Mar Gregorios College of Law: Mar Ivanios Vidya Nagar
Mar Gregorios College of Law: Mar Ivanios Vidya Nagar
Mar Ivanios Vidya Nagar Nalanchira Thiruvananthapuram - 695015
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SUBMITTED BY :
MERLIN . K
ROLL NO : 36
2nd Semester BBA. LLB
DATE : 31.06.2020
🆃🅾🅿🅸🅲 :
Statistica
Dat ....
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1 . Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Types of Data
4. Presentation of Data
5. Tabulation
6. Common Diagrams
7. Sample Investigation
8. Sample Enquiry
9. Data Collection
10. Sampling
11. Errors in Sampling
12. Conclusion
13. References
abstract
Data are usually collected in a raw format and thus the inherent
information is difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data need to be
summarized, processed, and analyzed. However, no matter how well
manipulated, the information derived from the raw data should be
presented in an effective format, otherwise, it would be a great loss for
both authors and readers. In this article, the techniques of data and
information presentation in textual, tabular, and graphical forms are
introduced. A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at
a glance, facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends and
relationships within the data such as changes over time, frequency
distribution, and correlation or relative share of a whole. Text, tables,
and graphs for data and information presentation are very powerful
communication tools. They can make an article easy to understand,
attract and sustain the interest of readers, and efficiently present large
amounts of complex information.
INTRODUCTION
Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. Whether data
are being collected with a certain purpose or collected data are being
utilized, questions regarding what information the data are conveying, how
the data can be used, and what must be done to include more useful
information must constantly be kept in mind. Since most data are available
to researchers in a raw format, they must be summarized, organized, and
analyzed to usefully derive information from them. Furthermore, each data
set needs to be presented in a certain way depending on what it is used for.
Planning how the data will be presented is essential before appropriately
processing raw data. These days, data are often summarized, organized, and
analyzed with statistical packages or graphics software. Data must be
prepared in such a way they are properly recognized by the program being
used.
‣ Any observation collected in respect of any characteristic or event is
called data..
‣ The data is minimized, processed/analyzed and then presented
systematically. So that it is converted into Information.
It is important to note that data, that is not converted into information is
of little value for evaluation and planning and can not be used by those
who are involved in decision making.
TYPES OF DATA
To give a holistic picture of classification data can divided into two types
:
1. Quantitative data : The data , that can be expressed in
numbers/ figures is called quantitative data. In this the exact
measures are possible.
It has two types (a) Discrete (b) Continuous (c) Interval (d)
Ratio .
2. Qualitative Data : Also called descriptive/ categorical data/
frequency count. • When the data are arranged in categories
on the basis of their quality and there is gap between two
values, it is called qualitative data .
It has two types (a)Nominal data (b) Ordinal data .
Principles of data
presentation
1 .To arrange the data in such a way that it should create interest in the
reader’s mind at the first sight.
2. To present the information in a compact and concise form without
losing important details.
3. To present the data in a simple form so as to draw the conclusion
directly by viewing at the data.
4. To present it in such away that it can help in further statistical
analysis.
Presentation of Data
Presentation of data is of utter importance nowadays. Afterall everything
that’s pleasing to our eyes never fails to grab our attention. Presentation of
data refers to an exhibition or putting up data in an attractive and useful
manner such that it can be easily interpreted. The three main forms of
presentation of data are:
1. Textual Presentation
The discussion about the presentation of data starts off with it’s most
raw and vague form which is the textual presentation. In such form of
presentation, data is simply mentioned as mere text, that is generally in a
paragraph. This is commonly used when the data is not very large.
2. Tabular Presentation
A table facilitates representation of even large amounts of data in
an attractive, easy to read and organized manner. The data is
organized in rows and columns. This is one of the most widely
used forms of presentation of data since data tables are easy to
construct and read.
Tabulation:
Tables are the devices, that are used to present the data in a simple form.
It is probably the first step before the data is used for analysis or
interpretation.
Types of tables:
1) Simple tables :Measurements of single set are presented
2) Complex tables :Measurements of multiple sets are presented
'
Simple Table :
When characteristics with values are presented in the form of
table, it is known as simple table .
Frequency distribution table :
It is a table showing the frequency with which the values are
distributed in different groups or classes with some defined
characteristics .
Common diagrams
1. Line Graphs
A line chart graphically displays data that changes continuously over
time. Each line graph consists of points that connect data to show a
trend (continuous change).
2. Bar Charts
ar charts represent categorical data with rectangular bars (to
understand what is categorical data see categorical data examples).
Bar graphs are among
the most popular types of
graphs and charts in
economics, statistics,
marketing, and
visualization in digital
customer experience.
3. Pie Charts
When it comes to statistical
types of graphs and charts,
the pie chart (or the circle
chart) has a crucial place and
meaning. It displays data and
statistics in an
easy-to-understand ‘pie-slice’
format and illustrates
numerical proportion.
4. Histogram
A histogram shows continuous data in
ordered rectangular columns (to
understand what is continuous data see
our post discrete vs continuous data).
Usually, there are no gaps between the
columns.
5. Scatter plot
The scatter plot is an X-Y diagram that shows a relationship between
two variables. It is used to plot data points on a vertical and a
horizontal axis. The purpose is to show how much one variable affects
another.
Sample Investigation
A Sample Investigation is the process of learning about the
population based on a sample that you draw from it. In this
technique, instead of using all items in a universe, you use only
a part of the universe for study. Also, you draw conclusions
based on the sample for the entire universe.
The primary objectives of collecting and analyzing a sample
investigation are to reveal characteristics of a population as
follows:
● Estimating the parameters of the population like means,
median, mode, etc.
● Testing validity statements about the population
● Investigating the changes in population over time
In other words, the sampling process involves three main
elements – selecting the sample, collecting the information,
and also making inferences about the population.
Essentials of a Sample Investigation
1. Representativeness
2. Adequacy
3. Independence
4. Homogeneity
1. Collecting Data
The collection of statistical data is one of the most important aspects of
a statistical inquiry. In this stage, you collect relevant data from multiple
sources – both primary and secondary in nature. The source is primary if
the data (either published or unpublished) is originally collected by an
investigator or an agency.
2. Organizing and Presenting Numerical Data
We need to edit, classify, and tabulate the data in order to organize it.
Further, classifying data involves bringing together the data items which
have common characteristics. Subsequently, you put the data in a tabular
format and present it well. The presentation is either in the form of a
chart, diagram, graph, etc.
3. Analyzing the Numerical Data
Once the data is collected, organized, and presented, it is
important to analyze the numerical data in order to get a better
understanding of the subject matter. You can use some
popular measures to analyze numerical data like:
● Averages or measures of the central tendency
● Dispersion
● Correlation
Further, in order to simplify the data, you can use probability and
distribution, sampling, index numbers, variance analysis, and time series.
4. Interpreting the Numerical Data
Once you have analyzed the numerical data, you must draw
conclusions and inferences from it. This is the interpretation of
numerical data. Further, if the investigator misinterprets the
data, then he might draw conclusions which lead to a waste of
time and resources. This can eventually defeat the purpose of
the statistical inquiry.
Raw Data, Classification
of Data and Variables
Raw Data
Raw data is the unorganized data when we’re done with the collection
stage. This is because it is similar to a lump of clay with no identity and
also of no practical use. Definitely, we need to organize this raw data. It is
important to realize that organized data facilitates comparison and
meaningful conclusions. Hence, this basis of the arrangement of raw
data can vary from purpose to purpose.
Variable
A variable is simply something that can vary with time and we can
measure this variation. In other words, a variable is a characteristic or a
phenomenon which is capable of being measured and changes its value
over time. A variable is classified into two:
1] Discrete
A discrete variable’s value changes only in complete numbers or
increases in jumps. Thus the phenomenon or characteristic, a discrete
variable represents should be such that its value cannot be infractions
but only in whole numbers.
2] Continuous
A continuous variable assumes fractional values or its value does not
increase in jumps. For example, the heights of students, the weights of
students and so on.
Classification of Data
The main objective of the organization of data is to arrange the data in
such a form that it becomes fairly easy to compare and analyze.
Generally, we can do this by distributing data into various classes on the
basis of some attribute or characteristic. This distribution of data into
classes is the classification of data. Further, each division of data is a
class.
Basis of Classification
Definitely, we can classify a given data according to various
characteristics, depending on the purpose of our study. Evidently, there
is the various basis of classification.
Geographical classification
When we classify data according to different locations, it is termed as a
geographical classification of adat. For example, a classification of the
data about the number of children aged between 3-8 according to the
various cities in India.
Chronological Classification
In chronological classification, we classify data according to time i.e it
follows a chronological sequence.
What is Data Collection?
Data collection is an extremely challenging work which needs exhaustive
planning, diligent work, understanding, determination and more to have
the capacity to complete the assignment effectively. Data collection begins
with figuring out what sort of data is needed, followed by the collection of
a sample from a certain section of the population. Next, you have to utilize
a certain tool to gather the data from the chosen sample.
Sources of Data Collection
Normally we can gather data from two sources namely primary and
secondary. Data gathered through perception or questionnaire review in a
characteristic setting are illustrations of data obtained in an uncontrolled
situation. Secondary data is the data acquired from optional sources like
magazines, books, documents, journals, reports, the web and more. The
chart below describes the flow of the sources of data collection.
Sources of Primary Data Collection
Primary data will be the data that you gather particularly
with the end goal of your research venture. Leverage of
Primary data is that it is particularly customized to your
analysis needs
The sources are :
1. Observation Method
2. Interview Method
3. Collection Of Data Through Questionnaires
4. Collection Of Data Through Schedules
Sources of Secondary Data Collection
The sources of secondary data can be classified into internal as well as
external sources. Inner sources incorporate data that exists and is
stored in your organization. External data refers to the data that is
gathered by other individuals or associations from your association’s
outer environment.
Examples of inner sources of data incorporate, but are not restricted
only to, the following:
■ Statement of the profit and loss , Balance sheets ,Sales figures
If the secondary data you have gathered from internal sources is not
sufficient, you can turn to outside sources of data collection, some
outside sources of data collection include:
■ Universities ,Government sources ,Foundations
SAMPLING
When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s rarely possible to
collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The
sample is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will
select a sample that is representative of the group as a whole. There are two types of
sampling methods:
● Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make statistical
inferences about the whole group.
● Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or
other criteria, allowing you to easily collect initial data.
Population vs sample
● The population is the entire group that you
want to draw conclusions about.
● The sample is the specific group of
individuals that you will collect data from.
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will
be drawn from. Ideally, it should include the entire target population (and
nobody who is not part of that population).
Sample size
The number of individuals in your sample depends on the size of the
population, and on how precisely you want the results to represent the
population as a whole.
Probability sampling methods
Probability sampling means that every member of the population has a
chance of being selected. If you want to produce results that are
representative of the whole population, you need to use a probability
sampling technique.There are four main types of probability sample.
Non-probability sampling methods
In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based on
non-random criteria, and not every individual has a chance of being
included.
This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it has a higher
risk of sampling bias, and you can’t use it to make valid statistical
inferences about the whole population.
SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS
What is Sampling Error?
Errors happen when you take a sample from the population rather than
using the entire population. In other words, it’s the difference between
the statistic you measure and the parameter you would find if you took a
census of the entire population.
Minimizing Sampling Error
Of the two types of errors, sampling error is easier to identify.
The biggest techniques for reducing sampling error are:
Increase the sample size.
A larger sample size leads to a more precise result because
the study gets closer to the actual population size.
Divide the population into groups.
Instead of a random sample, test groups according to their size
in the population. For example, if people of a certain
demographic make up 35% of the population, make sure 35%
of the study is made up of this variable.
Know your population.
The error of population specification is when a research
team selects an inappropriate population to obtain data. Know
who buys your product, uses it, works with you, and so forth.
With basic socio-economic information, it is possible to reach a
consistent sample of the population. In cases like marketing
research, studies often relate to one specific population like
Facebook users, Baby Boomers, or even homeowners.
Methods to Non- Reduce Sampling
Error
(i) Thoroughly Pretest your Survey Mediums
(ii) Avoid Rushed or Short Data Collection Periods
(iii) Send Reminders to Potential Respondents
(iv) Ensure Confidentiality
(v) Use Incentives
Editing Data
After collecting the data either from primary or secondary
sources, the next step is its editing. Editing means the
examination of collected data to discover any errors or
mistakes before presenting it. It has to be decided
beforehand what degree of accuracy is desired and what
extent of errors can be tolerated in the inquiry. The editing
of secondary data is simpler than that of primary data.
conclusion
A fundamental question to be considered at the outset is
whether the collection of data should be done by complete
enumeration or by sampling.In complete enumeration, each
and every individual of the group to which data are to relate is
covered, and information gathered for each individual
separately
In Sampling, only some individuals forming a representative
part of the group are covered, either because the group is too
large or because the items on which information is sought are
too numerous.
Complete enumeration may lead to greater accuracy and
greater refinement in analysis, but it may be a very expensive
and time-consuming operation.A sample designed and taken
with care can produce results that may be sufficiently accurate
for the purpose of the enquiry, and it can save much time and
money.
references
1. www.blogspot.com
2. www.thestatisticsassignmenthelp.com
3. www.topper.com