A Tale of Open Data Innovations in Five Smart Cities

Adegboyega Ojo Edward Curry Fatemeh Ahmadi Zeleti

National University of Ireland, National University of Ireland, National University of Ireland,
Galway Galway Galway
adegboyega.ojo@insight- [email protected] fatemeh.ahmadizeleti@insight-
centre.org centre.org

Abstract Even more interesting in this newly emerging class

Open Data initiatives are increasingly considered of smart cities is their growth from traditional
as defining elements of emerging smart cities. sustainability-related initiatives to open data [3]. While
However, few studies have attempted to provide a massive data collection through sensors attached to
better understanding of the nature of this convergence physical infrastructures (or Big Data) had always been
and the impact on both domains. This paper presents a characteristic feature of first generation smart cities,
findings from a detailed study of 18 open data publishing such data as open data or integrating with
initiatives across five smart cities – Barcelona, the open data published by city authorities on different
Chicago, Manchester, Amsterdam, and Helsinki. aspects of city management and life, is a relatively
Specifically, the study sought to understand how open recent phenomenon.
data initiatives are shaped by the different smart cities Open Data initiatives are part of the efforts by
contexts and concomitantly what kinds of innovations governments at all levels to open up to enhance
are enabled by open data in these cities. The findings transparency, better empower citizens, foster
highlight the specific impacts of open data innovation innovation, and reform public services [4][5]. For
on the different smart cities domains, governance of example, in 2014 the direct economic benefits from
the cities, and the nature of datasets available in the open data (or Public Sector Information) in the
open data ecosystem.
European Union was valued around Euro 40 billion
and over Euro 140 billion annually across the whole
1. Introduction EU27 economy [6]. In addition, the availability of
open data is considered as critical to improving the
The proliferation of Smart City initiatives around functioning of cities [4]. For instance, Chicago’s
the world is part of the strategic response by SmartData Vision includes building a predictive
governments to the rise of cities as the nexus of human analytics platform for municipal government to
and societal development. Smart Cities programs in transform the city’s operations [7].
general seek to harness their physical infrastructures, This convergence of smart cities and open data
Information Communication Technologies (ICT), initiatives is fast unfolding across a number of cities
knowledge resources, and social infrastructure like New York, Amsterdam, Helsinki, Chicago,
towards economic regeneration, greater social Barcelona, Quebec City, Rio, Dublin, Nairobi and
cohesion, better city administration and infrastructure Manchester, albeit at different paces and scales [3][8].
management [1]. However, there has been no systematic or rigorous
Starting from a select few and well known Smart study to understand how these open data initiatives are
Cities (such as PlanIT Valley, Curitiba in Brazil, different from the traditional ones launched earlier by
Masdar City in United Arab Emirates, and Songdo in national and other levels of governments. Specifically,
Korea) with comprehensive well-articulated there is little literature on how open data initiatives are
development program, many Cities nowadays with one shaped by the smart city context and the kinds of
or more ICT-enabled urban innovation initiatives are innovations enabled by open data in smart cities. The
labeled as Smart Cities. A positive consequence of this study presented in this paper addresses this gap.
bottom up approach to the development of Smart Cities The paper investigates the impacts of open data
is the reduced risk and lower barrier to the uptake that innovation on the different smart cities domains and on
has enabled less affluent cities and communities to the governance of these cities. It examines how open
undertake Smart City programs. For instance, Nairobi data enables open innovation and engagement of
County in Kenya is already selected as one of the top residents and stakeholders in addressing city
21 Intelligent Communities for 2014 [2]. challenges. Furthermore, it looks at how the smart city
context enriches the open data ecosystem and o Compatibility – the degree to which a smart city
dynamics in terms of data resources and actors. initiative is consistent with the existing city
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: stakeholder values, or interests, and the city
Section 2 provides the theoretical background for the context.
study. The methodology for the study is presented in o Complexity – the degree of difficulty involved in
Section 3, with findings in Section 4. Discussion of implementing the initiative and communicating the
findings is presented in Section 5 and concluding associated benefits to stakeholders.
remarks in Section 6. o Trialability – the degree to which experimentation
is possible with the initiative.
2. Theoretical Background o Cost Efficiency and Feasibility – the cost
This section develops the theoretical frame for effectiveness of the initiative with respect to
understanding Open Data as a smart city innovation. existing comparable practices.
Section 2.1 elaborates smart cities first as an o Evidence – availability of research evidence and
innovation based on innovation theory, while Section practice efficacy of the initiative.
2.2 provides a conceptualization of open data as a o Risk – the level of risk associated with the
smart city initiative. The last section examines the need implementation and adoption of the initiative.
for aligning open data innovations within a smart city
context. This is important to distinguish open data in In addition, from the Diffusion Of Innovation (DOI)
the general context from open data initiatives enacted perspective, a smart city as an innovation must be
within smart cities context. communicated among relevant city stakeholders (so-
called adoption units) [10]; in particular the different
2.1. Smart Cities as Urban Innovation city authorities or departments that are expected to
While there are different definitions and contribute to smart city initiatives. Such
conceptualizations for the concept of smart cities in communication can happen through several channels
research literature, extensive experience from practice such as events, briefings or explicit directives from city
clearly indicate that the concept represent attempts by administrators.
various city governments to exploit different kinds of
innovations to make cities function better and be more 2.2. Open Data as Smart City Initiative
livable. Along this perspective, Nam et al. in [9] Open Data is been increasingly acknowledged as a
conceptualizes a “Smart City” as an interplay among defining element of smart cities [12][13][14], and thus
technological innovation, organizational innovation, could be conceptualized as a smart city initiative.
and policy innovation. The essence of smart city Based on Section 2.1, open data initiatives constitute
initiatives according to [1] include increasing access to urban innovation, and thus are expected to deliver
information, enabling social inclusion and economic relative advantage (in particular cost), be compatible
development, sustainable economic growth and urban with existing practices in the city management, and be
development, and higher quality of life. Sectors inherently complex. In addition, it should be possible
typically impacted by smart city initiatives include [1] to implement open data initiatives as a trial or on a
[8]: Environment, Transportation, Energy, pilot basis as they are inherently risky activates.
Governance, People and Life Style, Technology and However, given the paucity of rigorous research in
Built Infrastructure (e.g. roads). the area of open data [5], evidence to support the
As urban innovation, smart cities initiatives efficacy of open data in the smart city context is very
implicitly share the core attributes of any innovation. limited. Developing a formal evidence base for open
These attributes include [10]: relative advantage, data initiatives is dependent on the availability of
compatibility, complexity, and trialability. In addition, Smart City Initiative frameworks such as those
[11] adds cost-efficacy and feasibility, evidence and described in [1] and [8]. The Smart City Initiative
risk. These characteristics are directly linked to the Development (SCID) framework described in [1]
successful adoption and implementation of the provides a simple framework for linking smart cities
innovation in question. In the context of a smart city, initiatives to the associated impacts they generate on
these characteristics are described below: different smart cities domains and how these impacts
o Relative Advantage – the degree to which the smart address specific stakeholder and transformation
city initiative is perceived as enabling better outcomes. See Figure 1.
functioning city and city life. This can be measured
in terms of the impact of the initiative on the
different smart city domains.
 conceptualize the overall smart city program as a
context for the open data initiatives. See Figure 3.
Specifically, the alignment requirement can be framed
as the two questions below:
1. How do open data initiatives impact the smart city
context? In answering this question, we are
interested in: a) the smart city domains impacted by
open data initiatives, b) the kinds of open
engagement activities enabled by open data in the
associated smart city and c) the impact of open data
on the governance of the smart city.
2. How does the smart city program shape its
associated open data initiatives? Here our interest is
Figure 1: Smart City Initiative Design Framework [1] in how the smart city as context determines the
kinds of datasets that are published and the
The framework in [8] identifies the major additional actors participating in the open data
components of a smart city initiative. Specifically, the ecosystem.
model describes a smart city initiative as an interplay
of technology, policy, and organizational innovation
that is shaped by and at the same time impact external
factors like the people communities, economy, built
infrastructure, natural environment, and governance.

Figure 3: Aligning Open Data to Smart City Context

Figure 2: Smart City Initiatives Framework [8] 3. Method

This section describes how the five smart city and
These two models are complementary, since the the 24 associated open data initiatives were selected
SCID Framework [1] is value driven, focusing on the (Section 3.1) and how data on these cases were
impacts of initiatives on domains and how they address obtained (Section 3.2). Section 3.3 elaborates the
challenges and opportunities in the environment, while Content Analysis [15][16] approach employed in
the model in [8] suggests that the impact areas in SCID analyzing the data collected.
Framework actually shapes the initiatives and thus
sources of the challenges and opportunities to be
addressed. Another implication of the model [8], albeit
3.1. Case Selection
The cities selected for study were identified based
not elaborated in the model description; is the need to
on three criteria. The first criterion for selecting a city
align smart city initiatives with the four outer
is that it must have a well-developed smart city
components shown in Figure 2. We elaborate on this
program. This is indicated by the availability of
alignment in Section 2.3.
documents describing the city’s various smart cities
initiatives. The second criterion is that the city strongly
2.3. Smart City as Context for Open Data promotes and situates open data initiatives as smart
The external system for any innovation includes:
cities initiatives. The third criterion is that significant
the external environment, government policy and
information on the open data initiatives is available in
regulation, social network and incentives among others
the public domain. The third criterion is necessary
[11]. This external system shapes and is impacted by
since the study relies on secondary information. Few
the innovation under consideration. In our case, we
cities satisfied these criteria, which include: Helsinki, Manchester City
Manchester, Amsterdam, and Barcelona in Europe and CROSS: Citizen Establish European-wide [31]
Chicago in the United States. Reinforcing strategy for enabling a new [32]
Open Smart generation of digital services
Synergies targeted to the social services
3.2. Data Collection sector based on open data.
The study completely relied on secondary The Greater Creates tools to enable free flow [33]
information published on the five selected smart cities Manchester Data of data between public sector [34]
online. The authors independently searched for all Synchronization organizations, whilst creating a [35]
available information on each city in the period Programme public facing mechanism for the
February to May 2014 and consolidated the release of open data.
information obtained. The consolidated information Greater A platform to make public data [36],
produced a total of 24 initiatives. However, after a Manchester open and accessible to use for [37]
round of review of the 24 initiatives, the authors Datastore the developer community.
Resulted in numerous apps that
unanimously agreed to include only 18 that clearly
help the city function better.
addressed the use of open data in one or more smart
Transport for Aims at releasing their bus time [38]
cities domains. The 18 selected comprised 5 initiatives Greater data for developers or interested
from Helsinki, 4 from Manchester, 4 from Amsterdam, Manchester organization or companies to
2 from Barcelona, and 3 from Chicago. The difference use to build Apps helping
in number of initiatives across the cities in our sample people to find information.
does not pose any threat to the validity of our results Amsterdam City
since our goal is to consolidate and analyze patterns of Apps for Use open data to develop apps [39]
open data adoption across these cities to answer our Amsterdam related to one of six themes; [40]
research questions in Section 2.3. safety, mobility, vacancy, [41]
The identified open data initiatives across these five energy, tourism & culture, and
democracy.
smart cities are described in Table 1. The different
Park Shark Connects developers with city’s [42]
sources of information available on each of the open data including parking
initiatives are provided in the reference column of data to help Amsterdam drivers
Table 1. find parking spaces.
FietsFinder Publishes a comprehensive list [43]
Table 1: Open Data Initiatives in Selected Smart Cities of bike shops and provides
Initiative Description Ref. applications that show the
Helsinki City closest bike and cobbler shops
Smart Utilizes raw open data made [17], from any location.
Kalasatama available for free by the public [18], Code4Europe Aims to solve local civic [44]
administration, businesses, [19] challenges by enabling agile [45]
organizations and private temporary teams of developers
individuals. Offers a platform to create solutions that are
to utilize open data. easily reusable in other
Helsinki Region Provides web service access to [20] European cities utilizing
Infoshare over 1,000 data sources for the [18] available open city data.
cities of Helsinki, Espoo, and [21] Barcelona
Vantaa. Datasets cover public [22] Open Cities Aim to foster open and user [46]
transport, decision-making and [23] driven innovation in the public [47]
service points. [24] sector by leveraging open data,
[25] open sensor networks, and
Apps4Finland To utilize open data datasets to [18] existing crowdsourcing
produce applications. [26]`, platforms and tools.
[23] iCity Aims to foster co-creation of [48]
CitySDK Develops tools to help cities [27] digital public services by third- [49]
open up their data in formats [28] parties (developers and
easy for developers to reuse. [29] businesses) based on utilizing
This is the basis for a available open data.
sustainable city app ecosystem. Chicago
Helsinki Loves Arranges events for developers [28] Data Science Utilizing data in identifying [50]
Developer and organizing local challenges [30] Chicago opportunities to improve many
based on available open data. aspects of the city’s operations
with anticipated impact on cost
 of operations, public safety, 4. Findings
transportation, and quality of We present the results of our analyses in this
city services in general.
section. Section 4.1 presents the types of impacts
Chicago School Provides leadership and clarity [51],
of Data on how data could be used to
anticipated from the open data initiatives on the city
improve lives in Chicago. policy domains identified from the source documents.
Provides services describing This is followed in Section 4.2 by descriptions of the
and interpreting data for identified patterns of applications of open data
different constituents in the city. initiatives to the governance of smart cities and the
Cook County Creating an open county that [52], roles of stakeholders. Lastly, Section 4.3 presents how
Open Data goes beyond just opening up [53], the open data ecosystem is enriched through additional
data to include publishing the [54] smart city specific data resources and the participation
internal methods and processes of new stakeholder roles in the ecosystem.
(including financial) required
for the effective functioning of
the county. 4.1. Impact on Domains
Our analysis of the open data initiatives associated
with impact or policy domains across the five smart
3.3. Analysis
cities produced seven impact areas: Economy,
The study employed a content analysis approach [15],
Education, Energy, Environment, Governance,
[55], [16] to analyzing all the documents and webpages
Tourism and Transportation. The identified domains
describing the 18 initiatives guided by the constructs in
are similar to the domains already captured in existing
models presented in Section 2. Specifically, we
literature, e.g. in [1], [8] and [56]. The potential
adopted a mixed strategy involving two related
impacts identified from the descriptions of the
approaches to content analysis described in [15]: the
initiatives are described below:
conventional approach and directed approach. In
Economy – 10 out of the 18 initiatives are designed
conventional content analysis, coding categories are
to impacts the economy domain. These impacts
derived directly from the text data. In the directed
include: 1) Creation of an ecosystem of open data-
approach, analysis starts with a theory or relevant
based apps; 2) Creation of a civic-technology
research findings as guidance for initial codes. Our
marketplace of societal relevant apps; availability of
goal for employing a mixed strategy is to be enable us
open data services and products by business exploiting
harness the existing constructs in the SCID framework
open data resources related to city operations; 3)
(Figure 1) to analyze the initiatives as top level codes
Establishing the foundations for an open data industry,
while allowing discovering of specific categories of
4) Creation of a marketplace for innovative digital
codes under each of these top level codes.
services in the social sector by leveraging open data;
In line with the directed approach, we mapped the
and 5) Scaling up open data innovations across a
four major phenomena of interest in the source
network of cities by providing tools. From these, three
documents describing initiatives to the following core
impact patterns have been identified and are presented
constructs of the SCID Framework: 1) aims and
in Table 4.
objectives of the initiative, 2) potential impacts of
Education – The only impact identified for this
initiative, 3) the city domains that will be impacted by
domain is the availability of co-created digital services
the initiative, 4) the stakeholders involved in the
for education. This impact is associated with the
initiatives and benefits expected to accrue to these
CROSS initiative.
stakeholders.
Energy – The availability of co-created digital
To determine lower-level concept categories under
services is also the only expected impact for the
each of the four top-level codes, we employed the
Energy domain. This impact is associated with the
conventional content analysis (CA) approach. The
CROSS initiative.
conventional CA was carried out in three phases. In the
Environment – The Dutch’s FietsFinder initiative
first phase, we started by highlighting the keywords
potentially leads to a greener environment, through
and phrases in the source document considered to be
promotion of environment-friendly transport options.
associated with the top-level codes. In the second
phase, we labeled these keywords and related them to
produce a tuple consisting of the sub-category codes
for specific objectives, the impact, domain and
stakeholders. In the third phase, we consolidated the
sub-category codes to determine the core patterns for
impact, stakeholders and related domains.
 Table 2: Patterns of Governance Mechanisms employed in Initiatives
Collaboration Participation Communication Data Exchange Service and App.
Integration
- Collaboration between - Inspire participation - Improving policy - Data exchange between government, - City SDK for
city, developers, SMEs of residents, developers outcomes with increased residents and other stakeholders for purpose developing city
and residents. in creating applications communication between of city development. applications.
- Collaboration among and new services. city and residents and - Data exchange among city authorities (CA).
smart cities initiatives. - Promote idea sharing other stakeholders. - Data exchange among CA and developers.
- Collaboration between among residents. - Designing - Data exchange between sensor infrastructure
school and city. communication plans. and CA.
- Data exchange among cities.

Table 3: Sector specific Datasets available in Open Data Ecosystems of the 5 Cities
Cities Transportation & Health & Wellbeing Environment Education Tourism
Mobility
Helsinki Traffic Accidents in Vantaa social and health care Environmental objects; Espoo Adult Education Helsinki: Culture
Helsinki;Current journey statistics; Social Welfare Camera data Centre statistics and Leisure 2013.
times; Traffic disorders;
Status of road stations.
Manchester OpenStreetMap Data; Drug Treatment Statistics, Flood Map - Flood Zone 2; List of students in
Survey of Passengers. England; UK food hygiene National Parks Greater Manchester
rating data Key Figures for Crime and
Safety; Road Accident Data
Amsterdam Current Car parks Health care and welfare in Planned Roadworks; Energy Open Education Data. Activities.
availability; information on West district labels in Amsterdam;
Guarded bicycle; Location of Heat Cold
Electric Charging Points; Storage.
Borough Centre, Bicycle
Network data.
Barcelona Biking Stations; Bus stops; Number of disability and Environmental List of education List of tourist
Car parks; Street sections retirement pensions by administration: Activities and equipment in city of accommodation in
relations of the public road; neighborhood. policies. Barcelona. the city of
Traffic incidence notices. Barcelona"
Chicago Information on Car park Public Health Statistics. Energy Usage 2010; Crimes - Cook County - Public
locations. 2001 to present. Schools; Cook County
- Private Schools;
Chicago Public
Schools.
 Governance – 12 initiatives are designed to impact 4.2. Governance
on the governance of cities. These include: 1) Better This section presents the various governance
information sharing across local authorities through mechanisms enabled by the open data initiatives in the
data standards; 2) Improved services across major smart cities. Based on [1][56], we identified patterns of
sectors like transportation and public safety; 3) smart city governance mechanisms enabled through the
Enhanced transparency; 4) Co-created services that open data initiatives. The patterns are related to
better addresses citizen and business needs; 5) collaboration, participation, communication, data
Enabling open innovation in City Administration exchange, and service & application integration.
involving third-party developers; 6) Enhanced inter- In the area of collaboration, the open data
operation among network of cities by sharing tools and initiatives were designed to enable collaboration
methods (standardization); 7) Improved capacities of between city and stakeholders like software
citizens and stakeholders to leverage open data; 8) developers, residents, and SMEs in identifying needs.
Open engagement of citizens in policies; and 9) The open data initiatives were also designed to enable
Significant improvement in internal decision-making. collaboration among different smart cities initiatives.
Tourism – The “Apps for Amsterdam” and In the area of participation, the goals of the
“Helsinki Loves Developers” initiatives aim to enable initiatives included enabling participation of residents
co-created services that better addresses citizen and and developers in developing applications and new
businesses needs through innovation in the Tourism services as well as sharing ideas among residents.
domain through the availability of open data based In the communication arena, some of the initiatives
applications. were designed to enable better policy outcomes
Transport and Mobility – 3 initiatives including through the publication of relevant data and
Apps for Amsterdam, Park Shark, and Transport for information for residents based on communication
Greater Manchester will create the following impacts plans. Data exchange objectives of the initiatives
on the transport domain: 1) Better city park include enabling data sharing among city authorities
management through the use of open data; 2) Co- and network of cities. It also includes the exchange of
created services that better addresses citizen and data between sensor data infrastructure providers and
business needs; and 3) Improved transit time and city management.
traffic flow by exploiting data on bus schedules. Lastly, in the area of service and application
integration, the initiatives seeked to provide software
Table 4: Summary of Impacts on City Dimensions development tools (such as CitySDK) for building
Domain Impact Patterns open data-based applications. The patterns are
Economy - Creation of marketplace for society highlighted in Table 2.
relevant applications;
- Availability of data products and 4.3. Data Ecosystem
services based on city operational This section highlights the specific datasets that are
data and; associated with major smart cities domains. The study
- Scaling up the adoption of open data identified a number of datasets across the following
innovations across city functions five sectors – Transport & Mobility, Health &
through tools provision. Wellbeing, Environment & Safety, and Education &
Education - Availability of innovative digital Tourism across the five cities. As shown in Table 3,
services for the education domain. there is a lot of focus on the “Transportation &
Energy - Availability of innovative digital Mobility” and the “Environment & Safety” domains.
services for the education domain. The datasets for the Transport domains cover cark park
Environment - Greener environment. availability, locations of electric charging points,
Governance - Better information sharing. locations of bicycle stations, traffic accidents, and
- Open innovation for co-created passenger satisfaction survey. Environment and safety
services datasets cover surveillance camera data, crime figures
- Open engagement in policy and for different districts, planned road works, road
decision-making accidents, and flood maps.
- Interoperation within city-network. In addition to these datasets, the Open Data
Tourism - Co-created services based on Ecosystems in these cities have the active participation
available open data. of residents, different city authorities, software
Transportation - Better City Park Management; and developers, and SMEs in providing, curating and
Shorter transit time for commuters. consuming the datasets described in Table 3.
5. Discussion In general, there are clear evidences of alignments
The object of the study is to investigate the nature of these open data initiatives to their contextual smart
of the convergence between smart cities and open data city programs.
initiatives. We have sought to analyze this convergence
as a form of alignment (see Figure 3) in which we 6. Conclusion
expect open data initiatives to directly support smart This study contributes to a better understanding of
cities objectives and the smart cities context to shape the emerging convergence of smart cities and open
the open data initiatives enacted within them. data initiatives. Relying on existing smart cities
The analysis of the potential impacts of open data initiative frameworks, we have framed this
initiatives on smart cities domains presented in Section convergence phenomenon as a form alignment in
4.1 shows that these initiatives have significant impact which open data initiatives would be expected to
on the Economy, Governance, Education, directly impact smart cities domains and at the same
Environment, Tourism, and Transport & Mobility time be shaped by the smart city context. Our findings
domains of the studied cities. In particular, we note that have revealed the several potential impacts of open
Governance, Economy, and Transport & Mobility are data initiatives on smart cities domains as well as
the three core domains that are expected to be most revealed an inherent “open innovation economy”
impacted by open data initiatives. Specifically, the impact pattern. We also showed that the nature of
Governance and Economy domains clearly standout as datasets published by these cities is supporting
the two domains that will be most impacted by open innovation. A plausible conclusion from this study is
data initiatives in these smart cities. that emerging smart cities that are driven by open data
When we compare these findings with the results like Chicago can be characterized as “Open Innovation
presented in [1], which shows that Environment, Economies”.
Energy, and the Transportation & Mobility domains Our future work will address the limitation of our
are primarily targeted by smart cities initiatives, we see studies that solely relied on secondary data obtained
strong opportunities enabled by open data initiatives from cities websites and literature. Given that three of
implemented within the smart city contexts, These are five cities involved in the studies may have non-
channeled through the anticipated impact of open data English language content, it is difficult to guarantee
on the governance and economy domains of the that we did capture all available information on the
associated cities. initiatives. Guided by the results from this study, we
We also noted a somewhat recurring pattern in intend to carry out in-depth interviews in two of the
which open data initiatives concomitantly impact both four European cities considered here in addition to
the Governance and the Economy domains. A closer Dublin [59] and Chicago to better understand the
examination of these impacts shows an inherent open results from this study and better characterize our
data innovation pattern which potentially creates an conception of smart cities as open innovation
“open innovation economy” enabled by the economies or ecosystems.
participation of city residents, civic society, software
developers and SMEs in smart cities. In this context,
open data business models [57] will play a major role
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