. It is ausual
practice to take the effective resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra = 1.5Rdc).
Open Circuit Test:
i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the
alternator.
ii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit maximum, switch on the d.c. supply.
iii) The T.P.S.T switch in the armature circuit is kept open.
iv)With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from its minimum value to the
rated value. Due to this, flux increasing the induced e.m.f. Hence voltmeter
reading, which is measuring line value of open circuit voltage increases. For
various values of field current, voltmeter readings are observed.
Observation table for open circuit test:

Short Circuit Test:

After completing the open circuit test observation, the field rheostat is
brought to maximum position, reducing field current to a minimum value. The
T.P.S.T switch is closed. As ammeter has negligible resistance, the armature gets

106
short circuited. Then the field excitation is gradually increased till full load current
is obtained through armature winding. This can be observed on the ammeter
connected in the armature circuit. The graph of short circuit armature current
against field current is plotted from the observation table of short circuit test. This
graph is called short circuit characteristics, S.C.C..
Observation table for short circuit test:
   

OCC and SCC characteristics:

Procedure:

 Draw the open

circuit
characteristics curve [Generated voltage per phase Vs Field current].
 Draw the short circuit characteristics curve. [Short circuit current Vs Field
Current]
 From the graph find the open circuit voltage per phase for the rated short
circuit current.
 By using respective formulas, find the ZS,XS ,EO and percentage regulation.

Formula:

107
1. Armature resis tan ce Ra  1.6 Rdc
Open circuit voltage
2.Synchronous impedance Z S  in 
Short circuit current
2
3.Synchronous reac tan ce X S  Z S  Ra 2 in 

4.Open circuit voltage E O  Vrated cos  IaRa  2  Vrated sin   IaXs  2

 For Lagging power factor 
 Vrated cos   IaRa    Vrated sin   IaXs 
2 2
5.Open circuit voltage E O
 For Leading power factor 
 Vrated  IaRa    IaXs 
2 2
6.Open circuit voltage E O
 For unity power factor 

E 0  Vrated
7.Percentage Re gulation   100
Vrated

Regulation characteristics:

The main limitation of this method is that the method gives large values of
synchronous reactance. This leads to high values of percentage regulation than
the actual results. Hence this method is called pessimistic method.

15. Explain the method of obtaining the voltage regulation of a synchronous

generator using MMF method. [NOV/DEC’07] [APR/MAY’11] [NOV/DEC’12]

The method is also called ampere turn method of determining the regulation.
      The alternator is coupled to a prime mover capable of driving the alternator at
its synchronous speed. The armature is connected to the terminals of a switch.
The other terminals of the switch are short circuited through an ammeter. The

108
voltmeter is connected across the lines to measure the open circuit voltage of the
alternator.
       The field winding is connected to a suitable d.c. supply with rheostat
connected in series. The field excitation i.e. field current can be varied with the
help of this rheostat. The circuit diagram is shown.

The method requires following data to calculate the regulation.

1. The armature resistance per phase (Ra).
2. Open circuit characteristics which is the graph of open circuit voltage against
the field current. This is possible by conducting open circuit test on the alternator.
3. Short circuit characteristics which is the graph of short circuit current against
field current. This is possible by conducting short circuit test on the alternator.

Armature resistance:
The armature resistance Ra per phase is determined by using direct current
and the voltmeter-ammeter method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature
resistance (a.c. resistance) is greater than this value due to skin effect. It is a
usual practice to take the effective resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra =
1.5Rdc).
Open Circuit Test:
i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the
alternator.
ii) Keeping rheostat in the field circuit maximum, switch on the d.c. supply.

109
iii) The T.P.S.T switch in the armature circuit is kept open.
iv)With the help of rheostat, field current is varied from its minimum value to the
rated value. Due to this, flux increasing the induced e.m.f. Hence voltmeter
reading, which is measuring line value of open circuit voltage increases. For
various values of field current, voltmeter readings are observed.
Observation table for open circuit test:

Short Circuit Test:

After completing the open circuit test observation, the field rheostat is
brought to maximum position, reducing field current to a minimum value. The
T.P.S.T switch is closed. As ammeter has negligible resistance, the armature gets
short circuited. Then the field excitation is gradually increased till full load current
is obtained through armature winding. This can be observed on the ammeter
connected in the armature circuit.
The graph of short circuit armature current against field current is plotted
from the observation table of short circuit test. This graph is called short circuit
characteristics, S.C.C.

Observation table for short circuit test:

   

OCC and SCC

characteristics:

110
Procedure:

 Draw the open circuit characteristics curve [Generated voltage per phase Vs
Field current].
 Draw the short circuit characteristics curve. [Short circuit current Vs Field
Current]
 From the graph find the open circuit voltage per phase for the rated short
circuit current.
 Draw the line at an angle  90    to represent If which gives the rated full
loads current on short circuit for lagging power factor.
 Join the points O and A and find the field current by measuring the distance
on that gives the open circuit characteristics.
 Project the field current values vertically, it cuts the open circuit
characteristics, then project all the values horizontally, it cuts at voltages.
These are voltages Eo for lagging, leading and unity power factor.
 By using respective formulas, find the percentage regulation.

E 0  Vrated
Percentage Re gulation   100
Vrated

Regulation characteristics:

111
 MMF method gives a voltage regulation less than the actual performance of
the machine. So it is called optimistic method.

16.Explain the principle of operation of synchronous motor.

 The synchronous motor is one type of 3 phase AC motor which

operate at constant speed from no load to full load.
 The construction is similar to 3 phase AC generator in that it has a
revolving field which must be separately excited from a DC source.
 By changing the field excitation, the power factor of this type of motor
can be varied over a wide range of lagging and leading values.
 It is also used to improve the power factor of 3 phase industrial
circuits.
Synchronous motor works on the principle of the magnetic locking. When
two unlike poles are brought near each other, if the magnets are strong, there
exists a tremendous force of attraction between those two poles. In such condition
the two magnets are said to be magnetically locked.
       If now one of the two magnets is rotated, the other also rotates in the same
direction, with the same speed due to the force of attraction i.e. due to magnetic
locking condition.

So to have the magnetic

locking condition, there must exist two unlike poles and magnetic axes of two
must be brought very close to each other

112
 Consider a three phase synchronous motor, whose stator is wound for 2
poles. The two magnetic fields are produced in the synchronous motor by exciting
both the windings, stator and rotor with three phase a.c. supply and d.c. supply
respectively.
When three phase winding is excited by a three phase a.c. supply the flux
produced by the three phase winding is always of rotating type, which is already
discussed in the previous post. Such a magnetic flux rotates in space at a speed
called synchronous speed. This magnetic field is called rotating magnetic field.
The rotating magnetic field creates the effect similar to the physical rotation
of magnets in space with a synchronous speed. So stator of the synchronous
motor produces one magnet which is as good as rotating in space with the
synchronous speed.
The synchronous speed of a stator rotating magnetic field depends on the
supply frequency and the number of poles for which stator winding is wound. if
the frequency of the a.c. supply is f Hz and stator is wound for P number of poles,
then the speed of the rotating magnetic field is synchronous given by,
                            Ns  = 120f/P r.p.m.
       In this case, as stator is wound for say 2 poles, with 50 Hz supply, the speed
of the rotating magnetic field will be 3000 r.p.m. This effect is similar to the
physical rotation of two poles with a speed of Ns  r.p.m.
For simplicity of understanding let us assume that the stator poles are N 1 and
S1 which are rotating at a speed of Ns. The direction of rotation of rotating magnetic
field is say clockwise.

113
       When the field winding on rotor is excited by a d.c. supply, it also produces
two poles, assuming rotor construction to be two pole, salient type. Let these poles
be N2and S2. 
       Now one magnet is rotating at Ns having poles N1 and S1 while at start rotor is
stationary i.e. second magnet is stationary having poles N 2 and S2. If somehow the
unlike poles N1 and S2 or S1 and N2 are brought near each other, the magnetic
locking may get established between stator and rotor poles.

As stator poles are rotating due to magnetic locking rotor will also rotate in
the same direction as that of stator poles i.e. in the direction of rotating magnetic
field, with the same speed i.e N s. Hence synchronous motor rotates at one and
only one speed i.e. synchronous speed.

But this all depends on existence of magnetic locking between stator and
rotor poles. Practically it is not possible for stator poles to pull the rotor poles from
their stationary position into magnetic locking condition. Hence synchronous
motors are not self-starting.

17. Discuss the procedure for starting of synchronous motor. [NOV/DEC’07]

[NOV/DEC’11] [MAY/JUNE’13]

The various methods of starting of synchronous motor are:

i) Using pony motors

ii) Using damper winding
iii) As a slip ring induction motor
iv)Using small D.C. machine coupled to it
a) Using pony Motors:

In this method, the Rotor is brought to the synchronous speed with the
help of some external device like small induction motor. Such an external device
is called ‘Pony Motor’. Once rotor attains near to synchronous speed D.C.
excitation to the rotor is switched on. Then motor runs as synchronous motor.

b) Using Damper Winding:

114
 In a synchronous motor, in addition to the normal field winding, the
additional winding consisting of copper bars placed in the slots in the pole faces.
The bars are short circuited with the help of end rings. Such an additional
winding on the rotor is called Damper winding. This winding as short circuited,
acts as a squirrel cage rotor winding of an induction motor.

Once the stator is excited by a three phase supply, the motor starts rotating
as an induction motor at sub synchronous speed. When the motor speed reaches
near synchronous speed D.C. supply is given to field winding. Then it runs as a
synchronous motor. As damper winding is short circuited and motor gets started
as induction motor, it draws high current at start so induction motor starters like
star-delta, autotransformer etc., used to start the synchronous motor as an
induction motor.

c) As a slip ring induction motor:

115
 The
above method of starting synchronous motor as a squirrel cage induction motor
does not provide high starting torque. So to achieve this, instead of shorting the
damper winding, it is designed to form a three phase star or delta connected
winding.

The three ends of this winding are brought out through slip rings. An external
rheostat then can be introduced in series with the rotor circuit. So when stator is
excited, the motor starts as a slip ring induction motor and due to resistance
added in the rotor provides high starting torque.

The resistance is then gradually cut off, as motor gathers speed. When motor
attains speed near synchronous, d.c. excitation is provided to the rotor, then
motor gets pulled into synchronism and starts rotating at synchronous speed.
The initial rotor resistance added not only limits high inrush current but also
provides high starting torque.

d. Using small D.C. machine:

Many a times, large synchronous motors are provided with a coupled d.c.
machine. This machine is used as a d.c. motor to rotate the synchronous motor
at a synchronous speed. Then excitation to the rotor is provided.

Once motor starts running as a synchronous motor, the same d.c. machine acts
as a d.c. generator called exciter. The field of the synchronous motor is then
excited by this exciter itself.

18. Explain the procedure to obtain the V and inverted V curves of

synchronous motor. [APR/MAY’11]

116
 Stator is connected top three phase supply through wattmeters and
ammeter. The two wattmeter method is used to measure input power of motor.
The ammeter is reading line current which is same as armature (stator) current.
Voltmeter is reading line voltage.

A rheostat in a potential divider arrangement is used in the field circuit. By

controlling the voltage by rheostat, the field current can be changed. Hence motor
can be subjected to variable excitation condition to note down the readings.

Observation Table:

S.No VL(V) IL(A) W1(W) W2(W) If (A)

       Now IL = Ia, per phase value can be determined, from the stator winding
connections. 
       IL = Iph for star connection
       IL/√3 = Iph for delta connection
 1  3 (W1  W2 ) 
       The power factor can be obtained as, cos   cos  tan  

  (W1  W 2 ) 
       The result table can be prepared as:
S.No If(A) Ia(A) cos  Nature of P.f

117
The graph can be plotted from this result table.
V curve is plotted between Ia and If and inverted V curve is plotted between Ifand
cos  .
       The entire procedure can be repeated for various load conditions to obtain
family of V-curves and Inverted V-curves.

19.Explain the construction operation of Variable Reluctance (VR) of stepper

motor. Also explain about micro stepping? (Nov 13),(Nov 12),(April 10),(April
08),(Nov 07),(May 17)
(Or)
Explain the working of single and multi stack configured stepping motors.
(April 15),(May 13), (May 16)
VARIABLE RELUCTANCE (VR) STEPPER MOTOR:
i. Single stack type
ii. Multi stack type (ND2016)
i. SINGLE STACK TYPE
Construction:
The VR stepper motor characterized by the fact there is no permanent
magnet either on the rotor or the stator. The construction of a 3-phase VR stepper
motor with 6 poles on the stator and 4-pole on the rotor as shown.

118
 Fig: Single Stack Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
The Stator is made up of silicon steel stampings with inward projected even
or odd number of poles or teeth. Each and every stator poles carries a field coil an
exciting coil. In case of even number of poles the exciting coils of opposite poles
are connected in series. The two coils are connected such that their MMF gets
added the combination of two coils is known as phase winding.
The rotor is also made up of silicon steel stampings with outward projected
poles and it does not have any electrical windings. The number of rotor poles
should be different from that of stators in order to have self-starting capability and
bi direction.
The width of rotor teeth should be same as stator teeth. Solid silicon steel rotors
are extensively employed. Both the stator and rotor materials must have lowering
a high magnetic flux to pass through them even if a low magneto motive force is
applied.
Electrical Connection
Electrical connection of VR stepper as shown fig. Coil A and A’ are connected
in series to form a phase winding. This phase winding is connected to a DC source
with the help of semiconductor switch S1.Similarly B and B’ and C and C’ are
connected to the same source through semiconductor switches S2 and S3
respectively. The motor has 3 –phases a, b and c.
 a phase consist of A and A’ Coils
 b phase consist of B and B’ Coils
 c phase consist of C and C’ Coils

119
 Fig: Electrical Connection of VR stepper motor
Principle of Operation
It works on the principle of variable reluctance. The principle of operation of
VR stepper motor explained by referring fig.
Mode 1: One phase ON or full step operation
In this mode of operation of stepper motor only one phase is energized at
any time. If current is applied to the coils of phase ‘a’ (or) phase ‘a’ is excited, the
reluctance torque causes the rotor to run until aligns with the axis of phase a. The
axis of rotor poles 1 and 3 are in alignment with the axis of stator poles ‘A’ and ‘A’’.
Then angle θ = 0° the magnetic reluctance is minimized and this state provides a
rest or equilibrium position to the rotor and rotor cannot move until phase ‘a’ is
energized.
Next phase b is energized by turning on the semiconductor switch S2 and
phase ‘a’ is de –energized by turning off S1.Then the rotor poles 1 and 3 and 2 and
4 experience torques in opposite direction. When the rotor and stator teeth are out
of alignment in the excited phase the magnetic reluctance is large. The torque
experienced by 1 and 3 are in clockwise direction and that of 2 and 4 is in counter
clockwise direction. The latter is more than the former. As a result the rotor makes
an angular displacement of 30° in counterclockwise direction so that B and B’ and
2 and 4 in alignment. The phases are excited in sequence a, b and c the rotor
turns with a step of 30° in counter clockwise direction. The direction of rotation
can be reversed by reversing the switching sequence in which are energized and is
independent of the direction of currents through the phase winding.

120
 Fig: Step motions as switching sequence process in a three phase VR motor
The truth table for mode I operation in counter and clockwise directions are
given in the table. S1 S2 S3 θ
S1 S2 S3 θ
* - - 0
* - - 0
- - * 30
- * - 30
Table: Counter Clockwise Rotation (CCW) Table: Clockwise Rotation
- * - 60
(CW) - - * 60
* - - 90
* - - 90
- - * 120
- * - 120
- * - 150
- - * 150
* - - 180
* - - 180
- - * 210
- * - 210
- * - 240
- - * 240
* - - 270
* - - 270
- - * 300
- * - 300
- * - 330
- - * 330 121
* - - 360
* - - 360
Mode II: Two Phase on Mode
In this mode two stator phases are excited simultaneously. When phases a
and b are energized together, the rotor experiences torque from both phases and
comes to rest in a point mid-way between the two adjacent full step position. If the
phases b and c are excited, the rotor occupies a position such that angle between
AA’ axis of stator and 1-3 axis of rotor is equal to 45°.To reverse the direction of
rotation switching sequence is changed a and b, a and c etc. The main advantage
of this type of operation is that torque developed by the stepper motor is more
than that due to single phase ON mode of operation. The truth table for mode II
operation in counter clockwise and clockwise directions is given in a table.

Table: Counter Clockwise Rotation (CCW) Table: Clockwise Rotation (CW)

S1 S2 S3 θ° S1 S2 S3 θ
* * - 15° AB AC - * - 15°
- * * 45° BC CB - * * 45°
- * - 75° CA BA * * - 75°
* * - 105° AB AC - * - 105°
- * * 135° BC CB - * * 135°
- * - 165° CA BA * * - 165°
* * - 195° AB AC - * - 195°
- * * 225° BC CB - * * 225°
- * - 255° CA BA * * - 255°
* * - 285° AB AC 285°

122
Mode III: Half step Mode (April 11)
In this type of mode of operation on phase is ON for some duration and two
phases are ON during some other duration. The step angle can be reduced from
30° to 15° by exciting phase sequence a, a+b, b, b+c, c etc. The technique of
shifting excitation from one phase to another from a to b with an intermediate step
of a+b is known as half step and is used to realize smaller steps continuous half
stepping produces smoother shaft rotation.
The truth table for mode III operation in counter and clockwise directions are
given in the table.
Table: Counter Clockwise Rotation (CCW) Table: Clockwise Rotation (CW)

S1 S2 S3 θ S1 S2 S3 Θ
* - - 0° A° * - - 0° A°
* - * 15° AB°
* * - 15° AB° - - * 30° B°
- * - 30° B° - * * 45° BC°
- * * 45° BC° - - * 60° C°
- - * 60° C° - * - 75° CA°
* - * 75° CA° * * - 90° A°
* - - 90° A° * - - 105° AB°
* * - 105° AB° * - * 120° B°
- * - 120° B° - - - 135° BC°
- * * 135° BC° - * * 150° C°
- * - 150° C° - * - 165° CA°
* - * 165° CA°
20. Explain the construction and working principle of Permanent Magnet
Stepper motor? (Nov 11)
Single phase ON mode:
Initially phase A is energized by closing switch S 1 to position 1. The rotor
and stator magnetic fields make the rotor move and occupy the position. Here, the
N pole of the rotor and S pole formed by stator phase A get interlocked and further
movement of the rotor is arrested. Next S 2 is moved to position 1 and S1 is opened.
The rotor moves by 90° in clock wise direction and takes the position shown in
figure. Now S1 is closed in position 2 and S2 is opened. Rotor moves again by 90°
in the same direction and rest in the position indicated. The sequence of switch

123
operation is repeated so that for each operation the rotor moves in clockwise
direction with step angle 90°.

Fig: POSITION OF ROTOR WHEN B IS ENERGISED

Fig: POSITION OF ROTOR WHEN A IS ENERGISED

TABLE: TRUTH TABLE FOR CLOCKWISE ROTATION

Two phase ON mode:

124
 Let the initial position of the rotor as shown in figure. Here, switch S1 is in
position 1. With S1 in this position, S2 is switched to position 1 so that both the
phases are excited. The rotor moves by 45° in clockwise direction and reset in the
position. Keeping S1 in position 2 and switching S2 to position 2 results in
movement of rotor by 90° in the same direction and assume that position. Here
also the step angle is 90° but the equilibrium position is in one phase mode.

Fig : S1 AND S2 IN POSITION 1 Fig : S1 IN POSITION 2, S2 IN

POSITION 1

Fig : S1 AND S2 IN POSITION 2

TABLE : TRUTH TABLE FOR CLOCKWISE ROTATION

Alternate one phase and two phase mode or half step mode:

125
 Initially S1 is switched ON in the position 1. The stator and rotor poles
attract but rotor remains in equilibrium position. With S1 position in this position,
S2 is closed in position 1. The rotor moves by 45° and occupies the position. Next
S1 is opened. The rotor moves by 45° and stays in the position. Here also the step
angle is 45°. By operating the switches in this sequence , the rotor moves in clock
wise direction in step of 45° (half of the step in one phase mode).

TABLE : TRUTH TABLE FOR CLOCKWISE ROTATION

21. Explain the conventional speed control of induction motor. (MAY-08)

(NOV-08, 09)
Control from Stator Side:
(a) By changing the applied voltage,
(b) By changing the applied frequency
(c) By changing the number of stator poles
a) By changing the applied voltage:
Torque equation of induction motor is 

126
 Rotor resistance R2 is constant and if slip s is small then sX 2 is so small that
it can be neglected. Therefore, T ∝ sE22 where E2 is rotor induced emf and E2 ∝ V
And hence T ∝ V2, thus if supplied voltage is decreased, torque decreases and
hence the speed decreases.
This method is the easiest and cheapest, still rarely used because-
1) A large change in supply voltage is required for relatively small change in speed.
2) Large change in supply voltage will result in large change in flux density, hence
disturbing the magnetic conditions of the motor.
b) By changing the applied frequency:
Synchronous speed of the rotating magnetic field of induction motor is given by,

where, f = frequency of the supply and P = number of stator poles.

Thus, synchronous speed changes with change in supply frequency, and thus
running speed also changes. However, this method is not widely used. This
method is used where, only the induction motor is supplied by a generator (so that
frequency can be easily change by changing the speed of prime mover).

c) Changing the number of stator poles:

From the above equation, it can be also seen that synchronous speed (and
hence, running speed) can be changed by changing the number of stator poles.
This method is generally used for squirrel cage induction motors, as squirrel cage
rotor adapts itself for any number of stator poles.
Change in stator poles is achieved by two or more independent stator windings
wound for different number of poles in same slots.
For example, a stator is wound with two 3phase windings, one for 4 poles and
other for6poles. For supply frequency of 50 Hz
i) Synchronous speed when 4 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/4 = 1500
RPM

127
ii) Synchronous speed when 6 pole winding is connected, Ns = 120*50/6 = 1000
RPM
Control from Rotor Side:
(d) Rotor rheostat control
(e) By operating two motors in concatenation or cascade
(f) By injecting of an emf in the rotor circuit
a) Rotor rheostat control:
 This method is applicable to slip ring induction motor only.
 The speed of motor can be controlled by connecting external resistance in
the rotor circuit.
 The starting torque increases with increase in resistance, the pull out speed
of the motor decreases but the maximum torque remains constant, the
speed can be controlled from the rated speed to lower speed

Fig: Rotor rheostat control

b) Cascade operation:
In this method of speed control, two motors are used. Both are mounted on
a same shaft so that both run at same speed.
One motor is fed from a 3phase supply and other motor is fed from the induced
emf in first motor via slip-rings. The arrangement is as shown in following figure.

128
Motor A is called main motor and motor B is called auxiliary motor.
Let, Ns1 = frequency of motor A
       Ns2 = frequency of motor B
       P1 = number of poles stator of motor A
       P2 = number of stator poles of motor B
       N = speed of the set and same for both motors
       f = frequency of the supply
Now, slip of motor A, S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1.
frequency of the rotor induced emf in motor A, f1 = S1f
 now, auxiliary motor B is supplied with the rotor induce emf
therefore,  Ns2 = (120f1) / P2  =  (120S1f) / P2.
now putting the value of  S1 = (Ns1 - N) / Ns1

 At no load, speed of the auxiliary rotor is almost same as its synchronous speed.
i.e. N = Ns2. from the above equations, it can be obtained that

With this method, four different speeds can be obtained

1. When only motor A works, corresponding speed = .Ns1 = 120f / P1
2. When only motor B works, corresponding speed = Ns2 = 120f / P2
3. If commutative cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f / (P1 + P2)
4. If differential cascading is done, speed of the set = N = 120f (P1 - P2)

c) By injecting EMF in rotor circuit:

In this method, speed of induction motor is controlled by injecting a

voltage in rotor circuit. It is necessary that voltage (emf) being injected must have
same frequency as of slip frequency. However, there is no restriction to the phase
of injected emf. If we inject emf which is in opposite phase with the rotor induced
emf, rotor resistance will be increased. If we inject emf which is in phase with rotor
induced emf, rotor resistance will decrease. Thus, by changing the phase of
injected emf, speed can be controlled. The main advantage of this method is a wide

129
range of speed control (above normal as well as below normal) can be achieved.
The emf can be injected by various methods such as Kramer system, Scherbius
system etc.

PROBLEMS:

22. A three phase induction motor is wound for 4-pole and is supplied from
50 Hz system. Calculate (i) Synchronous speed of the motor(ii) The rotor
speed when slip is 4%
Solution:

Given:

P = 4, f = 50 Hz, S = 4%

130
 120  f
(1) Synchronous speed, NS =
P

= 120 x 50 / 4

= 1500 Rpm.

=> NS = 1500 Rpm.

NS  N
(2) % Slip S, = x100 %
NS

1500  N
4 = 1500 x 100 %

=> N = 1440 Rpm.

=> Motor speed, N=1400Rpm.

23. An 8- pole, 3-phase, 750 rpm Alternator supplies power to a 6-pole ,3-
phase induction motor is 4 percent, calculate the full load speed of the
induction motor.
Solution:

No. of poles of alternator, Pa = 8

No. of poles of induction motor, Pim= 6

Speed of alternator, NS = 750 Rpm.

Slip of Induction motor, S = 4 %.

PxN
Supply frequency, f =
120

= 8 x 750 / 120

= 50 Hz

=> f = 50 Hz.

120  f
Synchronous speed of Induction motor, NS =
P

131
 120  50
=
6

= 1000 Rpm.

NS  N
% Slip, S = x100 %
NS

1000  N
4 = 1000

=> N = 960 Rpm.

24. A 30-pole, 50 Hz, three-phase Induction motor runs at 285 Rpm.

Calculate the frequency of the Rotor current.
Solution:

Given Data:

P= 20, f = 50 Hz, N = 285 Rpm.

120  f
Synchronous speed, NS =
P

120  50
NS =
20

= 300 Rpm.

=> NS = 300 Rpm.

NS  Nr
% Slip, %S = x 100 %
NS

300  285
%S = x 100 %
300

%S =5% .

Then , Rotor frequency, fr =Sf

fr = 0.05 x 50

fr = 2.5 Hz.

132
25. A 12 pole, three phase, 3300 V, Y- connected, induction motor has slip
ring rotor resistance of 0.015 Ω and standstill reactance of 0.25 Ω / phase.
Determine
(i) Speed at maximum torque
(ii) Ratio of full-load torque to maximum torque if full-load torque
is obtained at 494 Rpm.
Solution:

Given:

No. of poles, P = 12.

Frequency, f = 50 Hz

Number of phases =3Φ, voltage = 3300 V, star-connected IM.

Rotor resistance / phase, R2 = 0.05 Ω

Standstill Rotor reactance / phase, X2 = 0.25 Ω

Condition for maximum torque, R2 = S X2

R2
S =
X2

0.015
=
0.25

= 0.06

120  f
Synchronous speed, NS =
P

120  50
NS =
12

=> NS = 500 Rpm.

Rotor speed of maximum torque, Nr= (1-S) = (1-0.06) x 500= 470 rpm

(ii) Full load Slip, S = (500-494)/500 = 0.012

Tf 2a.s R 2 0.015
Therefore,  ; Where a= = ;
Tmax a2  s2 X2 0.25

133
  0.015 
2   0.012
Tf  0.25  =0.385

Tmax 0.015 2
( )  (0.012) 2
0.25

26. A 4 pole, 50 Hz, 3Phase Induction motor has rotor resistance per phase
of 0.03Ω and reactance of 0.012 Ω per phase. What is the speed at maximum
torque? Find amount of external resistance per phase required to be inserted
to obtain 75% of maximum torque at starting?

Solution:-

Given data:-

P=4; f=50Hz;

R2=0.03 Ω; X2=0.12 Ω

Condition for maximum torque, R2 = SX2

R2 0.03
S= = =0.25
X 2 0.12

120 f 120  50
Synchronous speed, Ns= = = 1500 Rpm
P 4

Sped at maximum torque, Nr = (1-s)Ns = (1-0.25)1500 = 1125 Rpm.

Tst 2a
(ii)   0.75
Tmax 1  a 2

75 2a
 (or) 7S+75S2=200a
100 1  a 2

75a2-200a-75=0

-8 + 200 - 4  75  (-75)
a= =2.2(or) 0.45
2  75

The largest value 2.2 has been rejected. a=0.45

Let, r=external resistance/Phase required to be added to the rotor.

134
 R2  r
a=
X2

0.03  r
0.45= =0.024Ω
0.12

Tf
Therefore the external resistance required to attain the ratio  75% r=0.024Ω
Tmax

27. A 4-pole, 50Hz, 5HP, Squirrel cage induction motor gave the following
test data:-

No load test:-

Power input=275 W No load current=6.3A No load input voltage=230V

Blocked rotor test:-

Power rotor full :- Power input=275W Blocked rotor full load current=15A

Blocked rotor input voltage=40V Determine the full load efficiency of the
motor from the above test data.

Solution:-


Neglecting small amount of core loss under blocked rotor condition, the
input to the motor gives full load I2R losses.


Power input during blocked rotor test=Full load I2R losses


Copper losses=735W


Input at no load gives the core loss, Friction & windage loss in addition to no
load I2R loss.


I2R loss at no load can be calculated by knowing the value of the resistance
of the winding.


Winding resistance can be calculated by knowing the value of the resistance
of the windings.


Power input under, Blocked power test=3I2Re’

135
Where,Re1 is the per phase equivalent resistance of the windings. Referred to stator
circuit.

Thus,

Re1=735

Re1=1.09Ω

I2R loss at no load=3I02Re1

=3  (6.3)2x1.09

No load starter loss=130W

Core loss plus friction & windage losses=Constant losses

No load input no load stator losses=275-130=145W

Total losses=735+145=880Watts

output.. power
Efficiency,  = output.. power  losses  100

5  735.5
=  100 = 80.7%
5  735.5  880

28. An alternator runs at 250 r.p.m and generates an e.m.f. at 50 Hz. There
are 216 slots each containing 5 conductors. The winding is distributed and
full pitch. All the conductors of each phase are in series and flux per pole is
30 mWb which is sinusoidally distributed. If the winding is star connected,
determine the value of induced e.m.f. available across the terminals.[AU-
NOV/DEC 2010]
Solution:

NS = 250 r.p.m., f = 50 Hz.

120 f
NS =
P

136
 120  50
250 =
P
 P = 24 poles.
slots 216
n = pole =  9
24

n
m= 3
3

180
  20
9

 m   3  20 
sin  sin  
 2   2   0.9597
kd =
   20 
m sin  3  sin  
2  2 

kc = 1 as full pitch coils.

Total no. of conductors, Z = 216  5 = 1080.

Z 1080
Zph =   360
3 3

Z ph
Tph = ………( 2 conductors constitute 1 turn )
2

360
=  180
2

Induced voltage per phase, Eph = 4.44 kC kd f Φ Tph

= 4.44  1  0.9597  30  10 3  50  180

= 1150. 48 Volts

Induced Line voltage, Eline = 3E ph ……….( star connection)

= 3  1150 .48  1992.70 Volts.

29.A 3-phase, 16 pole , star connected alternator has 144 slots on the
armature periphery. Each slot contains 10 conductors. It is driven at 375
rpm. The line value of e.m.f. available across the terminals is observed to be
2.657 kV. Find the frequency of the induced e.m.f. and flux per pole.

137
Solution:

P = 16, NS = 375 rpm slots = 144, conductor / slots = 10,

ELine = 2.657 kV

120 f
NS =
P

120  f
375 = => f = 50 Hz.
16

Assuming full-pitched winding, kC =1

slots 144
n = pole = 9
16

n
m= 3
3

180 
   20 
9

 m   3  20 
sin   sin  
 2    2   0.9597
kd =
   20 
m sin   3  sin  
2  2 

Total conductors = slots  conductor / slot

Z = 144  10  1440

Z 1440
Zph = =  480
3 3

Z ph 480
Tph =   240
2 3

E LINE 2.657
Eph =   1.534 kV.
3 3

Eph = 4.44 KC Kd f Φ Tph

1.534  10 3 = 4.44  1  0.9597    50  240

138
 => Φ = 0.03 Wb

Φ = 30 milli Webers.

30.A 12 pole, three phase, 600 rpm, star connected alternator has 180 slots.
There are 2 coil sides per slot and total 10 conductors per slot. If flux per
pole is 0.05 Wb determine from first principles,
i) r.m.s value of e.m.f. in a conductor ii) r.m.s value of e.m.f. in a turn

iii) r.m.s value of e.m.f. in a coil iv) per phase induced e.m.f.

Assume full pitch coils. [AU-NOV/DEC 2013]

Solution:

P  N S 12  600
P = 12, NS = 600 r.p.m. f=   60 Hz.
120 120

i) Average value of e.m.f. in a conductor = 2fΦ

 R.m.s value = 1.11  2 f Φ = 2.22  60  0.05 = 6.66

Volts

ii) Average value of e.m.f. in a turn = 4fΦ

As 2 conductors joined properly form a turn.

 R.m.s value = 1.11  4 f Φ = 4.44  60  0.05 = 13.32 Volts.

iii) Now each slot has 10 conductors and 2 coil sides.

10
So conductors / coil side = 5.
2

Such coil sides are connected to another coil sides to form a coil. So in a coil
there are 5 turns .

 r.m.s.value  of  e.m. f .   No.  of  turns 

 r.m.s value of e.m.f. in a coil =
turn

coil

   

= 13.32  5 = 66.6 Volts.

conductors
iv) Now Total conductors, Z =  no.of  slots
coil  side

Z =10  180  1800

139
 Z 1800
Zph =   600
3 3

Z ph 600
Tph =   300
2 2

slots 180
And n = pole =  15
12

n
m = 5
3

180  180 
    12 
n 15

 m   5  12 
sin  sin 
 2    2   0.9566
Kd =
   12 
m sin  5  sin 
2  2
Eph = r.m.s. value per turn  Tph  Kd  KC
= 13.32  300  0.9566  1 = 3822.88 Volts

(or) Eph = 4.44 KC Kd Φ f Tph

= 4.44  1  0.9566  0.05  60  300 =3822.88 Volts

31. A 3-phase, 8-pole, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 96 slots with 4
conductors per slot. The coil pitch is 10 slots. If flux per pole is 60mWb.
Find: (i) The phase voltage (ii) The Line voltage (iii) If each phase is
capable of carrying 650 A, What is kVA rating of the machine?

Solution:

P = 8, f = 50 Hz, Φ = 60 mWb, coil pitch = 10 slots.

No.of slots = 96

n = slots per pole = 96  12   Slot angle = 180  15


m = slot per pole
8 n
12
per phase = 4
3

Coil pitch = 10 slots = 10   = 150˚ electrical

  Angle of short pitch = 180˚ - 150˚ = 30˚

140
  
KC = cos    cos 15  0.9659


2
 

 m 
sin  
 2   0.9576
Kd =
 
m sin  
2

Total conductors = No. of slots  conductors / slot

= 96 4 = 384
384
Total Turns =  192
2

192
Tph =  64
3

i) Eph = 4.44 KC Kd Φ f Tph

= 4.44  0.9659  60  10  50  64
3
= 788.497 Volts

ii) ELine = 3E ph  3  788.497 = 1365.71 Volts.

iii) IL = 650 A = Iph (As star connected)

 KVA rating = 3E line I L  1537.56 kVA.

32. A three phase, star connected, 1000 kVA, 11000 V alternator has rated
current of 52.5 A. The a.c. resistance of the winding per phase is 0.45 Ω. The
test results are given below:

O.C. test : Field current = 12.5 A, voltage between lines = 422 V

S.C. test : Field current = 12.5 A, Line current = 52.5 A.

Determine the full load voltage regulation of the alternator (a) at 0.8 p.f.
lagging (b) at 0.8 p.f. leading. [AU-NOV/DEC 2011]

Solution:

VL = 11000 V, kVA = 1000

kVA = 3V L I L  10 3

1000 = 3  11000  I L  10 3

IL = 52.5 A as the given full load current.

141
 For stator connection of alternator IL = Iph= 52.5 A on full load.

VOC  ph
ZS = | for.sane.I f
 I asc  ph

From test results,

422
VOC  ph   243.64 Volts
3

 I asc  ph  52.5 A.

243.64
ZS =  4.64 /ph
52.5

Ra = 0.45 Ω / ph.

XS = Z S2  Ra2  (4.64) 2  (0.45) 2  4.6181

VL 11000
While terminal voltage, Vph =   6350.85 Volts.
3 3

a) cos Φ = 0.8 lagging, sin Φ = 0.6

E  ph
2
 V ph cos  I a Ra   V ph sin   I a X S 
2 2

=  6350.85  0.8  52.5  0.45 2   6350.85  0.6  52.5  4.6181 2

=  5104.305 2  (4052.96) 2

= 6517.70 Volts

Eph = 6517.70 Volts.

E ph  V ph
% Regulation=  100
V ph

6517.70  6350.85
=  100  2.62
6350.85

 Reg = 2.62

b) cos Φ = 0.8 leading, sin Φ = 0.6

142
 E 
ph
2
 V ph cos  I a Ra   V ph sin   I a X S 
2 2

=  6350.85  0.8  52.5  0.45 2   6350.85  0.6  52.5  4.6181 2

=  5104.305 2   3568.05 2

=> Eph = 6227.75 Volts

E ph  V ph
% Regulation =  100
V ph

6227.75  6350.85
=  100
6350.85

% Reg = -1.938 %

UNIT V

MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

1. Explain the static characteristics of measurements. [APR/MAY’11]

[APR/MAY’15][NOV/DEC’ 17]
The static characteristics are the characteristics of an instrument that involves the
measurement of quantities that are constant or vary slowly with time.
The various static characteristics are:
 Accuracy
 Precision
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Reproducibility
 Repeatability
 Resolution
 Threshold
 Drift
 Stability
 Tolerance
 Range or span
 Dead zone
1. Accuracy:

143
 It is the degree of closeness with which the reading approaches the true value
of the quantity to be measured. The accuracy may be specified in terms of
inaccuracy or limits of error.
(i).Point accuracy: This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point
on its scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at other
points on the scale.
(ii).Accuracy as percentage of scale range: When an instrument as
uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
(iii).Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the
idea of accuracy is to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity
being measured.
2. Precision:
It is the measure of reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed
value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within a
group of measurements. The precision is composed of two characteristics:
Conformity: Consider a resistor having true value as 1385692 Ω, which is being
measured by an ohmmeter. But the reader can read consistently, a value as 1.4
MΩ due to the non-availability of proper scale. The error created due to the
limitation of the scale reading is a precision error.
Number of significant figures: The precision of the measurement is obtained
from the number of significant figures in which the reading is expressed.
The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude & the
measurement precision of the quantity. The more the significant figures, the
greater the precision of measurement.
3. Sensitivity:
Sensitivity of an instrument is the ratio of magnitude of the output signal or
response to the magnitude of input signal or the quantity being measured. Its
units are millimeter per micro ampere, counts per volt etc. depending upon the
type of input and output. The sensitivity of an instrument should be high.
Inverse of sensitivity or deflection factor is the ratio of the magnitude of
input signal or the quantity being measured to the magnitude of the output signal
or response.
4. Linearity:
It is defined as the ability to reproduce the
input characteristics symmetrically & linearly. The
graph of output against the input is called
calibration curve.
Nonlinearity =

max imum deviation of output from the idealized straight line

Full scale deflection
5. Reproducibility:

144
 It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. Perfect
reproducibility means that the instrument has no drifts.
6. Repeatability:
It is defined as the variation of scale reading a random in nature.
7. Resolution (or) Discrimination:
The smallest increment in input (the quantity being measured) which can be
detected by an instrument is called resolution.
8. Threshold:
If the instrument input is increased very gradually from zero there will be
some minimum value below which no output change can be detected. This
minimum value defines the threshold of the instrument.
9. Drift:
Drift may be classified into three categories:
Zero drift
If the whole calibration gradually shifts
due to slippage, permanent set, or due to
undue warming up of electronic tube circuits,
zero drift sets in. This can be prevented
by zero setting.
Span drift or sensitivity
If there is proportional change in the
indication all along the upward scale, the drifts is
called span drift or sensitivity drift.

Zonal drift:
In case the drift occurs only a portion of span of
an instrument, it is called zonal drift.
10. Stability:
It is the ability of an instrument to retain its
performance throughout is specified operating life
and the storage life is called stability.
11. Tolerance:
The maximum allowable error in the
measurement is specified in terms of some value
which is called tolerance.
12. Scale range or scale span:
Scale range of an instrument is defined as the difference between the largest
and smallest reading of the instrument.
13. Dead Zone:
The largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument is called dead zone. It produces back lash and hysteresis in the
instrument.

145
2. Briefly explain the dynamic characteristics of measurement system. [NOV
04] [APR 05] [APR 11] [NOV/DEC’ 17]
The dynamic behavior of an instrument can be determined by applying
some form of known and predetermined input to its primary element and then
study the output. i.e, movement of the pointer. Generally the behavior is judged
for three types of inputs.
Step change
In this case the input is changed suddenly to a finite value and then
remains constant.
Linear range
In this case the input changes linearly with time.
Sinusoidal change
In this case the magnitude of the input changes in accordance with a
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.
The dynamic characteristics of any instrument is defined and valuated
by the following terms.

Speed of response
It is rapidity with which an instrument responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
Measuring Lag:
It refers to retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to a
change in the input signal. The measuring lags are two types,
 Retardation type
 Time delay type

146
 In the retardation type the response of an instrument begins immediately
after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
In the time delay type ,the response of an instrument begins after a
dead time, after the application of the input ,Measuring lags of this type are very
small and in order of fraction of seconds only, so it can be ignored .when
instrument is applied by periodically varying inputs, the dead time is not
satisfactory.
Fidelity
It is defined as the degree of closeness with which the system indicates or
records the changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error. In other
words, fidelity is the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same
form as input.
Dynamic error
It is defined as the difference between the true value of the measuring
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the measuring system if
no static error is zero. It is also known as measurement error.

3. Explain briefly the errors in measurements.[MAY 06][NOV 07] [APR 11] [NOV
11] [NOV 12][NOV 14] [APR 15]
Errors are classified under three main categories
 Gross Error
 Systematic Error
 Random Error
1. Gross Error:
Gross errors are largely due to human factors such as misreading of
instruments, incorrect adjustment and improper application of instruments. The
computational errors are also grouped under this type of error.
As long as human beings are involved in measurement, gross errors will
unavoidably be committed
For example, failure to set zero before measurement is made, failure to note the
reading from scale corresponding to selected range and improper positioning of
instrument causes gross errors.
Ex: Due to oversight, 25.6V [actual] read as 35.6V and due to transposition, 43.7V
[actual] read as 47.3V.
Gross errors can be eliminated by,
 Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data
 Taking number of readings of same quantity and by number of observers
2. Systematic Errors:
It is divided into three categories,
 Instrumental errors.

147
  Environmental errors
 Observational errors
Instrumental Errors:
These errors arise due to inherent short comings in the instruments, misuse
of the instruments and loading effects.
Inherent short comings of instruments:
These errors are inherent in instruments because of the mechanical
structure. They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of the
instruments or measuring devices. These errors may cause to read too low or too
high. For example, if the spring of a permanent magnet instrument has become
weak, the instrument will always read high. Errors may be caused because of
friction, hysteresis or even backlash.
Ways to minimize this error:
 Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental
errors.
 The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully
Misuse of instruments:
 A good instrument if used in abnormal way gives misleading results.
 Poor initial adjustment, Improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance
etc., are the examples of misusing a good instrument.
 Such things do not cause the permanent damage to the instruments but
definitely cause the serious errors.
Loading effects:
 Loading effects due to improper way of using the instrument cause the
serious errors.
 The best example of such loading effect error is connecting a well calibrated
volt meter across the two points of high resistance circuit.
 The same volt meter connected in a low resistance circuit gives accurate
reading.
Environmental errors:
These errors are due to the conditions external to the measuring
instrument. The various factors resulting these environmental errors are
temperature changes, pressure changes, humidity, dust, vibrations, thermal emf,
external electromagnetic or electrostatic effects and ageing of equipment and
frequency sensitivity of an instrument.
Ways to minimize this error:
Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the
manufacturer of the instrument.
 Using the arrangement which will keep the surrounding conditions constant
 Reducing the effect of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically
sealing the components in the instruments

148
  The effects of external fields can be minimized by using the magnetic or
electro static shields or screens
 Using the equipment which is immune to such environmental effects.
Observational errors:
 These are the errors introduced by the observer.
 These are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while
reading a meter, wrong scale selection, etc.
Way to minimize this error
To eliminate such errors one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife
edged pointers, etc.
Random Errors:
These errors are due to unknown causes and are observed when magnitude
and polarity of a measurement fluctuate with unpredictable manner.
 Rounding Error
This occurs when readings are between scale graduations and the reading is
rounded up or down to the nearest graduation.
 Periodic Error
This occurs when an analog meter readings swings or fluctuates about the
correct reading.
The other random errors are due to noise, backlash and ambient influence.
Random errors cannot be predicted and corrected, but they can be
minimized by skill observer.
Limiting errors:
The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a
certain percentage of full scale reading. The components like the resistor,
inductor, and capacitor are guaranteed to be within a certain percentage of rated
value. This percentage indicates the deviations from the specified value are called
limiting errors.
Limiting error = Accuracy × full scale value.
4. Draw and explain the working principle of attraction type ,repulsion type M.I
instruments and derive its deflecting torque.[APR 15,NOV 15]
With a neat diagram explain the construction and principle of operation of
a moving    iron attraction and repulsion type instrument? [MAY 09, DEC
10, DEC 11, DEC    12, JUNE 12, JUNE 13, JUNE 14]
Moving Iron Instruments are used mainly to measure voltage or current. There are
two types of moving iron instruments
i) Attraction type
ii) Repulsion type.
Attraction type moving iron instrument:
Principle
It is well known that a soft iron piece gets magnetized when it is brought
into a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet. The same phenomenon

149
happens when the soft iron piece is brought near either of the ends of a coil
carrying current. The iron piece is attracted towards the portion where the
magnetic density is more. This movement of the soft iron piece is used to measure
the current or voltage which produces the magnetic field.

Fig: Attraction type moving iron instrument

Working
The working coil carries a current which produces a magnetic field. The
moving disc is attracted towards the centre of the coil where the flux density is
maximum. The spindle is, therefore, moved. Thus the pointer, attached to the
spindle gives a proportional deflection. Deflecting Torque is produced by the
current or the voltage to be measured. It is proportional to the square of the
current or voltage. Hence, the instrument can be used to measure d.c or a.c scale
is non-uniform.
Control torque is provided by springs. However gravity control can be used
for panel type of instruments which are vertically mounded.
Air friction damping is provided with the help of light aluminium piston
attached to the moving system.
Repulsion Type moving iron instrument:
Principle
Two iron pieces kept with close proximity in a magnetic field get mag-
netized to the same polarity. Hence, a repulsive force is produced. If one of the two
pieces is made movable, the repulsive force will act on it and move it on to one
side. This movement is used to measure the current or voltage which produces the
magnetic field.

150
 Fig: Repulsion Type moving iron instrument
Working
When the operating coil carries current, a magnetic field is produced. This
field magnetizes similarly both the soft iron pieces. Thus, a repulsive force is
produced which acts on the moving iron and pushes it away from its rest posi tion.
Thus, the spindle moves and hence the pointer gives a proportionate deflection.
Whatever be the direction of current in the coil, the two irons are always similarly
magnetized.
Deflecting Torque
Expression for the torque of a MI instrument can be derived by considering
a small increment in the current, dI supplied to the coil in the instrument.
Because of this, there will be a small deflection, d and some mechanical work will
be done. If Td is the deflection torque, then
Mechanical work done = Td d
If the current increases by dI, the deflection changes by d which changes
the inductance by dL. In order to increase the current by dI, there must be an
increase in the applied voltage given by,
d
e ( LI ) ........(1)
dt
sin ce, both L and I are var iables,
dL dI
eI L ..........(2)
dt dt
Electrical energy supplied is given by,
dL dI
eIdt  ( I L ) Idt  I 2 dL  LIdI ......(3)
dt dt
1 2 1
The stored energy due to inductance changes from LI to ( L  dL)( I  dI ) 2
2 2
Neglecting the higher order terms,
Change in stored energy =ILdI+(1/2)I2dL ….(4)
From the principle of conservation of energy,
Electrical energy supplied = Change in stored energy + mechanical work done

151
 1 2
I 2 dL  LIdI  ILdI  I dL  Td d .
2
1 2
Td d  I dL
2
1 dL
Td  I 2
2 d
Controllin g torque Tc  K s
Where, Ks = Control spring constant in Nm/rad
 =Deflection in radians
At equilibrium, Tc=Td
Control torque: Spring or Gravity Damping: Pneumatic (i.e air damping)
The advantages of moving iron instrument are,
 The instruments are suitable for use in a.c and d.c circuits.
 The instruments are robust, owing to the simple construction of the
moving parts.
 The stationary parts of the instruments are also simple.
 Instrument is low cost compared to moving coil instrument.
 Torque/weight ratio is high, thus less frictional error.
The disadvantages of moving iron instrument are,
 The scale of the moving iron instruments is not uniform.
 These instruments are subjected to serious errors due to hysteresis,
change in frequency and stray magnetic fields
The applications of MI instruments are
i) Used as multi range ammeters and voltmeters.
ii) Used as in expensive indicators such as charging and discharging current
indicators in automobiles.
5. With neat diagram, explain the construction and working of permanent
magnet moving coil (PMMC) type instrument? (DEC 15,APR 2011, JUNE
2010)
Principle
A current carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, a force is exerted. It
tends to act on the coil and moves it away from the field. This movement of the coil
is used to measure current or voltage.
Construction
The constructional diagram of the PMMC instrument is shown in fig below.

152
 Fig: PMMC instruments
It consists of a moving coil which is either rectangular or circular in shape,
which has number of turns of fine wire. The coil is placed in uniform, horizontal
and radial magnetic field of a permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe.
The core is spherical if the coil is circular and is cylindrical if the coil is
rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflection torque increases which in turn
increases the sensitivity of the instrument.
Controlling torque is provided by the method of spring control with the help
of two phosphor bronze hair springs. Damping torque is provided by the
movement of the aluminum former in the magnetic field produced by the
permanent magnet.
A pointer attached to the spindle is made to move over a calibrated scale.
The mirror is placed below the pointer to get an accurate reading without
parallax error.
Working
A magnetic field of sufficient density is produced by the permanent
magnet. The moving coil carries the current or a current proportional to the
voltage to be measured.
Hence, an electromagnetic force is produced which tends to act on the
moving coil and moves it away from the field. This movement makes the spindle
move and so the pointer gives a proportionate deflection.
Torque equation
Deflecting torque Td  NBAI
Where , N – Number of turns of the coil
A- Effective coil area in m2
I – Current passing through the moving coil

153
 B-Flux density in air gap
It is directly proportional to the current or the voltage to be measured. So,
the instrument can be used to measure direct current and dc voltage.
Controlling torque is provided by the spring and is proportional to the
angular deflection of the pointer. Controlling torque Tc  K s
At equilibrium, Tc=Td
The advantages of PMMC instrument are
 The scale is uniformly divided.
 The power consumption is very low
 The torque-weight ratio is high which gives a high accuracy. The accuracy is
of the order of generally 2 percent of full scale deflection.
 A single instrument may be used for many different current and voltage
ranges by using different values for shunts and multipliers.
The disadvantages of PMMC instrument are
 These instruments are useful only for d.c. The torque reverses if the current
reverses. If the instrument is connected to a.c., the pointer cannot follow the
rapid reversals and the deflection corresponds to mean torque, which is
zero. Hence these instruments cannot be used for a.c.
 The cost of these instruments is higher than that of moving iron
instruments.
6. Explain the operating of single phase energy meter with necessary diagram.
[NOV 14,MAY 16,NOV 16) Or Explain principle of operation of induction
type energy meter. [NOV 11]
Energy meter is an integrating meter; it gives the quantity of electrical
energy consumed over a specified period.

Fig: Single phase energy meter

154
 Principle
When a conducting metal part is placed in an alternating magnetic field,
eddy currents are induced in the metal part. The magnetic flux produced by these
eddy currents are made to interact with another magnetic field. Thus, the required
operating torque is produced. The instrument can work on alternating current
only.

Construction
The salient parts of an induction type energy meter are schematically shown in
Fig. Four main parts of the induction type energy meter are,
i) Driving system
ii) Moving system
iii) Braking system
iv) Registering system
The instrument consists of the following parts:
M1 — Shunt magnet. The coil over this carries a current proportional to the system
voltage.
M2 — Series magnet. The coil over this carries a current proportional to the system
current.
AD — Aluminum disc connected to the spindle (SP).
M3 — Brake magnet. This is a permanent magnet. It is so arranged that the
aluminum disc is in the gap between the pole pieces of it. As a result of this, when
in rotation, the aluminum disc cut the permanent magnetic flux.
i)Driving system
It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel
laminations. The coil of one of the electromagnets which is excited by the load
current is called current coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called series
magnet.
The coil of the second electromagnet which is connected across the supply
carries a current proportional to the supply voltage and is called pressure coil and
the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt magnet. Adjustable copper
shading band are provided on the central limb of shunt magnet whose function is
to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the
applied voltage.
ii) Moving system
It consists of an aluminum disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. The disc is
positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt magnets. In this type, there
is no controlling torque; continuous rotation of the disc is produced due to the
driving torque only.
iii) Braking system
It consists of a permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the
aluminum disc. When in rotation, the aluminum disc cuts the magnetic flux
produced by the brake magnet.

155
 Hence, the induced currents interact with the permanent magnetic flux and
produce the braking torque. As per Lenz's law, the braking torque opposes the
rotating torque. The aluminum disc attains a steady speed when the braking
torque balances the rotating torque.
iv) Registering mechanism
The instrument has a suitable registering mechanism by which the
consumption of energy is recorded correctly.
Working
Rotating torque: The current in the shunt magnet produces a flux  sh
which in turn produces are eddy current i sh in the disc. Similarly, the current in
the series magnet set up of a flux  se which produced an eddy current ise in the
disc. Due to the interaction between the sets of fluxes and the eddy currents, a
torque is exerted on the disc and so the disc is put in rotation. Such a torque is
continuously exerted and so the disc continues to rotate as long as the instrument
is connected to the supply. Thai torque is called the rotating torque. It is
proportional to the power consumed and the rotation of the disc accounts for the
time. Thus, the energy is recorded.
Advantages
 Simple in operation
 High torque/weight ratio
 Cheap in cost
 Unaffected by temperature variations.

7. Explain the principle and operation of dynamometer type wattmeter and

derive deflecting torque. Write advantages and disadvantages. (DEC 15,NOV
14,JUNE 14)
Construction of dynamometer type wattmeter:

Fig:
Dyn amome
ter type
wattmeter

156
 Following figure shows the dynamometer wattmeter for measuring the
power. If two coils are connected such that, current proportional to the load
voltage, flows through one coil and current proportional to the load current, flows
through other coil, the meter can be calibrated directly in watts. This is true
because the indication depends upon the product of the two magnetic fields. The
strength of the magnetic fields depends upon the values of the current flowing
through the coils.
Working of dynamometer type wattmeter:
Let
v=supply voltage
i=load current and
R=resistance of the moving coil circuit.
Current through fixed coils, i(f)=I,
Current through the moving coil, i(m)=v/R
Deflecting torque,

 For a DC circuit the deflecting torque is thus proportional to the power.

 For any circuit with fluctuating torque, the instantaneous torque is
proportional to instantaneous power. In this case due to inertia of moving
parts, the deflection will be proportional to the average power. For sinusoidal
alternating quantities the average power is VI COSф, where
V= r.m.s. value of voltage,
I=r.m.s. value of current, and
Ф= phase angle between V and I
Hence an electrodynamics instrument, when connected as shown in figure,
indicates the power, irrespective of the fact it is connected in an AC or DC circuit.
Ranges:

i) Current circuit: 0.25 A to 100 A with employing current transformers (CTs).

ii) Potential circuit: 5V to 750 V without employing potential transformers (PTs).
Types of Dynamometer wattmeter:
Dynamometer wattmeter may be divided into two classes:
 Suspended-coil torsion instruments.
 Pivoted-coil, direct indicating instruments.
Suspended-coil torsion wattmeter:

These instruments are used largely as standard wattmeter.

 The moving, or voltage, coil is suspended from a torsion head by a metallic
suspension which serves as a lead to the coil.
 This coil is situated entirely inside the current or fixed coils and the winding
in such that the system is a static. Errors due to external magnetic fields are
thus avoided.

157
  The torsion heads carries a scale, and when in use, the moving coil is
bought back to the zero position by turning this head; the number of
divisions turned through when multiplied by a constant for the instrument
gives the power.
 Eddy currents are eliminated as far as possible by winding the current coils
of standard wire and by using no metal parts within the region of the
magnetic field of the instrument.
 The mutual inductance errors are completely eliminated by making zero
position of the coil such that the angle between the planes of moving coil
and fixed coil is 90 degree. i.e. the mutual inductance between the fixed and
moving coil is zero.
 The elimination of pivot friction makes possible the construction of
extremely sensitive and accurate electrodynamics instruments of this
pattern.
Pivoted-coil direct-indicating wattmeter:

These instruments are commonly used as switchboard or portable instruments.

 In these instruments, the fixed coil is wound in two halves, which are placed
in parallel to another at such a distance, that uniform field is obtained.
 The moving coil is wound of such a size and pivoted centrally so that it does
not project outside the field coils at its maximum deflection position.
 The springs are pivoted for controlling the movement of the moving coil,
which also serves as currents lead to the moving coil.
 The damping is provided by using the damping vane attached to the moving
system and moving in a sector-shaped box.
 The reading is indicated directly by the pointer attached to the moving
system and moving over the calibrated scale.
 The eddy current errors, within the region of the magnetic field of the
instrument, are minimized by the use of non-metallic parts of high
resistivity material.
Advantages:

1) In dynamometer type wattmeter, the scale of the instrument is uniform

(because deflecting torque is proportional to the true power in both DC as well as
AC and the instrument is spring controlled
2)  High degree of accuracy can be obtained by careful design; hence these are
used for calibration purposes.
Disadvantages:

1)    The error due to the inductance of the pressure coil at low power factor is very
serious (unless special features are incorporated to reduce its effect)

158
 2)    In dynamometer type wattmeter, stray field may affect the reading of the
instrument. To reduce it, magnetic shielding is provided by enclosing the
instrument in an iron case.
8. Explain the operation of LVDT. [NOV 14][APR 15] [NOV/DEC’ 17]
LVDT is the most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear
motion into electrical signal.

Construction:

Fig: LVDT
LVDT is a differential transformer consisting of a single primary winding P
and two secondary windings S1 and S2 wounded over a hallow bobbin of non-
insulating material.
The secondary windings S1 and S2 have equal number of turns and
identically placed either side of the primary winding. A movable soft iron core piece
is placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm
attached to the soft iron core.
Working:
 The primary winding is excited by an alternating source, it produces an
alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating voltages.
 The output of secondary winding S 1 is Es1 and the output of secondary
winding S2 is Es2. In order to convert the output voltage from S1 and S2 into a
single voltage, the two secondaries S1 and S2are connected in series
opposition.
Differential output voltage E0= Es1-Es2

159
  When the core is at normal position (NULL), the flux linking with both the
secondary windings is equal and hence equal emf’s are induced in them.
Thus at position Es1 = Es2, so the output voltage E0 is zero at null position.
 When the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, more flux links with
winding S1 and less with winding S2. So the output voltage Es1 of the
secondary winding S1 is more than output voltage Es2 of the secondary
winding S2, so the output voltage is E0= Es1-Es2
 When the core is moved to the rightt of the NULL position, more flux links
with winding S2 and less with winding S 1. So the output voltage Es 2 of the
secondary winding S2 is more than output voltage Es1 of the secondary
winding S1, so the output voltage is E0= Es2-Es1.
Advantages:
 The output of LVDT is linear for displacements upto 5mm.
 LVDT has high sensitivity& low hysteresis.
 The LVDT gives high output and no need for amplification
 LVDT has Absence of sliding contact makes LVDT a more reliable device.
 LVDT can be used on high frequencies upto 20 KHz.
Disadvantages:
 Larger displacements are required for differential output.
 They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
 Sometimes the transducer performance is affected by vibrations.
 Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.
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 Applications:
LVDT is used to measure
 Displacement
 Force
 Weight
 Pressure
 Position
9. Explain the operation of strain gauges.[NOV 11][NOV 12] [NOV/DEC’ 17]
A strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation
in electrical resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force.
If a metal conductor is compressed or stretched, its resistance changes (both
length and diameter). Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the
conductor when it is strained. This property is called piezo resistive effect. So
strain gauges also called as piezo resistive transducer.
Types of strain gauges:
 Wire strain gauges
 Foil strain gauges
 Thin film strain gauges
 Semiconductor strain gauges
i. Wire strain gauges:
Unbounded strain gauge:

Fig: Unbounded strain gauge

An unbounded stain gauge consists of a wire stretched between two points
in an insulating medium such as air. The diameter of a wire is 25µm. The wires
are kept under tension so no sag and free from vibration. Unbounded strain
gauges are usually connected in a bridge circuit.
When an external load is applied, the resistance of the temperature changes,
causing an unbalance in the bridge circuit consisting in an output voltage. The
voltage is proportional to strain. A displacement of the order of 50 µm can be
detected with the strain gauges.

161
Bonded strain gauge:

Fig: Bonded strain gauge

A fine wire about 25µm or less in diameter is looped back and forth on a
carrier on mounting plate which is usually cemented to the member undergoing
stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thin sheet of
paper, Bakelite or Teflon.
This wire is converted on the top with the thin material, so that is not
damaged mechanically. The spreading of the wire permits uniform distribution of
stress. The carrier is then bonded to the member being studied. Thus permits
good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
ii. Foil strain gauge
The strain is sensed with the help of a metal foil is called foil strain gauge.
The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome, constantan,
isoelastic, nickel and platinum.

Fig: Foil strain gauge

Foil strain gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity than wire
wound gauges, on account of their larger surface area of the same volume. It can
be fabricated on a large scale and in any shape
iii. Thin film strain gauges:
A thin film strain gauge is produced by depositing a thin layer of metal alloy
on an elastic metal specimen by means of vacuum deposition or sputtering
process.
In the vacuum deposition, the diaphragm is placed in a vacuum chamber
with some insulating material. Heat is applied until the insulating material
vaporizes and condenses, forming a thin dielectric film on the diaphragm. Then
suitably shaped templates are placed over the diaphragm and the evaporation is
repeated with metallic gauge material.

162
 In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is again deposited in a
vacuum over the entire diaphragm surface. In the process, the gauge or insulating
material is held at negative potential and the target is placed at positive potential.
iv. Semiconductor strain gauge

Fig: Semiconductor strain gauge

 Semiconductor strain gauges are used when a very high value of gauge
factor is required. The resistance of the semiconductor changes with change
in temperature.
 Semiconductors are used germanium and silicon. The semiconductor strain
gauge consists of a strain material and leads that are placed in a protective
box.
 Semiconductor wafers or filaments which have thickness of 0.05 mm are
used. They are bonded on suitable insulating substrates, such as Teflon.
Gold leads are used for making contacts. Special solder material used for
making contacts such as cadmium or tin is employed for soldering the leads
to the circuit.
Advantages:
 Higher life time
 Hysteresis characteristics are excellent
 High gauge factor
 Low cross sensitivity
 High frequency response

Disadvantages:
 Very sensitive to changes in temperature
 More expensive
 Linearity is very poor
10. Explain the operation of resistance thermometer. (RTD) [NOV 11] [APR 15]

163
 The resistance thermometer is an instrument is used to measure electrical
resistance in terms of temperature. It uses the change in electrical resistance of
the conductor to determine the temperature.
The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element. The
characteristic of the sensing element determines the sensitivity and operating
range of the instrument. It is also called as resistance temperature divider (RTD).
Requirements of the resistance materials for RTD’s
 The change in resistance of material per unit change in temperature should
be large.
 The material should have a high value of resistivity.
 The resistance of material has a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature.
Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used to measure
the temperature. The resistivity of the platinum tends to increase less at
higher temperatures than other metals.
The RTD does not generate its own voltage, so a voltage source is required to be
incorporated into the measuring unit. Wheatstone bridges are usually employed
for measurement of variations in resistance, owing to changes in temperature. The
bridges are usually calibrated for indicating the temperature that caused the
variation in resistance.

Advantages:
 The measurement is very accurate
 Indicators, recorders and controllers can also be operated
 No necessity for temperature compensation
 Stability of performance over long periods of time
Disadvantages:
 High cost
 Need for bridge circuit and power source
 Possibility of self heating
11. Explain the operation of the piezoelectric transducer. [APR 11] [NOV 11]
[NOV 12][NOV 14][APR 15] [NOV/DEC’ 17]
A piezo electric transducer is one in which an electric potential appears
across certain surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the dimensions of crystal
are changed by the application of the mechanical force. This potential is produced
by the displacement of charges.

164
 If a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will
change the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it. This phenomenon is
called piezoelectric effect.The parameters that decide the nature of the crystal for
the application are
 Angle at which the wafer is cut from natural quartz crystal
 Plate thickness ,Dimension of the plate, Means of mounting
Common piezoelectric material include
rocheele salt, ammonium dihydrogen,
Phospate, quartz and ceramics made
with harinumtitanate, dipotassium
tartrate, potassium dihydrogen
phosphate and lithium sulphate .
The piezo electric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the
materials in different modes.

The mode of motion is employed depends on the shape of the body related to
crystal axis and the location of the electrodes. A piezoelectric element is used for
converting mechanical motion into electrical signals. The output voltage is E 0=Q/C
A crystal is placed between the solid base and force summing member. An
externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies
pressure at the top of the crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal
proportional to the magnitude of applied pressure on of applied force.
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface charges are proportional
to the magnitude and direct.
Equivalent circuit of piezo electric transducers

165
 Advantages
1. Very high frequency response.
2. Self generating, so no need of external source.
3. Simple to use as they have small dimensions and large measuring range.
Disadvantages
1. It is not suitable for measurement in static condition.
2. Since the device operates with the small electric charge, they need high
impedance cable for electrical interface.
3. The output may vary according to the temperature variation of the crystal.
4. The relative humidity rises above 85% or falls below 35%, its output will be
affected. If so, it has to be coated with wax or polymer material.
Applications
1. Due to its excellent frequency response, it is normally used as an
accelerometer, where the output is in the order of (1-30) mV per gravity of
acceleration.
2. The device is usually designed for use as a pre-tensional bolt so that both
tensional and compression force measurements can be made.
3. Can be used for measuring force, pressure and displacement in terms of
voltage.
12. Explain the operation of analog storage oscilloscope.
An analog storage oscilloscope uses the phenomenon of secondary electron
emission to build up and store electrostatic charges on the surface of an insulated
target. These oscilloscopes are widely used for
 Real time observation of events that occur only once
 Displaying the waveform of a very low frequency signal

Fig: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

 The construction of a CRT using variable persistence storage is called mesh
storage CRT. With the variable persistence the slow swept trace can be
stored on display continuously by adjusting the persistence of the CRT.

166
  A mesh storage CRT contains a storage mesh, flood guns and collimator.
The storage mesh storage target behind the phosphor screen is a conductive
mesh covered with dielectric material consisting of a thin layer of material
such as magnesium fluoride.
 The writing gun gives a narrow focused beam which can be deflected and
used to write the information to be stored. The writing gun etches positively
charged pattern on the storage mesh by knocking of emission electrons.

 This positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position on the

storage target where it is deposited. The electron bean which is deflected
both in horizontal and vertical directions traces out the wave pattern in
storage mesh.
 In order to make the pattern visible, the flood guns are switched on. They
are placed inside the CRT in a position between the deflection plate and
storage target and they emit low velocity electrons covering a large area
towards the screen.
 The electron paths are adjusted by the collimator electrodes consisting of a
conductive coating on the inside surface of the CRT.
 Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh and
therefore, never reach the phosphor screen.
 Only electrons near the stored positive charge are pulled tot eh storage
target with sufficient force to hit the phosphor screen. For erasing of the
pattern on the storage target, a negative charge is applied to neutralize the
stored positive charge.
13. Explain the principle and operation of thermoelectric transducer.
Principle:
The principle used in thermocouple is called the “principle of
thermoelectricity” which was discovered by Seeback.
The principle states that “When two conductors of different metals A and B
are joined together at one end to form a junction is heated to a higher
temperature with respect to the free ends, a voltage is developed at the free ends
and if these two conductors of metals at the free ends are connected, then the
emf set up will establish a flow of current”.
The magnitude of the net emf depends upon the magnitude between
the temperature of the two junctions and the materials used for the conductors.

167
Thermocouple arrangements for measuring temperature:
Description: Fig: Seeback effect
The components of a thermocouple arrangement used to measure
temperature are
 The thermocouple hot junction JH which will be introduced into the place
where temperature is to be measured.
 The thermocouple hot junction JC which is maintained at a constant reference
temperature.
 A voltage measuring instrument (which is usually a milli voltmeter ) is
connected to the free ends of the thermocouple.
Operation:
The thermocouple’s hot junction JH is introduced into the place where the
temperature is to be measure as shown in fig.

Fig: Thermocouple – Temperature measurement

The reference temperature is to be controlled at a constant temperature of
00C.
Since the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is set up at
the free ends since the free end are connected to a millivoltmeter, the emf set up
will establish a flow of current which can be directly measured using
millivoltmeter.
Since the reference junction is kept at 00C, the emf measured is a function
of the temperature of the hot measuring junction. The millivoltmeter is calibrated
suitably so that its reading becomes an indication of the temperature.
Advantages:
 It is cheaper than resistance thermometer.
 It follows the temperature changes with a small time lag.
Disadvantages:
 Lower accuracy.
 To operate for a longer time, it should be protected well.

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14. Explain the operation of successive approximation type DVM.[NOV/DEC ‘17]

• In this type DVM, the feedback voltage is not obtained from the output
voltage. It is assumed by the successive approximation.
• This function is performed by the combination of logic control and sequencer
block and D/A converter block which generates voltages in the set position of
pattern 8-4-2-1.
• Initially when the switch is position 2, the logic control and sequencer along
with D/A converter block generates the highest value (8V) for the first digit.
• This value for the first digit is fed to the capacitor C, as the switch in position 2.
Now the capacitor is charged to 8V. As soon as the capacitor is fully charged,
the position of switch is changed into position 1.
• When the switch is in position 1, the unknown voltage is fed into the
comparator. Now the comparator compares the unknown voltage and the
assumed block voltage in the capacitor produces a logic HIGH/LOW signal
depending upon the comparison result.
• If the feedback voltage is higher than the unknown voltage, then the logic
HIGH signal is generated by the comparator and it is sent to logic control and
sequencer block which is connected to the D/A converter.
• Then the D/A converter along with the logic control and sequencer block
generates the next lower voltage (4V) and send it the comparator and the
procedure is repeated until the comparator produces logic LOW signal.
• If the feedback voltage is less than the unknown voltage, the logic LOW signal Is
fed to the D/A converter through the logic control and sequencer block, then the
corresponding digit (8V) is stored in D/A converter and the D/A converter
generates the next voltage (4V) in the same pattern 8-4-2-1 for further
comparison and the process is repeated until the value stored in the D/A
converter becomes equal to the unknown voltage.
Advantages:
• General range of digits is 3 to 5 and it decides the resolution of the instrument
• Inexpensive method
Disadvantages:
 If electromechanical switches are used, speed of measurement is less
 If the noise is introduced in the input, the reading will be inaccurate.

169
 15.Explain the operating principle of digital multimeter (DMM).
[APR/MAY’07] [APR/MAY’10] [APR/MAY’11] [MAY/JUNE’14] [APR/MAY’15]

Digital multimeter is used to measure the DC and AC voltages and direct

and alternating currents and resistances over a wide several ranges.

The basic block diagram of DMM is a DC voltmeter which can directly

display DC voltages. For the measurement of DC current, a low shunt resistance
is used in the input to convert the voltage into current.

For the measurement of AC voltages and currents, the AC values are

converted into DC values by using rectifier and filter circuits and the
corresponding DC voltages are measures using the basic circuit.

For the measurement of various ranges of resistances, ohms converter (low

current source is used. A known current from the low current source is passed
through the unknown resistor and the value of voltage drop across the resistor is
measured. This voltage drop gives the direct indication of the unknown resistor.

The A/D converter is used to convert analog voltages, currents and

resistances into digital values. Dual slope integrating type ADC is used because of its
resolution and accuracy.

This digital value is fed to the counter which counts the pulses and displays in
the digital display. Sometimes the output can be also be interfaced with other
devices.

170
The main parts of the digital multimeter are,

• Current to voltage converter

• DC voltage attenuator
• AC voltage attenuator
• AC to DC converter
• Resistance to voltage converter (Ohms converter)
• Analog to digital converter
• Display devices

Current to voltage converter:

To measure the current with DMM, a known value of resistance is placed in

series with the current and the voltage drop is measured with standard DVM circuit.

DC voltage attenuator:

The input of an ADC in DMM is limited to less than 10V.Therefore the DC

voltages more than 10V have to be attenuated in the input stage of DMM. It is
obtained by sort of resistive voltage divider network.

AC to DC converter:

Precision rectifier is used to convert AC voltages into DC voltages. Precision

rectifier circuit is also called as half wave rectifier. The major disadvantage of
precision rectifier is that it is accurate only with a pure sine wave signal.

Ohms converter:

To measure the DC resistance with a digital meter is to pass a constant current

through the unknown resistance and measure the resulting voltage drop.

Analog to digital converter:In DMM, DC current, AC current, AC voltage and

resistance are converted into DC voltages. This DC voltage is given as input to the A/D
converter and it gives the digital output to the display unit.

Display devices:

Digital meters currently use either LED or LCD displays. LCDs are better
suited for portable devices and LEDs are provide good visibility in low ambient light
levels.

Advantages:

• Highly accurate
• Loading effect is nil because of high input impedance

171
 • Measurement speed is more
• Easily portable
• Very cheap
• Easy to interface with other devices
• Resolution is high in the order of 10/µV
• A single instrument can be used to measure various ranges
Disadvantages:
• Interruption of electric noise
• Requirement of external power supply
• Isolation problem occurs in DMM.

16. Explain the operation of digital storage oscilloscope.[APR/MAY’08][APR/MAY’10]

[APR/MAY’11][NOV/DEC11] [NOV/DEC’12] [MAY/JUNE’14] [NOV/DEC’17]

• The digital storage oscilloscope stores a signal by converting successive samples

into binary numbers. Which are store in a digital memory and used to recreate a
composite waveform in much the same manner as the sampling oscilloscope
display is created.
• This type of oscilloscope samples the voltage of the waveform over many cycles,
each little time later in the cycle. The stored waves are used to synthesize a
discrete representation of the signal

• The input is amplified and attenuated with input amplifier as in any

oscilloscope. Then the samples are taken by a sample-hold circuit that is
connected to the input signal for a very short period of time compared to
length of one cycle.

172
 • The output of sample-hold circuit is connected to an analog-digital converter,
where the analog voltage level is converted into a digital number and stored in
memory.
• When enough samples are taken, the stored digital numbers are successively
converted into analog values by a digital to analog converter, and or sent to the
vertical deflection circuit as the trace is swept horizontally in synchronism.
• The digital to analog conversion process is repeated continuously,
maintaining the trace on the screen as long as desired, through the vertical
deflection amplifier. The waveform displayed is the result of samples taken over
many cycles and it does not give a true representation of cycle to cycle changes.

Advantages:

• Infinite storage time and easy to operate

• Pre triggering feature allows display of waveform before the trigger pulse
• Signal processing is possible
• Curser measurement is possible
• It is capable of displaying X-Y plots, P-V diagrams and B-H curve.

• A number of traces depending on the memory size can be stored and

recalled.
17. Explain the operation of Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone bridge is used for measurement of resistance from

10 to the low mega ohm range. This bridge consists of four resistive rms, DC
source and galvanometer. The current through galvanometer depends on the
potential difference between C and D. If the current through the galvanometer is
zero, the circuit is said to be balanced. The resistors R 1 and R2 are called ratio
arms and resistor R3 is called standard arm of the bridge.

173
18. Explain the operation of Schering Bridge.[APR/MAY’06][NOV/DEC’06]
[NOV/DEC’07][APR/MAY’08][APR/MAY’10][NOV/DEC’11][NOV/DEC’12]
[APR/MAY’15]

 This bridge is used to measure the unknown capacitance with low

dissipation factor.
 It is also used to measure the insulating properties of the electrical cables
for phase angles very close to 90° and equipments
At balance condition,

174
Advantages:
 The balance equation is independent of frequency.
 It is used for measuring insulating properties of electrical cables and
 Equipments.
13. Explain the operation of Maxwell Bridge.[NOV/DEC’06][NOV/DEC’07]
[NOV/DEC’08][NOV/DEC’12]

The Maxwell Bridge or Maxwell-Wien Bridge is used to measure both a given

unknown inductance (With Q between 1 and 10) and its series resistance by
comparison to a standard capacitance.
 Using a capacitance as a standard, offers several advantages. Capacitors are
 easy to shield and they produce almost no external field of their own.
 The resistors R1 and R3 are variable and R2 and C1 are fixed value
standards.

At balance condition,

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Advantages:
The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations
 The two balance equations are independent
 This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of inductance at
 power and audio frequencies.
Disadvantages:
 This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q coils
 It requires a variable standard capacitor which may be very expensive if
calibrated to high degree of accuracy.

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14. Discuss about detail in Hall Effect sensor.

The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the conductor
and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current.

The Hall effect is due to the nature of the current in a conductor. Current consists
of the movement of many small charge carriers, typically electrons, holes, ions (see
Electromigration) or all three. When a magnetic field is present, these charges
experience a force, called the Lorentz force.

For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons), the

Hall voltage can be derived by using the Lorentz force and seeing that, in the
steady-state condition, charges are not moving in the y-axis direction. Thus, the
magnetic force on each electron in the y-axis direction is cancelled by a y-axis

electrical force due to the buildup of charges. The term is the drift velocity of

the current which is assumed at this point to be holes by convention. The

term is negative in the y-axis direction by the right hand rule.

For a simple metal where there is only one type of charge carrier (electrons), the

Hall voltage can be derived by using the Lorentz force and seeing that, in the
steady-state condition, charges are not moving in the y-axis direction. Thus, the
magnetic force on each electron in the y-axis direction is cancelled by a y-axis

electrical force due to the buildup of charges. The term is the drift velocity of

the current which is assumed at this point to be holes by convention. The

term is negative in the y-axis direction by the right hand rule.

The conventional "hole" current is in the negative direction of the electron current
and the negative of the electrical charge which gives where is charge carrier
density, is the cross-sectional area, and is the charge of each electron. Solving for
and plugging into the above gives the Hall voltage:

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