Module 3: Analysis of The Theory of Demand, Supply, and Markets
Module 3: Analysis of The Theory of Demand, Supply, and Markets
Module 3: Analysis of The Theory of Demand, Supply, and Markets
We extend the analysis of demand and supply by looking at how consumers and producers
respond to changes in price by examining the concept of elasticity. These concepts will be further
used to examine the effect of taxes on prices and quantities consumed and produced. Lastly, we also
extend demand and supply concepts to evaluate consumers and producers welfare using the concept
of consumer surplus and producer surplus.
At the end of this module, you should have achieved the following topic or unit learning
outcomes.
Describe demand and supply concepts and how these forces determine and affect equilibrium
price and quantity.
Graphically illustrate the effect of change in demand and/or supply on market equilibrium.
Demonstrate how elasticities of demand and supply are calculated and interpreted.
TOPIC 1: DEMAND
DEFINITION
Demand is technically defined as a curve (or can be a schedule or an equation) which shows
the various amounts of a good that consumers (buyers) are willing and able to make available for sale
at each of a series of possible prices, during some specified period of time.
We note, first and foremost, that demand manifests consumers’ (buyers’) willingness and
ability to buy. This means that consumers are willing to buy because they have the desire to have the
product and at the same time they have the money (purchasing power) to buy the product. Second,
demand for a good is time-bounded. Demand happens at a given period of time, it can be in a day, a
month, a quarter of a year, in one year, and so on.
Demand for a good (or service) at a given time depends on many factors (price, technology,
competition, etc.). However, if other factors (also called non-price determinants) are held constant (or
not changing) at a given time, the quantity (amount) of a good that sellers are willing to sell becomes
a function of or depends on the price of the good. Based from this principle, a demand schedule (a
table that shows the quantity supplied at each price) can be illustrated.
We assume that the buyer has money worth P100 and only used to buy good X. If we assume
prices of good X, the amounts the buyer can buy can be determined.
What explains the law of demand? (i.e., why is it that price and quantity demanded are
negatively related)? There are two basic reasons for this relationship:
There are two views of income: nominal income and real income. Nominal ( or money) income
is the value or amount of income received. For example, an individual receives P10,000 this
month. Real income reflects the purchasing power of the nominal income, i.e., how much goods
and services that money income of P10,000 buy. The income effect tells us that as the P of a
good falls, the Qd rises because the purchasing power of the same nominal income the individual
has increases allowing more amounts to be purchased a P falls.
The substitution effect on the other hand, tells us that as the P of a good rises, Qd falls because
the consumer has this tendency to substituted other goods that are now relatively cheaper
compared to the good which increased in P.
Diminishing – decreasing
Utility – satisfaction
Marginal – extra, added, additional
Marginal utility – the extra satisfaction derived from consuming extra unit of the same
good
The law of diminishing marginal utility states that all else equal, as the consumption (Qd) of a
good increases the marginal utility derived from each additional unit declines. What decreases as
additional unit of the same good is consumed is the extra (or added) satisfaction. As more units
of the same good is consumed, it means that the extra satisfaction we derived will eventually
diminish. Since the extra utility diminishes as more unit of the same good is consumed,
consumers tend to place a lower value (the price) on the good. Therefore, the only way to
increase Qd (or entice consumers to buy more units of the same despite diminished marginal
utility) is for P to fall.
DEMAND CURVE
Market demand is derived by summing up all the individual demands for a good. Market
supply is simply the horizontal summation (summation of all quantities demanded by all buyers
at each possible price) of all individual demand.
Because the market demand curve holds other things constant at a given period of time, a
change in demand or a shift in the demand curve is caused by a change in one or more of the non-
price determinants (or other factors) that affect the quantity demanded for a good. When a change in
demand occurs, it happens at a new time period and is compared to the demand at a previous time
period. Graphically:
PX D’
D
D” There are more
quantities supplied
at each possible
Increase in Demand price than in the
There are less previous time-
quantities period
demanded at each Decrease in Demand
possible price
than in the
previous time-
period
QdX
Figure 3: Shifts in Demand Curve
There are many variables that can shift the supply curve. Here are some of the most
important.
2. Number of Buyers
An increase in the number of buyers in a market is likely to increase product demand; a decrease
in the number of buyers will probably decrease demand. For example, a rising number of older
persons will increase the demand for medical care, and retirement communities. In contrast,
emigration (out-migration) from many small rural communities has reduced the population and
thus the demand for housing, home appliances, and auto repair in those towns.
3. Income
How changes in income affect demand is a more complex matter. For most products, a rise in
income causes an increase in demand. Products whose demand varies directly with money
income are called superior goods, or normal goods. Although most products are normal goods,
there are some exceptions. As incomes increase beyond some point, the demand for used
clothing, retread tires, and third-hand automobiles may decrease, because the higher incomes
enable consumers to buy new versions of those products. Goods whose demand varies inversely
with money income are called inferior goods.
5. Consumer Expectations
Changes in consumer expectations may shift demand. A newly formed expectation of higher
future prices may cause consumers to buy now in order to “beat” the anticipated price rises, thus
in- creasing current demand. Similarly, a change in expectations concerning future income may
prompt consumers to change their current spending. For example, workers who become fearful
of losing their jobs may reduce their demand for, say, vacation travel.
DEMAND FUNCTION
Demand function is the mathematical expression of law of demand. In other words, demand
function quantifies the relationship between quantity demanded and price of a product, while keeping
the other factors at constant. The law of demand expresses the nature of relationship between quantity
demanded and price of a product, while the demand function measures that relationship.
The demand function can be expressed in two ways: (1) as a quantity function: QD = f(P) or,
(2) as a price-function: P = f(QD). Note however, that even if a demand function can be expressed in
two ways, they still represent one demand curve.
We now quantify the law of demand by expressing the demand function in terms of a linear
equation: y = mx + b
Determining a linear equation can be done through algebraic solution and applying the
formulae:
y 2− y 1
Using two-point form formula: y− y1 = ( x−x 1)
x2− x1
Example: Given the data below, determine the demand function, interpret the slope and the vertical
intercept, and graph the demand curve.
Q−60= ( 50−60
10−8 )
P−8 Q−50= ( −102 ) P−8
Q−60=−5 P+ 40 Q = –5P + 40 + 60 Q = –5P + 100
10−8
P−8= ( 60−50 ) Q−60 P−8= (−102 )Q−60
P−8=−0.2Q+12 P = –0.2Q + 12 + 8 P = –0.2Q + 20
3. Interpretation
4. Demand curve
Figure 4: Demand Curve
TOPIC 2: SUPPLY
A market is not complete without the other side of it. We now turn to the other side of the
market and examine the behavior of sellers.
DEFINITION
We begin by defining the term supply. Supply is technically defined as a curve (or can be a
schedule or an equation) which shows the various amounts of a product that producers (sellers) are
willing and able to make available for sale at each of a series of possible prices, during some specified
period of time.
We note, first and foremost, that supply manifests producers’ (sellers’) willingness and ability
to produce or sell. This means that producers (sellers) are willing because they are profit-motivated,
aside from a good or service is demand-driven (there are willing consumers to pay for the good (or
service). Producers (sellers) are also able (capacity) to produce (sell) because they have the resources.
Supply for a good is time-bounded. Supply happens at a given period of time, it can be in a
day, a month, a quarter of a year, in one year, and so on. Just as demand for a good is realized on a
specific time-period, so is the supply for a good.
Supply for a good (or service) at a given time depends on many factors (price, technology,
competition, etc.). However, if other factors (also called non-price determinants) are held constant (or
not changing) at a given time, the quantity (amount) of a good that sellers are willing to sell becomes
a function of or depends on the price of the good. Based from this principle, a supply schedule (a table
that shows the quantity supplied at each price) can be illustrated:
LAW OF SUPPLY
The amount of a good that producers are willing to sell at a given price is called the quantity
supplied (QS). There are many determinants of QS, but price (P) plays a special role in analyzing
producers’ (suppliers’) behavior. As seen in the schedule, as the average price per kg of rice rises
overtime, production (quantity supplied, in metric tons) also increase. This relationship between price
and quantity supplied is called the law of supply: Other things equal, when the price of a good rises,
the quantity supplied of the good also rises, and when the price falls, the quantity supplied falls as
well. The curve showing the relationship between price and quantity supplied is the supply curve.
Just as market demand is the sum of the demands of all buyers, market supply is the sum of
the supplies of all sellers. Market supply is horizontal summation (summation of all quantities
supplied by all sellers at each possible price) of all individual supply.
Figure 6: Individual Supply and Market Supply
Because the market supply curve holds other things constant at a given period of time, a
change in supply or a shift in the supply curve is caused by a change in one or more of the non-price
determinants (or other factors) that affect the quantity supplied for a good. When a change in supply
occurs, it happens at a new time period and is compared to the supply at a previous time period.
Graphically:
PX S”
There are less Decrease in Supply S
quantities supplied S’
at each possible
price than in the
previous time-
period
There are more
Increase in Supply quantities supplied
at each possible
price than in the
previous time-
period.
QSX
Figure 7: Shifts in Supply Curve
There are many variables that can shift the supply curve. Here are some of the most
important.
1. Input prices. Firms use a number of different inputs to produce any kind of good or service (i.e.
output). When the prices of those inputs increase, the firms face higher production costs. As a
result, producing said good or service becomes less profitable and firms will reduce supply. That
is the supply curve shifts to the left (i.e. inward). By contrast, a decrease in input prices reduces
production costs and therefore shifts the supply curve to the right (i.e. outward).
2. Technology. The use of advanced technology in the production process increases productivity,
which makes the production of goods or services more profitable. As a result, the supply curve
shifts right, i.e. supply increases. Please note that technology in the context of the production
process usually only causes an increase in supply, but not a decrease. The reason for this is
simple: new technology is only adopted if it increases productivity. Otherwise, sellers can just
stick with the technology they already have, which does not affect productivity (and thus supply).
3. Number of Sellers. The number of sellers in a market has a significant impact on supply. When
more firms enter a market to sell a specific good or service, supply increases. That is the supply
curve shifts to the right. Meanwhile, when firms exit the market, supply decreases, i.e. the supply
curve shifts to the left.
4. Producers’ Expectations. The seller’s expectations of the future have a significant impact on
supply. Or more specifically, their expectations of future prices and/or other factors that affect
supply. If they expect prices to increase in the near future, they will hold some of their output
back (i.e. reduce current supply) in order to increase supply in the future, when it becomes more
profitable.
5. Taxes and Subsidies. Part of a firm’s cost of production is tax. Business tax is not directly part
of producing a good or service, as it is not an input cost. However, as government mandates all
firms to pay the tax, it does add to total cost of production. Therefore, an increase in business
taxes collected by government will increase the total cost of production, firms supply less of a
good than a previous time period (where business taxes are still low), causing the supply curve to
shift to the left. On the other hand, subsidies are taxes on reverse (i.e., there are financial aids or
grants to firms by the government). With more subsidies coming from the government, firms can
lower down costs, then more will be supplied at the current time than in the previous time period.
6. Natural and Social Factors. There are always a number of natural and social factors that affect
supply. They can either affect how much output sellers can produce or how much they want to
produce. Whenever one of those factors causes supply to decrease, the supply curve shifts to the
left, whereas an increase in supply results in a shift to the right. As a rule of thumb, natural
factors generally affect how much sellers can produce, while social factors have a greater effect
on how much they want to produce.
Examples of natural factors that affect supply include natural disasters, pestilence, diseases, or
extreme weather conditions. Basically, anything that can have an effect on inputs or facilities that
are required in the production process. Meanwhile, examples of social factors include increased
demand for organic products, waste disposal requirements, minimum wage laws, other
government regulations (e.g., environmental compliance, quota). Note that not all of those factors
necessarily have an impact on the cost of production, but all of them affect production decisions.
SUPPLY FUNCTION
Supply function is the mathematical expression of law of supply. In other words, supply
function quantifies the relationship between quantity supplied and price of a product, while keeping
the other factors at constant. The law of supply expresses the nature of relationship between quantity
supplied and price of a product, while the supply function measures that relationship.
The supply function can be expressed in two ways: (1) as a quantity function: QS = f(P) or, (2)
as a price-function: P = f(QS). Note however, that even if a supply function can be expressed in two
ways, they still represent one supply curve.
We now quantify the law of supply by expressing the supply function in terms of a linear
equation: y = mx + b
Determining a linear equation can be done by algebraic solution applying the following
formulae:
y 2− y 1
Using two-point form formula: y− y1 = ( x−x 1)
x2− x1
Example: Consider the data below on price and quantity supplied. Determine the supply function.
Interpret the slope and intercept of the supply function. Graph the supply curve
Q−500= ( 600−500
9−7 )
P−7 Q−500= ( 1002 ) P−7
Q−500=50 P−350 Q = 50P – 350 + 500 Q = 50P + 150
9−7
P−7= ( 600−500 ) Q−500 P−7= ( 1002 )Q−500
P−7=0.02 Q−10 P = 0.02Q – 10 + 7 P = 0.02Q – 3
2. Interpretation:
3. Supply curve
Equilibrium is an ideal state of rest or balance, once achieved it tends to persist. When one is
at the equilibrium then no force exists that will move one away from the equilibrium. When buyers
and sellers meet in the market to exchange goods and services, they carry with them their own self-
interest. A buyer wants a lower price as much as possible and a seller wants a higher price as much as
possible. These are conflicting interests and how are they reconciled? Or how does the market attain
equilibrium?
Once buyers and sellers “agree” on the price of a good or service in the market, equilibrium is
achieved. The price is called equilibrium price or market-clearing price. This price is now acceptable
to both buyers and sellers, and as long as no other factors will change to cause a change in this price,
this condition remains in the market.
Putting together the demand and supply curves in the same graph, equilibrium occurs where
the demand and supply curves intersect. Formally, this occurs at the price where quantity demanded
(Qd) equals quantity supplied (Qs)
Although this is the equilibrium in the demand and supply model, it remains important to
understand why it is the equilibrium. That is, how does the equilibrium meet the characteristics
defined above that must exist for something to be a stable equilibrium? We must essentially show that
the equilibrium has three characteristics:
1. When the actual price exceeds the equilibrium price some force exists that moves the market
back to the equilibrium price. In the figure below, suppose that the actual price, at P2, in the
market exceeds the equilibrium price, PE. This means, first of all, that the quantity demanded
(QD) no longer equals the quantity supplied (QS).
Figure 10: Disequilibrium: Surplus
Recall that QD is given by the demand curve at the given price. Likewise, QS is given by the
supply curve at the given price. Hence, when price equals P2, then QD will equal Q1 and QS will
equal Q2; quantity supplied is more than quantity demanded. This result is known as an excess
supply or a surplus.
When a surplus occurs that means that firms are unable to do what they desire in the market
given the price. Given a price of P2, firms produce and would like to sell a quantity of Q2, but can
only actually find buyers for a quantity of Q1. The difference between the two equals the actual
surplus. Notice, however, that consumers can do what they wish in the market given the price.
How do firms and consumers respond when faced with a surplus? Given that consumers can
already buy as much as they wish in the market given the price, they do not change their
behavior. Firms, on the other hand, cannot sell all of the output that they produce. Left with
unsold inventory, firms respond by attempting to sell that inventory. How do they induce
consumers to buy their production, rather than their competitors? The most basic way to do so is
by offering the product to consumers at a lower price. However, such price competition by firms
will continue as long as any surplus exists. As a result, the price will decrease until the surplus
dissipates. Thus, the force that causes the price to fall back to the equilibrium when a surplus
exists is price competition by that sector of the market that cannot do what it wishes at the market
price, in this case firms.
2. When the actual price is less than the equilibrium price some force exists that moves the market
back to the equilibrium price. In the graph below, suppose that the actual price, at P1 in the
market is less than the equilibrium price, PE. This means, first of all, that the quantity demanded
(QD) no longer equals the quantity supplied (Q S). When the price equals P1, then QD will equal Q2
and QS will equal Q1; quantity demanded is more than quantity supplied. This result is known as
an excess demand or a shortage.
When a shortage occurs, consumers are unable to do what they desire in the market, given the
price. Given that firms can already sell as much as they want at the price, firms will not change
their behavior at the given price. However, consumers cannot buy all of the good they want at the
current price. Faced with unmet demand, consumers respond by all of them attempting to buy the
limited quantity available for sale. How do consumers induce firms to sell their limited
production to them? Again, the most basic method, which is consistent with profit-maximization,
is for consumers to offer to pay higher prices. However, such price competition, this time by
consumers, will continue as long as the shortage exists. Thus, the price will continue to increase
until the shortage completely disappears.
Although it is price competition, just as when a surplus exists, that forces the market to move
back to the equilibrium, in this case it is by consumers and not firms.
3. When the actual price equals the equilibrium price no force exists that moves the market away
from the equilibrium price.
Figure 12: Natural Tendency to Equilibrium
Thus, price competition only exists when one of the actors in the market is dissatisfied, when
they either cannot sell or buy all that they desire at the market price. But at the equilibrium price
and quantity of PE and QE in Figure 2:11, both firms’ and consumers’ desires are being met
exactly because quantity demanded equals quantity supplied. The fact that there exists neither a
surplus nor a shortage means that no price competition will form moving the market away from
the equilibrium.
Thus, as shown in Figure 2.12, both of the requirements for a stable equilibrium are met – when
not at the equilibrium some force, price competition, moves the market back to equilibrium and
when at the equilibrium the price competition does not form, keeping the market at the
equilibrium. Although the force in the demand and supply model moving the market to
equilibrium is price competition, students often have difficulty remembering which actor is
competing. To understand this point, just ask who it is that doesn’t get to do what they desire at
the current market price. That will be the party who changes their behavior and competes in an
attempt to reach a desirable outcome. Clearly, the party who has already attained his desires
given the situation in the market will not change her behavior in order to compete.
The main purpose of the demand and supply model is to be able to make predictions about the
impact of a given change in the market upon equilibrium price and quantity. These predictions depend
upon the following steps:
1. Identify exactly the impact upon the given market. (That is, which market is being
impacted and by what event?)
2. Does the change affect demand, supply, or both?
3. In which direction is demand or supply affected?
4. What happens to equilibrium price and quantity as a result?
For example, if the price of wheat increases, what impact will this have upon the market for
bread? Wheat is an input into the production of bread. Hence, the supply of bread will be affected
because supply deals with production. Recall from our discussion of demand and supply in the
previous chapter that when input prices increase, the costs of production are in turn increased, which
decreases the supply of the good, in this case bread. What is the impact on equilibrium price and
quantity? The specific impact is discussed separately for each of eight different possible scenarios
below. These will focus on answering only the last of the four questions above – what happens to
equilibrium price and quantity for a given change in demand or supply. As a student, you should be
prepared to answer the other three questions as well.
Increase in Demand
However, when the demand increases (shifts right) at a price of P 1 the market is no longer
in equilibrium. Rather, a shortage or excess demand now exists. As discussed above, when a
shortage occurs price competition by consumers forces the price to rise to a new
equilibrium, E2, where the new equilibrium price and quantity equal P 2 and Q2
respectively. Notice that this process of price competition does cause us to move to the
equilibrium.
The end result is that both equilibrium price and quantity increase.
Decrease in Demand
In addition to the above type of question, students should be prepared to ask more difficult
questions; questions that rely upon them correctly working through all four of the steps discussed
above. Consider, for example, the following question:
Suppose that the price of gas increases. What impact, if any, will this change have upon the
market for cars?
In order to answer this question, you must decide which will be affected, demand or supply.
Be careful, it’s possible that neither will be affected, in which case the correct answer is A. Recall,
that cars and gasoline are complements in consumption. Since demand is related to consumption, it is
the demand curve that will be affected and not the supply curve. Likewise, since complementary
goods are those that are consumed together, when the price of gas increases, people will buy less gas
(law of demand). However, with lower use of gas also comes less demand for cars. As a result, the
demand for cars will fall. As shown by Figure 2.14, when the demand for a good falls, then the
equilibrium price and quantity of that good will also fall. Hence, choice C is the correct answer.
It is possible for both demand and supply to be affected simultaneously in the real world. As a
result, it is useful to be able to make predictions about what will happen in a market when such a
result occurs. For example, suppose that some change occurs in the market for gasoline that
induces both consumers and firms to expect that the price of gas will rise in the future.
Recall that an expected higher price will induce consumers to buy more of the good now since it
is cheaper now than it is expected to be in the future. Hence, demand for gas now will increase.
Likewise, an expected higher future price will induce suppliers to sell less of the good now since
its relatively cheaper price is less attractive to profit maximizing firms than the future expected
higher price. Hence, supply for gas now will decrease.
This result, however, is somewhat deceptive. Notice that, as discussed above, the result of a
decrease in Supply (Figure 2.16) is to increase price and decrease quantity while the result of an
increase in demand (Figure 2.13) is to increase both price and quantity. Clearly, because the
changes in both demand and supply curves cause price to increase, then price will increase.
However, each shift has an opposite impact on equilibrium quantity. The supply shift decreases
quantity, while the demand shift increases quantity. Figure 2.17 illustrates the result that occurs if
these two opposing impacts on quantity exactly cancel each other out. This only occurs when the
two shifts are of the same magnitude. However, it is just as possible that quantity could increase
(demand shift larger) or decrease (supply shift larger). Without information about the magnitude
of the two shifts we simply cannot determine what will happen to quantity.
This discussion highlights an important point about simultaneous shifts of both supply and
demand. In each of the four cases discussed below, either equilibrium price or quantity will be
indeterminate without information about the magnitude of the shifts. However, simply drawing a
graph as we did above with only a single shift of a single curve, leads one to misleading
conclusions without that information. This is because when drawing such a shift on a graph one
must make an assumption about the relative magnitudes of the two shifts. As a result, it is
actually more useful to not draw any additional graphs. Instead, simply look at the four graphs
that we’ve already discussed above and consider the impact of each shift separately.
We will now combine the knowledge we gained about linear demand and linear supply
equations to figure out how to determine the equilibrium price and quantity in the market using the
demand and supply equations.
The equilibrium condition states that at a certain price (i.e., equilibrium price), QS = QD.
Following this condition, we just equate the determined demand and supply equations. For example:
Consider the market for shoes. The linear demand and supply functions are:
QD = 250 – 10P
QS = 50 + 10P
P = 10 equilibrium price
Solve for equilibrium quantity by substituting the value of price on demand/supply equations:
At equilibrium price, QS = QD
QS = 150 QD = 150
By tabular solution, we will arrive at the same values of equilibrium price and equilibrium.
Set up a demand and supply schedules.
A gap means an existence of either a surplus (QS > QD) or a shortage (QD > QS). A negative
value of the gap means shortage and a positive value of gap means surplus. Only at equilibrium where
gap is equal to zero. The equilibrium condition can also be illustrated using a graphical presentation.
TOPIC 4: APPLICATIONS
One of the main purposes of teaching the demand and supply model in a principles class is
that the model is extremely powerful in predicting how markets work. This sections gives two of the
many possible examples of how the model is useful in analyzing market outcomes. Considered below
is the impact of a particular type of governmental market intervention, known as price controls. Price
controls refer to the government attempting to control the market price through legal intervention in
the market. Two different types of price controls, price floors and price ceilings, are defined and
analyzed separately.
PRICE CEILINGS
Definition
A price ceiling is a maximum legal price. The name is descriptive of the effect of a maximum
legal price. Similar to a ceiling, the market price can be below the ceiling, but not above it. There
are a number of examples of price ceilings. One example is rent controlled housing. A number of
jurisdictions, usually urban areas, impose a price ceiling, often called rent controls, on housing in
an attempt to reduce the prices consumers pay for housing.
An effective price ceiling is one that, when enforced, will cause the market to move away from
the equilibrium.
Ceiling prices below the equilibrium price are effective while those above are ineffective because
the market in the absence of some intervening factor will always attempt to be at the equilibrium
price. However, a ceiling price set above the equilibrium, such as at P 2, still allows the market to
be at the equilibrium. On the other hand, at P 1, even though the market attempts to be at the
higher equilibrium price of PE, the enforced ceiling price will not allow this.
Equilibrium
Now consider the impact of only effective price ceilings. That is, consider only the impact of
ceiling prices that are set below the equilibrium price. There are three possible outcomes, all of
which are discussed in more detail below. Either the market will (1) make no change and remain
at the original equilibrium or (2) the price of the good will decrease but a shortage of the good
will develop or (3) the price of the good will actually increase.
Which of the above three outcomes occurs depends crucially upon whether or not the
government can actually enforce the ceiling price. This is not a trivial question, either. Clearly,
the actors in the market will have an incentive to attempt to avoid the regulation and return to the
equilibrium, just as happens when the market is not in equilibrium for other reasons. For
example, one way to get around rent control laws for housing is to pay what is commonly known
as “key money.” That is a payment upfront to have the keys in an apartment changed when
changing renters. However, if the key money is substantial, then this is clearly an attempt to
avoid the price ceiling.
Thus, the analysis of the impact of the price ceiling depends crucially upon whether or not the
price ceiling can be enforced.
1. Price is Enforced
If the ceiling price equals P1 as shown by Graph 9, then the result is straightforward. At this
price in the graph, then a shortage occurs, with quantity demanded equaling Q 2 and quantity
supplied equaling Q1. While the price does fall to the ceiling price, some consumers are not
able to buy the good. That is true even of some consumers who previously were able to buy
the good at the equilibrium.
a. If the extra money simply goes to the firm producing the good, then they respond as do
all firms when receiving a higher price. They increase their quantity supplied.
Likewise, consumers respond to the higher price by reducing their quantity demanded.
As a result, the market simply moves back to the original equilibrium. (Note: the
market might not go back all the way to the original equilibrium if the cost of avoiding
the price ceiling is substantial. In that case, the equilibrium quantity will be lower.)
b. If the extra money does not go to the firm producing the good but, instead ends up
going to some third party, then quite a different outcome results. Why might this even
be a possibility? This commonly occurs because it is easier for the government to
enforce the ceiling price upon the original producers but it cannot enforce the ceiling
price on people who buy and then resell the product. This is the classic formation of a
black market.
What happens in a black market? First, because the producing firms are not receiving a
higher price, they do not change their behavior. They continue to produce at the same
level, Q1, in Figure 2.19. Hence, the crucial question is how will consumers react to the
formation of the black market. Recall that they are generally now buying the product,
not from the firm at a price of P1 but from the black marketeers.
The black marketeers will attempt to resell the good at the highest price they can in the
market. How high will consumers be willing to pay in order to ensure that they receive
the limited quantity available? The relationship between quantity and price for
consumers is given by the demand curve. Hence, when the quantity available equals
Q1, then the price in the market will equal P 2. This is commonly known as the black
market price.
The normal justification for the imposition of price ceilings is to improve the welfare of
consumers in a market where prices are considered too high by some subjective standard. Thus, it
is crucial to ask as part of our analysis, how well do price ceilings achieve their stated goal?
The results are actually not encouraging, as an examination of the results above clearly indicate.
Consider each of the three possible outcomes:
1. When the ceiling price is enforced, the price does fall in the market to whatever price is set
by the government. However, a shortage occurs in the market so that some consumers are
unable to buy at this lower price. Hence, some consumers will be better off, those who can
buy the good at the lower price. However, other consumers will be worse off, those who
cannot buy the good at all but would have at the higher price.
2. When the ceiling price is not enforced and the illegal higher price is paid to the firms
producing the good, the market does not change with the regulation. As a result, the price
ceiling does not advantage consumers. In fact, consumers may be worse off if avoiding
enforcement, as is likely, is costly to them. Furthermore, the government will be wasting
some resources in passing and attempting to enforce the regulation. Hence, there exists no
possibility of a consumer advantage and significant possibility of substantial costs.
3. When the ceiling price is not enforced and a black market forms, consumers actually end up
paying a higher price and also buy a lower quantity. For both reasons, they are worse off as
a result of the price ceiling.
PRICE FLOORS
Definition
A price floor is a minimum legal price. The name is descriptive of the effect of a minimum legal
price. Similar to an actual floor, the market price can be above the floor, but not below it.
Examples of price floors include the national minimum wage in the U.S. and price floors
imposed for a number of agricultural products.
An effective price floor is one that, when enforced, will cause the market to move away from the
equilibrium. Which of all the possible floor prices are effective and which ineffective? In Figure
2.20, the equilibrium in the absence of any price controls will be at P E and QE. The graph also
shows a price above (P2) and one below (P1) the equilibrium price.
Equilibrium
Figure 19: Price Ceiling
Next consider only the impact of effective price floors, those that are set above the equilibrium
price. In the case of price floors, there are only two possible outcomes. Either the market will (1)
make no change and remain at the original equilibrium or (2) the price will increase but a surplus
of the good will also result.
Which outcome will actually occur, similar to the analysis for price ceilings, depends crucially
upon whether or not the price floor can actually be enforced. Again, the actors in the market have
an incentive to avoid the floor and return to the equilibrium.
Price floors are usually intended to advantage firms or, in the case of minimum wage laws,
individuals who supply labor. However, as we’ve seen above they do not necessarily work as
planned. Either they have no impact on the market, even though imposing substantial
enforcement costs, or they do increase the price while causing a surplus. In the latter case, only
those firms who can sell their product will be better off. Other firms will be worse off and may
even be forced out of business.
As a result, the government often enacts programs, known as price supports, in order to alleviate
these problems. These programs tend to involve some type of government subsidy.
1. Government subsidies
A government subsidy is when the government either pays for part of the higher price for
the good, or more commonly, buys up the extra surplus at the floor price. Such subsidies are
often called price supports because they are enacted in order to keep the price at the higher
level. For example, price support programs are common in agricultural industries where
products have price floors imposed.
What does the government do with the product that it buys up in the subsidy program?
Often, they will use the good as part of a welfare program to support poor people, perhaps
giving the good away to welfare recipients or other qualifying individuals.
In this instance the surplus persists and eventually some firms will go out of business. But the
cycle will not stop there. The higher price of the good and resultant higher profits for surviving
firms will induce other firms to enter the industry, which will cause another surplus. As a result,
more firms will go out of business. This cycle could possibly continue indefinitely.
Another important point is to carefully examine the impact on other markets. Consider for
example the impact of minimum wage legislation. Suppose the minimum wage is increased,
Then the effect will be dependent upon which workers are considered. Higher skilled workers
have higher wages and, hence, are not affected by the change because the price floor is not
effective for them. It is only the lower skilled and wage workers who are affected directly. The
impact is as discussed above for these unskilled workers.
However, skilled workers are indirectly impacted by the minimum wage in the following
manner. As the wage increases for unskilled workers, they become less desirable to firms, who
reduce their employment. For skilled workers, especially those who are close substitutes for the
unskilled workers, employment increases as a result. That is, firms’ demand increases for those
skilled workers who are substitutable for the lower paid unskilled workers. As demand increases
(shifts right) this will increase both employment and wages, not for the lower skilled workers, but
for skilled workers. Thus, even though the minimum wage is unlikely to help unskilled workers,
ultimately causing unemployment for unskilled workers, it will advantage skilled workers. Of
course, the regulation is not originally intended (or is it?) to advantage skilled workers.