Laymanized Manual

on Monitoring
Infrastructure
Projects
by a Practitioner
by the

Concerned Citizens of Abra

for Good Government (CCAGG)

published in cooperation with

Affiliated Network for Social Accountability

in East Asia and the Pacific
...connecting citizens to improve governance
 Laymanized Manual
on Monitoring
Infrastructure Projects
by a Practitioner
by the
Concerned Citizens of Abra
for Good Government (CCAGG)
© 2010 by the Affiliated Network for Social Accountability in East Asia and the Pacific
(ANSA-EAP). This is a release edition, published January 2010.

© 2010 by the Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Government and the Affiliated Network
for Social Accountability in East Asia and the Pacific (ANSA-EAP). This is a release edition,
published January 2010.

This edition of the Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a

Practitioner is published by ANSA-EAP in collaboration with the Concerned Citizens of Abra
for Good Government (CCAGG).

This material may be copied and used for research, educational, scholarly or non-profit
purposes without permission of either ANSA-EAP or CCAGG. We request that ANSA-
EAP and CCAGG be cited as the source of the information and that any photo credits or
bylines be similarly credited to the photographer or author or ANSA-EAP or CCAGG,
as appropriate. If a copyright is indicated on a photo, graphic, or any other material,
permission to copy and use these materials must be obtained from the original source.

Material in this publication is subject to revision. The findings, interpretations, and

conclusions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the viewpoint of ANSA-
EAP, its donors, and its associated institutions.

The Ateneo School of Government, a unit of the Ateneo de Manila University (Philippines),
operationalizes and oversees the development of ANSA-EAP, with support from The World
Bank’s Development Grant Facility. ANSA-EAP is an independent project of the Ateneo
School of Government under the Ateneo de Manila University, which is the executing agency
of the project. As a project of the Ateneo, it falls under the legal governance of the Ateneo
Board of Trustees and President.

For more information, please contact:

ANSA-EAP Operations Team

Ateneo School of Government, Pacifico Ortiz Hall, Fr. Arrupe Road, Ateneo de Manila
University, Loyola Heights, Quezon City 1108, Republic of the Philippines.
Telephones: +6 32 426-6062 and +6 32 426-6002 ext 4627. Fax: +6 32 920-2920.
E-mail: [email protected]. Website: www.ansa-eap.net
Table of Contents
Preface 3
Introduction
The Origin of the Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Government (CCAGG) 5
Independent Monitoring Described  7
Process of Monitoring 9
The Performers in Project Implementation and Their Roles in Monitoring & Evaluation 10
CCAGG Tools in Monitoring 13
Government Procurement Reform Act (RA 9184) 15
Basic Computations 18
I. ROAD CONSTRUCTION/REHABILITATION
Project Billboard 21
Common Equipments Used 22
Classification of Road 24

Work Items Involved in Road Construction/Improvement/Rehabilitation:

A - Earthwork 25
* Clearing & Grubbing (Item 100) 25
* Removal of Structures and Obstructions (Item 101) 25
* Excavation (Item 102) 27
* Structure Excavation (Item 103) 29
* Embankment/Backfill (Item 104) 30

B - Subbase and Base Course (Preparation for Concrete Pavement)
* Subgrade Preparation (Item 105) 31
* Aggregate Subbase Course (Item 200) 32
* Aggregate Base Course (Item 201) . 32
* Placing of Forms 35
* Erroneous Practices in Subbase & Base Preparation 36
* Erroneous Practices in Placing of Forms 37

C - Surface Courses
* Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (Item 311) 38
* Process of Concrete Production 40
* How to Assess Item 311, Placing of Forms 44
* Erroneous Practices in Concrete Works 50
* Common/Major Defects in Concrete Pavement 53

D - Drainage & Slope Protection Structures

* Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culvert (RCPC) &
Storm Drains (Item 500) 57

2 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

* Erroneous Practices in Drainage Construction 61

* Riprap & Grouted Riprap (Item 504) & Stone Masonry (Item 505) 62
* Gabions (Item 509) 67
* Erroneous Practices in Backfilling 69
* Erroneous Practices in Stone Masonry Wall Construction 70
* Common Defects/Deficiencies in Project Implementation
of Road Construction/Rehabilitation 71

II. FLOOD CONTROL

* Flood Control Structures 76
* How to Assess Flood Control 79

III. BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION

* Types/Classifications of Bridges 80
* Types of Bridges 81
* Equipments Used in Bridge Construction 85
* Stages of Bridge Construction for Conventional Single Span
Bridge 93
* Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridge 97

IV. IRRIGATION SYSTEM

* Diversion Works 102
* Earthwork Activities 104
* Concrete Works 104
* How to Assess 106
V. DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY
* Types of Services 111
* Typical Design of Level 1 112
* Typical Design of Level 2 113
* Types of Wells 113
* Common Items of Work in Water Supply Project 114
VI. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
* Construction Activities 120
* Steel Reinforcing Bars 121
Designation, Areas, Perimeters, and Weight of Standard Bars 121
* Forms for Concrete Works 122
* Concrete Works 122
* Quality Control Guidelines in Handling Concrete 125
* Additional Points to Consider in Assessing Buildings 134
* Methods & Equipment for Handling & Placing of Concrete 137
VII. GLOSSARY OF TERMS 143
VIII. REFERECES 146
 Preface 3

Preface

T his manual is the result of two decades

of project monitoring experience of the
The CCAGG’s experience in monitoring
and the assistance of the United
Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Nations Development Program (UNDP)
Government (CCAGG), whose vision is inspired the conceptualization of this
to make project monitoring effective by manual. The basic step is to equip
involving grassroots participation. The the grassroots with appropriate but
CCAGG’s achievements in championing simplified technical skills and pertinent
good governance are recognized and information on project implementation.
cited by the Philippine Government Moreover, this manual serves as
as well as by local and foreign private an instrument to share the group’s
institutions. On such citation was capability on project monitoring of
awarded to CCAGG by Transparency infrastructure projects to the people
International on September 2000 and encourage them to actively engage
during its first Integrity Award held in in a mission to combat corruption. This
Canada. skill on monitoring was acquired for
the group by the National Economic
Through this manual, it is hoped that the and Development Authority (NEDA) in
layman will better appreciate standard 1987.
specifications on infrastructure project
implementation and thus enable them The people’s growing interest
to assess substandard project outputs. and increasing vigilance in many
Equipping and motivating them to ways deterred corrupt practices in
actively participate in social concerns government. Project monitoring is
will lead to an increased public geared to effectively contribute in the
oversight on government projects. decrease if not totally eradication of the
Tangible outputs will be measured or incidence of corruption in government
judged based on standards not just on bureaucracy. Eventually, delivery
plain opinion. of basic services to the intended
beneficiaries is improved.
4 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Corruption accentuates problems of

sluggish economic growth and under- The Corruption Perception Index (CPI)
development. Its major impact is the published by Transparency International
loss of scarce government resources is another measure of prevalence of
resulting to poor delivery of basic social corruption in the country. The scoring
services. It should be realized, however, system is from scale of 1 or high perception
that combating corruption is not only the of corruption to 10 or negligible perception;
concern of the national leadership and the meaning, a least corrupt country gains
anti-corruption agencies but every citizen the highest score. CPI shows that the
particularly the grassroots, who should Philippines’ standing continue to slide
benefit from these projects. The most down. In 1999, the CPI for the country is 3.6
pernicious impact of corruption is social or rank 55th out of 99 countries rated. In
damage, thus the grassroots who are 2003, out of 133 countries, the Philippines
the helpless victims continue to suffer a ranked 97th having a score of 2.5. At the
miserable life. end of year 2005, the Philippines is ranked
117th. Finland garnering a score of 9.7
A World Bank study on the Philippine remains on top as least corrupt country.
Government reveals that more than 50
percent of funding for infrastructure The figures show that corruption
projects is wasted to corruption. The incidence in the Philippine government
Ombudsman’s Office, likewise, reports is very alarming. Government efforts in
government loss of US $ 48 billion for the fighting it prove to be ineffective. For this
last 20 years while the Commission on reason, the citizenry is encouraged to get
Audit (COA) estimates a loss of P 2 billion involved in curbing this menace from the
every year because of corruption. bureaucracy by participating in monitoring
government projects.
Under the Global Competitiveness Index,
the country’s standing remains to be low
and consistently sliding down. By the end
of year 2005, the country ranks 77th with
a score of 3.47. This is from rank 76th in
year 2004 and 66th in year 2003.
 Introduction 5

INTRODUCTION

I n 1986, following the installation

of Mrs. Corazon Aquino as
2. NEDA will provide CCAGG the list,
location and implementation agencies of
President of the Philippines, a all CEDP projects in Abra
pump priming project called 3. MBM will provide CCAGG the
Community Employment and information on the funding and releases
Development Program (CEDP) of payments for CEDP projects in Abra
was launched. It funded community 4. CCAGG will monitor the implementation
projects like farm-to-market roads, of CEDP projects; and
health centers, school buildings, 5. It will send feedback to NEDA and
markets, spring development and others MBM regarding its monitoring findings.
which were implemented by community
beneficiaries. I  t had a feature, which, In addition to items 4 & 5, CCAGG took
during that year, was a real novelty. to itself the organization of the project
Non-government organizations (NGOs) beneficiaries and transferred to them
were tapped to monitor CEDP projects the monitoring technology taught by
and thus ensure their implementation. NEDA. It also did advocacy work both in
print and on air about the CEDP projects
The Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good coming in to Abra. The Abrenos were
Government (CCAGG) was invited by the thrilled by their newfound involvement
National Economic and Development in enforcing government accountability.
Authority (NEDA) to participate in this
program. It therefore entered into a Vigilantly, the people of Abra watched
Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with project implementation. They were
NEDA and the Ministry of Budget and happy for their new found commitment
Management (DBM) with the following in enforcing honest and integrity through
conditions: monitoring.

1. NEDA will train CCAGG on the In the course of their monitoring, CCAGG
mechanics of monitoring; read a full page report of the DPWH Abra
6 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

published in a regional newspaper which This project was meant to enhance public
said that twenty of the projects they were accountabiolity of COA and was funded by
monitoring were already reported finished. the United Nations Development Program
They themselves asked how this could be (UNDP). A Memorandum of Agreement
when some of these projects were not yet was signed by the COA and CCAGG to
started, or have just begun or were but formalize their engagement. COA then
midway in implementation. They reported was headed by Chairman Celso Gangan.
the matter to NEDA. They also sought an Twenty-three road projects of the Dept. of
audience with the DPWH secretary and Public Works and Highways (DPWH) and
requested him to send an incorruptible community-based projects of the Dept.
audit team to verify their complaints. of Environment and Natural Resources
The audit team found their complaints (DENR) implemented in 1999 and 2000
meritorious. They also unearthed The joint venture was adjudged a success
certificates of project completion signed and was replicated in Samar, Camarines
by section chiefs and “turned over” to the Norte, and Mt. Province. This experience
end-users. An administrative case was proved that public accountability can be
filed against the eleven erring engineers enhanced transparent and accountable
which found them guilty. Eleven engineers governance through citizens’ participation.
were suspended from office for a period of
time without pay, commensurate to their The good that citizens’ monitoring
guilt. could give in attaining transparency
and accountability in the prosecution of
For pursuing the case unrelentingly, government projects has reached many
President Cory Aquino cited the CCAGG in places in the Philippines. Many civil
a fitting ceremony in Malacañang Palace. society organizations sought the CCAGG to
The DPWH Director for Region-I also replicate its activities with them. To date,
directed their district office that no projects there is now a Nothern Luzon Coalition
will be paid without the monitoring report for Good Governance (NLCGG) composed
of the CCAGG.. of twenty-one civil society organizations,
academe and Church-based social action
The successful initiation of the CCAGG into centers in the Cordilleras, Region I and
monitoring emboldened them all the more Region II. Many of them have started to
to go into project monitoring. In 2000, flex their muscles in exacting honesty and
Transparency International gave CCAGG its accountability in governance in their areas
first Integrity Award for its exemplary fight of operation.
against graft and corruption at the local
level. In the same year, the Commission
on Audit (COA) and the CCAGG signed a
Memorandum of Agreement to pilot test
Participatory Audit in Abra. This was the
first ever experience of COA in involving a
civil society organization in its audit works.
 Independent Monitoring Described 7

Independent Monitoring Described

T he task of an independent monitor is

never easy. It requires preparations
are also conducted with workers and
residents in the area who observe and
like understanding the project cycle, see how the project is executed. These
program of work and the activities constitute the feedback mechanism of
contained therein. They also need to citizens to project mangement about the
know the basics and technicalities of agency field personnel’s performance.
monitoring and evaluation and do the This is to ensure that field performance
actual monitoring activities. There is vis-a-vis reports sent to the office are
also the inherent risks attendant to consistent.
the work. For example, monitors are
offered bribes and are often threatened While still in the project site the monitors
physically. already discuss their findings and initial
recommendations to the contractor and
Monitoring by the NGO starts with to the government engineer or to their
the procurement process. The NGO representatives if they are not around.
monitors sit as observer in the Bids and These findings and recommendations
Awards Committee (BAC). The winning are transmitted in formal
bidder has the lowest calculated and communications to the implementing
responsive bid. The bidder will submit agency and to the contractor.
the corresponding documents to perfect Sometimes, the independent monitors
the contract and sign the contract request for an audience with the
agreement. When the winning bidder agency head and contractor to discuss
receives the notice to proceed, mob contentious issues and thus explore
ilization work starts. The NGO monitors acceptable solutions to problems met
visit the project site where an ocular in the project site. Such problem solving
inspection is done before project begins session is sometimes extended in the
for bench marking. project site in the presence of local
government officials and residents at
On site observations during project the project site. Corrections and other
implementation are done. Interviews recommendations agreed upon are
8 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

followed up in subsequent meetings and pour cement to a muddy road?” “Why was
project visits. A copy of these corrections the mixture of cement and aggregates
and other recommendations are furnished watery?” Children also report anomalous
to the Commission on Audit (COA). transaction like “Why did the barangay
captain brought home bags of cement and
Public Participation in Project Monitoring steel bars after a drinking spree with the
and Evaluation as a Right project supervisor?” “The contractor used
Pozzoland not Portland cement.” These
Over the years, CCAGG encountered and many more are some of the indirect
communities who wanted to plunge interventions of woman and children in
into monitoring work but were deterred the field of monitoring.
by fear of meeting detractors who ask
questions like “Where did you get your Good Governance Result From Monitoring
authority to intervene in a purely technical
endeavor?” The CCAGG stands firm Experiences have shown fruitful
on the principle of two basic collective participation in Monitoring trickled down
rights of every citizen such as the right to to greater benefits of having a well-
participate in governance and the right to implemented project. Mothers who are
information which promotes transparency. household managers are relieved from
Communities, endowed with these rights worry if they have need to rush their
are free to intervene and to express their daughters to a hospital in an unholy hour
will for the improvement of their life. knowing that the road is safe to travel.
She will not feel hesitant to send her
Government institutions and child to a school knowing that is it well-
instrumentalities, as duty holders, are built. If her family lives in a farm, she has
compelled to respond to the rightful assurance that they can transport their
and appropriate demands of the people. goods to the market through a farm-to-
Monitoring findings will serve as valuable market road. And most health workers,
inputs to government on how to manage school supervisor and even by their local
public resources efficiently. executives. Mobility is enhanced as there
are more vehicles plying the route and
Gender Perspective of Monitoring transportation cost is cheaper because of
lesser wear and tear of vehicles. All these
Monitoring was and will never be a job are indicators of improved living condition
for men. Women and children who are to the advantage of children, women
often left at home are the innocent but and elderly as end result of citizens’
mindful witness whenever there are new participation in monitoring.
government projects in an area. These
women and children provide feedback
based on what they saw and heard. At
times, they ask good questions on the
process of construction work “Why do you
 Independent Monitoring Described 9

Process of Monitoring
Monitoring
Stages of Documents Framework of
Process/
monitoring Gathered Analysis
Activities

- Gather and - As per

- Program of review project programmed
works documents vs. as
Implementation - Plans and - Community implemented
Phase specifications meetings a. Time
- Contact - On-field visit/ b. Cost
agreement ocular inspection c. Performance
a. Addendum - Functionality of
b. revisions/ the project
change order

- Periodic status
- Monitoring
report, POW/
- Reporting/ Deviations are
Project Plans,
Feedbacking brought to the
designs
- Problem solving attention of the
- Tender
session higher ups for
documents
- Follow up of proper action.
- Exception
recommendations
reports

- Final /
completion report
- Statistical data - Assessment on
- Beneficiary socio-economic
Post Evaluation/ - Bench Marking
survey result and political
Impact - Actual Project
- Interview, impact.
Assessment functionality
feedbacking - Follow up
results recommendations
- Community
beneficiary profile
10 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

The Performers in Project B. The Project Contractor

Implementation and Their Roles in
Monitoring and Evaluation of Projects It is a company or individual registered to
the Philippine Contractors Accreditation
Board (PCAB) with a formal contract to
A. The Implementing Agency do a specific job, supplying labor and
materials and providing and overseeing
This refers to regular government staff if needed.
agencies, government controlled or owned
offices, state colleges and universities Here is a list of the Project Contractor’s
and local government units in-charge of work force. It is the contractor’s
project implementation. They are most responsibility to hire manpower that is
accountable for either success or failure suitable to do the required output. Their
that may occur in the project. They are the presence in a project is called for, only if
project stewards, up to the turnover to the their specializations are to be utilized.
project beneficiaries.
a. Project Engineer- Assigned to perform the
Most frequently seen representatives of basic management functions of deciding,
these offices in the field are the following: directing, monitoring and controlling all
aspects of the project implementation in
Project Facilitator - aids or assists in accordance with the approved plans and
the process. He/she has the complete specifications and as approved by the
knowledge on the Project being undertaken government representative.
including the Terms and Conditions
stipulated in the Contract between the b. Foreman - A worker in charge of a crew
government and the Project Contractor. of fellow workers. The foreman is part of
For his role, he must be well equipped the hierarchy of an organization, passing
with knowledge relative to engineering down decisions from higher up and giving
industry standards and experienced in feedback from those below.
construction works.
c. Lead man - Next to the foreman, a
Quality Assurance Unit - This is a division skilled worker that can give instructions
in a government office tasked to assess to his fellow workers in the absence of the
project implementation and ensure that foreman.
such is undertaken in accordance with
the Plan and Specifications. It is also their d. Carpenters - They are responsible
duty to perform appropriate tests before in building the wood forms into which
the final payment due to the Contractor is concrete is poured for high-rise
given. buildings, highways, and hydroelectric
power projects. Carpenters erect the
scaffoldings and staging. They install the
partitions, doors, windows, flooring, wood
 Independent Monitoring Described 11

trusses, roofs, and almost every other C. The Community People

wood component of a structure.
e. Mason - A semi-skilled or skilled worker Generally, projects are planned after
who plays a key role in building work. the high demand of it is foreseen by the
His works includes bricking, plastering, government. In some instances, the
beveling, brick laying, hawking and role of political leaders is optimal in
trowelling. the acquisition of projects. Either way,
the community people must have to be
f. Welder - A skilled worker assigned to consulted before a project commences
fabricate and install steel structures such considering that as inhabitants they have
as steel trusses, steel windows, grills, the best knowledge of their immediate
steel gates, etc. needs and necessities.

g. Steel man - a worker assigned on all In most project implementations,

activities involving the assembly and beneficiaries partake as just mere
installation of steel reinforcements of a onlookers. They excitedly watch the
structure. movements of the builders, with great
anticipation on the finished product. Full
h. Helper - A semi skilled worker who trust to the builders is decisively given.
works at a job that requires physical
strength and stamina, they can assist Project implementation is not always
directly to skilled workers. a success. At times, basic engineering
standards are neglected that causes
i. Laborer - An unskilled hired worker a domino effect to the satisfactory
who works at a job that requires physical performance of a project. Grooming the
strength and stamina. beneficiaries to partake in the process,
as independent monitors is indeed a good
j. Electrician - A licensed person to install, move to address the deficiency stated
maintain, repair, or approve electrical above.
wiring or electrical goods
The community people are dependable
k. Plumber - A mechanic expert in sanitary source of information regarding project
plumbing and pipe work. Installs and imple mentation. Curiosity and excitement
repairs pipes and fixtures, especially for envelop and make them observant on the
water, drainage, or heating systems in a day-to-day undertaking in the project.
building Some may not know the significance of
what they witness but are sharp enough to
l. Operator - Somebody who operates relate what took place.
instrument, or heavy equipment like road
roller, road grader, transit mixer, dump In the CCAGG, the work is done by way
truck, etc. of social teachings and community
mobilization. In this process, the people
12 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

are convened in a meeting to familiarize

them with the upcoming or ongoing
project; strengthen them with the
Constitutional Provisions that permit all
citizens to take part in the implementation
of any government undertakings; and aid
them with the basic technical knowledge
on the performance of a project. This way,
they are able to draw a logical relation Engineer Irene Bringas of CCAGG and Asst. District
Engineer Leo Mustard of DPWH together with
that connects them to the project and in the project beneficiaries are discussing on some
the long run, will push them to be watchful. technical issues of the project.
 CCAGG Tools in Monitoring 13

CCAGG Tools in Monitoring

C CAGG monitors have tools when they

conduct project inspection. These are
a) Philippine Constitution of 1987
The Philippine Constitution of 1987
the following: has enshrined on its pages peoples’
organizations. Section 23 Article II (On
1. Steel tape to measure actual work State Policies) states:
done;
2. Record book to write findings, “The state shall encourage non-
observations and engineering analysis; government community-based or
3. Camera to capture the actual sectoral organizations that promote the
physical status and perceived defects welfare of the nation.”
or commendable points;
4. Voice tape recorder to document Section 15 and 16 respectively of Article
interviews with project stakeholders; XIII of the same Philippine Constitution
and of 1987 spoke of the role and rights of
5. Packed lunch or snacks. CCAGG peoples’ organizations as:
monitors do not want to incur a debt of
gratitude to contractors who would love “The State shall respect the role of
to serve food. If they are indebted, they independent peoples’ organizations to
will not be free and this might cause a enable its people to pursue and protect,
distortion in the monitoring report. within the democratic framework their
legitimate and collective interests and
Legal Bases of Monitoring aspirations through peaceful means.”

CCAGG monitors’ active presence “Peoples organizations are bona

in project sites often times make fide organizations of citizens with
detractors uncomfortable. They ask demonstrated capacity to promote the
sarcastically “Where did you get your public interest and with identifiable
authority to monitor government leadership, membership and structure.”
projects?” Almost always, the monitors “The right of the people and their
point to the legal basis of monitoring organizations to effective and reasonable
which are: participation at all levels of social,
political and economic decision-making
14 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

shall not be abridged. The State shall by that oversee the operation of RPMES were
law, facilitate the establishment of adequate established in each region through EO 376
consultation mechanism.” and in each LGU levels through MO 176. At
the National level, the NPMC is composed
b) Executive Order No. 175 of NEDA, DBM, OP-PMS and DILG with
Signed on May 23, 1988 by President NEDA as the secretariat. At the regional
Corazon Aquino, this Executive Order level, RPMC is composed of NEDA, DBM,
provided guidelines for the implementation DILG, OP-PMS and NGO representatives.
of local government projects funded from While at the LGU level, PPMC composition
National Funds. These guidelines include is subject tot he discretion of the Local
the following: development council subject to the
inclusion of DILG, NGO representatives
a) The creation of Pre-qualification, and nominees of the development council.
Bids and Awards Committee (PBAC) in
each province and municipality shall The deputized NGO monitors are tasked
be responsible for the conduct of pre- to:
qualification of contractors, bidding,
evaluation and bids and recommending a) Assist the PMC or development council
awards to contracts; in the monitoring and evaluation of projects
b) The creation of Project Monitoring by identifying implementation problems or
Committee (PMC) that will monitor the outstanding performance through project
implementation of projects. exception reports;
b) Ensure effective/efficient
There is a provision in the PBAC where an implementation of projects through
NGO sits as an observer but in the PMC, an vigilance; and
NGO is a regular member. c) Act as government partners in ensuring
transparency in project implementation
c) Executive Order No. 376
d) “Republic Act 9184 otherwise known
The President, Mrs. Corazon Aquino signed as the Government Procurement Reform
Executive Order # 376 on November 2, Act (GPRA)”
1989. It established the Regional Project
Monitoring and Evaluation System (RPMES) It provides a mandatory venue for people’s
which envisions to monitor and evaluate all participation through the Bids and Awards
development projects (economic, social, Committee (BAC). The law requires that
physical, infrastructure development in all stages of the procurement process,
projects) at the regional, provincial and the Bids and Awards Committee shall
municipal levels funded from national and invite two observers. One coming from
locally generated resources. The RPMES duly recognized private sector association
shall be implemented by development and the other from a Non-Government
councils at various levels. Organization (NGO) duly registered with
The project monitoring committees (PMCs) the Securities and Exchange Commission
 CCAGG Tools in Monitoring 15

(SEC). Another feature of the law is the playing field through the availment of a
inclusion of the Government Electronic greater number of potential bidders.
Procurement System (GEPS). This will
bring the procurement to a more level

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9184

AND ITS IMPLEMENTING RULES AND REGULATIONS

WARRANTIES ON INFRASTRUTURE PROJECTS:

The accountability of a contractor in the performance of a project is neither coterminous
with the end of actual construction activities nor on the turnover of the project to the
implementing agency or to the beneficiaries. The Philippine Government provided a venue
to safeguard the serviceability of a project within its designed life span through Republic
Act 9184 and its Implementing Rules and Regulations, Rule XIX on Contract Prices and
Warranties as stated below:
Section 62.2
For the procurement of infrastructure projects, the contractor shall assume full
responsibility for the contract work from the time project construction commenced up to
the final acceptance by the government and shall be held responsible for any damage or
destruction of the works except those occasioned by force majeure. The contractor shall be
fully responsible for the safety, protection, security, and convenience of his personnel, third
parties and the public at large, as well as the works, equipment, installation and the like to
be affected by his construction work and shall be required to put up a warranty security......
The warranty security.... shall be returned only after lapse of the said warranty period.

WARRANTY SECURITY ON MATERIALS USED:

Section 62.2.1
The defects liability period.... shall be one (1) year from project completion up to the final
acceptance by the Government. During this period, the Contractor shall undertake the repair
works at his own expense, of any damage.... on account of the use of materials of inferior quality...
Any contractor who fails to comply with the preceding paragraph shall suffer perpetual
disqualification from participating in any public bidding....

WARRANTY SECURITY ON STRUCTURAL DEFECTS AND/OR FAILURE OF THE COMPLETED

PROJECT:
Section 62.2.2
After final acceptance of the project by the Government, the contractor shall be held
responsible for structural defects and/or failure of the completed project with the following
warranty periods from final acceptance, except those occasioned by force majeure and those
caused by other parties:
16 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

a. Permanent Structures: Fifteen (15) Years

Buildings of type 4 (steel, iron, concrete, or masonry construction with walls ceilings,
and permanent partitions of incombustible fire resistance) and 5 (steel, iron, concrete, or
masonry construction), steel and concrete bridges, flyovers, concrete aircraft movement
areas, ports, dams, diversion tunnels, causeways, wharves, piers, dikes, filtration and
treatment plants, transmission and communication towers, railway system, and other
similar structures;

b. Semi-permanent Structure: Five (5) Years
Buildings of types 1 (wooden), 2 (wood with 1 hour fire resistance), and 3 (masonry
and wood construction), concrete roads, asphalt roads, river control, drainage, irrigation
and drainage canals, municipal ports and river landing, deep wells, rock causeway,
pedestrian overpass, and other similar structures; and

c. Other Structures: Two (2) Years
Bailey and wooden bridges, shallow wells, spring developments, and other similar
structures.

Section 62.2.4
In case of structural defects/failure occurring during the applicable warranty period
provided in section 62.2.2 hereof, the Government shall undertake the necessary restoration
or reconstruction works and shall be entitled to full reimbursement by the parties found to be
liable, offenses incurred therein upon demand, without prejudice to the filing of appropriate
administrative, civil, and/or criminal charges against responsible persons as well as the
forfeiture of warranty securities posted in favor of the Government.

Based from the aforementioned rules the The performance of a completed project
Government, representing the citizenry, should therefore be monitored and
will be able to castigate and dispense evaluated until the warranty period lapses.
punishment due to negligent persons/ Our role as independent monitoring bodies
parties, maybe the contractor, consultants, and observant stakeholders is much needed
procuring entity’s representative/project in this stage – as Government partners – to
managers and supervisors, third parties or take full advantage of not so many project
the end users for the failure of the project. implementations in our areas.
 CCAGG Tools in Monitoring 17

What to Monitor specifications on the structure are also

There are a lot of projects to monitor. Line presented here.
agencies and even local government units It sometimes happens that revisions take
implement projects like: place during implementation to suit actual
1. Road Construction and Rehabilitation site condition. It is therefore advantageous
2. Bridge Construction to have project plan to check some change
3. Buildings orders or additional work done. An as built
a. School Building plan is usually made after revisions are
b. Multi-purpose Halls made.
c. Health Centers Drawings are classified into Architectural,
d. Municipal Halls Structural, Electrical, Plumbing and
e. Public Markets Mechanical approved and countersigned
4. Irrigation Canals by an Architect, Civil Engineer, Electrical
5. Spring Development Engineer, Sanitary Engineer or Master
6. Reforestation Projects Plumber and Mechanical Engineer or as
the need necessitates.
Technical Bases of Monitoring
Infrastructure Projects The Specifications
It is a written description of requirements
Throughout the years of working with in the execution of a proposed project.
implementing agencies and monitoring It states particulars as to size, shape,
their projects, the CCAGG learned a lot. quality, color, manner and procedures of
The DPWH has a reference book called implementation in a concise and direct
the “Blue Book.” This is the DPWH’s language easily understood by the users.
“Standard Specifications for Highways,
Bridges and Airports.” This is a reference The Program of Work
book of all activities being undertaken by The POW indicates complete information
said agency. of a project – its location, the source of
An independent monitor’s best guides fund, contract amount and the mode
in evaluating a project are the Plan, the of implementation. Included also in
Specifications and the Program of Work the POW is its schedule of manpower
(POW) prepared by the implementing and equipment use, item description,
agencies. These are all pre-requisites estimated quantities, unit and total cost,
for the approval and implementation of a estimated breakdown of expenditures
project. and the agency officer who prepared and
approved the POW.
The Plans
It contains a flat representation of a In a POW, prominent are figures of
proposed building structure, all of the thickness, widths, lengths, areas and
structure’s parts and arrangements volumes. Sample illustrations are
with its apt dimension and proposed presented below to explain the derivation
materials to be used. Several significant of these measurements.
18 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

BASIC COMPUTATIONS Areas and Volumes:

# of pcs x A(in inches) x B (in inches) x Length (in feet)
12
1. Circle
Units of Measurements commonly used: d r = radius
r
1 kilometer = 1000 meters d = diameter
1 meter = 100 cm =1000 mm
1 meter = 3.28 feet Area = š r2
1 foot = 12 inches = π d2
4
Board Foot (Bd. Ft.): Volume of a Cylinder:
= (π r2) x H
Examples: = [π d2] x H
4
1. Convert 35 feet to meters
Solution: 2. Rectangle
35 feet X 1 meter = 10.67 meters L
3.28 feet W

2. Convert 50 cu. ft. to cu.m. Area = L x W L = Length

W = Width
Solution: Volume of a prism:
50 cuft X (1 meter) ^3 = 1.417 cu.m. = L x W x H (or thickness)
(3.28 feet) ^3

3. Convert 1000 inches to meters 3. Square

Solution: S
1000 inches X 1 ft X 1 meter = 25.407meter S S
12 inches 3.28 ft S = Equal sides
S
4. Convert 750 sq. m. to sq. ft. Area = S x S
Solution: Volume of a Cube:
750sqm X (3.28 ft)^2 = 8068.80 sq.m = S x S x H (or thickness)
(1meter)^2
5. Get the number of Bd. Ft in 25pcs –
2 x 2 x12 lumber. 4. Triangle
Soution:
h b = base
25pcs X 2 X 2 X 12 = 100 bd. ft.
h = height
12
b

Area = 1 bh
2
 CCAGG Tools in Monitoring 19

5. Trapezoid: Solution:
b2
1. Convert the given unit of measurements
h into meter.

b1 i. 200mm x 1 meter = 0.20 meter

Area = (b1 + b2) 1000 mm
xh
2
Volume of a Prism: 2. Volume = π d2) x H
= (b1 + b2) 4
2 xhxL = [π (0.20m)2] x 3.0m x 10 pcs
4
= 0.942 cu.m.

3. Find for the area of a rectangular

concrete pavement whose thickness is
Example: 0.10m and a volume of 18 cu.m.
1. Find for the volume of a 4.0m – wide
PCCP, 6 inches thick, 1 kilometer long in Solution:
cubic meter. Area = L x W
Volume = L x W x t
Solution:
1. Convert the given unit of measurements So, Volume = Area x t
into meter.
Finding for Area = Volume χ t
i. 6 inches X 1 ft x 1 meter = 0.15 meter
12 in 3.28 ft = 18 cu.m. χ 0.10 m
= 180 sq.m.
ii. 1 kilometer X 1000 meter = 1000 meter
1 kilometer

2. Volume = L x W x t
= 1000m x 4.0m x 0.15m
= 600 cu.m.

2. Find for the volume of 10 circular

columns, 3.0m high with a diameter of 200
mm, in cubic meters.
20 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Contributory to the quality and speed of concrete, etc. These excuses should not
work are the following: be allowed especially when the use of
these tools and equipment are specified in
Experience and Skill of the Workers in the contract. It would not be there without
their Field. a purpose

Workers should be tasked according Availability and Sufficiency of Materials.

to their field of specialization. The
employment of an appropriate manpower Ten percent (10%) Mobilization cost is
will hasten the completion of an activity given to the Contractor to cover expenses
and finishes it in good quality. prior to construction including a well-built
warehouse. The Contractor must maintain
As independent monitors/stakeholders, a well-built warehouse in the project site
we must always consider this concern. We enough to contain sufficient good quality
have to know our builders and trace their materials for the project. Advance delivery
backgrounds by having a little talk with of materials to the project would not be a
them at times. problem.

We have been seeing poor project execution

due to the employment of unskilled and
very young workers.

Tools and Equipment of Good Quality and

Standard.

The Contractor must have to utilize

appropriate sound tools and equipment in
every stage of the project or as provided in
the Program of Work. Tools and equipment
were created to make man’s works done
faster, easier, and finer.

A common scene in some project sites

nowadays is the display of defective tools
and equipment. Some contractors would
say they have it but malfunctioned in the
process so they have no choice but to do
it manually or not employ it anymore, the
roadbed needs not be compacted because
its been used by traffic, or they also do
not have to use the vibrator because
the workers are stomping on the fresh
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 21

I. ROAD CONSTRUCTION /
REHABILITATION

Project Billboard

Billboard

This is a project requirement to promote transparency in implemention. It should be dis-

played conspicuously within the boundary of the project throughout the project duration.
This is also a requirement provided for in the the Commission on Audit (COA) memorandum.
22 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Common Equipments Used in Road Construction

1. Loader - This is used for

loading excavated materials
for disposal or haul. It
can be used alternately
with bulldozer to spread
aggregates in Subbase and
Base course preparation.

2. Backhoe - It is used to
dig trenches for structure
excavation such as protection
walls, culverts, etc. Also used
in trimming uphill slope road
boundaries.

3. Bulldozer - Is for moving

earth, cutting slopes for a
new road and for spreading
aggregates.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 23

Common Equipments Used in Road Construction

4. Road Roller - It is used for consolidating/compacting the

subgrade subbase and base course in road construction.

5. Grader - It is used to form the section of a roadway to the

desired level and in preparing the road for compacting.
24 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Description meters for a two way traffic.

4. Barangay Road - refers to the road that
Road is an open way/access for vehicles, connects the barangays from the town.
persons and animals to transport from The mimimum thickness is 0.15 meter
one place to another. (6 inches) with an ideal width of 4.50
meters.
5. Farm-to-Market Road - this refers to the
Classification of Road
access to transport of products to the
market outlet.The minimum thickness
1. National Road - This road connects one
is 0.15 meter width an ideal width of 4.50
province to another province. Its mini-
meters.
mum thickness is 0.23 meter (9 inches)
and a width of 6.10 m eters for a two
General work items involved in road con-
way traffic.
struction/rehabilitation are the following:
2. Provincial Road connects the munici-
I. Earthwork
palities within the province. It adopts a 9
II. Subbase and Base Course
inch thickness and a width of 6.10 meters
III. Surface Courses
for a two way traffic.
IV. Drainage and Slope Protection
3. Municipal Road - refers to the road net-
work within a town. Its thickness is 0.2
meter (8 inches) with a width of 6.10
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 25

A. Earthwork
Clearing and grubbing Removal of Structures
(Item 100) and Obstruction (Item 101)
It should consist of clearing all vegetation
and debris as designated in the contract.
The work should also include the preser-
vation of all objects designated to remain.

Method of measurement for

payment

1. Area Basis - the work to be paid for

should be the area acceptably cleared
and grubbed as indicated in the program
of work.
This item consists of the removal and
2. Lump Sum Basis . When the Bill of satisfactory disposal of obstructions
Quantities (BOQ) contains a Clearing like buildings, fences, old pavements,
and Grubbing lump-sum item, no abandoned pipelines, etc. which are not
measurement of area will be made. permitted to remain.

3. Individual Unit Basis (Selective Clearing). Bridges, culverts, and other drainage
Cleared trees of 1.4m in height will be structures in use by traffic should not be
paid. Trees less than 150mm in diameter removed until satisfactory arrangements
will not be measured for payment. When have been made to accomodate traffic.
the measurement of cleared trees is by
piece, it will be done in accordance with Blasting or other operations necessary
the following schedule of sizes. for the removal of an existing structure
or obstruction, which may damage new
construction should be completed prior to
Diameter of Payment Item the start of the new work, unless otherwise
height of 1.4 m. designation provided in the special provision.

over 150 to
Small
900mm

over 900mm Large

26 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Method of Measurement 3. For environmental concerns, the

contractor should only confine their
Removal of obstructions paid on a lump- operations within the work limit specified
sum basis should include all structures specially when the project is new road
and obstruction encountered within the opening.
roadway. However, removal of specific
items shall be paid on a unit basis. 4. Look for the change of method
The area being cleared and grubbed will be
Whenever the Bill of Quantity does not the basis of payment.
contain an item for any aforementioned
removals, the work will be considered as * Removal of Structures and
an obligation of the contractor under other Obstructions (Item 101)
contract item.
Prior to placing of new work, all existing
structures or obstruction indicated not to
How to Assess:
remain in the plan be removed.
* Clearing & Grubbing (Item 100)

1. All surface objects like trees, stumps,

roots and other protruding obstructions
shall be removed.

2. The monitor should verify the existence

of structures to be cleared prior to the
execution of work.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 27

Excavation (Item 102)

This item shall consist of roadway and
borrow excavation, and the disposal of
materials in accordance with specifications
and in conformity with the lines, grades
and dimensions shown in the plans or as
established by the Engineer.

Roadway Excavation

It includes excavation and grading for

roadways, parking areas, intersections,
approaches, slope rounding, benching,
A bulldozer is shown widening a portion of Abra-
waterways and ditches; removal of Kalinga Road.
unsuitable materials from the roadbed
and beneath embankment areas; and
excavating selected materials found in the
roadway as ordered by the Engineer for
specific use in the improvement.

Roadway excavation will be classified as:

1. Unclassified Excavation consists of the

excavation and disposal of all materials
not classified and included in the bill of
quantities under other pay items.

2. Rock Excavation consists of igneous,

Solid rock in Boliney is being blasted using dyna-
sedimentary and metamorphic rock which mite to give way to road building.
should be blasted.

3. Common Excavation are those not

included in the BOQ under rock excavation
or other pay items. Borrow Excavation consists of the
excavation and utilization of approved
4. Muck Excavation consists of the removal materials required for the construction
and disposal of deposits of soils and of embankments or for other portions of
organic matters not suitable for foundation the work, and is obtained from approved
materials regardless of moisture content. sources or quarry site.
28 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

1. Case 1 Borrow consists of materials

obtained from desigated sources.
2. Case 2 Borrow consists of materials
obtained from sources provided by the
contractor

Prior to excavation, a pre-construction

survey,following an approved plan is
undertaken by the contractor under the
control of the Engineer. The result of the
survey will establish the baseline for the Road opening in Barangay Ampalioc, Luba
along Abra-Cervantes Road
computation of the actual volume of the
excavated materials.

All excavations should be finished in

reasonably smooth and uniform surfaces.
Excavation operations shall be conducted
so that materials outside of the limits of
slopes will not be disturbed.

Conservation of Top Soil

A backhoe is widening and sloping a sharp
Suitable top soil excavated from the area curve along Abra-Kalinga road.
where embankment is to be placed shall
be kept separate from other excavated 2. Verify the class of soil that is being
maaterials for later use and stored at a excavated and compare it with the class of
location approved by the Engineer. soil loaded into the cost breakdown.
3 Verify the actual quantity of work to be
Utilization of Excavated Materials done vis-à-vis the programmed
4. The planned width of the road is met.
All suitable materials removed from the 5. The roadbed is set with respect to the
excavation site are used in the formation planned grades and slopes
of the embankment subgrade, shoulders, 6. The newly constructed roadway is free
slopes, bedding, and backfill for structures from landslides.
and for other purposes shown on the plans 7. The quantity of rock and common earth
or as directed. excavation is calculated separately as basis
of payment.
How to Assess Excavation (Item 8. The road shall be provided with earth
canal or side ditches to avoid scouring at
102: Widening or Opening)
the roadway due to water run-off.
9. Verify the actual quantity of work to be
1. Compare existing field profile/condition
done vis-à-vis the programmed.
with that of the plan.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 29

Structure Excavation (Item 103)

This consists of the needed excavation
of foundations of bridges, culverts,
underdrains and other structures.

Construction Requirement/
Process

1. Prior to any excavation operations, all

necessary clearing and grubbing in an area
should performed in accordance with Item
100. 4. Boulders, logs and other objectionable
materials encountered in excavation are
2. Excavation: Before any excavation removed.
is made the cross-sectional elevations
and measurements shall be taken on 5. After each excavation is completed, the
the undisturbed ground. The natural contractor notifies the Engineer. No foot-
ground adjacent to the structure must not ing, bedding material or pipe culvert will
be disturbed without permission of the be placed untill the Engineer has approved
Engineer. the depth of excavation and the character
of the foundation materials.
3. Trenches or foundation pits for structures
or structure footings are excavated to the The elevations of the bottoms of footings
lines and grades or elevations shown on the as shown on the plans are considered
plans or as staked by the Engineer. They as approximate only and the engineer
have to be of sufficient size to permit the may order in writing such changes in
placing of structures or structure footings dimensions or elevations of footings as
of the full width and length shown. maybe deemed necessary to secure a
satisfactory foundation.

Depth of excavation shall be

reckoned at the downhill side.
30 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

How to Assess Structure How to Assess Embankment (Item

Excavation (Item 103) 104)

1. The trenches or foundation pits for 1. Look for the established vertical control
structures should be excavated to the point. This will be used for the computation
designed width, length and depth. of the actual volume of embankment.
2. The depth of excavation though 2. Verify the actual source of embankment
appoximated on the plans canl be materials and compare it with the approved
adjusted in order to secure a satisfactory quarry site.
foundation. 3. Any approved change in the quarry
site/borrow pit location should bear
a corresponding adjustment on the
Embankment (Item 104) computation of cost.
4. Make sure that the materials used
Description is granular such as sand and gravel or
selected borrow.
Embankment or backfill of holes, pits with 5. The embankment should be compacted.
the roadway is compacted using approved 6. The embankment should be completed
materials. as planned and programmed.

Construction Requirements

1. Embankment material should not contain

deleterious matters like peat and sod.
2. Compacting should be done in layers
with a maximum thickness of 20c.m. for
every layer.
3. Look for the established vertical control
point. This will be used for the computation
of the actual volume of embankment.
4. Verify the actual source of embankment
materials and compare it with the approved
quarry site.
5. Any approved change in the quarry
site/borrow pit location should bear
a corresponding adjustment on the
computation of cost.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 31

B. Subbase and Base Course

(Preparation for Concrete Pavement)
Subgrade Preparation
(Item 105)
Description
 Subgrade Preparation is the removal of unsuitable
and detrimental organic materials such as grass
roots and sewage which can not be properly
compacted which may eventually cause the
surface to sink or make the surface uneven.

How to Assess Subgrade Preparation

(Item 105)?
a) Prior to commencing subgrade preparation,
all culverts, cross drains (including their fully
compacted backfill), ditches, drains and drainage
outlets must be done first. Prior to the placing of subbase/ basecourse,
b) The subgrade are prepared to the full width of a subgrade preparation should be conducted.
the roadway. The existing road should be levelled/ scraped
to its grade and lines.
c) This should be properly graded, compacted and
stabilized.
d) In a cut section, the subgrade is the original
soil lying below the subbase and base materials.
e) The subgrade consist of the materials taken
from nearby roadway cuts or from borrow pit.
f) Determine the area of work to be done and
compare it with the program.

Construction Requirements

1. Prior to the placing of Subbase Course for

concrete pavement, the Subgrade is levelled to
the planned grade. After levelling the roadway
through the use of a road grader, this is compacted
using a roadroller. When it is already compacted,
the subgrade is now ready to overlay Item 200
(Aggregate Subbase Course). Scraping the existing road surface is done in
2. Prior to commencing preparation of the order to set its designed grade. Backfilling or
subgrade, all culverts, cross drains, ditches and cut could also be done but it depends to the
drainage outlets (including their fully compacted planned road elevations.
backfill) is completed.
32 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Characteristics of the subbase / base:

Aggregate Subbase Course
(Item 200) & Aggregate a) should be free of large rocks/stones,
b) the full width of the roadway should be
Base Course (Item 201) properly prepared/compacted.
c) the maximum compacted thickness
The subbase/base course is the material is 150mm for each layer. If the required
laid on top of the subgrade. It consists thickness is greater than 50mm, the
of crushed stone or gravel which may materials should be spread and compacted
sometimes be mixed with either soil or in two or more layers of approximately
asphalt binders. equal thickness.
d) the road surface should be properly
How to Assess? shaped to prevent water accumulation
within the roadway.
1. Verify the actual area and thickness of e) The subbase and base should be properly
the compacted road base vis-à-vis the plan. prepared and compacted prior to placing
2. For the materials, the coarse aggregates of forms.
should be provided with right amount of f) Verify the actual area and thickness of
binding materials and should be mixed the compacted road base vis-a-vis the plan.
uniformly. g) For the materials, the coarse aggregate
3. The sub-base and base materials should should be provided with right amount of
be compacted in accordance with the binding materials and should be mixed
specifications. uniformly.
4. Verify the source of materials h) Verify the actual source of materials and
compare it with the approved quarry site.
Types of Subbase Course & Base 2. The base course is treated with either
asphalt, lime, portland cement, or other
Courses
materials as binding materials to stabilize
the road bed.
1. The granular base course or untreated
soil mixture is a road surface described
Asphalt treatment is applied primarily
as gravel road which consists largely of
to make the road surface waterproof and
stone pebbles or crushed rock particles
binds the granular materials.
mixed with either clay, lime or other fine
materials to serve as binder.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 33

Material Requirements/Process

Aggregates for subbase and base course consist

of hard, durable fragments of crushed stones, or
natural gravel and sand or other finely divided
mineral matter.

Construction Requirements

1. Prior to placing of subbase material, the

existing surface of the road is graded and finished Stocking of subbase or base materials are done
as provided under subgrade preparation. at the station limits of the project. Spreading
will follow with the designed thickness but
should not exceed 150 mm for each layer.
2. Sand and gravel are mixed with soil as binding
material for better result when compacted.

3. Spreading - The materials shall be spread by

a road grader uniform in thickness. When more
than one layer is required , compaction should
be done before the succeding layer is placed.

4. Compaction - The subbase material is

watered with sprinklers mounted on trucks and
compacted through the use of a road roller.
or by drying in order to obtain the required
compaction. The maximum required thickness
is 6 inches but if it is more than this, the ­­­­­
Spreading subbase course materials at the
aggregate subbase shall be spread in two or designated width and length. The maximum
thickness of each layer shall not exceed 150
more layers of approximately equal thickness. mm (6 inches)
Compaction is done to the whole width of the
road including its required shoulder.

5. Item 201 (Aggregate Base Course) is then

placed over the compacted subbase. The
procedures/methods of construction is the same
with Item 200 (Aggregate Subbase Course).

6. After compaction is done, field density test

(FDT) is conducted to the prepared road base
to determine its strength and readidness for The spread of aggregate subbase course is
concreting. followed by compaction to the full width of the
roadway.
34 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Field Density Test (FDT)

This is a process and method of testing

the compaction strength of the road bed to
ensures the stability of the foundation/road
bed of the concrete pavement.

How to do FDT?

1. There are instruments to be used in an

FDT These are :
a. Crowbar
b. Funnel After compaction activity, the materials engineer
c. Platform Balance conducts Field Density Test (FDT) to the prepared
d. Plate with circular hole (w/ specified road base to determine its degree of compaction.
diameter)
e. Container with sand

2. Dig a circular hole in the prepared/

compacted road bed (w/ specified depth &
diameter)

3. Bring the excavated materials to the

laboratory for testing.

4. Secure the result of the laboratory test.

When to do FDT?

1. Field Density Test is done before placing

the forms and pouring of concrete to the If the result of the FDT reached almost 100%
prepared road bed. (soil density), then the road base is now ready
for concrete pouring.

Using tamper in the compaction of road base

is not enough to meet the density required of
a road pavement. It is always suggested that
a road roller is used.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 35

Placing of Forms

Placing of forms for concrete

pavement shall only be done
after the subbase and base
had been properly compacted
or prepared. At least 100m
length of roadbed should
be set with forms ahead
of the mixer inorder that
the concreting will go on
continuously.

After setting the forms to

its grade/ elevation and
alignment, any area at the
prepared roadbed found
to be higher than the form
bottom is trimmed, and the
lower areas is with granular
materials and thoroughly
rerolled or compacted.

Extra care should be exercised

when removing forms. Use
of appropriate tools such as
crowbars should be strictly
observed. In case any portion
of the concrete pavement is
damaged, it should be repaired
immediately with fresh mortar
mixed in the proportions of 1
part cement and two parts fine
aggregates.
36 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Erroneous Practices in Base Preparation

Scraping of the other lane for
another round of subgrade/
subbase preparation is a
malpractice in road construction.
Large vivro-compaction equipment
could impart crack on the adjoining
concrete and disturb hardening
when concrete is still at its early
stages of ageing. Appropriate
compaction at the proximity of the
centerline is hard to implement as
there are extending dowels.

Big sized aggregates are used

as base course. This will create
isolated areas of toughness
that will induce flexural cracks
upon loading. Manually operated
tampers should not be used
for wide surface consolidation
because the attainment of the
desired degree of compaction is
imposable.

Compaction of the roadbed after

the installation of side forms is
a construction malpractice. It
will render the edge short of the
required degree of compaction.
The sidewalk will be left loose
and susceptible to scouring from
surface runoff.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 37

Erroneous Practices in the Placement of Forms

In the photo, the road

bed was not well
formed indicative of non
application of desired
consolidation. Side forms
are partially digged
into the ground denying
the pavement of the
designed thickness when
completed.

In this photo, the form

set is not seated firmly in
contact with the base to
conform exactly to the
design length and grade.
38 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

C. Surface Course

Portland Cement Concrete Pavement (Item 311)

Description Required Materials

This item shall consist of a pavement A. Portland Cement

of Portland Cement Concrete, with or Only Type-I Portland Cement shall be used
without reinforcement, and constructed unless otherwise provided for in the Special
on the prepared base in accordance with Provisions. Different brands or the same
specifications and in conformity with the brands from different factories shall not
lines, grades, thickness and typical cross- be mixed nor shall they be used alternately
sections shown on the plan. unless the mix is approved by the Engineer.

The concrete pavement when properly B. Fine Aggregates

constructed will last for years with This consists of natural sand, stone
relatively low maintenance cost. A wide screenings or other hard, strong and
variety of concrete pavement designs have durable materials approved by the Engineer.
been developed ranging from 8-13 inches Fine aggregate from different sources of
thickness. supply shall not be mixed or stored in the
same pile nor used alternately in the same
Prerequisite of Item 311: class of concrete without the approval of
Item 105- Subgrade Preparation the Engineer.
Item 200- Aggregate Subbase Course
Item 201- Aggregate Base Course
Item 500- Pipe Culverts or Storm Drains
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 39

C. Coarse Aggregate F. Joint Fillers

It shall consist of crushed stones, gravel, Poured joint fillers are mixed asphalt and
or other approved inert materials that are mineral or rubber filler. They have to
hard, strong, and durable and free from any punched to admit the dowels. The filler for
adherent coatings. each joint are furnished in a single place
for the full depth and width required for
D. Reinforcing Steel the joint.
This must conform to the requirements of
Item 404, Reinforcing Steel. Tie bars should G. Proportioning, consistency and
be deformed bars. Dowels are plain round strength of concrete
bars. The design mix is based on the absolute
volume method. Specifications require
E. Water approximately 9.0 bags of cement per cubic
Water used in mixing, curing or other meter of concrete based on a 40 kilograms
designated applications are reasonably per bag of cement.
clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali,
grass or other substances injurious to the
finished product. Water which is drinkable
maybe used without test.

Water used in mixing with concrete should be reasonably clean.

40 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Process of Concrete Production b. Type II is used for structures in water

or soil containing moderate amounts of
Requirements for Successful Concrete sulfate , or when heat build-up is a concern.
Structure c. Type III cement provides high strength
at an early stage, usually in a week or less.
1. Strength - This is the measure of the d. Type IV cement resists heat generated by
capacity of concrete to carry passing hydration that is used for massive concrete
vehicles without failure. structure such as dams.
2. Resistance to degradation e. Type V cement resists chemical attack
3. Economy by soil and water high in sulfate.
f. Type IA, IIA & IIIA are cement used to
Activities involved in the production of make air-entrained concrete. They have
concrete (ACI 304R) the same properties as types, I, II & III
except that they have small quantities of
1. Measuring ingredients or batching air-entrained materials combined with
- Measuring ingredients can be done them
either through the volumetric method or
by weighing ingredients.
2. Mixing
3. Transporting
4. Pouring
5. Curing
6. Inspection

Steps in the production of concrete

1. Measuring ingredients/Batching
The ingredients to be measured are
a. Cement
b. Fine aggregate
c. Coarse aggregate
d. Water
e. Mixtures

Though all Portland cement are basically

the same, eight types of cement are
manufactured to meet different physical
and chemical requirements for specific
applications:

a. Type I is a general purpose Portland

cement suitable for most user.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 41

AGGREGATES are riverbed materials such a. Fine—natural sand or crushed stone with
as sand, gravel or crushed stones which most particles passing through a 3/8 inch
must be clean, hard, strong, and durable. (9.5mm) sieve.
Old concrete which has been crushed is a b. Coarse—are any particles greater than
feasible source of aggregate. 0.19 inch (4.75mm) but generally range
between 3/8 and 1.5 inches (9.5mm to
The aggregates should be free of absorbed 37.5mm) in diameter.
chemicals, coatings of clay, and other fine
materials.

Aggregates, which account for 60 to 75 per

cent of the total volume of concrete are
divided into two distinct categories.

Crushed river stones are well

graded aggregates and are ideal
for a more durable mixture

A metal sieve used to screen river

aggregates
42 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

WATER Tips on working with concrete:

Almost any natural water that is drinkable A. Cement: the most common used cement
and has no pronounced taste or odor can be is Portland. It should be dry, powdery and
used in mixing water for making concrete. free of lumps. Store cement away from
Water suitable for making concrete, damp floors. Stack the bags close together
however may not be fit for drinking. to reduce air circulation.

2. Mixing

Mixing maybe done either manually or

through a portable mixing machine at the
job site or thru a central batching plant.
Proportion of mix is dependent on the
strength and workability requirement of
the work.

3. Pouring

Concrete pouring shall be continuous up

to the last construction joint which are
regularly spaced at 4.5m between joints.
If there are excess concrete at the end of
the day’s works, it maybe placed one-third
or two-thirds of the succeeding block. If it B. Sand, gravel and water: These
is insufficient to accomplish these lengths ingredients are commonly combined in a
better discard. 1:2:3 (1 part cement, 2 parts sand, 3 parts
gravel) proportion for common application.

The amount of water used to mix ingredients
is the most important factor in determining
the final strength of the concrete. Usually,
between 16 to 24 liters of water is mixed
with each 40 kg bag of cement.

When mixing the ingredients in a transit
mixer, add about 10% water. Then gradually
add water uniformly with the dry materials
leaving another 10% to be added after the
dry materials are in the drum. Allow 5 or 6
minutes after all the materials are in the
mixer.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 43

When mixing by hand; the mixing area D. Curing

must be both clean and water tight. Use
the following procedure: After the road beds are filled, the pavement
i. Spread the sand evenly over the mixing must be cured until it reaches the required
area. strength. Forms filled with concrete should
ii. Spread the mixture evenly and add the not be removed from 18-24 hours to allow
gravel on it and mix it thoroughly. All dry enough time for the concrete to set and
materials should be thoroughly mixed to prevent premature drying on the side of
before water is added. the concrete.
iii. Shape dry mix into a pile/cone and form a
hollow bowl in the center. Pour some of the Curing involves keeping the concrete damp
water into the bowl, gradually mixing in the so that the chemical reaction that causes
dry mixture until all the water is absorbed. its hardening will continue for as long as
Re-form the pile and bowl/cone, add and necessary.
mix more water. Repeat until concrete is
ready to be poured. The best way to keep the concrete damp
is to cover it with canvass, empty cement
C. Finishing bags, burlap, palm leaves or straw. The
covering should be kept damp so that it will
Once the concrete is poured into the road not absorb water from the concrete.
bed, its surface should be kept rough by
finishing with a trowel or by lighly brushing
or brooming the surface. This is to prevent
people from sliding when the road gets
wet.

In manual mixing, all dry materials like

cement and aggregates are thoroughly mixed
before water is added.

Only one lane at a time is poured with concrete for

traffic consideration. For the protection of the newly
constructed lane, a sign “SLOW DOWN” is installed
and maintained for its protection. The pavement
shall be openned to traffic only after curing is at-
tained. In the event that the contractor permits Burlap - one of the many methods of concrete
traffic before curing period is attained, any damage curing whereby a continuous fabric is laid to cover
that maybe incurred shall be his accountability. a newly concreted road. This is to prevent evapo-
ration of moisture of the aging concrete.
44 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

How to assess Portland Cement B. During Construction

Concrete Pavement (Item 311)?
a. The concrete mixture should be “Class
A. Pre-Construction A”. A bag of cement is mixed with 2 boxes
of fine aggregates (sand) and 4 boxes of
a. Prior to pouring of concrete, the road coarse aggregates (gravel).
base should be well-prepared. b. Concrete vibrator or concrete screeder
b. Ensure that there is no excessive with vibrator should be used during
crowning on the base cross-sectional a spreading of concrete to prevent
profile. This will create a substandard honeycombs.
pavement in terms of thickness of the mid c. Too much water or too wet concrete
section. mixture will weaken the structure.
c. No boulders are laid over the prepared d. For every 4.50m length of the pavement,
road base that will lessen the required a contraction joint or weakened plane joint
thickness of the pavement. should be provided.
d. The forms should be rested over the e. For every pouring of concrete, the end
prepared base and not embedded in the of the pavement should be provided with
ground. dowel bars spaced at 0.30m O.C.
e. Dowel and tie bars are present with their f. Shear key or groove is provided at the
specified size and spacing. center line (pavement side) for better
f. The aggregates are screened. The connection to the other lane.
maximum size of coarse aggregate (gravel) g. Brooming on the pavement surface
is 2 1/2 inches. should be uniform in depth and direction.
g) River mix gravel or unsreened aggregates
should not be used without the approval of
the engineer.
h) Dirty aggregates should not be used.
i) Excessive crowning of the base cross-
sectional profile. This will create
a substandard pavement in terms of
thickness of the mid section.
j) Verify for the provision of the specified
slope/crown of the pavement surface.
k) River mix gravel or unscreened
aggregates should not be used without
the approval of the engineer.
l) Provision of specified tie bars
m) Provision of control or weakened plane
joints
n) Construction joint should be located at
1/3 or 2/3 away The recommended dimension of dowels for joints.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 45

Types of Joints in Cocrete Roads

1. Expansion Joints - The adjoining slabs permit the concrete to expand as the temperature
increases. This is provided at right angles to the centerline of the road and should extend
to the full width and depth of slab at a distance, which varies from 18-27 meters.

Illustration of expansion Joints

2. Contraction Joints - These are used to allow for contraction or shrinkage of concrete
to prevent cracking. Dummy Contraction joints are cut at a depth of approximately 1/5 of
the pavement’s thickness.

Cross-section of a span of a concrete pavement

Method of Measurement
The area to be paid for under this item is according to the length measured horizontally
along the centerline of each roadway.
46 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

C. Post Construction

The contractor and implementing

agency should see to it that the
pavement is not open to traffic
until the curing period is met.

The monitors should do the

following:

a. Check if the programmed

quantity and thickness are met;
b. The pavement is free from Young monitors measuring the accomplishment of the contractor
in Denden-Callao road in Villaviciosa, Abra.
honeycombs;
c. There are no major cracks like
longitudinal, transversal and criss-
cross cracks;
d. There is no surface scaling
e. All contraction joint or weakened
plane joint are sealed with asphalt.

When the monitors suspect that

the road under construction is
of poor quality, they may seek
help from the Quality Assurance Cross section of a concrete pavement.
Unit (QAU) of the DPWH Region
or Central office to conduct
boring test. Slabs extracted are
brought to a laboratory to test their
compressive strength.

QAU officials conducting boring test in specific locations along

Abra-Ilocos Sur road.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 47

A well-prepared base ready for concrete pouring.

After placing the pavement forms, compaction work at the road base shall only be done
for correction purposes.
48 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Preparations for Concrete Pavement

Filling of aggregates
in the measuring box
should be levelled in
order to attain the exact
proportion of concrete
mixture.

If the measuring box being

used for aggregates is not
the prescribed one which is
12 inches x 12 inches x 12
inches in inside dimension,
computing the capacity of
the container is necessary
to make sure that the
same quantity of coarse
aggregates per 1-bag of
cement is met.

Concrete pouring using

transit mixer.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 49

Concrete screeder with

vibrator is one of the tools
used to level the surface of the
pavement.

Using concrete vibrator in the

newly poured concrete mix is
done to avoid honey combs.

A monitor is checking the groove

dimension for compliance with shear
key provision. The tie bars link the
separately poured lanes.
50 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Erroneous Practices in Concrete Works

Concrete mixing using 1-bagger
mixer. The aggregates used
are unscreened. It is advisable
that the aggregates to be used
are screened inorder to meet
the required size diversity of
the coarse aggregate necessary
to produce the beneficial
characteristic of the hardened
concrete.

Unscreened aggregates do not

conform to the required ratio of
fine and coarse aggregates.

Too much gravel bedding will

diminish the thickness of the
pavement thus diminishing its
flexural strength. It Concrete
also results into a differential
cost as the gravel bed is cheaper
than the concrete it displaced.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 51

Erroneous Practices in Concrete Works

The road beds are laid with

boulders thus lessening the
concrete mix poured into
the pavement. This affects
not only the strength of the
pavement but also its life
span and cost with the cost
unrecoverable.

No concrete stopper is placed

at the end of the pavement. This
will affect the proper pavement
joints for future connection.
52 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Erroneous Practices in Concrete Pavement

Bamboo was used as moulder

for shear key thus resulting
to an irregular shape and
depth of the groove.

Shear key

The roadbed was not levelled

nor cleared of protruding
stones prior to the placing
of forms. The pavement
form was embedded into the
ground resulting into a thinner
pavement which is short of the
required thickness.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 53

Common/Major Defects in Concrete Pavement

Major longitutidinal crack as pictured

is caused by poor preparation of
sub-base and base coarse. To a more
serious degree, longitudinal crack is
cause by an occurence of a poor strata
underneath. This defect calls for
the removal and replacement of the
concrete pavement as well as strata
treatment.

Transversal crack in the pictured

pavement is caused by poorly
compacted sub-base and base before
the pouring of the concrete. For a
major defect such as this, the whole
span should be removed and replaced.

Scaling as shown in the picture can be

caused by any of the following:
- insufficient cement
- poor quality of aggregates used
- premature opening of the pavement
to traffic

For major scaling, the pavement is

recommended to be removed and
replaced.
54 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Common/Major Defects in Concrete Pavement

Major scaling on the

pavement surface might be
due to insufficient cement
ratio or the pavement was
opened to traffic before
the concrete curing period.
This defect calls for
a “remove and replace”
order.

Severe honeycombs are

visible on the pavement side.
This might be due to non-use
of concrete vibrator. This
type of defect will affect the
strength or quality of the
pavement.

This picture shows improper

brooming of a concrete
pavement. Brooming should
be regular in space, depth
and direction.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 55

Bituminous Pavement traveled road to 6 inches or more for roads

where traffic is heavy.
The bituminous pavement is a combination
of mineral aggregates and bituminous Base Preparation
binders.
Before spreading the aggregate, the base is
There is only one thing to remember: a be cleaned of all loose foreign materials. In
bituminous road is asphalt road. the case of previously constructed asphalt
surface, the existing base is swept until the
Qualities of a good asphalt road surface is free of mud or other covering.

1. The surface must be free from cracks or A prime coat is applied to the prepared
shrinkage. untreated base or in the case of previously
2. It must withstand weather condition constructed asphalt or cement surface,
brought about by water, heat, cold, and tack coat is applied to improve the adhesion
oxidation. between the base and the surface course).
3. It must be resistant to internal moisture
such as water vapor. When new aggregate is to be used for the
4. It must possess a tight surface road to mix surface course, the existing
5. It must be smooth riding with skid free surface have scarified lightly and bladed to
surface. uniform grade and to cross section shown
on plans and then rolled or watered as
The durability of an asphalt pavement lies directed.
or depends much upon the construction of
the subgrade and the base course. Surface Treatment

The surface treatment is a method of

Asphalt Concrete Pavement upgrading or rejuvenating an existing
pavement. The asphalt overlay is one of
Asphalt concrete is the highest type of the surface treatments commonly used.
dense bituminous pavement suitable for
the most heavily traveled roads. Asphalt Overlay

A prime coat is applied over untreated and Overlay is a layer of asphalt laid on an
treated base before asphalt concrete is laid. existing pavement. The purpose is to
The purpose is to bind any loose particles of straighten out a distorted surface or to
the base and likewise act as a bond between cover cracks and joints of the pavements.
the base and the pavement to deter rising Overlay thickness could be from 50mm to
moisture from penetrating the pavement. 150mm.

The thickness of a compacted asphalt

concrete ranges from 2 inches for lightly
56 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Dust Palliatives for Dust Control is a Slurry Seals is an effective solution for
surface treatment of asphalt to control dust filling cracks and rejuvenating the road
and fine sand along the highways. surface. Slurry seal is a combination of
sand, crushed stone, emulsified asphalt
Prime Coat or Tack Coat. The purpose of and water.
the prime coat is to plug capillary voids
in the pavement to stop the movement What to Inspect?
of mixture and to improve the adhesion
between the base and surface course. 1. Proper placement of asphalt binders has
to be checked to avoid surface failure.
2. Proper compaction to avoid sagging of
Armor Coat is a treatment using a thin the surface and base.
bituminous binder covered by mineral 3. The sinking or sagging of the surface
aggregate applied to an earth gravel may be caused by the soft subbase.
or water bound macadam surface or to 4. Check that there is no pool of water
stabilized base. For limited funds, armor along this pavement type as it will soften
coat is used as temporary pavement and the surface causing it to be scoured.
protection for the base materials.
General Asphalt Road Irregularities
Seal Coat is the application of asphalt
binder to pavement surfaces covered with Improper construction, insufficient road
aggregate. Seal coat serves: a) to provide thickness and poor mixture ratio will
an abrasion and water resistant surface; only result to expensive patching or
and b) improve skid resistance of bleeding surface repair. The inefficiency of the
bituminous surface. construction can be either an act of
omission or commission.
Sheet Asphalt is a mixture of sand, fillers
and asphalt cement. Sheet asphalt is The absence of poor drainage design will
commonly about 1 ½ “ thick over asphalt mean erosion or deposition of materials
concrete or PCCP. Its surface is easily requiring costly clean-up operations.
cleaned and is extensively used as surface
course on urban streets.

Cold Laid Asphalt. It is a mixture containing

coarse and fine aggregates and liquid
asphalts or emulsions. The mixture can be
prepared in a central plant or road mixed.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 57

D. Drainage and Slope Protection Structures

Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culvert (RCPC) & Storm Drains

(Item 500)
Description

This item consists

of the construction or
reconstruction of pipe
culverts and storm
drains, oftentimes
referred to as “conduits”.
Culverts are reinforced
concrete drainage having
dimensions of 0.30m
to 2.0m diameter and a
standard length of 1.0.
They are usually installed
along the original stream
bed. The laying of the
conduit/culvert must
begin at the downstream
end of the conduit line.
Material Requirements culvert should accomodate the volume of
1. The minimum thickness of bedding water run-off in the area.
material should be 100mm; 2. The culvert should be installed with
2. Joint mortar (cement & sand) should be minimum covering of 300mm or deeper.
applied at all joints; 3. All joints should be applied with mortar
3. The minimum covering above the top of the 4. Headwall, catch basin and concrete apron
conduit should be 300 mm.; should be constructed at the culvert inlet and
4. Concrete apron should be constructed outlet respectively.
downstream of the culvert to prevent scouring 5. The culvert must be installed with 10%
5. Head walls & catch basin should always be slope descending from inlet to outlet for
part of the structure. smooth flowing of water.
6. The culvert should extend to the full width
How to Assess Pipe Culvert & Storm of the roadway.
Drains (Item 500)? 7. Verify the actual quantity as basis of
1. The size of the reinforced concrete pipe payment.
58 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Construction Requirements Joints are sealed with a) Portland Cement

Mortar, b) Portland Cement grout, c)
A. Excavation rubber gaskets, d) Oakum and mortar,
Trenches to be excavated should be of e) Oakum and joint compound, f) plastic
sufficient width to allow the proper sealing compound, or by combination of
jointing of the conduit. The bedding and these types, or any other type as may
backfill materials of sand and selected be specified. Mortar is made to form a
sandy soil under and around it shall be continuous bead around the exterior of the
compacted. conduit and finished smooth on the inside.

B. Bedding E. Backfilling
The conduit bedding shoud conform to one Materials for backfill on each side and
of the classes specified below... top of the conduit shall be of fine, readily
compactible soil or granular material
Class A bedding should consists of a selected from excavation sites. No stones
continuous concrete cradle conforming to beyond 50 mm, chunks, plastic clay or
the plan details. other objectionable material should be
used.
Class B bedding should have a depth of not
less than 30 per cent of the vertical outside
diameter of the conduit. The minimum
thickness of bedding material beneath the
pipe be 100 mm.

Class C bedding should consists of not

less than 10 per cent of its total height.
The foundation surface is shaped to fit the
conduit.

C. Laying Conduit
Conduit laying begins at the down stream
end . Its lower segment should be
in contact with the shaped bedding
throughout its full length.

D. Jointing Conduit
The method of connecting conduit sections
should be such that the ends are fully
inserted and the inner and outer surfaces Check the size of the Reinforced Concrete Pipe
are reasonably sealed. (RCP) by measuring its diameter. The size to be
used should be the size as indicated in the Plan
and Program of Works (POWs) to avoid water
overspilling.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 59

RCP Drainage System

Head wall
Cross drainage

Head wall and concrete apron are constructed at the installed cross
drainage. The apron protects the foundation from scouring due to
the unrush of rain water.

Properly connected Reinforced Concrete Pipes with mortar. Two rows

of RC Pipes were programmed to accomodate the volume of water.
60 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Constructed Drainage System

Cross drain serves as outlet of the rushing water

during the rainy season. A concrete apron
should be provided to prevent the splashing
effect of water from gradually scouring the
foundation thus preventing its collapse.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 61

Erroneous Practices in Drainage Construction

There was no apron constructed

at the outlet of the RC Pipe Culvert
causing the the downstream
portion to be scoured.

After a typhoon, a cross

drainage was exposed which
showed that no mortar
was applied at its joints.
This is contrary to standard
specifications that all joints
be applied with mortar.

This cross drainage was

constructed with no headwall,
catch basin and apron which
should be part of the structure
for its workability and durability.
6
52 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Slope Protection Structures

1. Riprap and Grouted Riprap (Item durable, dense, resistant to the action of
504) air and water, and suitable to the intended
purpose. Sound pieces of broken concrete
A riprap is commonly used to protect the obtained from construction sites may be
sloping ground from sliding or scouring. substituted for stones with the approval of
This item is composed of boulders laid the engineer.
at the designed width and height of the
structure. Mortar is poured between the River stone is the most appropriate material
boulders in order to bind them. to be used in riprap.

Material Requirements Mortar:

Mortar for grouted riprap should have the
Stones: proportion of one (1) part cement to 3 parts
The stones for riprap and stone masonry sand.
consist of rocks that are sound, tough,
2. Stone Masonry (Item 505)

Stone Masonry is always used in minor

structures like headwall for culverts and
retaining walls.
Material Requirements

Stones which are clean, hard, durable and

of good shape.

Mortar of a stone masonry is made of one

part Portland cement and two parts of fine
aggregates and sufficient water to make
it easy to spread. Mortar that is not used
within 90 minutes after mixing is discarded.

Curing:
The structure shall be kept wet for a period
of at least three days after completion.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 63

How to assess Grouted Riprap

(Item 504) and Stone Masonry
(Item 505)?

1. The foundation should reach the hard

strata of the soil.

2. The stones/boulders being used should

be clean, hard and durable.

3. Every layer of stones/boulders should be

applied with mortar

4. All voids of boulders should be poured

with mortar

5. The structure should be provided with

PVC weep holes spaced not more than 2.0
meters on center.

6. Check the volumetric quantity of the

structure as basis for payment.
An on-going stone masonry project. Notice the in-
7. Verify depth of foundation which will be digenous bamboo batter board which is used to guide
deep enough to reach stable formation. the workers in arranging the stones.

8. Verify backfill materials if it is conforming

to specification which is a granular soil.

9. As to the method of construction,

grouting should be per layer basis or
“patong-buhos” not “patong, patong,
buhos.

10.Verify the kind of boulders/stone used

vis-à-vis the programmed.

A structure’s durability/stability depends on its

foundation. Therefore, the foundation should be
excavated until the hard strata of soil is reached.
64 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Stone Masonry (Item 505)

Mortar - The mortar for Stone

Masonry is composed of 1 bag of
cement for 2 boxes of sand. All
voids or spaces between boulders/
stone should be filled with mortar
for bonding.

Weep Holes are outlets of water

in a stone masonry structure with
the use of PVC pipes . Weep holes
should be spaced not more than
2 meters apart. Failure to put
weep holes affect the stability of
the structure. The accumulated
rain water will find its way to the
foundation thus loosening the soil
and contributing to its collapse. For a stone masonry structure, the full width of every  layer
of boulders should be poured with grout. Sometimes
contractors splash grout only at the exterior portion on
both sides making the structure substandard.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 65

Uses of Protection Walls

This three layered protection

wall was constructed to
protect a roadway from
eroding.

This protection wall

was built along a
river bed to protect
the community from
flood.
66 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Protection Walls

Monitors are making sure that all voids between

boulders are filled with mortars.

Weepholes are provided to intercept and drain surface water

seeping into the backfill material. Undrained water saturates
the backfill which then adds up to the weight pushing the
wall to collapse.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 67

3. Gabions (Item 509)

Gabions are wire mesh baskets which are filled
with durable rocks and used as protection
walls and flood control systems and installed
at designated locations.

Material Requirements

A. The length of gabions come in various

lengths: in multiples of 2, 3 or 4 times its width.
The horizontal width of the gabion shall not be
less than one (1) meter.

B. Rock Fill - Rocks used in the gabions shall

consist of hard, durable rock pieces that will
not deteriorate nor break when submerged
in water or when exposed to severe weather
conditions.

The sizes of rocks/stones range from 100mm
to 200mm.
Gabions are used as protection walls. These
Construction Requirements and Procedures are also used for flood control systems
because of its flexibiliity. While gabions
A. A gabion unit is assembled by binding deflect upon application of overload, these
together all vertical edges with wire ties could be restored with ease approximate to
the original shape.
on approximately 6 inches spacing or by a
continuous piece of connecting wire stitched
around the vertical edges.

B. The gabions are laid on levelled, smooth and

hard strata of the soil.

C. The gabions are filled with stones carefully

placed by hand or machine to assure alignment
and avoid bulges with a minimum of voids.
Alternate placing of stones and connection
wires are performed until the gabion is filled.

D. The stones to be filled in the gabion should

bigger than the wire mesh or screen opening
to avoid voluntary pull out.
68 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

How to assess Gabions?

Backfilling the backwall free space
1. The foundation should reach the hard
1. Backfill is done after seven calendar
strata of the soil or river bed.
days of continuous curing and after it has
gained sufficient strength to resist the
2. The gabion is assembled with wire ties
imposed load from the backfill material.
at all vertical edges on approximately 6
inches spacing or by wire stitching around
2. Backfill is granular or river-mixed
the vertical edges.
gravel and sand as these allow the free
passage of ground water towards the drain
3. The stones/boulders filled in the gabion
pipe thereby eliminating the build-up of
should be bigger than the wire mesh or
water pressure from saturation. Granular
screen opening and it should be hard and
material comes along with the provision
durable.
of an appropriate weephole which is an
inseparable component of a functional
drainage system within a wall structure.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 69

Erroneous Practice in Backfilling

Backfill for a stone masonry structure using earth borrow is not

advisable as it absorbs rain water that may cause the structure to
collapse.
70 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Erroneous Practices in Stone Masonry Wall Construction

Two (2) or more layers of boulders

are arranged before pouring
concrete mortar. Such will result
into a weak structure.

This is contrary to specification

that each layer and space
between boulders should be
filled with mortar.

The boulders of this newly constructed

line ditch is easily pulled out due to
insufficient grout applied/poured
between the stones/boulders.

The boulders in these stone masonry structures are easily removed due to insuficient
grout applied. This can be a cause for easy collapse.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 71

Common defects/ deficiencies in Project Implementation

of Road Construction/ Rehabilitation
Items of Defects/ Deficiencies Suggested corrections
Work and Agency Actions
Non- incorporatioin of subbase and Deduct the amount
base materials. equipvalent to the volume
of subbase/ base materials
not incorporated in the
project from the payment
of contractor. Note: If the
subbase/ base is considered
unnecessary due to stronger
existing subgrade then
the suggested action is
acceptable. If not, then it
is required to introduce
subbase/ base as per design.
Use of oversized materials Require the contractor to
screen the materials.
No binding materials mixed in the Require the contractor to
subbase/ base course. screen the materials.
I. Subbase and Inferior quality of subbase/ base Remove and replace
Base Course materials.
Insufficient thickness of subbase / Additional materials until it
base. meets the required thickness.
Subbase/ base not extended to full Require the contractor to
width of the road way. extend to the full width of the
roadway.
Non-scarifying of existing aspalt Deduct the amount budgeted
pavement. to the scarifying work if the
existing asphalt is still in
good condition. Require the
contractor to remove the
existing asphalt pavement if it
has already deteriorated.
Subbase/base not properly Require the contractor to
compacted. compact properly until it
reaches the required density.
72 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Items of Defects/ Deficiencies Suggested corrections

Work and Agency Actions
Pavement forms were placed prior Advise the contractor to dis-
to full compaction of the subbase/ mantle the forms and execute
base. compaction work until the
subbase/ base has been prop-
erly prepared.
Boulders are laid over the prepared Require the contractor to re-
base prior to pouring of concrete. move the boulders.
Aggregate used is unscreened. Require the contractor to use
screened aggregates.
The size and types of dowel and tie Require the contractor to re-
bars used do not conform to specifi- place the bars.
cations.
Improper placing of tie/dowel bars Require the contractor to
on jonts. place the bars at designated
location/ spacing.
II. Portland
Cement Improper blocking or construction Require the contractor to ob-
Concrete of weakened plane joints relative to serve proper construction of
Pavement (Item its width and depth. weakened plane joints.
311)
Non provision of construction joints Require the contractor to cut
or weakened plane joints. the pavement at specified
depth through concrete saw.
Use of dirty water or dirty aggre- Require the contractor to look
gates in concrete mix. for other source.
Concrtete mix to contains too much Require the project engineer
water. to strictly adhere to the prop-
er materials and construc-
tionn quality control. Under-
take regular routine slump
tests to monitor and control
water content.
The pavement is deficient in width Deduct the amount equivalent
and length. to the noted deficiencies in
dimensions from the payment
of the contractor, or require
the contractor to reconstruct
to full specified dimensions if
this is essential.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 73

Items of Defects/ Deficiencies Suggested corrections

Work and Agency Actions
The pavement is deficient in Remove and replace the
thickness. pavement with lesser
thickness than the minimum
requirements.
Minor scaling on completed The contractor at his own
concrete pavement. expense should apply epoxy
mortar on all pavement
blocks with minor scaling.
Implementing agency should
monitor the defective areas
and if further deterioration
occurs within the warranty
period, remove and replace
the affected areas at the
contractor’s own expense.
Major scaling on concrete The contractor at his own
pavement. expe nse should remove
and replace the pavement
blocks with major scaling.
Also investigate the possible
causes of the defect to ensure
that replacement work will
be properly executed and
effectively serve the purpose.
Transverse cracks and settlement The contractor at his own
on completed concrete pavement. esxpense should remove and
replace the pavement blocks
with transverse cracks and
settlement.
The contractor at his own esxpense The contractor should remove
should remove and replace the and replace the pavement
pavement blocks with transverse with longitudinal cracks. Also,
cracks and settlement. investigate the reason for the
defects. In case the cause is
poor subgrade, then this must
be replaced with suitable
granular material prior to
concrete replacement.
74 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Items of Defects/ Deficiencies Suggested corrections

Work and Agency Actions
Criss-cross, temperature, diagonal, The contractor should seal the
corner and restraint cracks on cracks with concrete epoxy.
concrete pavement.

Honeycombs on the exposed side The contractor should plaster

section of the concrete pavement. the noted honeycombs with
cement paste, depending on
the extent of honeycombing.
If sever honeycombs, the
contractor should cutback and
remove all honeycomb/ voided
concrete.
No concrete vibrator was used Require the contractor to
during pouring. use concrete vibrator during
concrete pouring.

Improper brooming resulting to Require the contractor to

rough surface finishing. observe proper finishing of
concrete.

Non-provision of asphalt sealant on The contractor should seal the

weakened plane joints. weakened plane joints with
aspalt.
No curing was done on newly Require the contractor to
poured concrete. observe proper curing of
concrete.
Bamboo was used as shear key Require the contractor to
moulder. provide lumber for shear key.
 Road Construction / Rehabilitation 75

Items of Defects/ Deficiencies Suggested corrections

Work and Agency Actions
Diameter of RCPC was not in The contractor should
II. Drainage accordance with the approved plans. strictly follow the plans and
and Slope specifications.
Protection The RCPC was installed with The contractor should
Structures lesser covering than the minimum reinstall the RCPC observing
requirements. the minimun covering
requirements.
A. Item 500:
Pipe Culvert No collaring on RCPC joints. The contractor should
and Storm provide sufficients mortar for
Drains collaring of RC pipes.
No concrete apron constructed. Require the contractor to
provide concrete apron.

Misalignment of laid reinforced The contractor should redo

concrete pipe culvert. the misaligned RCPC.
Foundation for the slope protection The contractor should dig/
wall did not reach the hard strata of excavate the foundation until
the soil. the hard strata of the soil is
reached.
B. Item 504:
Grouted Insufficient mortar poured in Require the contractor to pour
between boulders. sufficient mortar between the
Riprap boulders.
Item 505: Stone Serve voids shown in the finished The contractor should apply/
Masonry structure. fill all voids or boulders
interstices before release of
payment.
No foundation for the slope Require the contractor to
protection structure. reconstruct the structure.
Insufficient backfill/ embankment Require the contractor to
complete the embankment
before the release of payment.
Backfill materials are not granular. Require the contractor to
remove and replace.
Banana chute was used as weep Require the contractor to
holes. replace the banana chute
with PVC or any specified
materials
76 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

II. Flood Control Structures

Description

- Protection of land properties from possible inundation by levees/dikes and embank-

ments.
- Confining the stream flow to its regular channel.
- Detension of part of the flood flow or power generation like dams.

The following are Flood Control Structures

1. Dam is a hydraulic structure to control and conserve water. Specific purposes include
the generation of power for electricity, the control of sudden floods, impound water during
the rainy season and to creat a lake for recreational activities. Dams maybe concrete,
earthfill or rockfill.
 Flood Control Structures 77

2. Embankment is a raised structure along the river bank made of materials like sand,
stones and soil.

3. Revetment is a flood control structure along the river banks for slope protection.
Revetments maybe a stone masonry, concrete blocks or walls.
78 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

4. Spurdikes are used to deflect the flow of waters to prevent scouring of major structures.

5. Channels are conduits to divert flood flows. These structures could be open channels
or closed conduits.
 Flood Control Structures 79

How to Assess Flood Control 4. Any failure in the structure is

Structure? traceable to the following:

1. Construction scheme or plan must be a. The materials used were not

available to check some change orders or in accordance with the project
additional work done. specifications.

2. Plans are usually the basis of project b. The unproportional or insufficient

implementation but revisions during the mortar being poured in between the
project construction do happen to suit the stones/boulders.
actual site condition. Locate the change
order as basis for the revision. c. The foundation of the structures did not
reach the hard strata of the river bed.
3. Assess the volume of work completed
as against the programmed work.
80 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

III. Bridge Construction

A bridge with steel beams, girders and steel deck.

Bridges consist of two major breakdown: 3. Bored Pile. A drilling machine bores
the substructure and superstructure. the ground of about 1.50 meters
diameter until it reaches the hardest
A. The bridge substructure is composed strata of the soil. A steel reinforcement
of pier and abutment including the will be placed at the bored hole
foundation. followed by the pouring of concrete
The pier footing is constructed over the
There are three types of foundation for pier bored pile.
and abutment. These are:
B. Bridge Superstructure is composed of
1. Spread Footing. This is designed for beams, girders, trusses, deck and any part
abutment / pier which is constructed of the bridge which an abutment and pier
over solid rock. carries.

2. Driven Piles. Steel or concrete piles

are driven until they reach the hardest
starta of of the soil. The abutment/ pier
is constructed over the driven piles.
 Bridge Construction 81

Types/Classifications of bridges: c. Steel Bridges

1. Steel Plate Girder is a bridge where
1. According to materials used: heavy oads must be carried for spans above
12.19 meters, and fornearly all spans over
a. Timber Bridge is low cost and has 18.288 meters either of welded or riveted
a short life span due to exposure to connections.
weather changes. 2. Steel Beam Girder is a bridge made of
steel rolled I – Beam
b. Concrete Bridge 3. Steel Truss is a bridge which is best for
1. Reinforced concretare bridge which spanning wide rivers
contains adequate reinforcement.
2. Prestress Concrete bridge is a bridge
in which internal stresses have been
introduced to reduce potential tensile
stresses/cracks in concrete resulting from
loads.
82 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Main cables

Tower
Hangers

Railings
Steel matting

1. Hanging bridge is suspended from two main

cables usually passing over towers and securely
anchored at ends. It has cables consisting of wire
rope eyebars or parallel wires wrapped spirally
with wire to protect and hold them in position.
Steel matting serve as its flooring.

k
Dec
l
tee Protection wall
S

Steel panel

2. Bridge with steel panel and steel deck.

The stell panel carries the weight of
Steel floor beam the deck. Provision of protection wall is
ensured to prevent scouring of abutment
and erosion of the approach.
 Bridge Construction 83

Bridge Components

Concrete railings

Protection wall

Column / Piers

Concrete girders
Side walk

Concrete deck/slab
84 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Simple Sketch of a Bridge

 Bridge Construction 85

Types of Bridges

1. Concrete Bridge with

wall-column piers. At
the inset is the slope
protection wall to keep
the approaches and
abutments stable.

2. A Modular Bridge with

steel beam and girders
supporting concrete deck.

3. Steel Beam and girders.

Its substructure is made up of
steel H-piles acting both as
foundation and pier at the same
time. This is usually the type of
bridge constructed as temporary
passage/ detour.
86 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Types of Bridges

4. Steel Truss Bridge which is best for spanning wide rivers. 

5. Modular Bridge with steel deck/carriageway

 Bridge Construction 87

Types of Bridge

Box culve
rts

6. Overflow Bridge made up of multi-barrel box culverts.

88 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Equipments Used in Bridge Construction

1. Crane is used to lift heavy loads. It is also used

in mounting rotary drill machine.

2. Transit Mixer is used to transport and mix

concrete from central batching plant to the
discharge area.
 Bridge Construction 89

Equipments Used in Bridge Construction

3. Auger Boring Machine bore holes for piles.

4. Bucket Equipment is used to bring out excavated

soft soil and fragmented stones and water from the
bored hole.
90 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Equipment Used in Bridge Construction

Diesel Hammer

5. Diesel Hammer is an internal combustion engine

used to drive concrete, wood and steel piles into the
ground for deep seated foundation.
 Bridge Construction 91

Bar Cages

Bending table for spiral ties,

hook provision, stirrups etc.

Caged bars for concrete

piles of bridge construction.

Rebars for pier coping

beam.
92 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Modular Bridge Components

These are steel panel,

materials for modular bridge
superstructure. The steel
panel carrsy the weight of
the bridge deck (dead load)
and the weight of vehicles
passing through the bridge.
(moving load)

These are the steel I-beam

for bridge superstructure.

Fabricated concrete piles for

bridge foundation.
 Bridge Construction 93

Stages of Bridge Construction

for Conventional Single Span Bridge

First Stage

A. A backhoe excavating
the foundation of the
bridge abutment.

B. Preparation for
the installation of the
footing reinforcement

C. Preparation for the

concreting of abutment post
or column.
94 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Stages of Bridge Construction

for Conventional Single Span Bridge

Abutment post

D. Concreted abutment post

Abutment coping beam

E. Concreted abutment coping beam

 Bridge Construction 95

Stages of Bridge Construction

for Conventional Single Span Bridge

Second Stage

A. After the construction of

the abutment, a protection
wall is constructed to
prevent it from scouring.

B. Laying of steel
or concrete beams
and girders follows
after constructing the
abutment and pier.

C. Steel beams and girders

are laid for the bridge
superstructure.
96 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Stages of Bridge Construction

for Conventional Single Span Bridge

Third Stage

Superstructure of the
bridge laid.
 Bridge Construction 97

Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridges

The process in constructing a
multi-span bridge is basically the
same as the single span bridge.
Usually a multi-span bridge is
founded upon a rigid foundation
that is driven or bored piles...

Photo showing the fabrication

of concrete piles. The length of
concrete piles being fabricated
depends on the output of
structural analysis which is
dependent on the result of soil
investigation.

The steel H-piles or precast

concrete piles are positioned
at their proper places ready for
driving. by a diesel hammer
mounted to a crane or drop
hammers for short single span
bridges.

H-piles

Pile driving is on-going. The

depth of the piles depends on
the result of soil investigation
undertaken prior to the
preparation of project design
but it must reach the hard
strata of the soil.
98 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridges

Showing the driven steel

H-piles. The pier of the
bridge will rest within the
exposed portion of the piles
driven. A pile cap or footing
is constructed over the piles.

Concrete piles being driven

for pier foundation. These are
driven until the hardest strata
of the soil is reached.

It is on these driven piles

(shown with protruding steel
reinforcement) that pier
footing will rest.
 Bridge Construction 99

Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridges

Vertical bar

Footing bars

Installed footing reinforcement bars. Notice the

vertical bar assembly which is the reinforcement
for pier.

Preparation of scaffolding for the placement of the

form work for the pier. Pouring of concrete follows.
100 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridges

Shown is the finished bridge substructure. The next activity is the

laying or furnishing of steel or concrete beams and girders of the
bridge superstructure.

Shear studs

Bolts

The on-going installation of steel beams and girders for bridge

superstructure. Notice that shear studs are used to join the
concrete slab to girders while the bolts connect the two girders.
 Bridge Construction 101

Steps of Constructing Multi-Span Bridges

Installation/construction of
girders and beams for the
superstructure of either a
Girders steel or concrete bridge.

After the installation of

Sidewalk reinforcement
the superstructure, the
flooring of the of the bridge
deck is readied. Side walk
reinforcement is also
provided.

Photo showing the

completed portion of a
bridge. Provision of railings
is the only remaining work
undone.
102 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

IV. Irrigation System 5. Placement of forms and reinforcing bars

Construction of irrigation facilities follows. Forms should have sufficient
includes diversion works, canal structures, strength to withstand the pressure
canalization and terminal facilities. In some resulting from placement of the concrete
projects, farm-to-market roads and after and vibration. Forms should be tight to
structure are added. prevent the loss of mortar in the concrete.
It should be cleaned and piled before they
While water does not constitute a pay item are placed.
in the Bill of Quantities of the program, its 6 Concreting follows. It should conform
eminence may be counted as equal or even to the standard specification and what is
more in substance than the irrigation indicated in the program of work (POW).
structures themselves. Afterall, water is Curing of concrete of not less than 14 days
the whole essence of the system, without should be observed.
it, economic return will be considered nil.
Canals and Canal Structure
For Diversion Work
In the construction of canals, ditches
1. Preparation of the steel installation and access roads, the work stages are
detail/diagram, lumber forms, cutting and as follows:
bending of reinforcing steel bars could be 1. Clearing and grubbing of the project
done at the start of the work. sites.
2. After staking out the diversion work, 2. Removal of the top layer by stripping
construction of the cofferdam may be when the top soil is undesirable as filling
started. It may be constructed using earth materials.
fill, steel sheet piles and wooden sheet 3. G e n e r a l c a n a l e x c a v a t i o n a n d
piling. embankment work including compaction.
3. As the work area has been dewatered, 4. Barrow haul or overhaul.
excavation and piling work may now 5. Finishing or trimming of the work area.
follow. Excavation should be performed
to the grades in the plan and should be The procedure of excavation, form works,
thoroughly compacted. preparation of steel works, concreting and
4. All foundations should be excavated to curing are the same with the construction
such depths as may be necessary to secure of diversion works. However, concreting
solid bearing for the whole structure. is done in different stages and in the
Whenever the foundations are situated following order:
on soft ground, the foundation should a. Concrete the lowest portion- flooring
be excavated 50 centimeters below the then;
grade and shall be filled with crushed b. Concrete the retaining walls, breast
stones or coarse gravel in every 15 cm and walls and barrels and;
compacted. c. Warped surfaces
 Irrigation System 103

The sequence may vary depending upon the walls and top slabs which are allowed
working condition in the jobsite, provided to set before the top of slab is placed and
that a special detail ( shear transfer appropriate keys are placed in the sidewall
mechanism) be adopted to eliminate weak for anchoring the top slab.
joints.

In the construction of barrels or closed

conduits with the height of 1.5 meters
and below, the footing or slab should be
concreted first to be followed by the side

Continuation of canal excavation activity

104 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

In the construction of barrels or closed 3. Embankment should be constructed to

conduits with the height of 1.5 meters the lines and grades shown on the plans.
and below, the footing or slab should be Materials not suitable for embankment
concreted first to be followed by the side foundations are removed and replaced with
walls and top slabs which are allowed suitable materials.
to set before the top of slab is placed and
appropriate keys are placed in the sidewall 4. Structure Backfill consists of backfilling
for anchoring the top slab. all spaces excavated and not occupied
by the structure and spaces between the
For Earthwork Activities natural ground surface and the finish lines
indicated to be filled and all other sections
This item covers canalization, excavation required to be filled including compacting.
for structure, embankments and backfilling All mud and loose materials are removed
of structures. before backfilling. The filling materials
are deposited and in layers not exceeding
Methods: 30 cm and then thoroughly compacted
by ramming, rolling on by means of
1. Canal excavations are classified as
mechanical tampers or portable vibratory
common and rock excavation.
compactions.
Common excavation should be undertaken
after the area has been cleaned of
For Concrete Works
undesirable materials. Excavations which Concrete is placed only on prepared
are not included in the Bill of Quantities. foundations and forms properly cleared and
free from oil, mud, and free from running
Rock Excavation consists of rock which water. Surfaces of existing concrete left
cannot be excavated without blasting or after partial demolition against which new
jack hammer. concrete is to be placed should be cleaned
thoroughly of all loose concrete coatings
2. Structure Excavation consists of the by brushing followed by washing.
removal of all materials within the structure
lines. It also includes excavations allowance 1. Concrete is conveyed from mixer to
beyond structure line to provide workers forms as rapidly as possible by methods
mobility in the installation of forms and which will prevent segregation or loose of
reinforcing bars. ingredients.
Common excavation- Foundations are done 2. The placement of concrete is done at
according to the outline of the footings and such a rate that all underlying layers of
flows of the structure. concrete surfaces shall not have reached
their initial set before additional concrete
Rock Excavation is the removal of all is placed.
materials within the structure lines
requiring blasting or jack hammer.
 Irrigation System 105

3. Consolidation are made with the aid no voids are left within the rubble masonry.
of mechanical vibrating equipment and
supplemented by hand and spacing and 4. The preparation and handling of the
tamping. concrete binder should be the same as that
of the concrete. In general, one cubic meter
4. Construction joints should be provided of rubble masonry will require one-half
where succeeding concrete are to be cubic meter (0.5 cu.m.) of concrete binder.
placed.
5. In case reinforcements are placed, no
5. Curing should be done for a period of stone should be closer than 10 cm to the
not less than 14 days. Form and support nearest reinforcing bars.
shall be removed only after the concrete 6. Rubble masonry should be cured for 5
as attained sufficient strength to support days.
its own weight.
For Support Structure
Reinforcement
A. Ungrouted Riprap
1. Reinforcement is laid, anchored and
embedded in the concrete. 1. Boulders should be placed immediately
following completion of the embankment,
2. Spacing of bars is measured along the channel or section of the structure.
center line of the bars.
2. On the prepared gravel blanket or
3. Reinforcing bars is accurately placed sub-grade, the boulders should be laid
and secured in position so as to avoid and arranged properly to offer maximum
displacement during the pouring of the resistance to displacement due to high
concrete. water velocity.

4. Splicing of bars is as shown in the plans. 3. Spalls of appropriate size filler stones
should be placed to fill spaces between the
5. Welding of bars is performed only where boulders.
shown in the drawings.
B. Grouted Riprap
For Rubble Masonry Structure
1. The bed for grouted riprap should be
1. The stones should be thoroughly wet excavated to the required elevation and
before they are installed in place. then properly tamped and trimmed.

2. The entire surfaces of every stone shouldl 2. The stone should be laid with close joints
be thoroughly covered with concrete binder. by hard.

3. The concrete binder should be placed 3. The stones should be moistures and then
into the spaces between the stones so that grouted with mortar.
106 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

4. All spaces between the stones should be 2. The POW- It should be studied by the
completely filled with mortar from bottom team to familiarize the quantity and class
to top. of materials to be used in the project.
(The sizes and quality of materials to be
5. The grouted riprap should be cured with installed).
water for a minimum period of 3 days.
3. The feasibility study- must be received.
6. Mortar for grouted riprap should consist This is where important information about
of one part cement to three parts of sand the project are indicated like the proponent,
by volume and water to produce a thick and target beneficiaries/ organization, target
creamy mixture. area, project cost, and sustainability plan

How to Assess an Irrigation

Project?
Things to consider in assessing an irrigation
project:

1. The plan- the monitoring team should

be familiar with type of structure to be
constructed.This will be the basis of the
plan.
 Irrigation System 107

Establishing Line and Grade of an Irrigation Canal

Line and grade team establishing

vertical stakes along the canal to
provide control for advancing
the excavation. Vertical control
scattered along the line well
enable workers to dig down
canal to the right level and slope
for the water to flow as the
system is operating under the
action of gravity.

Excavation of the intake canal.

The activity comes following the
establishment of a vertical and
horizontal stakes by the line and
grade team.

Hauling of imported materials

like reinforcing bars, cement,
etc from the discharge point
to the site is a cost item being
undertaken by the community
in a counterparting mode of
implementation. Manual hauling
of imported materials are casual
scenarios in a development
project like this, more so when the
setting is the remote countryside.
108 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Construction of Irrigation Canal

The two photos show the

preparation and installation of
forms for concreting the side
walls. Canal slabs should have
been placed prior to this activity.

After the installation of wall forms

and the rebars fixed to the desired
clearance, concrete pouring follows.
 Irrigation System 109

Construction of Irrigation Canal

Continuation of canalization activity

with the installation of partial cross
bracing. Cross bracing is applicable
for open canal .

Completion of the cross

bracing works

After the wall concrete had set

and gained   sufficient strength,
formworks for the canal cover may
then be installed.
110 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Construction of Irrigation Canal

A completed portion of an intake

canal with manhole provided for
maintenance.

Manhole

The completed intake

structure with its adjoining
intake canal.

A temporary impounding dam

made up of piles of stones, banana
trunks, decaying leaves as fabrics
reinforced with wood stakes. This
is usually done during dry season
to raised the level of water enable
the same to creep down the intake
canal through the intake structure.
 Domestic Water Supply 111

V. Domestic Water Supply

Domestic Water Supply (DWS)
Domestic Water Supply is a system by
which water is drawn from a spring
or well to be used by households or
community.

The kind of domestic water supply which

is designed for a community depends
on factors like population density, source
of water, acceptability of the proposed
project by the beneficiaries and the
development cost. Public Stand Post

Types of DWS Services:
b. Deep well can serve about 40-100
1. Level I - Point Source households and shallow well around
5-40 households depending on the yield/
a. It can be any of the following: shallow discharge.
or deep well, a developed spring, rain
2. Level II - Public Stand Post
water collected and infiltration galleries
with no distribution system. a. This is a communal faucet system
intended for rural areas. A simple pipe
disribution system with strategically
located faucets are provided where
houses are densely clustered.

b. Water is derived from a point source

and is pumped or drained into a storage
tank. It is distributed through a network of
pipes until water reaches the public faucet.

c. It serves an average of 100 - 150

households within about 25 meters from
the faucet.

d. It provides about 40-80 liters of water

per capita per day.
Shallow well
112 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

3. Level III - House-to-House Connection d. Before the installation of the pump,

the well should be properly developed and
Its distribution network extends to cleaned of mud and sand.
individual households where consumptions
is metered or unmetered. It is generally e. Pump base is normally constructed at
applicable to large and densely populated about 1.0 meter above the ground surface
settlements. to avoid contamination of the well during
floods. Also a concrete slab platform
Typical Design of Level I: 10 mm thick protects the well from
contamination from excess water pumped.
1. Shallow Well
Selection Criteria for Level I:
a. It is constructed with an average depth
of approximately 12 meters and below. 1. The water quality must be physically,
chemically, biologically and radiologically
b. Small diameter tube wells with hand acceptable.
operated cost iron suction pumps are 2. The consumption of 40 liters per
normally used. capita per day is considered optimum for
rural areas using point source.
c. The average yield is 20 liters per minute 3. The distance of the households from
(20 lpm) the
 Domestic Water Supply 113

source be as near as possible. ( a cluster household for operation and maintenance

of households within a radius of about of the system.
50 meters) 3. Feasibility study and design
4. A properly computed well may 4. Formation and registration of the
generally provide 40 liters per minute People’s Organization (PO).
(40 lpm) 5. Negotiation and signing of MOA
5. The well should be properly developed 6. Delivery of materials
for easy pumping operation. 7. Construction and installation
8. Operation and turn-over of the system
2. Deep Well has a depth of 12 meters to the community.
and above.
It is cased in brass cylinder pumps with drop Selection Criteria for Level II:
pipes measuring 4 to 5 inches diameter in
nominal size and provided with deep set, 1. There must be an existing source which
must must be higher in elevation than the
It has a slab platform with a minimum target beneficiaries.
thickness of 0.10m. A drainage canal 2. If the source is a well or spring in the
properly sloped to drain water away from area, electricity must be available for
the well must be constructed. It should be pumping.
elevated from the existing ground level. 3. BWSA – the beneficiaries should
show their willingness to own, operate
Typical Designs of Level II: and maintain the system by forming an
association to operate and maintain it.
Level II system consists of the following
components: The selection of the types of well largely
1. A developed source point of water which depends upon the depth and diameter of the
is either a well or a spring well to be constructed, the characteristics
2. An electric driven pump if the source is of soil formations of the site and the cost
a well or a spring on a low ground of construction. The depth of the well
3. An elevated tank is dependent on the depth of the water
4. A distribution network of pipes including bearing layer.
the communal faucets.
Types of Wells:
In developing a Level II community-based
project, the activities to be undertaken are 1. Dug Well is a manually excavated open
the following: hole, usually circular in shape and lined
with concrete pipe, brick or adobe blocks.
1. Site selection 2. Bound Well is one in which the excavation
2. Dialogue between community members is made by the use of hand or power auger.
and the implementing agency. The 3. Driven Well is constructed by driving a
community organizes itself into an pointed screen into the ground casings. A
association, agrees to give at least 10% considerable length of pipe is attached to
counterpart of the total project cost, agrees the drive points as it is being driven into
also to pay the necessary monthly fee per the ground.
114 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

4. Cased Well/Drilled Well is an open hole must be covered with contamination proof
normally constructed by jetting or drilling closure at the top.
using either rotary or percussion drilling
equipment. 3. Shallow Bored Well
Metal casings should be the same as for
5. Gravel Posted Well is a bored hole to deep wells. Concrete on tile casings should
accommodate casing/screen surrounded reach at least 10 feet below the ground.
by gravel is constructed by either rotary
or jetting method. 4. Driven or Jetted Well
Utilize the steel or wrought iron well pipe
Common Items of Work in Water Supply as the well’s own casing.
Project:
5. Deep Well
1. WELL DEVELOPMENT AND Wrought iron or heavy steel casing should
CONSTRUCTION be used.
a. Screens – Copper alloy, corrosion-
The elements of well completion are the resistant steels, or equally corrosion
following: resistant materials are used.
b. Length should not be less than the
a. Installing the well screen in sand and thickness of the water bearing formation
gravel foundation (aquifer). Partial penetration may be used.
b. Developing the water bearing formation
c. Cementing or grouting the well casing Gravel Packaging:
in the drilled hole
d. Sterilizing the well 1. Shallow Dug Wells
e. Providing other sanitary protection Gravel should be backfilled around the
casing and at the bottom, but this should
Well Construction not go higher than 10 feet recond from the
surface.
Criteria:
2. Drilled and Large Bored Wells
1. Casing – for all types of well, double case
or single case and grout the top 10 feet as At least 2 inches of gravel packing should
minimum. be provided around the screen sufficient
to allow losses during the development of
2. Shallow Dug Well the well.
Upper casings should be concreted or 6
inches minimum thickness to a depth of at Surging:
least 10 feet below the ground, however,
1. Pump Surging
casings should be perforated and should
This method involves repeated pumping
contain openings for the entry of water and
from the minimum to a higher rate until
must firmly be seated at the bottom. Well
the capacity of the well is reached.
 Domestic Water Supply 115

2. Surge block d. Water should be kept out of the trench

In this method surging is created by the until the jointing is completed.
rapid up and down motion of the plunger. e. Open ends of pies and lifting should
be securely plugged or capped so that
3. Installation of Pump no trench water, earth or other foreign
a. Install a pump as near as possible to substances will enter the pipe.
the suction tank so that the suction piping f. Cutting of pipes are done only when
is short. necessary in a neat and workman like
b. Make the suction head small. manner.
c. The width of the pumping station has g. Deflutions from a straight line or grades
to be wide enough to permit easy access as required by horizontal curve or offsets
for checking and to provide the space for are made with proper installation of elbow.
placing the parts at the time of overhaul. h. Fittings in the pipeline are firmly wedged
by concrete blocks againts the vertical face
of the french to prevent displacement.
2. CONSTRUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION i. Concerete thrust blocks are constructed
SYSTEM behind all bends, tees, crosses, concrete
anchors and provide inside vertical bends,
a. Check loads at joints, bends, fitting both designed to resist loads imposed on
and others in order to provide necessary them under maximum lead including water
anchorage. hammer.
b. Provide access manholes in the
structures where pipes run under or inside Types of Joints:
the structure.
c. Provide blind flanes, hand holes, removal a. Asbestos-Cement Pressure pipes- Use
section and other types of openings into the couplings with rubber gaskets.
piping for cleaning and inspection.
d. Pipes suspended above the ground or b. Cast iron pipe joints-iron with a high
on structural support shall be anchored to carbon content, so that it is hard but brittle,
withstand wind velocities specified for the and must be shaped by casting, rather than
design of structures. by hammering or beating

Pipe Laying and Jointing c. Concrete pipe- galvanized steel ring bell
and spigot type joints or their variation with
a. The full length of each section of pipe rubber gaskets and cement linings should
should rest solidly on the pipe bedding. be used.
b. Any pipe that has its grade, alignment or
joint disturbed after laying should be lifted d. Steel pipe joints
up and re-laid after concreting the bedding. 1. Mechanical type couplings - Use
c. Pipe should not be laid in water or when on pipes 24 inches inside diameter or
weather conditions are not suitable for smaller.
work. 2. Welded joints- Used on pipes which
116 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

have no inside and for pipes 24 inches The following are factors to consider in the
diameter and over. construction of surface reservior:
3. Flanged Joints- These are used
when valves or special fittings are to be Piping arrangement: For Large Tank
attached to the pipe.
4. Expansion Joints- Used at appropriate 1. Place inlet and outlet pipes at the
in terrals on pipe with welded joints to opposite ends or sides to provide circulation
relieve strains especially for exposed with the outlet pipe near the bottom.
pipes. 2. Provide overflow and drain pipe.
5. Packing- Rubber should be used on all 3. Provide valves on all pipes except the
except joints. overflow.

Construction of Reserviors/ Tanks Materials:

1. Reserviors on the distribution system 1. outside tank lock

maybe classified according to the position 2. roof hatch with lock
as surface or elevated. 3. screened vent
2. The material of which they are built such 4. flanged access hole near the ground
as steel reinforced concrete or earth. 5. water indicator
3. Storage capacity should be sufficient
so that the required demand should be Factors to consider in the construction of
maintained for a period of two (2) hours for an elevated tank
small communities and up to 10 hours for
large communities. 1. Height
4. Location of the reserviors should be 2. Piping arrangement
central or at least as close as possible to 3. Materials
the area they serve. a. tower
5. They should also have sufficient elevation b. tank and ladders
to maintain adequate pressure. c. screen vent
d. altitude valve
e. over flow
f. water level indicator
 Domestic Water Supply 117

Intake Box

A completed intake box made of reinforced 3. Manhole at least 50 centimeters X

concrete materials. The box should 50 centimeters square or at least 60
be preferably a cube type with 1meter centimeters in diameter for circular
X 1meter X 1meter lateral dimension. opening should be provided.
Included as appurtenance to the tank are 4. Drain pipe at least 50 millimeters in
the following: diameter located just at the level of the
flooring to drain down silt and particle
1. Vent pipe at least 50 millimeters in impurities during cleaning.
diameter located at the cover with a bent-
down pipe end. This is to equalize pressure All outside ends of the foregoing pipes
inside the tank. should be provided with screen to prevent
2. Overflow pipe, at least 50 millimeters in the entry of insects and reptiles.
diameter located at least 30 centimeters
below the soffit of the tank cover. This will
coincide with the level of the lower part
of the freeboard and accomodate excess
water during seasons.
118 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Transmission Pipe

Storage tank
or reservoir

Transmission pipe

Transmission Pipe is used to convey water from the spring source to the storage tank.
Transmission pipe at the intake box should be located at least 10 cm. from the bottom
of the box and/or at least 10 cm. from the top of the storage tank. The transmission line
should have the following appurtenance or fittings:

1. Union de patente for G.I. pipes should be spaced every 10 pipes or 60 meters.
2. A blow-off-valve should be provided at the lowest part of the transmission line. This will
be used for discharging impurities or solid particles that will be accumulated in the system.
3. Air relief valve should be provided at the highest point of the transmission line to release
trapped air for smooth flow in the system.
Distribution Pipe is used to convey
water from the storage tank to the
community. It should be provided with
the same fittings like the transmission
pipe.

Laterals are pipes connected from the

distribution line to the public stand post
for a level 2 system and to the houses for
a level 3 of distribution system.

Distribution line Public stand posts a r e f a u c e t s

strategically located within a cluster of
at least five (5) houses for communal
use. It should be provided with a
concrete appron and a concrete stand
post for stability of the outlet/pipe.
 Domestic Water Supply 119

Storage Tank

Photo shows a completed storage tank 3. Manhole at least 50 centimeters X

made up of reinforced masonry and 50 centimeterssquare or at least 60
concrete structure. The tank should have centimeters in diameter for circular
at least a water holding capacity of one- opening.
fourth (1/4) of the average day demand
of the community it serves. It has at 4. Drain pipe at least 50 millimeters in
least a freeboard/water free space of 30 diameter located just at the end level of
entimeters. Included as appurtenance to the flooring to drain down silt and particle
the tank are the following: impurates during cleaning.

1. Vent pipe at least 50 millimeters in Optional provisions:

diameter located at the cover with a bent-
down pipe end. This is to equalize pressure 1. Water level indicator
inside the tank. 2. Ladder rung for tall structure
3. Bypass line connecting directly the
2. Overflow pipe, at least 50 millimeters in distribution pipe to the transmission pipe to
diameter located at least 30 centimeters equalize supply during prolonged storage
below the soffit of the tank cover. It will maintenance.
coincide to the level of the lower part of the
freeboard. This is to accomodate excess
water during plenty.
120 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

VI. Building Construction

In this field of construction, Plans and excavation shall be continued until a hard
Specifications are the monitors’ best stratum is reached. No pouring of concrete
assets, useful to both technical and lay shall be done by the contractor unless the
men. The Plan and the Specifications shall bearing surfaces has been inspected and
be considered as complementing each approved by the supervising engineer
other; what is mentioned or shown in one,
although not mentioned or shown in the The Contractor shall at all times protect the
other, shall be considered as appearing excavation and trenches from damages of
on both. In case of conflict between the rain water, spring water, backing of drains
two, such must be immediately referred to and from all other water.
proper authority for resolution.
4. Backfills
Though it is not at all times indicated in Backfills and fills shall be placed in layers
the Plan and Specifications, in the course not exceeding 150mm in thickness, and
of field visits, monitors should also closely each layer shall be thoroughly compacted
watch the aesthetics requirements of the by wetting, tamping or rolling.
structure. It should be constructed in a
workmanlike manner, plumbed, correct 5. Termite Control
and true in alignments. Termite control chemicals or toxicants
shall be able to immediately eliminate
termites or produce barriers to deter entry
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES: of subterranean termites into the building
area.
1. Clearing the Site
The building site shall be leveled as Take note of the Contractor’s Service
established in the plans. Rubbish, roots and Guarantee stipulated in the Contract if any
other perishable and objectionable matters infestation occurs during the guarantee
shall be removed. period.

2. Setting Out
It is a process of using the surveying
instrument and appropriate technique to
transfer information from a plan to the
ground, in order to establish the building
line location.

3. Excavation
Excavation depth indicated in the drawings
shall be followed. If the required safe
bearing power of the soil is not obtained
at the excavation depth indicated, the
 Building Construction 121

STEEL REINFORCING BARS The nominal dimensions and unit weights

of bar designation shall be in accordance
The steel reinforcing bars indicated for with the following table:
footings, columns, slabs, beams, girders
and other concrete members shall all
conform to the number, size and spacing
as indicated in the drawings or schedule
of steel reinforcements.

Designations, Areas, Perimeters, and Weight of Standard Bars

Cross-sectional Perimeter, Unit weight,

Bar # Diameter
area, Sq. mm. mm. kg/

3 3/8” (10mm) 78.54 31.42 0.616

4 ½” (12mm) 113.10 37.70 0.888

5 5/8” (16mm) 201.06 50.26 1.579

6 ¾” (20mm) 314.16 62.83 2.467

7 7/8” (22mm) 380.13 69.12 2.986

8 1” (25mm) 490.88 78.54 3.855

9 1 1/8” (28mm) 615.75 87.96 4.836

10 1 ¼” (32mm) 804.25 100.53 6.317

11 1 3/8” (36mm) 1017.88 113.10 7.994

14 1 ¾” (44mm) 1520.53 138.23 11.942

18 2 ¼” (57mm) 2551.76 179.07 20.042

122 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Important notes to consider: surface has not absorbed moisture and has
1. All steel reinforcing bars shall be not splintered, deformed or peeled, subject
accurately placed and secured against to the approval of the supervising Engineer.
displacement by tying them together at It is generally advantageous to leave form
each bar intersection with gauge No. 16 GI in place as long as possible to continue
wire. the curing period. However, there are
2. No metal reinforcements shall be times when it is necessary to remove them
installed in place unless it is free from rust, as soon as possible. In any case, forms
scale, mud, oil or other coatings, which will should not be removed until the concrete
destroy or reduce the bonding capability is strong enough to satisfactorily carry
with concrete. the stresses from both the dead load and
3. Lap splices in bars shall be avoided as any construction loads shall be supported
far as possible and shall be staggered in on, nor any shoring removed from, any
any one structural member. part of the structure under construction
except when that portion of the structure
Concrete Protection (ACI 318-71). Unless in combination with remaining forming
otherwise specified, the thickness of and shoring system has sufficient strength
concrete over reinforcement shall be as to support safely its weight and loads
follows: placed thereon. Sufficient strength should
1. Where concrete is deposited against be demonstrated by structural analysis
ground without use of forms, not less than considering proposed loads, strength of
3” forming and shoring system, and concrete
2. Where concrete may be exposed to strength data. Concrete strength data
ground but is placed in forms, not less than should be based on strength of field-cured
2” cylinders.
3. Where concrete may be exposed to
weather, not less than 1 ½” In any case, the minimum requirements on
4. In slabs and walls not exposed to the the following prevail on normal condition
ground or to the weather, not less than ¾” of loading.
5. In beams, girders and columns, not less
than 1 ½”. CONCRETE WORKS

FORMS FOR CONCRETE WORKS Material Requirements:

Forms shall be properly braced or tied A. Portland Cement

together so as to maintain the desired Portland cement shall conform to the
alignments and correct shapes of the requirements of ASTM C-150 Type for
concrete members. It shall be constructed normal Portland Cement; Type III for high
sufficiently tight to prevent bulging and early Strength Portland Cement.
seepage of water. Bags of cement stored at the site shall be
placed in a dry, weathertight and properly
Reuse of forms is permissible provided the ventilated structure.
 Building Construction 123

B. Coarse and Fine Aggregates of these properties are extended time of

Aggregates must conform to standards set, acceleration of rate of early strength
for optimum engineering use. They must development, control of alkali reactivity
be clean, hard, strong, durable particles with certain aggregate, and reduction of
free of absorbed chemicals, coatings of heat of hydration. For these properties,
clay, and other fine materials in an amount it may be desirable to investigate certain
that could affect hydration and bond of the admixtures whose use in concrete can
cement paste. produce the special effect desired.

The maximum size of coarse aggregate Admixtures can be classified by function
in reinforced concrete is regulated by the as follows:
requirement that it shall easily move into
the forms and between the reinforcing bars. a. Air-entraining
For this reason, the nominal maximum size b. Water-reducing
of coarse aggregate should not be larger c. Retarding
than any of the following: d. Accelerating
e. Pozzolans
• 1/5 the narrowest dimension of the forms f. W o r k a b i l i t y a g e n t s , i n c l u d i n g
• 1/3 of the depth of slabs superplasticizers
• ¾ of the minimum distance between g. Miscellaneous agents such as bonding,
reinforcing bars dampproofing, permeability-reducing,
grouting, and gas-forming agents.
C. Mixing Water
Water used in concrete, mortar and grout
shall be free from objectionable quantities
of silt, organic matter, alkali salts and other
impurities. Excessive impurities in mixing
water may cause efflorescence, staining,
or corrosion of reinforcement.

D. Admixture (as provided in the POW)

Admixtures are those ingredients in concrete
other than Portland cement, water, and
aggregate meant to ensure the important
qualities of workability, finishability,
strength, durability, watertightness, and
water resistance in concrete.

There may be instances, however, when

special properties are required that are
not practical to attain by selection of the
appropriate type of Portland cement. Some
124 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

SAND GRAVEL
CLASS MIXTURE CEMENT
cu.m. cu.m.

40kg/bag 50kg/bag

AA 1:1 ½: 3 12.0 9.5 0.5 1.0

A 1:2:4 9.0 7.0 0.5 1.0
B 1:2½:5 7.5 6.0 0.5 1.0
C 1 : 3 :6 6.0 5.0 0.5 1.0

The measuring box used to measure sand Specifications usually require a minimum
and gravel for the values above for 40kg/ of one minute mixing for stationary mixers
bag cement has a dimension of 0.30m x of up to one cubic meter capacity with an
0.30m x 0.30m. increase of 15 seconds for each additional
one cubic meter or fraction thereof. The
Unless otherwise indicated on the project mixing period should be measured from
Plan or in the Specifications, the following the time all cement and aggregate are
classes of concrete shall be adopted: already in the drum, provided that all of
Use Class A (fc’ = 3000 psi) for slabs, beams, the water is added before one-fourth of
girders, arches,columns, wall spanning the mixing time has elapsed. Under usual
openings and acting as beams, baffles or conditions, up to about 10% of the mixing
pins at windows and concrte of 0.10m or water should be placed in the drum before
less in thickness. the solid materials are added. Water then
Use Class B (fc’ = 2500 psi) for walls thicker should be added uniformly with the solid
than 0.10m, footings, piers and reinforced materials; leaving about 10% to be added
concrete steps and slabs on fill. after all other materials are in the drum.
Use Class C (fc’ = 2000 psi) for all plain
concrete work on fill Ready Mixed Concrete

Mixing Concrete Ready mixed concrete can be manufactured

by any of the following methods of mixing:
Stationary Mixing
a. Central-mixed concrete is mixed
Concrete is sometimes mixed at the completely in a stationary mixer and is
jobsite in a stationary mixer. Stationary delivered either in a truck agitator, a truck
mixers include both onsite mixers and mixer operating at agitating speed, or a
central mixers in ready mix plants. They special nonagitating truck.
are available in sizes from 0.6 cu.m. to 9.0 b. Shrink-mixed concrete is mixed partially
cu.m.. in a stationary mixer and completed in a
truck mixer.
 Building Construction 125

c. T r u c k - m i x e d c o n c r e t e i s m i x e d the desired formed-surface finish to the

completely in a truck mixer. hardened concrete. Wood form should
d. Mobile batcher mixers are special trucks be moistened before placing concrete,
that batch by volume and continuously mix otherwise they will absorb water from the
concrete as the dry materials and water are concrete and swell.
continuously fed into the mixer.
Reinforcing steel should be clean and
ASTM C94 notes that when a truck mixer free of loose rust or mill scale when
is used for complete mixing, 70 to 100 concrete is placed. Mortar coatings
revolutions of the drum or blades at mixing need not be removed from reinforcing
speed are usually required to produce the steel and other items to be embedded
specified uniformity of concrete. Not more if the lift is to be completed within a few
than 100 revolutions at mixing speed is hourse. Loose, dried mortar, however,
allowed. All revolutions after 100 should must be removed from items that will
be done at agitating speed. Agitating speed be encased by later lift of concrete.
is usually about 2 to 6 rpm, while mixing
speed is generally about 6-8 rpm. 2. Depositing the Concrete
Concrete should be deposited continuously
ASTM C94 also requires that concrete be as near as possible to its final position. In
delivered and discharged within 1 ½ hours slab construction, placing should be started
or before the drum has revolved 300 times along the perimeter at one end of the
after introduction of water to the cement work with each batch discharged against
and aggregates or the cement to the previously placed concrete. The concrete
aggregates. Mixers and agitators should should not be dumped in separate piles
always be operated within the limits of the and then leveled and worked together,
volume and speed of ration designated by nor should the concrete be deposited in
the equipment manufacturer. big piles and then moved horizontally into
final position. These practices result in
Concrete, mortar and grout which have segregation because mortar tends to flow
developed initial set shall not be remixed ahead of coarse material.
for use. It must be discarded.
In general, concrete should be placed in
Quality Control Guidelines In Handling horizontal layers of uniform thickness, each
Concrete layer being thoroughly consolidated before
the next is placed. The rate of placement
1. Preparation before Placing should be rapid enough so that the layer
Preparation prior to placing concrete of concrete is plastic when a new layer is
includes setting the reinforcing steel and placed upon it. This will avoid flow lines,
other embedded items securely in place. seams, and planes of weakness that result
Forms should be accurately set, clean, when fresh concrete is placed on hardened
tight, adequately braced, and constructed concrete.
of or lined with materials that will impart
126 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Concrete should not be moved horizontally methods because the concrete is likely to
over too long a distance as it is being placed segregate under this intense action when
in forms or slabs. When the distance is consolidation guidelines are not met.
too long, excess water and mortar are
forced ahead of the moving concrete. This Proper mechanical consolidation makes
produces a non-uniform, poor quality possible the placement of stiff mixes with
concrete when an increased water-cement low water-cement ratios and high coarse
ration finally occurs. aggregate contents associated with high
quality concrete. Vibration, either internal
In walls, beams, and girders, the first or external, is the most widely used method
batches in each lift should be placed at for consolidating concrete. When concrete
each end of the section, with subsequent is vibrated, the internal friction between
placement progressing toward the center. coarse aggregate particles is temporarily
The height of free fall of concrete need not destroyed and the concrete behaves
be limited unless a separation of particles like a liquid; it settles in the form under
occurs, in which case a limit of 0.9 to 1.2 the action of gravity and the entrapped
meters may be adequate. large air bubbles rise more easily to the
surface. Friction is reestablished as soon
To avoid cracking due to settlement, as vibration stops. Internal or immersion-
concrete in columns and walls should be type vibrators, often-called spud or poker
allowed to stand for at least two hours, and vibrators are commonly used to consolidate
preferably overnight, before concrete is concrete in walls, columns, beams, and
placed in any slab, beam, or girder framing slabs. Proper use of internal vibrators
onto them. Haunches and column capitals is important for best result. Whenever
are considered part of the floor or roof and possible, the vibrator should be lowered
should be placed integrally with them. vertically into the concrete at regular
intervals and allowed to descend by gravity.
3. Consolidating Concrete It should penetrate quickly to the bottom of
Consolidation is the process of compacting the layer being placed and at least 150mm
fresh concrete and to mold it within the into any preceding layer. The vibrator
forms and around embedded parts and should be held stationary for 5-15 seconds
reinforcement and to eliminate stone until adequate consolidation is attained,
pockets and entrapped air. and then slowly withdrawn. Vibrators
should not be used to move concrete
Plastic, flowing mixes can be consolidated horizontally since this causes segregation.
by hand rodding, which is, thrusting a
tamping rod or other suitable tool into 4. Construction Joint
the concrete. The rod should be long Construction joints occur when fresh plastic
enough to reach the bottom of the form concrete is placed in contact with existing,
or lift, and thin enough to pass between hardened concrete and a high quality bond
the reinforcing steel and the forms. A and water-tightness is needed between the
mix that can be consolidated by hand two concrete placements.
should not be consolidated by mechanical
 Building Construction 127

The concrete near the top surface of a lift should be offset at a minimum distance of
is often of inferior quality to the concrete two times the width of intersecting beams.
below. This is due to the used of badly e. Beams, girders, or slabs supported
proportioned or high-slump mixtures that by columns or walls should not be cast
cause excessive laitance, bleeding, and or erected until concrete in the vertical
segregation. support members is no longer plastic.

Construction joints in beams, columns, and Preparing Hardened Concrete

walls can present a potential weakness if When fresh concrete is placed on hardened
large shear forces need to be transmitted concrete, certain precaution must be taken
across them. Shear capacity of an interface to secure a well-bonded, watertight joint.
could be influenced by type of surface The hardened concrete must be clean,
preparation used for the joint. Experimental moistened, fairly level, and reasonably
studies conducted on the performance rough with some coarse aggregate particles
of construction joints at the University exposed. Any laitance, soft mortar, dirt
of Canterbury revealed that adequately wood chips, form oil, or other foreign
reinforced construction joints with a clean materials should be removed from the top
and rough surface, to which the freshly surface of the hardened concrete since
placed concrete can bond, can develop an they would interfere with proper bonding
interface shear strength equal to or larger of the subsequent placement. When the
than the diagonal tension capacity of the concrete against which new concrete
structure. will be placed is less than about 8 hours
old, remove any laitance, loose particles
Code provision on construction joints: and dirt. When the existing concrete is
a. Surface of concrete construction joints older, the surface should be thoroughly
should be clean and free of laitance. cleaned to remove all surface films and
b. Immediately before new concrete is deposits. This may require roughening
placed, all construction joints shall be with a chipping hammer, high-velocity-air-
wetted and standing water removed. water jet, or sandblasting. In wall sections
c. Construction joints should be so made where concrete is to be placed on hardened
and located as not to impair the strength concrete, some authorities recommend
of the structure. Provision should be made that a layer of mortar be placed on the
for transfer of shear and other forces hard surface to provide a cushion against
through construction joints. When concrete which the new concrete can be placed. The
is placed against previously hardened fresh mortar, it is claimed, prevents stone
concrete, the interface for shear transfer pockets and assists in securing a tight
should be clean and free of laitance joint. The mortar should have a slump of
(interface should be roughened to a full less than 150mm and should be made of
amplitude of approximately 5mm.) the same materials as the concrete, but
d. Construction joints in floors should be without the coarse aggregate. It should be
located within the middle third of spans of placed to a hard surface. Field experience
slabs, beams, and girders. Joints in girders indicates that good results can be obtained
128 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

by placing a rich concrete on the bottom if moist curing is resumed, strength

of the new lift and thoroughly vibrating it development will reactivate. Although it
at the joint surface to obtain good bond. can be done in laboratory, it is difficult
The concrete is enriched by increasing to resaturate concrete in the field. Thus
the quantity of sand by 5% to 10% of the it is best to moist-cure the concrete
total quantity of aggregate, and decreasing continuously from the time it is placed until
the amount of coarse aggregate by a like it has sufficient strength, impermeability,
amount for the first 150mm of the lift. and resistance to abrasion, freezing and
thawing, and chemical attack.
Curing Concrete
Curing has a strong influence on properties Loss of water will also cause the concrete
of hardened concrete such as durability, to shrink, thus creating tensile stresses
strength, watertighness, wear resistance, at the drying surface. If these stresses
volume stability, and resistance to freezing develop before the concrete has attained
and thawing. adequate tensile strength, this could
result surface cracking. All exposed
When Portland cement is mixed with water, surfaces, including exposed edges and
a chemical reaction called hydration takes joints, must be protected against moisture
place. The extent to which this reaction evaporation. The industry practice for
is completed determines the strength, building recommend at least 7 consecutive
durability, and density of the concrete. Most days of curing and in more sensitive works
fresh concrete contains considerably more up to 14 days.
than enough water for complete hydration
of the cement, however, any appreciable Curing Methods and Materials
loss of water by evaporation or otherwise Concrete can be kept moist (and in some
will delay or prevent complete hydration. cases at a favorable temperature) by three
Since hydration is relatively rapid the first curing methods:
few days after fresh concrete is placed, it
is important for the water to be retained 1. Methods that maintain the presence of
during the period. The objects of curing, mixing water in the concrete during the
therefore, are: 1to prevent (or replenish) early hardening periods. These include;
the loss of moisture; and 2to control the
concrete temperature for a definite time. a. Ponding or immersion - This is done
With proper curing, the concrete becomes on flat surfaces such as pavements,
stronger and more resistant to stress, sidewalks and floors. Impervious earth
abrasion, and frost. The improvement is or sand dikes around the perimeter of
rapid at early ages but continuous more the concrete surface will hold a pond of
slowly for an indefinite period. water within the contained area. Ponding
is an efficient method for preventing a
When moist curing is interrupted, the uniform temperature in the concrete.
development of strength continues for a
short period and then stops. However, b. Spraying or Fogging. This is an
 Building Construction 129

excellent method of curing when the a. Impervious Paper - This consists of

ambient temperature is well above two sheets of paper cemented together
freezing. A fine mist should be applied by a bituminous adhesive with fiber
continuously through a system of nozzles reinforcement. An important advantage
or sprays. Ordinary lawn sprinklers are of this method is that periodic additions
effective if good coverage is provided and of water are not required.
water runoff is of on concern. Soaking
hoses are useful on surfaces that are b. Plastic Sheet- Plastic sheet materials
vertical or nearly so. such as polyethylene film can be used to
cure concrete. Polyethylene film should
c. Saturated Wet Coverings. Coverings conform to ASTM C171, which specifies
saturated with water such as burlap, a 4-mil (0.10mm) thickness for curing
cotton mats, rugs, or other moisture concrete and lists only clear and white
retaining fabrics are commonly used opaque film. Black film is available
for curing. Treated burlaps that reflect and is satisfactory in some conditions.
light and are resistant to rot and fire White film should be used for exteriors
are available. Wet covering of earth, during hot weather to reflect the sun’s
sand, or sawdust from most woods are rays. Black film can be used during cool
effective for curing and are often useful weather of for interior locations.
for small jobs. A layer about 50mm
thick of wet earth, sand or sawdust 3. A method that Accelerate Strength gain
should be evenly distributed over the is done by applying heat and moisture to
previously moistened surface and kept the concrete. This is usually accomplished
continuously wet. Wet hay or straw can with live steam, heating coils, or electrically
be use to cure flat surfaces. If straw or heated forms or pads.
hay is used, it should be placed in a layer
at least 150mm thick, and held down
with wire screen, burlap, tarpaulin, or Membrane- Forming Curing Compounds
other means to prevent its being blown Liquid membrane forming compounds
off by the wind. A major disadvantage of consists of waxes, resins, chlorinated
moist earth, sand, sawdust, hay, or straw rubber, and solvent of high volatility which
covering is the possibility of discoloring can be used to retard or reduce evaporation
the concrete. of moisture from concrete. Membrane-
forming curing compounds are of two
This must be considered when selecting a general types: clear or translucent, and
curing method. white-pigmented. Clear or translucent
compounds may contain a fugitive dye
2. There are methods that prevent loss of to assure complete coverage by visual
mixing water from the concrete by sealing check. The dye fades away soon after
the surface. This can be done by covering application. On hot, sunny days, white-
the surface with the following: pigmented compounds reduced solar-heat
gain, reducing the concrete temperature.
130 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Curing compounds should be applied embedded within a column shall not

immediately after the final finishing of the displace more than 4% of the area of cross
concrete by hand-operated or power-driven section on which strength is calculated or
spray equipment to give a smooth, even which is required for fire protection.
coverage. The concrete surface normally e. Except when drawings for conduits
should be damp when the coating is and pipes are approved by the Structural
applied. Normally, only one smooth, even Engineer, conduits and pipes embedded
coat is applied at a rate of 3 ½ to 5 sq.m. within a slab, wall or beam (other than
per liter, but two coats may be necessary those merely passing through) shall satisfy
to ensure complete coverage. The second the following:
coat, when used, should be applied at right
angles to the first. Complete coverage 1. They shall not be larger in outside
of the surface must be attained because dimension than 1/3 the overall thickness
even small pinholes in the membrane of slab, wall, or beam in which they are
will permit evaporation of moisture from embedded.
the concrete. Curing compounds can 2. They shall not be spaced closer than
prevent bond between hardened and fresh the diameters or widths on center of the
concrete of other floor surfacing materials. embedded elements.
Consequently, they should not be used 3. They shall not impair significantly the
when bond is necessary. strength of the construction.

Conduits, pipes and sleeves shall be

ACI Code 5.6.3 Conduits and pipes permitted to be considered as replacing
embedded in concrete are: structurally in compression the displaced
concrete provided:
a. Conduits pipes and sleeves of any
a. They are not exposed to rusting or
material not harmful to concrete and within
other deterioration.
limitations of the foregoing discussions
b. They are uncoated or galvanized
shall be permitted to be embedded in
iron or steel not thinner than standard
concrete with approval of the Engineer,
schedule 40 steel pipes.
provided they are not considered to replace
c. They have a nominal inside diameter
structurally the displaced concrete.
of not over 50m and are spaced not less
b. Conduits and pipes of aluminum shall
than 3 diameters on centers.
not be embedded in structural concrete
units unless effectively coated or covered
Concrete covers for pipes, conduits, and
to prevent aluminum-concrete reaction or
fittings shall not be less than 40m for
electrolytic action between aluminum and
concrete exposed to earth or weather, nor
steel.
20mm for concrete not exposed to weather
c. Conduits, pipes and sleeves passing
or in contact with ground.
through a slab, wall or beam shall not
impair significantly the strength of the
Reinforcement with an area not less than
construction.
0.002 times area of concrete section shall
d. Conduits and pipes, with their fittings,
 Building Construction 131

be provided normal to piping. than 3.5 Mpa.

ACI Code 5.5.6 Evaluation and Acceptance 3. Laboratory-Cured Specimens

of Concrete
a. Strength level of an individual class of
1.  Frequency of Testing concrete is considered satisfactory if both
of the following requirements are met:
a. Samples for strength tests of each class a.1. Average of all sets of three consecutive
of concrete placed each day shall be taken strength tests equal to lot exceeds fc’.
not less than once a day, nor less than once a.2. No individual strength test (average of
a day, nor less than once for each 120 cu.m. two cylinders) falls below fc’ by more than
of concrete, nor less than once for each 500 3.5 Mpa.
sq.m. of surface area for slabs or walls.
b. On a given project, if total volume of 4. Field- Cured Specimens
concrete is such that frequency of testing
required above would provide less than five a. Field-cured cylinders should be molded
strength tests for a given class of concrete, at the same time and from the same sample
tests shall be made from at least five as laboratory-test cured cylinders.
randomly selected batches or from each b. Procedures for protecting and curing
batch if fewer than five batches are used. concrete should be improved when
c. When total quantity of a given class of strength of field-cured cylinders at test age
concrete is less than 40 cu.m., strength designated for determination of fc’ is less
tests are not required when evidence of that 85% of that of companion laboratory
satisfactory strength is submitted to and cured cylinders. The 85% limitation does
approved by the Building Official. not apply if field- cured strength exceeds
d. A strength test should be the average of fc’ by more than 3.5 Mpa.
the strength of two cylinders made from
the same sample of concrete and tested 5. Investigation of Law Strength Test
at 28th day or at test age designated for Results
determination of fc’.
a. If any strength test of laboratory-cured
2. Laboratory-Cured Specimens cylinders falls below specified value of fc’ by
more than 3.5 Mpa or if test of field-cured
a. Field-cured cylinders shall be molded at
cylinders indicate deficiencies in protection
the same time and from the same sample
and curing, steps should be taken to assure
as laboratory-test cured cylinders.
that load-carrying capacity of the structure
b. Procedures for protecting and curing
is nor jeopardized.
concrete shall be improved when strength
b. If the likelihood of law-strength concrete
of field-cured cylinder at test age designated
is confirmed and computations indicate
for determination of fc’ is less than 85%
that load-carrying capacity may have been
of that of companion laboratory cured
significantly reduced, test of cores drilled
cylinders. The 85% limitation shall not apply
from the area in question may be required
if field-cured strength exceeds fc’ by more
132 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

in accordance with ASTM C42 (Method of position while the mortar is still soft and
Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and plastic, and shall be extended and anchored
Sawed Beams of Concrete) In such case, to concrete slab or beam.
three cores should be taken for each
strength test more than 3.5 Mpa below Surfaces for plastering works shall be
specified value of fc’. cleaned of all projections, dust, loose
c. If concrete, the structure will be dry particles, grease and other foreign matter.
under service conditions, cores should be Before plastering it shall be wetted
air dried for seven days before test and thoroughly with fog spray of clean water
should be tested dry. If concrete in the to produce a uniformly moist condition.
structure is more than superficially wet
under service conditions, cores should be Plaster works shall be finished level,
immersed in water for at least 40 hours and plumbed, square and true without
be tested wet. waves, creeks, blisters, pits, crazing,
d. Concrete in an area represented by core discolorations, projections and other
tests is considered structurally adequate imperfections.
if the average of three cores is equal to at
least 85% of fc’ and if no single core is less CARPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKS
than 75% of fc’. Additional testing of cores All lumber shall have four (4) sides.
extracted from locations represented by Lumber shall be of approved quality, well
erratic core strength results should be seasoned, thoroughly dry and free from
permitted. loose or unsound knots, sap, shakes or
e. If the above criteria are not met, and other imperfections, impairing strength,
if structural adequacy remains in doubt, durability and appearance.
the responsible authority may order load
tests for the questionable portion of the Framing lumber and other rough carpentry
structure, or take other appropriate action. shall be fitted closely, set accurately to the
required lines and levels.
CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS
A concrete hollow block (CHB) shall have No structural member shall be cut, bored
fine and even texture and well defined or notched for the passage of pipes or
edges. It shall be true to size, without conduits without the approval of the Project
cracks, chips, splits and other defects Engineer. All members damaged by such
which may weaken the units. cutting or boring shall be reinforced by
means of specially formed and approved
Masonry units shall be wetted before it sheet metal or bar steel shapes, or removed
is laid plumbed, leveled and accurately and replaced new, as directed by the project
spaced. Full mortar bedding must be engineer.
provided in such a way that no gap is formed
between the blocks and the mortar. To Spikes, nails and bolts shall be of the proper
ensure a good bond, it is best to alter the size as indicated in the drawing and in the
location of a block and fitted to its proper Specifications. Members shall be drilled
 Building Construction 133

accurately for bolting, and care should be DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES
observed so as not to split the members. Doors and doorframes shall conform to the
sizes, designs and kind of materials shown
ELECTRICAL WORKS in the details of doors or as per the bill of
The electrical installation shall be done in materials.
accordance with the approved plans and
under the direct supervision and control of STEEL WINDOWS
a licensed Professional Electrical Engineer Steel windows ton be used in this project
or Master Electrician. shall conform to the size and designs shown
in the detail drawings or schedule of steel
All electric works and materials shall windows, or as per the bill of materials.
conform to the provisions of the latest
edition of the Philippine or National Electric VARNISHING AND PAINTING
Code. Paints and varnish materials of the brands
specified shall be delivered to the building
PLUMBING WORKS site with labels intact, unbroken packages
All plumbing works shall be done in and seals. Color shall be in accordance
accordance with the approved plans and with what is specified on the plans or as
under the direct supervision and control directed.
of a licensed Sanitary Engineer or Master
Plumber. Areas to be treated with paint or varnish
must be clean, dry, smooth and free from
The plumbing installation shall conform dust, rust, and grease oil. Nail holes and
to the provisions of the National Plumbing cracks shall be puttied, caulked or grouted
Code and the rules and regulations enforced and thoroughly sandpapered before any
in the locality. paint or varnish is applied.
134 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

All concrete and masonry surfaces must be After which, check whether soil is hard
thoroughly neutralized either by brush or enough conforming to specified soil bearing
spray with a solution of 4 lbs. zinc sulfate pressure.
to each gallon of water. Ascertain that
alkalinity is removed; otherwise, a second Foundation
treatment with the same solution shall be 1. Verify if there is gravel bedding requirement
applied. The surface must be dried within prior to putting of reinforcement. Also
24 hours before the application of paint or verify the thickness of gravel bedding vis-
varnish. à-vis the specified thickness.
2. Check for the dimension of the footing if
The directions printed on the label of the it is conforming to the planned dimension.
approved paint and varnish shall be strictly 3. Check the reinforcement if it is provided
followed. with minimum concrete cover of 3 inches
as shown by its distance from the soil or
It shall be the contractor’s responsibility gravel bedding below and the side forms
to protect his painting works during 4. C h e c k w h e t h e r t h e n u m b e r o f
the time his work is underway. He reinforcement and diameter is actually
shall be accountable for any kind of provided as per specifications. And also
damages to the work or property of others note for the grade of the reinforcement.
caused by his employees or by himself.
Concrete Works
Upon completion of the painting works, the
contractor shall eliminate all paint spots Reinforcement
from all finished work, his equipment, and 1. Check the number and size of reinforcing
shall leave the entire premises free from steel bar used.
rubbish caused by his work. 2. Check for the location of splices vis-à-vis
the specified location.
3. Check for the overlap length provided for
Additional Points to Consider in Assessing every splices.
Buildings: 4. Check for the provision of standard hooks
on every specified regions of structural
Staking & Survey of Site elements such as beams, columns and
1. Check actual dimension of building line shear walls if they conform to specified
vis-à-vis plan. bending schedules
2. Check for the presence of vertical natural
grade line. This will determine the actual Concrete
amount of cut or fill. 1. Check for the brand of cement used
which should conform to the specified type
and brand.
Excavation 2. Check for the size of aggregates which
1. Verify the depth of excavation for individual should conform to the maximum size
footings vis-à-vis the construction plan. specified.
 Building Construction 135

3. When river aggregates is used, inquire if horizontal reinforcement of CHB should be

there are corresponding approval issued by anchored to the dowels provided. In the
the design Engineer. absence of dowels, horizontal and vertical
4. When job mixed concrete is used by the reinforcement should be chipped up to and
volumetric method, the standard 1 cu. ft. welded to the bars of the boundary beams
box should be used for batching. and columns.
5. Check for the consistency of mix through
the conduct of slump testing. The slump Roofing
should not go beyond the limiting range of
specified slump. Roofing Sheet
6. In every pouring schedule, the required 1. Check whether the delivered roof material
set of cylinder samples should be recovered conformed to the specified gauge provided
and cured in accordance with the specified in the plan.
method. 2. Check for the sidelapping and endlapping
7. Concrete should be cured following the if they conformed with the standard lapping
specified curing procedure. or to the specified requirement.

Formworks Roof Frame

1. Check whether the lumbers delivered at a. Steel
the project site are new and in their right 1. Every joints of the truss should be
sizes. fully welded or bolted conforming to the
2. Ask for the design details of formworks specified design detail
and scaffoldings and compare with the 2. Check for the size and thickness of the
actual detailing implemented. materials used for the frame
3. Check for the actual spacing of purlins
Masonry vis-à-vis specified spacing
1. Check for the presence of dowels for CHB b. Wood
layout 1. Every joint should be connected as per
2. Every header on CHB opening should plan details.
be provided with lintel beams as per plan 2. Check for the size of lumbers used.
details. 3. Check for the actual spacing of purlins.
3. For long span wall, stiffener column 4. Verify the pitch vis-à-vis the plan.
should be provided 5. Check the quality of lumber used.
4. Verify whether the CHB specified is
load bearing or non-load bearing- If load Carpentry
bearing, ask for the test result that will 1. All woods provided such as door jambs,
show passing mark. window jambs and ceiling joints should be
5. Check for the size especially the thickness well seasoned and they should conform to
of the CHB delivered. the specified sizes.
6. Assure that the reinforcement is provided
for every 3 layers horizontal and 2 blocks
vertical or otherwise provided. Vertical and
136 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

2. Spacing and size of the ceiling joist Plumbing

should conform to the plan details. 1. All materials used should conform to the
3. Enough amounts of hangers should be specified quality.
provided to prevent sagging of the ceiling. 2. Hydrostatic testing on waterlines and
flood testing for sewer lines should be
Electrical properly conducted. Leaks that show up
1. All materials used such as wires, during testing should be properly sealed.
switches, outlets, fixtures, etc. should Retesting should be done.
conform to the specified quality. 3. Verify the functionality of all fixtures.
2. All wires should be properly insulated
with specified insulation materials.
 Building Construction 137

METHODS AND EQUIPMENT FOR HANDLING PLACING CONCRETE

Equipment Type & range of work Advantages Points to watch for
for w/c equipment is
best suited
Use to transport concrete Deduct the amount Timing of deliveries to
1. Truck for all uses in pavements, equipvalent to the suite job organization,
agitator structures, and buildings. volume of subbase/ base concrete crew and
Haul distances must materials not incorporated equipment must be
allow discharge of in the project from the ready onsite to handle
concrete within 1 ½ hours payment of contractor. concrete. Large batches.
but limit may be waived. Note: If the subbase/ base
is considered unnecessary
due to stronger existing
subgrade then the
suggested action is
acceptable. If not, then it
is required to introduce
subbase/ base as per
design.
2. Truck mixer Used to mix and transport No central mixing plant Control of concrete
concrete to jobsite over needed, only a batching quality is not as good
short and long hauls can plant since concrete is as with central mixing.
be any distance. completely mixed in truck Slump tests of concrete
mixer. Discharge is same consistency are needed
as for truck agitator. on discharge. Careful
preparations are
needed for receiving the
concrete.
3.Nonagitating Use to transport concrete Capital cost of Concrete slump should
truck on short hauls. nonagitating equipment be limited. Possibility
is lower than that of truck of segregation. Height
agitator is needed for high lift
of truck body upon
discharge.
4. Mobile Use for continuous Combination materials Trouble-free operation
continuous production of concrete at transporter and mobile requires good preventive
mixer jobsite. mixing system for quick, maintenance program
precise proportioning of on equipment. Materials
specified concrete. One- must be identical to
man operation. those in original mix-
design proportioning.
138 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Equipment Type & range of work Advantages Points to watch for

for w/c equipment is
best suited
5. Crane The right tool for work Can handle concrete, Has only one hook.
above ground level. reinforcing steel, Careful scheduling
formwork, and sundry between trades and
items in high-rise operations are needed to
concrete-framed keep it busy.
buildings.
6. Buckets Used on cranes Enable full versatility of Select bucket capacity
and cableways for cranes and cableways to conform with size of
construction of building to be exploited. Clean the concrete batch and
and dams. Convey discharge. Wide range of capacity of the placing
concrete direct from capacities. equipment. Discharge
central discharge point to should be controllable.
formwork or secondary
discharge point.
7. Borrows and For short flat hauls on all Very versatile and Slow and labor intensive.
buggies types of onsite concrete therefore ideal inside and
construction especially on jobsites where placing
where accessibility to conditions are constantly
work area is restricted. changing.

8. Chutes For conveying concrete to Low cost and easy to Slope range between
lower level, usually below maneuver. No power 1 to 2 and 1 to 3
ground level on all types required, gravity does and chutes must be
of concrete construction. most of the work. adequately supported in
all positions. Arrange
for discharge at end
(downpipe) to prevent
segregation. Long
chutes over 6 meters,
or those not meeting
slope standards must
discharge into a hopper
before distribution to
point of need.
 Building Construction 139

Equipment Type & range of work Advantages Points to watch for

for w/c equipment is
best suited
9. Belt For conveying concrete Belt conveyor has End-discharge
conveyors horizontally or to a higher adjustable reach, traveling arrangements needed
level. Usually used diverter, and variable to prevent segregation.
between main discharge speed both forward and Leave no mortar on
point and secondary reverse. Can place large return belt. In adverse
discharge point. Not volumes of concrete weather (hot,windy) long
suitable for conveying quickly when access is reaches of belt need
concrete directly into limited. cover.
formwork.
10. Pneumatic Used where concrete is Ideal in placing concrete Quality of work depends
guns to be placed in difficult in free-form shapes, on skills of those
locations and where thin for repairing and using equipment. Only
sections and large areas strengthening buildings, experience nozzlemen
are needed. for protective coatings, should be employed.
and thin linings.

11. Concrete Use to convey concrete Pipelines take up little Constant supply of
pumps direct from central space and can be readily fresh, plastic concrete
discharge point to extended. Deliver is needed with average
formwork or to secondary concrete in continuous consistency and
discharge point. stream. Mobile-boom without any tendency to
pump can move concrete segregate. Care must
both vertically and be taken in operating
horizontally. pipeline to ensure an
even flow and to clean
out at conclusion of each
operation. Pumping
vertically around bends
and through flexible hose
will considerably reduce
the maximum pumping
distance.
140 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Equipment Type & range of work Advantages Points to watch for

for w/c equipment is
best suited
12. Dropchutes Use for placing concrete Dropchutes direct Dropchutes should
in vertical forms of all concrete into formwork have sufficiently large
kinds. Some chutes and carry it down to splayed-top openings
are in one piece while bottom of forms without into which concrete can
others are assembled segregation. Their use be discharged without
from a number of loosely avoids spillage of grout spillage. The cross
connected segments. and concrete on the form section of dropchute
sides, which is harmful should be chosen to
when off-the-form permit inserting into
surfaces are specified. the formwork without
They also will prevent interfering with steel
segregation of coarse reinforcing.
particles.

13. Tremies For placing concrete Can be used to funnel Precautions are needed
under water concrete down through to ensure that the
the water into the tremie discharge end is
foundation or other part of always buried n fresh
the structure being cast. concrete, so that a seal
is preserved between
water and concrete
mass. Diameter should
be 10-12 inches unless
pressure is available.
Concrete pumps can be
used. Concrete mixture
needs more cement.

14. Screw Use for spreading With a screw spreader Screws are usually used
spreaders concrete over flat areas a batch of concrete as part of a paving train.
as in pavements. discharged from bucket They should be used
or truck can be quickly for spreading before
spread over a wide area vibration is applied.
to a uniform depth. The
spread concrete has good
uniformity of compaction
before vibration is used
for final compaction.
 Building Construction 141

Conveying, Depositing and Finishing of Concrete

142 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Conveying, Depositing and Finishing of Concrete

 Building Construction 143

Glossary of Terms

Admixture - a chemical added to the con- Extra Work - Labor and/or materials pro-
crete mix to enhance its workability. vided by the contractor which are not stip-
ulated in the contract but are essential to
Calendar Days - means a period of twen- the satisfactory completion of a project.
ty four hours extending from midnight to Feasibility Study - A preliminary study
midnight and shall include all days of the conducted before any project is started in
calendar. order to assess its engineering and eco-
nomic viability.
Change Order - A written order is-
sued by the implementing agency to the Final Estimate - is an estimate prepared
contractor containing revisions or unfore- by the government engineers after the
seen work resulting either in the increase project has been completed, for the pur-
in the original quantities of any or all pose of computing the final payment due
items of work or in the reclassification of the contractor and to tally exact work
an existing item to another item as those quantities done.
provided for in the original contract or de-
crease in the quantity of the work due to Force Majeure - An act of God, natural
under runs or deletion of portions or sec- calamity such as floods, lightning, earth-
tions of the project. quake, etc. which are beyond human con-
trol, therefore no person shall be held
Concrete - is an stonelike engineering legally accountable for the damages and
material made from a mixture of portland losses it may cause.
cement, water, fine and coarse aggre-
gates, and a small amount of air. It is the Garnishment - a legal order or warning
most widely used construction material in with reference to the recovery of costs or
the world. Is the only major building mate- debt from a debtor’s property or wages
rial that can be delivered to the job site in
a plastic state. This unique quality makes Honeycomb - in construction, it refers
concrete desirable as a building material to the cavities, voids or hollow spaces
because it can be molded to virtually any resembling a waxy hexagonal cells con-
form or shape. taining honey extracted from a bees’ hive.
These are formed at the sides of a finish
Contractor - A person or firm who has un- concrete structure due to insufficient con-
dertaken or contracted to execute work or solidation or water content.
to provide services.
144 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

Infrastructure Projects - include the con- Procuring entity - refers to any branch,
struction, improvement, rehabilitation, department, office, agency, or instrumen-
demolition, repair, restoration or main- tality of the government, including state
tenance of public systems, services and universities and colleges, government-
facilities necessary for economic activity, owned and/or controlled corporations,
including power and water supplies, pub- government financial institutions, and lo-
lic transportation, telecommunications, cal government units procuring goods,
bridges, roads, schools and other related Consulting Services and Infrastructure
construction projects Projects.

Overhead Cost - The operating expenses Program of Work - This contains the
and other labor costs which are not con- complete information of the project like
sidered as direct labor on the job. Exam- name, location, project cost, implement-
ple of this are office rentals and telephone ing agency, project limits, source of fund,
bills, insurances, office equipment, inter- date started, date completion, work items
ests, legal expenses, expenses for plans and quantities, materials to be used and
and specifications, traveling expenses and approving officials.
miscellaneous expenses of the office. It is
usually programmed at 10% of the total Progress Estimate - A periodic estimate
project cost. prepared by the government engineers as
the work progresses in order to determine
Plan - A drawing or diagram showing the amount of partial payment due to the
the layout, arrangement, or structure of a contractor. Ten percent of the amount due
proposed project. Type and quality of the to the contractor every partial payment is
structure and materials are also indicated kept temporarily as a retention fund re-
herein. served to cover expenses for rectifying de-
fects and completion of the work if aban-
Portland Cement - Typical portland ce- doned by the contractor.
ments are mixtures of tricalcium silicate
(3CaO · SiO2), tricalcium aluminate (3CaO Slippage - The difference between Actu-
· Al2O3), and dicalcium silicate (2CaO · al and  Target physical accomplishment.
SiO2), in varying proportions, together It may be positive, which means that the
with small amounts of magnesium and project is ahead of schedule, negative,
iron compounds. Gypsum is often added which means it is behind schedule, or
to slow the hardening process. zero, which means on-schedule.

Procurement - refers to the acquisition of Source of fund - This indicates who spon-
goods, consulting services, and the con- sored the project. Most of the special
tracting for infrastructure projects by the
procuring entity. It shall also include the
lease of goods and real estate
 Building Construction 145

infrastructure projects of the government Notations/Abbreviations:

are financed by grants or borrowings from “ - inches
foreign and international assistance agen- ‘ - foot
cies. in - inches
ft - foot / feet
Specifications - It is a written document cu.ft - cubic feet
that contains the directions, provisions sq. ft. - square feet
and requirements of a project in accor- Cum - cubic meter
dance with approved engineering industry sq. m. - square meter
and government standard specifications. Km - kilometer
Herewith are the methods or manner of m - meters
performing the work, the quantities and cm - centimeters
quality of materials and labor to be fur- mm - millimeters
nished under the contract, the method of
measurements and the basis of payments.
This complements the Project Plan as a
basis of the estimator as well as the build-
er in undertaking the work.

Working days - Any day except Sundays

and official holidays when soil and weather
conditions would permit the contractor to
work for a period of not less than 8 hours.
146 Laymanized Manual on Monitoring Infrastructure Projects by a Practitioner

REFERENCES

American Society Testing & Materials C150

American Concrete Institute 318

Handbook on Republic Act No. 9184

and its ImplementingRules and Regulations
Part A, 2004 Edition

Standard Specifications
for Public Works and Highways
Volume II, 1998

NEDA Monitoring Tool

Assessing Public Building Projects
Assessing Water system
Assessing Irrigation Systems
Assessing Roads and Bridges

Regional Project Monitoring & Evaluation System

(RPMES) Project Inspection Handbook
Third Edition
August 2002
The Affiliated Network for Social Accountability in East Asia and the Pacific (ANSA-EAP)
is a networking facility for networks promoting the “social accountability” approach to good
governance. It provides capacity building through a learning-in-action approach and serves as an
information gateway on social accountability tales, tools and techniques.

Social accountability is the process of constructive engagement between citizens and government
in monitoring how government agencies and their officials, politicians, and service providers use
public resources to deliver services, improve community welfare, and protect people’s rights.

The social accountability approach needs four basic conditions to work: a) organized, capable
citizen groups; b) responsive government; c) context and cultural appropriateness; and d) access
to information.

ANSA-EAP operates in a large and diverse region. It pursues a geographic strategy that currently
puts priority on support and technical assistance to social accountability activities in Cambodia,
Indonesia, Mongolia, and the Philippines. It also follows a thematic and sector strategy by supporting
mainly local social accountability efforts that deal with service delivery (education, health, local
infrastructure), procurement monitoring, the youth, extractive industries, and climate change.

Pacifico Ortiz Hall, Fr. Arrupe Road ANSA-EAP is currently hosted by

Ateneo de Manila University Ateneo School of Government,
Loyola Heights, Katipunan Avenue Ateneo de Manila University.
Quezon City 1108, Philippines
Telephone: (632) 426 6062
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.ansa-eap.net