Republic of Iraq

Ministry of Higher Education

And Scientific Research
University of Baghdad
College of Science

solid state

(Applications of superconductivity)

A Report

Submitted to the College of Science University of Baghdad In

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of B.Sc.

in Physics

By:

(Haneen Hassan Shaaban)

(fourth stage : A)

Supervised By:

Dr.kamal Hameed Al-Taie

2020 - 2019
1-1 Introduction
Superconducting is now starting to be an interesting technology to be applied to
real applications. This technology is based in some peculiar effects. In fact, in a
classical superconductor the resistance goes to zero when the temperature becomes
higher than the absolute zero, which is known as the critical temperature. In 1908
the Dutch physicist Heike Onnes Kamerling began to work in the field of low
temperature physics through liquefying helium. Three years later, in 1911, he
found that below 4.2K the resistivity of mercury was null. Onnes also found that
the application of a magnetic field causes a decrease in the critical temperature, Tc.
Subjecting the superconductor to a sufficiently intense field, the superconductivity
disappears and the material changes to its normal state. Being the temperature a
thermodynamic decisive variable for the occurrence of the transition of phase of
the normal state to the superconducting state, it is not unique, since the intensity of
the magnetic field also causes phase transition of that occurrence. This means that
when the material is in the superconducting state and is applied a magnetic field
whit a value behind to the critical value of the magnetic field intensity, Hc, the
superconductivity is destroyed and the material has a transition of phase, namely
changes from the superconducting state to normal conduction state.

2-1 Meissner Effect

German physicians Walther Meissner and Robert Oschsenfeld verify in 1933 that
superconductors present different properties from the ideal conductors. By
submitting the tin Sn, and lead Pb, at temperatures below the critical temperature
and under the action of a magnetic field, they have found that magnetic field lines
do not penetrate the sample of these materials, which corresponds to 𝑩⃗⃗ =0 within
the sample, being this phenomenon known as the Meissner effect [1]. With this
discovery it was demonstrated that a superconductor is a diamagnetic material,
while an ideal conductor despite its zero resistivity does not have this property. In
this way, it was defined a new state of matter with very particular properties.
3-1 Main characteristics of superconductors

The diagram of Fig. 1 summarizes the phenomena associated with the main
characteristics of superconductors (SC): diamagnetism and zero resistivity. Due to
the mentioned characteristics, superconducting materials can withstand high
currents which are called by supercurrents. It was also verified that the material
loses its superconducting properties when the critical magnetic induction or
critical temperature is exceeded.

Fig. 1. Diagram of the main characteristics of SC

4-1 Classification of superconductors

The response of the superconductors to the application of an external magnetic
induction led to the classification of the superconductor material into two types:
Type I and Type II superconductors.The superconductors of Type I are generally
metals and some metallic alloys, being generally electrical conductors at ambient
temperature, and acquires superconductive properties at very low temperatures.
The first element to be discovered by physical Heike Onnes in 1911, was the
mercury (Hg), which had a virtually zero resistivity when subjected to a
temperature of 4.2 K. Type II superconductors are formed essentially by metallic
alloys and other compounds. The exceptions are the pure metals Vanadium (V),
Technetium (Tc), niobium (Nb) and carbon (C) that are Type II superconductors.

Fig. 2. Diagram of the classification of superconductors.

In general the critical temperature associated with this type of superconductors is

much higher than that of Type I. The first discovered superconducting material of
Type II was an alloy of lead and bismuth manufactured in 1930 by W. Haas and J.
Voogd [2], which verified that the alloy present different characteristics of the
superconductors Type I. The diagram presented in Fig. 2 shows a summary of the
classification of superconductors.

5-1Ginzburg-Landau Theory
In 1950, Soviet physicists Landau and Ginzburg formulated a theory that explains
the transition thermodynamic properties of the normal state to the superconducting
state, using quantum mechanics to describe the effect of the magnetic field. The
first Ginzburg-Landau theory refers to the intuitive idea that a superconductor
contains a supercurrent density 𝐽 𝑠 and a normal current density 𝐽 𝑛, being the total
current density given by: 𝐽 𝑡 = 𝐽 𝑛 + 𝐽 𝑠 . The density of the supercurrent can be
described by a wave function Ψ given by equation (1).
|𝛹2 | (1)

This wave function Ψ decreases when close to the critical temperature, since the
number of superelectrons decreases with the increase of the temperature. Thus a
decrease in the number of superelectrons implies a reduction of the wave
function, according equation (1). The wave function, Ψ, in the superconducting
state is different from zero, while in the normal state the wave function is zero, as
expression (2).
𝜓 ≠ 0 𝑠𝑒 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑐 (2)

𝜓 = 0 𝑠𝑒 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑐

The Ginzburg-Landau theory also provides the existence of another fundamental

value related to superconductivity, which is designated as coherence length, and
that can be estimated by equation (3).

𝜉 2 = ℎ 2 /𝑚∗|𝛼| (3)

Where h is the Planck constant, 𝑚∗ the mass of a pair of electron and 𝛼 a

parameter phenomenological depending on the temperature. The equation that
relates the London penetration length with the wave function is given by:
𝜆L^2= 𝑚^2/ 𝜇0|𝛹2|𝑒 ^2 (4)

The ratio between the two characteristic lengths, London penetration length and
coherence length, defines the Ginzburg-Landau parameter given by equation (5).

𝑘 = 𝜆𝐿 /𝜉 (5)

2 then the material isIf the value of 𝑘 is less than 1/ 2 thesuperconductor Type I
and for 𝑘 greater than 1/ material is superconductor Type II [3]. As can be seen
from the Fig. 3 a), the London penetration length is much lesser than the
coherence length

Fig. 3. Evolution of the magnetic field and superconducting

electrons inside of a superconducting sample: a)Type I, b) Type II
In Fig. 3. b) it can be seen that the evolution of the decay of the magnetic field
intensity inside the sample is slower, contrary to what happened in the Fig. 3 a).
In this case, the evolution of the characteristic that represents the
superconducting electrons is faster when is analyzed from the superconductor
surface to the interior. This behavior results in an increased penetration length
and a shorter coherence length. When the ratio between the two magnitudes,
given by the expression (5) exceeds 1/ √2 then the superconductor is said to be of
Type II.

6-1 . Main Applications

With the discovery of High Temperature Superconductors (HTS) the commercial
applications involving these materials became very interesting. In fact, the high
power density and electrical efficiency of superconductor wire results in highly
compact, powerful devices and systems that are more reliable, efficient, and
environmentally benign. Thus, their application involves areas such as, medicine,
transportation electrical grids and industry

. A Magnetic Levitation Train

One of the main applications of the superconductivity is in transportation, more
specifically in trains through the magnetic levitation. Due to this, the friction
between the train and the rail is eliminated. As a result, these trains can achieve
high speed with lower consumption and noise. The maglev train in Shanghai that
began commercial operations in 2004 is one example of a real application where
this technology is used (Fig. 4). That line has a distance around 30km between the
financial area of Xangai and the airport (Pudong). It can achieve 450km/h with a
time travel of 8 minutes. Another commercial maglev train is the one that was
built in Changsha, China. This train is the first one fully developed in China, being
the first mid-low speed maglev in China, and with the purpose of be an
experimental line. The line stretches 18.5 kilometers and links the Changsha
South Railway Station with the local airport, being the longest one of its kind in
the world. It was open in May 2016.

However, it is expected the implementation of new projects with this technology.

The Japanese rail operator announced the implementation of a new magnetic
levitation train able to achieve 600km/h. They expect to have in operation this
new train in 2027 [4].This line will have a 286km route with an expected time
travel of 40min less than an hour compared with the same route travelled by the
actual “shinkansen” or bullet trains

Fig. 4. Maglev train at Xangai.

. B Transmission and Distribution Electrical Systems

The use of superconductivity for the electricity transport is another area where
this technology can be used with several benefits. One of the main advantages is
the lack of resistive losses improving in this way the efficiency of the energy
transportation, [5]. However, there are other advantages such as, higher
transport capability, smaller overall size leading to lower impact on soil, possibility
of using exiting corridors and lower impact on nature. Due to this, in the last years
it started the use of semiconductors in electricity transport. Some examples of
that application can be seen in table 1, where it is possible to verify that this
technology was used in medium and high voltage transportation [6].

Table I. - Type Sizes

Another application associated with the electrical transmission and distribution
where is used the superconductivity is the fault current limiters. These devices
allow to limit short-circuit currents on utility distribution and transmission
networks through the use of HTS. Unlike reactors or high-impedance
transformers, they allow to limit fault currents without introduce an impedance in
the circuit in normal operation. Due to this interesting characteristic, this
technology is now being extensively studied in order to be applied in future
networks. Some of the main applications are: at the output of a transformer to
protect an entire bus; to protect an individual feeder; between two buses that are
supplied by a transformer (the two buses are tied, but in a situation of a faulty
bus, that bus will receive the full fault current of only one transformer).
. C Transformers, Generators and Motors
Besides the use of superconductivity for the electricity transport, it is also possible
to use this technology in other electrical power systems. Examples of this are the
use of superconductivity in transformers, generators and motors. The interest to
use the superconductivity in transformers started in 1960s with the appearance
of low-temperature superconductors and their use in the transformer windings.
In fact, several manufacturers around the world, among them the European (ABB
and Alstom), the Japonese (KEPC) and Americans (Westinghouse) (USA) made
some tests with these equipment’s. However, with the discovery of HTS materials
in 1986, this interest increased since allowed to eliminate the cumbersome
cooling devices. Several advantages are associated with HTS transformers,
namely, greater efficiency, ability to run above rated power without affecting
transformer life, smaller, lighter and quieter. Fig. 5 a) shows the prototype of a
single-phase transformer with 2MVA (66kV/6.9kV) that was developed by a
research group in Japan, [7]. Some transformers with HTS materials have been
developed and tested. The ABB Company tested a 630 kV three-phase
transformer for the Swiss utility to be used for one year under regular operational
conditions [8]. Another project was developed by the Siemens Company, where a
1MVA demonstrator transformer for railway applications was tested with success
[9]. Through the use of superconductors in generators is possible to obtain
several benefices. In the classical generators there are losses associated to the
rotor windings and armature bars. However, through the use of superconducting
wire for the field windings, these losses can be practically eliminated. On other
hand, the fields that are created in the armature by the rotor are not limited by
the saturation characteristics of the iron and the armatures are constructed
without iron teeth. Due to this, it is possible to eliminate the losses experienced in
the armature teeth. Thus, with the use of HTS material many research was done
in order to become a reality the use of these generators. Besides the advantages
described before, generators with HTS technology can provide fast response and
reactive power support. Due to this, HTS generators can be used to support the
power grid in order to keep running smoothly in the face of new patterns of
power flows being brought on by the deregulation of power generation
throughout the world. Since HTS generators allows to reduce their volume when
compared with classical generators, their use in ships is very attractive. In fact, the
US Navy are interested in use these motors since their new generation of surface
ships is based on electrical drive due to lower operating and support cost [10].
Under this context, a 3.7MW engine has been tested A generator with 450kW was
also developed by the Siemens Company. Another project by Siemens, is a 4MW
propulsion motor [9].
As in the case of the generators, the use of the superconductivity technology was
also tested in electrical motors. As in the case of the generators, the interest in
using this technology was increased with the use of the HTS materials. In fact,
through the replacement of the conventional copper coils by superconducting
wires, it is possible to develop motors more energy efficient, less expensive, with
reduced size and weight, but also removing a significant source of motor noise

Fig. 5. a) Prototype 2 MV A HTS transformer [7],

b) Conventional Machine c) HTS Machine [10].

The use of this technology will have advantages particularly for large industrial
applications. In Fig. 5 b) is shown a classical and a HTS motor. From the Fig, 5 c) is
possible to verify that the size of the HTS motor is much smaller than the classical
one.
Due to the advantages of the application of this technology in motors some
machines have been developed. One of the examples is the 36.5MW high-
temperature superconductor (HTS) ship propulsion motor developed by the
American Superconductor Corp. (AMSC) and Northrop Grumman Corp. in 2009
.Through the incorporation of coils with HTS wire, it is possible to carry 150 times
the current of similar-sized copper wire, making the motor less than half the size
of conventional motors used on the first two DDG1000 hulls and with a reduce
ship weight by nearly 200 metric tons, [11]. This will make new ships more
fuelefficient, saving close to $1 million annually, depending of the cost of oil, and
free up space for additional warfighting capability, as AMSC said. Sumitomo
Electric and a Japanese research group succeeded to develop a HTS ship motor
cooled by liquid Nitrogen (Fig. 6 a). This motor has a nominal power of 365kW
with a speed of 250 rpm and weighing 4.4ton. This company also developed a
motor with around 30kW power and 120Nm torque. They developed this small
superconducting motor and successfully demonstrated for an electrical passenger
car (Fig. 6 b).
 By these examples it was demonstrated that superconducting motors will enable
to get larger torque, reduce the space and get higher energy efficiency.

Fig. 6. Superconducting motors Sumitomo:

a) Contrahelical propulsion system
b) electrical passenger car [12].

.D Energy Storage
There are several technologies that can be used to store electricity from the grid.
One of the technologies is based on the magnetic energy storage. However, in
order to increase the capacity of these systems, it was proposed the use of the
superconductivity. In fact, these systems designated by Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) are based on a magnetic field in a coil comprised
of superconducting wire with near-zero loss of energy. These devices are typically
consisted by a cryogenically cooled superconducting coil connected to the
electrical source through a power condition system

Fig. 7. Typical scheme of a Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES).

Fig.7 shows a typical scheme of this type of application. It consists in a DC/AC
power convert that controls the power that will be transferred to the
superconducting coil, and vice-versa. At the terminals of the superconducting coil
there is a switch that turns on when the system is in stand-off (allowing to
maintain the stored energy in the superconducting coil). For low temperature
materials it is used in the refrigerator system liquid helium while for high
temperature materials is used nitrogen.

SMES are characterized by their capability of store or discharge in an almost

instantaneous way large quantity of power. Due to this, they are an important
device in high power applications such as in transmission and distribution
electrical systems. In these applications, they can play an important role in the
grid reliability since it allow to alleviate congested power lines and attenuate the
impact of high penetration of renewable energy sources. Besides that, they are
also characterized by the capability to improve power quality of critical loads,
present less environment impact when compared with other storage systems
such as batteries and long term duration, [13]. Another storage technology where
superconductivity can be used is in flywheels, [14]. These storage systems are
based on rotating electrical machines. In these systems, the stored energy is
directly proportional to the mass of the object in movement but proportional to
the square of their rotational speed, [15]. According to this there are two types of
devices, the low speed and the fast speed flywheels. Most of the commercial
flywheels are low speed and made of metal with a very huge size. However, many
works have been done in order to reduce the size of the flywheel through the use
of high speeds. In these flywheels instead of use metal it is employed fiber-
reinforced plastics (FRP). Thus, with the use of these materials is possible to
obtain higher operational speeds since they have very high strength in the radial
direction. The main problem of this technology is the bearings. Besides the limits
in the development of mechanical bearings with contact between the stationary
and rotating parts they also generate enough loss to render the system
uneconomical. In order to solve this problem a non-contact active magnetic
bearing can be used. However this type of bearing consumes power, which is
dissipated as heat in the copper electromagnets. To overcome this problem it can
be used superconducting magnetic bearings. With this type of technology an
overall one-day, "roundtrip" system efficiency of 84% can be achieved, which is an
acceptable value, [16-17].

. E - Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

One of the major commercial applications of superconductivity is in the medical
diagnostic. In fact, images obtained from nuclear magnetic resonance, has now an
important role in the context of the image diagnose. This technology is based on
the generation of an intense magnetic field that is able to influence the
orientation of the atoms nuclei that constitute the human body. In order to
obtain high-resolution images, it is used superconducting coils capable of
generate strong magnetic fields (Fig. 8). The protons of the hydrogen atoms that
are present in water and fat molecules can be considered as small magnets. When
the human body is subjected to a magnetic field those small magnets (protons)
will be oriented by that magnetic field. When the magnetic field ceases those
small magnets will return to its equilibrium position through the emission of an
electrical signal. That electrical signal will depend on the type of the body tissue. If
the tissue is fat that means that the matter is very dense and the relaxation time
of protons will be short leading to a dark spot in the image diagnosis.

Fig. 8. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance equipment .

If the tissue is less dense then the relaxation time of protons is higher and will
give a clear spot on diagnostic imaging. The diagnosis through this type of images
has now become an essential medical procedure, due mainly to the development
of the capability of the computers processing, since is required an analysis of large
amount of data that is generated during the examinations.
.E.2. Fast Field Cycling – Nulear Magnetic Resonance

A fast field cycling (FFC) nuclear magnetic resonance relaxometer is basically

composed of the following components: a magnet; a power supply that provides
power to the magnet, a RF circuit; a receiver that processes the NMR signals,and
a console (Fig. 9.a).

Fig. 9.a) Magnet, console and power supply.

b) Magnet with superconducters (SC1, SC2, SC3)

With this technique a sample (from liquid crystals to polymers) is submitted to a

given magnetic induction (Zeeman induction) depending on the type of particle
under analysis. One possibility for creating the magnetic induction is through
Helmoltz coils [18]. Different solutions based on this configuration has been
developed targeting different magnetic induction homogeneities. At the end, it is
possible to design coils with distinct characteristics [18]. In addition, to achieve
the target magnetic induction required by the FFC technique with Helmoltz coils a
high current is required. This current is in general associated with large power
losses in the coil due to the Joule effect, and therefore, a complex cooling system
is required.

To overcome these technical issues, a magnet was developed based on a

magnetic circuit. With this solution, the magnet current was substantially reduced
(5 times smaller for the same value of magnetic induction), and thereby,
increasing the system efficiency accompanied by a reduction of volume and
weight of the relaxometer. After validating this type of solution, the next step was
to increase the homogeneity of the magnetic induction in the air gap and to
reduce the losses in the magnetic circuit [19]. This was accomplished using
superconducting blocks (Bi-2223), Fig. 9.b), which due to its diamagnetic
properties will allow to obtain a more uniform magnetic induction in the section
where the sample is inserted, as illustrated in Fig. 10. Comparing the magnetic
induction distribution in the magnet without and with the effect of the
superconducting parts, Fig. 10. a) and Fig. 10.b), respectively. This solution
allowed to reduce the losses by Joule effect in the magnet, because the magnet
resistance decreases when immersed in liquid nitrogen and, so that, requiring less
current to get the target magnetic induction, which must be 0.2081 T.

Fig. 10. Magnetic induction distribution.

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