Module II

PRESENTATION OF DATA

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 Definition of Data

Any observation collected in respect of any

characteristic or event is called data.

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 Information
• Raw data carry/convey little meaning, when it is
considered alone.

• The data is minimized, processed/analyzed and then

presented systematically. So that it is converted into
Information.

• It is important to note that data, that is not converted into

information is of little value for evaluation and planning
and can not be used by those who are involved in
decision making.

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 Types of Data

• To give a holistic picture of classification

data can divided into two types

• Quantitative data (numerical)

• Qualitative data (descriptive,
categorical/frequency count)

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 Quantitative data
The data , that can be expressed in numbers/ figures is called
quantitative data. In this the exact measures are possible.
It has two types
(a) Discrete:
Discrete variables can take only certain values and none in
between e. g number of patients in a hospital census may be 178 or
179, but it cannot be in between these two, similarly the number of
syringes used in a clinic in one day or number of children in a family.
It is expressed in whole number.
(b) Continuous:
Continuous variables may take any value (typically between
certain limits). For example age (25.5 years), weight (70.5 kg),
height (1.5 meter) , hemoglobin (12.5 gm), blood pressure (135/95).
It can be expressed in decimals.

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 Qualitative Data
• Also called descriptive/ categorical data/
frequency count.
• When the data are arranged in categories
on the basis of their quality and there is
gap between two values, it is called
qualitative data, e.g name, religion, marital
status, socioeconomic status, awareness.
• Qualitative data cannot be expressed in
numerical forms.
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 Types of qualitative data
Nominal data:
Nominal scale data are divided into categories, that are only
distinguished by their name and labels and cannot be classified one
above another e.g race, name , sex, name of country, name of
crops, type of blood. In this type of data there is no implication of
order or ratio.
Nominal data that falls into two groups are called dichotomous data
e.g male/ female, black/white, rural/ urban.
Ordinal data:
When the categorical data can be placed in meaningful order on the
basis of their quality, it is known as ordinal data. In this the exact
difference between the two groups cannot be estimated e.g pain
categorized as mild, moderate and severe. Similarly scoring of
students categorized as A (70% and above), B (60-69 %), C (50-59
%). In this the exact difference between the students placed in
grade A and B cannot be estimated.
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 Interval:

Interval scale data are like ordinal data in that they can be
placed in a meaningful order.
• The categories are arranged in equally spaced units and
there is no absolute zero point e.g temperature where 0 ˚
C does not mean no temperature but is equal to 32 ˚ F or
273 K ( Kelvin scale ).
• In addition they have meaningful intervals between
items, which are usually measured quantities. For
example on the Celsius scale the difference between
100 ˚ C and 90 ˚ C is the same as the difference
between 50 ˚ C and 40 ˚ C.
• However because interval scales do not have an
absolute zero, ratio of scores are not meaningful e.g 100
˚ C is not twice as hot as 50 ˚ C, because 0 ˚ C does not
indicate a complete absence of heat.
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Ratio

• A ratio scale has the same properties as an interval

scale; however, because it has an absolute zero,
meaningful ratios do exist.
• Most biomedical variables form a ratio scale e.g weight in
grams or pounds, time in seconds or days, blood
pressure in millimeters of mercury, and pulse rate in
beats per minute are all ratio scale data.
• The only ratio scale of temperature is the Kelvin scale, in
which zero degree indicates an absolute absence of heat,
just as a zero pulse rate indicates an absolute lack of
heartbeat. Therefore it is correct to say that a pulse rate
of 120 beats/min is twice as fast as pulse rate of 60 beats
/ min, or that 300 K is twice as hot as 150 K.

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 Data Presentation

• Principals of data presentation

(a)To arrange the data in such a way that it
should create interest in the reader’s mind at the
first sight.
(b)To present the information in a compact and
concise form without losing important details.
(c)To present the data in a simple form so as to
draw the conclusion directly by viewing at the
data.
(d)To present it in such away that it can help in
further statistical analysis.
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 Presentation of
data

Tabular Graphical

Simple table complex table For quantitative data For qualitative data
1. Histogram 1. Bar chart
2. Frequency polygon 2. Pictogram
3. Frequency curve 3. Pie chart
4. Line chart 4. Map diagram
5. Normal distribution curve
6. Cumulative distribution curve
7.Scatter diagram
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 Tabulation
Tables are the devices, that are used to present the data in a simple form. It is probably
the first step before the data is used for analysis or interpretation.
General principals of designing tables
a) The tables should be numbered e.g table 1, table 2 etc.
b) A title must be given to each table, which should be brief and self explanatory.
c) The headings of columns or rows should be clear and concise.
d) The data must be presented according to size or importance chronologically,
alphabetically, or geographically.
e) If percentages or averages are to be compared, they should be placed as close as
possible.
f) No table should be too large
g) Most of the people find a vertical arrangement better than a horizontal one because, it
is easier to scan the data from top to bottom than from left to right
h) Foot notes may be given, where necessary, providing explanatory notes or additional
information.

Types of tables
1) Simple tables :Measurements of single set are presented
2) Complex tables :Measurements of multiple sets are presented
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 Simple Table
When characteristics with values are presented in the form of
table, it is known as simple table e.g
Table 4.4
Infant mortality rate of selected countries in 2004

Name of country Infant mortality rate

Pakistan 90
Bangladesh 60
Sri Lanka 26
India 60

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 Frequency distribution table

• In the frequency distribution table, the data

is first split up into convenient groups
(class interval) and the number of items
(frequency) which occur in each group is
shown in adjacent columns.
• Hence it is a table showing the frequency
with which the values are distributed in
different groups or classes with some
defined characteristics. 18 May
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 Rules for construction of
frequency table
1)The class interval should not be too large or too
small
2)The number of classes to be formed more than 8
and less than 15
3)The class interval should be equal and uniform
through out the classification.
4) After construction of table, proper and clear
heading should be given to it
5)The base or source of data should be mentioned
with the pattern of analysis in footnote at the end
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 Frequency distribution table

Table 3
Age distribution of polio patients
Age Number of patients
O-4 35
5-9 18
10-14 11
15-19 8
20-24 6

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 Table1.2
Grouped, relative, and cumulative frequency
distributions if serum cholesterol levels in 200 men

Interval Frequency f relative f cumulative f

251-260 5 2.5 100.0

241-250 13 6.5 97.5
231-240 19 9.5 91.0
221-230 18 9.0 81.5
211-220 38 19.0 72.5
201-210 72 36.0 53.5
191-200 14 7.0 17.5
181-190 12 6.0 10.5
171-180 5 2.5 4.5
161-170 4 2.0 2.0
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 Charts and Diagrams

Charts and diagrams are useful methods of presenting simple data.

They have powerful impact on imagination of people.

Gives information at a glance.
Diagrams are better retained in memory than statistical table.
However graphs cannot be substituted for statistical table,
because the graphs cannot have mathematical treatment where as
tables can be treated mathematically.
Whenever graphs are compared , the difference in the scale
should be noted.
It should be remembered that a lot of details and accuracy of
original data is lost in charts and diagrams, and if we want the real
study, we have to go back to the original data.
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 Common diagrams
• Pie chart
• Simple bar diagram
• Multiple bar diagram
• Component bar diagram or subdivided bar diagram
• Histogram
• Frequency polygon
• Frequency curve
• O give curve
• Scatter diagram
• Line diagram
• Pictogram
• Statistical maps

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 Bar charts

• The data presented is categorical

• Data is presented in the form of rectangular bar of equal
breadth.
• Each bar represent one variant /attribute.
• Suitable scale should be indicated and scale starts from
zero.
• The width of the bar and the gaps between the bars
should be equal throughout.
• The length of the bar is proportional to the magnitude/
frequency of the variable.
• The bars may be vertical or horizontal.

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 Bar charts
Year Wise Enrollment of students in Government school
300
300
260
230
250
200
200 160
150
150 120
100
100 70

50

0
One Two Three Four Five Six Seven Eight Nine

No. of Students
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 Multiple Bar Charts
• Also called compound bar charts
• More then one sub-attribute of variable can be
expressed
60

50 Population
Percentage of World Total

Land
40

30

20

10

0
Asia Europe Africa Latin USSR North Oceania
America 18 May
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 Component bar charts
• When there are many categories on X-axis
(more than 5) and they have further
subcategories, then to accommodate the
categories, the bars may be divided into parts,
each part representing a certain item and
proportional to the magnitude of that particular
item Pakistan: Growth of Population

800
Population in Million

700 Growth
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Censs Decades
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 Component Bar Chart

120
100
80
Female
60
Male
40
20
0
Pakistan USA Sweden
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 Histogram

• Used for Quantitative, Continuous,

Variables.
• It is used to present variables which have
no gaps e.g age, weight, height, blood
pressure, blood sugar etc.
• It consist of a series of blocks. The class
intervals are given along horizontal axis
and the frequency along the vertical axis.
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 Histogram of Grouped frequency distrinution of
serum cholestrol levels in 200 men

80
70
60
frequency

50
40
30
20
10
0
161- 171- 181- 191- 201- 211- 221- 231- 241- 251-
170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260
Serum Cholestrol, mg/dl
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 Frequency polygon

Frequency polygon is an area diagram of frequency distribution over a

histogram.
It is a linear representation of a frequency table and histogram,
obtained by joining the mid points of the hitogram blocks.
Frequency is plotted at the central point of a group

percentage total frequency

250

200

150 percentage total

frequency
100

50

0
59-69 69-79 79-89 89-99 99- 109- 119- 129-
109 119 129 139
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Normal frequency distribution
curve
Frequency polygons may take many different shapes, but
many naturally occurring phenomena are approximately
distributed according to the symmetrical, bell-shaped
normal or Gaussian distribution.
In normal distribution curve, the three measures of
central tendency are identical. approximately 68% of the
distributions falls within +_ standard deviation of the
mean .
approximately 95% of the distributions falls within +_
standard deviation of the mean
approximately 99.7% of the distributions falls within +_
standard deviation of the mean

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 Asymmetrical distribution are called skewed distributions. The three
measures of central tendency differ. Mode is highest point on curve,
the mean is pulled up or down by the influence of a relatively small
number of very high or very low scores and the median lies between
the two.
• n Positively (or right) skewed distributions and negatively (or left)
skewed distributions cabe identified by the location of the tail of the
curve.
• Positively skewed distributions have a relatively large number of low
scores and a small number of very high scores.
• Negatively skewed distributions have relatively large number of high
scores and a small number of low scores.
• Bimodal distributions are sometimes a combination of two
underlying normal distributions, such as the heights of a large
number of men and women (each gender forms its own distribution
around a different midpoint).

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 Line diagram
• Line diagrams are used to show the trend of events with the passage of
time.
• Line diagram showing the malaria cases reported throughout the word
excluding African region during 1972-78

10
C
a8
s6
e4
s
2
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1972 73 74 75 76 77 78
 Pie charts

• Most common way of presenting data

• The value of each category is divided by the total
values and then multiplied by 360 and then each
category is allocated the respective angle to
present the proportion it has.
• It is often necessary to indicate percentages in
the segment as it may not be sometimes very
easy virtually, to compare the areas of segments.

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 Pie Charts

World Population

Developing
Countries
26%

Developed Countries
Developing Countries
Developed
Countries
74%

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 Pictogram

• Popular method of presenting data to

those who cannot understand orthodox
charts.
• Small pictures or symbols are used to
present the data,e.g a picture of a doctor
to represent the population physician.
• Fraction of the picture can be used to
represent numbers smaller than the value
of whole symbol
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 Statistical maps

• When statistical data refers to geographic

or administrative areas, it is presented
either as statistical map or dot map.
• The shaded maps are used to present
data of varying size. The areas are
shaded with different colour or different
intensities of the same colour, which is
indicated in the key.
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 Scatter diagram

• Scatter diagrams show the relationship between

the two variables e.g a positive correlation/
association between the intake of fat and sugar
in the average diets of 41 countries.
• If the dots cluster round a straight line, it shows
evidence of a relationship of a linear nature.
• If there is no such cluster, it is probable that
there is no relationship between the variables.

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