Chapter Three

Earth Dams

1-Introduction
Earth dams are trapezoidal in shape, they are constructed where the foundation
materials are weak. Earth dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the
base. They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also
known as Earth fill dam or Rock fill dam.
Rock fill dam is appropriate where over 50% of the fill material may be
classified as rock pieces. It is an embankment which uses large size rock pieces
to provide stability and impervious membrane to provide water tightness.
Earth dams are built of soil, as the soil is a non-rigid material, earth dam is
called non-rigid dams.
Since ancient times earth dams have been constructed for the purpose of water
storage for irrigation and flood control.
Earth dams can be constructed on almost all type of foundations, provided
suitable measurements are taken to minimize seepage and failure in foundation.
Earth dams are more suitable than gravity dams if a strong foundation is not
available at the site for the construction of a gravity dam. Earth dams are usually
cheaper than gravity dams if the soil quantity is available near the site.

2-Types of Earth Dams

Earth dams can be divided into three types: homogenous earth dams, zoned
earth dams and diaphragm-type earth dams.
2-1 Homogenous Earth Dams
A homogenous earth dam is composed of only one material. Generally the
material used is either semi-impervious or impervious soil to limit the seepage
through the dam. A purely homogenous section poses the problem of sliding and
piping if it is not wide at base. A large section with flatter slopes is required to
make it safe against piping and sliding. A homogenous earth dam is usually
constructed where only one type of material is economically available near the
dam site and height of the dam is low. However, despite the flatness of the
slopes, seepage discharges from the downstream slope face ends up with the
failure of downstream slope .

32
 Figure1: seepage though a completely homogenous dam

Modified Homogenous Earth Dam

It is the usual practice to use a modified homogenous section in which an
internal drainage system is provided in the homogenous section. The internal
drainage system may be in the form of a rock fill toe or a horizontal drainage
blanket or a combination of the two. The recent practice is to provide an inclined
filter accompanied with a drainage blanket. (Figure 2) shows the different
drainage arrangements.

Figure 1: Modified homogenous earth dam

33
2-2-Zoned Earth Dam
A zoned earth dam is composed of more than one type of soil. A zoned earth
dam usually consists of a central impervious core flanked by shells of pervious
materials on the upstream and downstream sides. A transition filter is usually
required between the core and the shell to prevent piping. The function of the
impervious core is to reduce seepage and the pervious shells to stabilize the
dam. The core is usually composed of clay, silt, silty clay and clayey silt. The
pervious shell is composed of sand, gravel or a mixture of both. The upstream
pervious zone provides free drainage after sudden drawdown. The downstream
shell acts as a drainage to control phreatic line i.e. to keep it inside the body of
dam. Thus the pervious zones give stability to the impervious zone. The
transition filters prevents the migration of the small particles of the core into the
larger pores of the pervious zone. However, transition filters are neglected either
when the difference between the particle size of shell and core is not significant
or when the seepage gradient is flat.

Figure 2: Zoned earth dam

Phreatic line
The top flow line of a saturated soil below which seepage takes place, is called
the phreatic line. Hydrostatic pressure acts below the phreatic line whereas
atmospheric pressure exists above the phreatic line. For an earthen dam,
the phreatic line approximately assumes the shape of a parabola.

34
 2-3-Diaphragm-Type Earth Dam
A diaphragm-type earth dam consists of a thin impervious core called
diaphragm, surrounded by pervious shells. This type is sometimes called the thin
core earth dam. The difference between a zoned and a diaphragm-type of earth
dam is in the thickness of the core. If the thickness of the core at any elevation is
less than the height of the embankment above that elevation or 3 m, the dam is
generally considered to be of the diaphragm type. The diaphragm are
constructed either vertical at the center(Figure 4 a) or inclined below upstream
face (Figure 4 b). The diaphragm is constructed of impervious material e.g. clay,
concrete, steel, bituminous concrete and timber. This type of dam is constructed
only when the impervious material is not adequate to construct a zoned earth
dam.

Figure 3: Diaphragm-type earth dam

3-Foundation Requirements
Earth dams can be constructed virtually under any foundation conditions.
However, the underlying strata must be studied thoroughly and proper
foundation treatments if needed be applied. Generally foundations are classified
into three broad groups of, rock foundations, pervious soil foundations and
impervious soil foundations.

35
3-1-Rock Foundations
Rock foundations are generally suitable for an earth dam to be constructed on it.
The shear stress that earth dams impose is usually lower than the bearing
capacity of rock foundations. If the rock foundation is intact and having
minimum fractures then seepage will not be an issue. However if the foundation
is found to be highly fractured and having joints or seams of low strength then
the foundation will be susceptible to excessive seepage. Therefore, in such
cases, the foundation is grouted and in the case of weak zones, they are replaced
with concrete.
3-2-Pervious Soil Foundations
The foundation of earth dams may be composed of recent alluvial soils of
relatively pervious sand and gravel which overlay impervious geological
formation like rock or clay. The issue with such foundation is the probability of
occurrence of high under seepage. Furthermore the force exerted by seepage
may lead to piping of foundation thereby failure of dam. Pervious foundations
are broadly categorized into two groups:
Coarse Sand and Gravel
Such foundations have high shear strength and pose no problem from the point
of stability. As these soils have high permeability, they get consolidated very
rapidly under the loads of the dam and the shear strength increases almost
simultaneously with the construction of the dam. The main problem with such
foundations is the under seepage.
Loose-Fine Sand or Coarse silt
If the foundation material consists of loose fine sand or coarse silt, it presents
difficult foundation problems. Such soils have low shear strength and high
compressibility, which cause problems. When such soils are subjected to a
sudden shear stresses caused by earthquakes, the loose soil rearranges its
structure to a denser one. In doing so, the load that was carried by soil particles
will be passed over to the pore water thus leading to the phenomena of
liquefaction.
Soil liquefaction describes a phenomenon whereby a saturated or partially
saturated soil substantially loses strength and stiffness in response to an applied
stress, usually earthquake shaking or other sudden change in stress condition,
causing it to behave like a liquid.

36
Such a behavior is observed in uniform sands which are very fine and consist of
rounded grains and their relative density is less than 50%. Such soils should be
avoided as foundation of earth dams as far as possible. Otherwise they should be
compacted by pile driving or other methods so that they become quite dense
before the construction of the dam.

3-3-Impervious Soil Foundations

Foundations of fine silt and clay are impervious and have very low shear
strength. Shear failure may occur in such foundations. Moreover, there are
problems of excessive pore water pressure, large deformations and settlements.
Such soils have low permeability and their consolidation takes a very long time.
Consequently, their shear strength develops gradually. When the foundation
consists of highly plastic clays, thorough investigations are required because
their presence may cause excessive deformations. In such cases, flatter slopes or
berms must be considered in the design of earth dams in order to spread the load
over a larger area and decrease the shear stresses and the deformation of the
foundation. If the depth of the silt and clay foundations is large then there will
be no measure required for reducing under seepage or piping.

4-Causes of Failure of Earth Dams

Earth dam failures are mainly caused by improper design, lack of thorough
investigations, inadequate care in construction and poor maintenance. Various
causes of failures can be grouped into three categories:
1-Hydraulic failures (35%)
2-Seepage failures (38%)
3-Structural failures (20%)
4-Miscellaneios causes (7%)

4-1-Hydraulic Failures
The hydraulic failures may occur due to one or more of the following causes:

37
1-Overtopping
An earth dam fails when it is overtopped. Overtopping is the most common
cause of the failure of an earth dam. Overtopping of the earth dam occurs when:
1-The design flood is underestimated.
2-The spillway capacity is not adequate.
3-The spillway gates are not properly operated.
4-The freeboard is not sufficient.
5-Excessive settlements of the foundation and dam occur.
2-Erosion of U/S Face
The U/S face if not protected, the waves generated in the reservoir will erode it
and gradually leading to the failure of the U/S face or of the dam. To avoid the
erosion of the U/S face, rip rap is laid over it for protection. Under the riprap a
filter must be laid, otherwise, the soil beneath the protection will get washed out
after sudden drawdowns. The riprap must of adequate thickness and weight in
order to not get displaced by the force of waves.
3-Erosion of D/S Face
D/S face is susceptible to get eroded by heavy rains and sometimes winds. Rains
can erode the slope and create gullies that will cause the failure of the slope or
the total failure. To avoid the erosion of the D/S face, two measures are usually
taken:
a-Sodding of the D/S face.
b-Provision of berms in order to decrease the velocity of the flowing water.

4-Erosion of D/S Toe

The erosion of the D/S toe is attributed to the following two reasons:
1-Cross-currents that originate from the spillway bucket, if a spillway is
provided along with the dam.
2-Waves developed in the tail water
To prohibit the erosion of the D/S toe two measures are taken simultaneously:
1- Provision of riprap over the D/S face up to a height that normal tail water
cannot exceed it.
2- The separating sidewalls of the spillway from the earth dam must be designed
properly so that formation of cross currents toward the earth dam is prohibited.

38
5-Frost Action
If the earth is located at a place where the temperature falls below the freezing
point, frost may form in the pores of the soil in the earth dam. When there is
rising the cracks may form in the soil. This may lead to dangerous seepage and
consequent failure. To avoid the failure due to frost action, the soil susceptible
to frost formation should not be used.
4-2-Seepage Failures
Seepage failures may occur due to the following causes:
a- Piping through the dam.
b- Piping through the foundation.
c- Conduit leakage.
d- Sloughing of downstream toe.
a- Piping through the Dam
Seepage is unavoidable in earth dams. If seepage is controlled properly, it will
not cause any failure. When seepage is not controlled properly i.e. it gets
concentrated then piping and total failure of the earth dam can be expected.
Piping is the backward progressive erosion of soil particles. First, particles are
removed at the exit face and then it continues backward until a pipe-like cavity
is formed within the body of the dam .Piping occurs when the seepage force is
large and concentrated flow occurs.
This process occurs in the following steps:
1-When water seeps through the pores of soil it loses some of its pressure head
due to friction i.e. resistance to flow.
2-As a result of the friction, the water will in turn impose a force on the soil
particles.
3-When water reaches the exit point, if its pressure head has not been dissipated
sufficiently and the force it possess is larger than the interlocking force between
the soil particles then it will erode some of the particles when it flows out.
4-After this, hydraulic gradient increases and the flow gets more concentrated
and more erosion takes place backward. This process is continuous until a pipe
is formed in the body of the soil.

39
 Figure 5: Piping in earth dams

Piping in dams may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:
1-Poor construction
2-Differential settlement
3-Burrowing animals
4-Surface cracks
5-Presence of roots
6-Soluble saults

b- Piping through the Foundation

Piping through the foundation occurs when the hydraulic gradient resulting from
seepage through the foundation exceeds the resistance of the soil particles. The
particles tend to move and piping occurs due to removal of the finer particles
from the region just downstream of the toe of the embankment .
Piping in foundations composed of relatively impervious soils does not occur. It
is usually a problem with pervious foundations.

Figure 6: Piping through foundation

40
c- Conduit Leakage
Conduits are usually provided in earth dams. Water may seep along the outer
side of conduit wall and eventually leading to piping and dam failure. This
occurs when the soil around the conduit is not compacted properly. There is
another scenario of seepage along the conduit outside wall, this is the leakage of
water from the conduit. This takes place when cracks develop in the conduit.
Cracks develop because of differential settlement in foundation, settlement of
the soil beneath the conduit the damage of the conduit itself or the overloading
of the conduit by the embankment above it.
d-Sloughing of Downstream Toe
Sloughing is a process in which the soil mass falls down after saturation. It is a
type of local slope failure. The sloughing of the downstream toe of the earth
dam occurs under the reservoir full conditions when the downstream portion of
the dam becomes saturated and continuously remains in the same state, causing
softening and weakening of the soil mass. This usually occurs when the phreatic
line cuts D/S face. Also choked outlet leads to sloughing of the D/S toe.
Sloughing leads to failure of dam as follow:
1-Because of the soil softening and weakening, a small slump (miniature slide)
at the D/S toe occurs.
2-The fallen part will leave a steep face at the D/S slope.
3-Because of the continuous seepage, the steep face get saturated and leading to
another slump and leaving a steep face. This process will continue until the
remained part of embankment cannot hold back water and eventually the dam
collapses.

4-3-Structural Failures
Structural failures in earth dams are generally shear failures leading to sliding of
the embankments or the foundation.
Slides in Embankment
Sliding of the slopes of the embankment occurs when the shear forces tending to
cause sliding on any potential sliding surface exceed the resisting forces. The
failure of slopes is one of the main causes of the failure of the earth dams. The
following three cases of slope failure are common:

41
1- Failure of the U/S slope during sudden drawdown:
The most critical condition for the U/S slope occurs during the sudden
drawdown of the reservoir. During that condition, the pore water pressure in the
soil is not dissipated fully due to low permeability of the slope and consequently
the shear strength of the soil reduced and the slope may fail .

Figure 7: Failure of U/S slope in sudden drawdown

2- Failure of D/S slope during steady seepage:

The most critical condition for the D/S slope occurs when the reservoir is full
and steady seepage conditions have developed in the soil mass. The pore water
pressure acting on the soil below the phreatic line caused a reduction in the shear
strength of the soil, the failure of the D/S slope may occur .

Figure 8: Failure of D/S slope under steady seepage condition

42
3- Failure of U/S and D/S slopes during construction:
The failure of the U/S and D/S slopes may occur during construction period.
When an earth dam is constructed of relatively impervious soil, the drainage is
extremely slow. The pore water pressure develops during and immediately after
construction, especially if the rate of construction is relatively fast. The pore
water pressure up to 100% of the vertical stress due to weight of soil at that
point has been observed in the field. The slopes may fail if it is not designed for
such high pore water pressure.
Slides in Foundation
1-If the foundation consists of fine sand and soft soil, the slide may occur in the
foundation.
2-If a soft and weak clayey seam exists in the foundation the dam may slide of
over the seam.
3-Excessive pore water pressure in the confined sand and silt seams in the
foundation may also lead to failure.
4-Expansion of clayey soils on saturation may cause lifting of the dam and
failure of foundation may occur.
5-If the foundation consists of fine sand and silt in loose condition, liquefaction
slides may occur when the dam is subjected to vibration.

Figure 9: Failure due to slides in foundation

6-Failure by spreading usually occurs when the earth dam is located above a
stratified deposited that contains layers of silty clay. This poses a problem when
the pore water pressure gets developed large.

Figure 10: Failure by Spreading

43
Failure due to Earthquakes
Failure due to earthquakes may occur in the following cases:
1-Earthquakes may cause cracks in the core of dam and leading to leakage and
piping.
2-Earthquakes may cause excessive settlement of the dam due to which the free
board is reduced and overtopping may occur.
3-Earthquakes cause shaking of the reservoir bottom due to which slow waves
are formed which may cause overtopping.
4-Earthquakes may cause liquefaction of loose sand in foundation.
5-Inertia forces due to the earthquake acceleration may cause shear slides.
6-Earthquakes may cause landslides in the flanks of the reservoir and creating
waves that can overtop the dam.

5-Criteria for Safe Design of Earth Dams

According to the different cases of failure discussed earlier, a number of criteria
are driven as follow:
5.1 No Overtopping
1-The dam should be safe against overtopping in worst flood occurrences.
2-A suitable freeboard should be provided against wave action.
3-To account future settlements a height allowance must be considered.
5.2 No Seepage Failure
1-To avoid sloughing of the downstream toe, phreatic line must be always kept
within the downstream face.
2-Seepage through dam, foundation and abutments should be controlled by
taking measures.
3-Free seepage of water from upstream to downstream through dam or
foundation must not be allowed.
5-3 No structural Failure
1-The downstream and upstream slopes must be safe during and immediately
after construction.
2-The upstream face should be stable during sudden drawdown conditions.
3-The downstream face should be safe during steady-seepage conditions.
4-The foundation shear stress should be within the safe limits.
5-The dam as a whole should be earthquake-resistant.

44
5-4 Proper Slope Protection
1-The upstream face should be protected against erosion by waves.
2-The crest and downstream face should be protected against erosion by rain and
wind.
5-5 Proper Drainage
The portion of dam, downstream of the impervious core must be drained
properly.
5-6 Economic Section
The dam should have an economic section. The material for construction of the
dam must be brought from the nearby of the dam as much as possible.

6- Preliminary Section of Earth Dams

The preliminary section of earth dam is selected based on the experience,
considering various factors:
1-Foundation conditions
2-Availability of material
3-Physical properties of various materials
4-Method of construction and the construction control
5-Diversion methods and construction schedule
6-Climatic conditions affecting the placement moisture control and subsequent
moisture changes.
7-Safety factors with respect to seepage
8-Safety factors with respect to stability
In the preliminary section, the following parameters are decided:
6-1 Crest Width
Table below shows empirical formulae that are commonly used for the
determination of the crest width.

Height of Dam Crest width

H<10 m
10 m<H<30 m
H>30 m ( )

45
 Where,
H: is the height of dam;
a: is the crest width
 Position of phreatic line and the width of road way are two important factors
affecting selection of a proper crest width.
 In general crest width varies from 6 to 12 m.
 At least crest width should not be less than 4 m (for maintenance).
 The crest width should be enough to resist earthquakes and wave action.
6-2 Freeboard
The freeboard is the vertical distance between maximum water level and the
crest level. Freeboard can be calculated from:

Where,
hw is the height of wave generated when reservoir is full
 The additional safety provision generally varies from 0.6 to 3 m.
 The freeboard should not be less than 2 m in any case.
 Freeboard provides safety in emergency conditions e.g. occurrence of a flood
larger than expected design flood, malfunctioning of gates and etc.
6-3 U/S and D/S Slopes of the Dam
Table below shows the slopes for preliminary section of an earth dam
recommended by Terzaghi.

Type of U/S slope D/S slope

Type of material
section (H:V) (H:V)
Homogeneous Well-graded material 2.5:1 2:1
Homogenous Coarse silt 3:1 2.5:1
Silty clay or clay:
Homogenous H<15 m 2.5:1 2:1
H>15 m 3:1 2.5:1
Sand or gravel shells with a central
Zoned 3:1 2.5:1
clay core
Sand or gravel shells with a R.C
Zoned 2.5:1 2:1
core

46
Sometimes Engineers select slopes for the preliminary section from their
experience or adopting from successful dams in the region.
It is usual practice to select slopes for the preliminary section and then check
the section for stability.
If it is found out that the slopes are safe and economical then it can be relied on.
The U/S slope of the earth dams usually varies from 2.5:1 to 4:1 and
the D/S slope varies from 2:1 to 3:1.
The stability of the slope depends mainly on the physical properties
namely c and φ.
If the foundation is weak then flat slopes should be selected.
For dam height more than 30 m, it is more economical to have various
slopes at different elevations. The slopes are steeper at higher
elevations but flatter at lower elevations.

6-4 Settlement Allowance

Settlement of earth dams occur due to consolidation in dam’s material and
foundation. The magnitude and rate of settlement depends on:
1-Characteristics of soil in the dam and foundation
2- The drainage conditions.
3- The height of dam.
4- The depth of weak strata.

It is usual practice to construct dams to a greater height than the required for
settlement allowance by 1 to 2% of height of dam.
The extra height of dam is called camber.
Camber is not equal at all sections of a dam.
Camber is highest at the middle sections and the least at abutments.
6-5 Cutoff in Foundation
To reduce seepage through the foundation and to avoid piping failure, a cutoff
wall is usually provided when the foundation is pervious to moderate depths.
The cutoff can be a cutoff trench or a sheet pile cutoff.

47
 Figure 11: Seepage control in foundation

If the depth of the pervious strata is large and constructing a cutoff trench is
uneconomical, then an impervious blanket is provided. The blanket is the
extension of the impervious core toward upstream up to some distances in the
reservoir.
6-6 Impervious Core
If sufficient material is available, a zoned earth dam is preferred. The
impervious core can be constructed vertically or inclined. The head that causes
the seepage of water is mostly dissipated at the core, thus the phreatic line is
kept in the dam body. The shells give stability and the D/S shell works as a
drain, thus, pore water pressure built up is reduced. Further notes are made
below:
 The slopes of the core should not be greater than (x-0.5):1 on U/S and (y-0.5):1
on D/s. where x: 1 is the U/S slope of the shell and y: 1 is the D/S slope of the
shell.
 The maximum U/S and D/S slopes of the core are usually 1.5:1 and 1:1
respectively.

48
 If the difference of the particles sized of the shell material and core material is
large, transition filters are provided.
6-7 Downstream Drainage System
The downstream drainage system is required for all types of earth dams. The
drainage system consists of materials appreciably more pervious than the
embankment materials. Different types of drainage systems are explained later
in this chapter.

6-8 Protection of Slopes

The following notes are made for the protection of both U/S and D/S slopes:
 The U/S slope of dam is protected against wave action by laying rip rap (stone
pitching) over the slope. The thickness of the riprap must be sufficient to resist
the wave force.
 The D/S slope should be protected against tail water, rainfall and winds.
 Rip rap is laid over the D/S slope up to above the normal tail water level.
 The rest of slope can be again protected by rip rap or sod.

7- Typical Cross-Sections of Earth Dams

The selection of a certain type of earth dam cross-section is according to the
available material and foundation conditions.
7-1 Only pervious material available
If only pervious soil such as sand and gravel are available in the vicinity of the
project, a diaphragm type of earth dam shall be adopted.This is because,
impervious soil such as clay should be imported, therefore a thin core is
constructed.

49
 Figure 12: Dam cross-sections in case of only pervious soils available

7-2 Only impervious material available

If only impervious soils e.g. clays and silts are available then a homogeneous
cross section is adopted. The slopes of the embankment should be flat because
of the lower shear strength of the impervious soils. Provision for drainage at D/S
must be made in order to reduce pore water pressure. Considering the
foundation conditions with respect to impervious the following sections can be
adopted:
Impervious foundation
In case of impervious foundations, there are two alternatives:
D/S horizontal drainage blanket alone .
D/S horizontal drainage combined with rock toe and inclined chimney filter.

50
 Figure 13: Earth dam section with D/S horizontal drainage blanket

Figure 14: Earth dam section with D/S horizontal drainage combined rock toe
and inclined chimney filter

Pervious foundation
If the foundation is pervious, in addition to provision of drainage for the dam
body, care must be taken of the seepage that occurs in the foundation. For such
cases three alternatives are available:
 Provision of a sheet pile cutoff (Figure 15a)
 Provision of a cutoff trench (Figure 15b)
 The pervious foundation is overlaid by a thin layer of semi pervious zone
(Figure 15c)

(a)

51
 Figure 15: Cross section of earth dams on pervious foundations in the availability
of only impervious soils

7-3 Both pervious and impervious materials are available

When both pervious and impervious soils are available is sufficient quantities, a
zoned dam is preferable to the other types. Either a vertical core or a horizontal
one shall be adopted.

8- Seepage Analysis
Seepage analysis is required to determine the quantity of water passing through
the body of the earth dam and its foundation. Design of filters/measures to
control seepage requires a seepage analysis of the embankment and foundation.
Distribution of pore water pressure within the body of dam and its foundation is
required in the stability analysis of slopes and foundation.
Seepage analysis is performed on 2D cross-sections of unit width. Basically, the
dam is divided into a number of sections of finite length(Figure16).

52
 Figure 16: Valley Cross section

For each 2D cross section of unit width, seepage quantity through the
embankment and foundation (if previous) is calculated separately and then
added .

Q body

Q foundation

Figure 17 : Seepage through dam and its foundation

Seepage analysis is performed based on Laplace’s equation and Darcy’s law.

There are three approaches to solve the seepage problem:
1-Graphical method
2-Experimental method
3-Numerical method

53
8-1 Seepage through pervious foundations
To quantify seepage rate through pervious foundation, flow net technique was
used in past. However, there are empirical formula that can be used for
preliminary design. USBR has given the following empirical formula to
calculate seepage flow rate through a pervious foundation without seepage
control measures taken:

Kf is the permeability of the

foundation soil. L2
d

Figure 18: Pervious foundation without seepage control

measure

8.2 Seepage through pervious foundations with positive and partial cutoff
trench
The positive cutoff trench consists of a trench formed at the base of the dam by
open excavation in the foundation up to impervious stratum and backfilled with
a compacted impervious soil (Figure 19,a). Generally the same impervious
material is used for both. The positive cutoff trenches have been constructed up
to 50 m depth.
Sometimes, cutoff trench are not extend up to the impervious layer i.e. it only
penetrates until a finite depth and in such cases it is called Partial cutoff trench
(Figure 19,b). Therefore the percent of reduction of the underseepage depends
on the percent of the penetration of the curoff. (Figure 20) shows such a
relationship. The base width of the positive cutoff trench can be calculated
using:

Where;
H=reservoir head above ground surface
d= depth of cutoff trench excavation below ground surface

54
 H H

d d
w
(b)
(a)
Figure 19: Earth dam with cutoff trench
(a): Positive cutoff trench, (b): Partial cutoff trench

Figure 20: Seepage flow rate reduction for partial cutoff

Upstream Impervious Blanket

If a positive cutoff cannot be provided because of excessive depth of bedrock or
impervious layer, an upstream impervious blanket can be used (Figure 21).
U/s impervious blankets are usually used in conjunction with a partial cutoff.
Effective control of exit gradients can be achieved by a blanket length of 5 times
the head. A longer length up to about 10 times the head is general required for
control of subsurface erosion. The blanket is used for a stream channel or valley
floor of sand and gravel. To estimate seepage quantity through a foundation
overlaid by an impervious blanket:

55
Where, L1 is the length of the impervious part of the dam.

L1 L2 d

Figure 21: Impervious blanket

Design procedure of the blanket of uniform thickness

1-Determine the value of the parameter c:

2-Compute the optimum length of the blanket:

√

3-Determine the value of the equivalent resistance Xr:

( )

4-Find the percentage reduction in the discharge for the blankets of the assumed
length:

56
 Example 1:
Design an upstream impervious blanket and evaluate the percentage of seepage
reduction for the zoned dam shown below. The permeability of the foundation
and the blanket is 0.005 m/s and 1*10-5 m/s, respectively. The thickness of the
upstream impermeable blanket is 1.5 m.

54 m 7m

1 4.5 4 1
50 m 3
1 1 2.5

30 m

Solution:

√ √

√ √

Use L1=213m

( ) ( )

57
 ⁄

Example 2:
Evaluate the percentage of seepage reduction for the dam cross section shown
below. The permeability of each of foundation and impermeable soil is 3*10-3
and 1*10-5 m/s respectively. The thickness of the blanket is 2 m.

44 m 10 m

1 4 4 1
40 m
2 1
1 2

120 m 10 m
20 m
30 m

Solution:
First evaluate the impact of the impervious blanket:

√ √

( ) ( )

58
 ⁄

Evaluate the impact of the partial cutoff trench

( )

⁄
Evaluating discharge without any seepage control measure

Grout Curtains
A grout curtain is obtained by injecting a grout of cement, clay, chemicals or a
combination of these materials. For fissured rocks, cement grouting is efficient.
However, when foundation is composed of sand and gravel, clay grouting is
efficient.
Slurry Trench Cutoff
A trench is excavated in the foundation down to the impervious stratum. The
trench is kept filled with bentonite slurry which prevents the side walls of the
trench from collapsing. The backfill usually consists of a mixture of sand and
gravel and bentonite slurry blended with about 15 to 20% natural silt.
Steel Sheet Piles
A steel sheet pile consists of a series of interconnected sheet piles to form a
continuous impervious barrier. The steel sheet piles are effective for
homogenous soil. If there are boulders or cobbles in the foundation stratum, the
piles may be damaged and interlocks may break.
8-3 Drainage of Foundations
In pervious foundations and impervious foundations of silt and clays soils, it is
necessary to have drainage measures. Drainage measures are intended at
discharging the seeped water safely from the foundation without occurrence of
piping.

59
 Toe Drains and Drainage Blankets
 The minimum depth of the trench is usually specified as 1.25 m.
 The drain pipes should be surrounded by a properly designed filter to prevent
clogging of the drains by in-wash fine materials .

Figure 22: Drainage of foundation by toe and horizontal drainage

Relief Wells
 The relief wells are generally used for the drainage of foundation if it consists
of a deep pervious stratum .
 Relief wells are provided at or near the d/s toe.
 The minimum diameter of the pipe is 15 cm.
 The spacing of the relief wells is usually between 15 to 30 m.

Figure 23: Drainage of the foundation by relief wells

Vertical Sand Drains

 These drains consist of vertical holes drilled in the foundation all along the
base of the dam and filled with coarse sand of high permeability.
 Sand drains reduce the path of drainage in the horizontal direction.
 These also accelerate the consolidation of the foundation soil by providing
drainage.
 They are effective in the drainage of soft clay foundations.
 The diameter of the columns is between 15 to 30 cm.

60
 Figure 24: Drainage of foundation by vertical sand drains

Seepage:
Seepage occurs through the body of all earthen dams and also through their
pervious foundations. The amount of seepage has to be controlled in dams in
order to avoid their failures.
The seepage through a pervious soil material, for two dimensional flow, is given
by Laplace equation,

A graphical solution of the above equation suggests that the flow through the
soil, can be represented by a flow-net, which consists of two sets of curves,
known as Equipotential lines ( i.e. lines of equal energy) and Stream lines ( i.e.
flow lines), perpendicular to each other.

Figure 25: Flow net

61
 Seepage Discharge Through the Isotropic Soils

The seepage rate (q) can be computed from the flow net, using Darcy’s Law.
Assuming the dam cross-section have unit width, the flow through the square
ABCD

Where ∆H is the energy drop between the two equipotential lines bounding the
square ABCD

62
Example 3:
For the flow net shown in Figure.
(a) How high would water rise if a piezometer is placed at (i) A (ii) B (iii) C?
(b) If k = 0.01mm/s, determine the seepage loss of the dam in (m3/day/m).

63
 Solution:
(a) point A
10
H  No. of equipotent ial line * Δh  10  3 *  7.5 m above the ground surface
12
point B
10
H  No. of equipotent ial line * Δh  10  5 *  5.833 m
12
point C
point A and point C locate at the same equipotential lines so the high of water
is same as in point A and equal to 7.5 m above the ground surface.
(b)
N
qkH f
N
d

5
q  1*10- 5 * (60 * 60 * 24) *10 *  3.6 m3 /day/m
12

Seepage Discharge for Non-Isotropic Soils

If the permeability of the soil is different in the horizontal direction than that in
the vertical direction, the flow net is drawn in the same manner as was explained
for isotropic soils, with the only difference that the dam section shall be drawn
to the same vertical scale but to a transformed horizontal scale. All horizontal

dimensions shall be reduced by a factor equal to √ . Flow net and squares

will be drawn in the same manner, and number of flow channels (Nf) and
number of drops (Nd) shall be counted. The discharge can then be computed by
the equation

64
8-4 Line of Seepage or Phreatic Line in Earth Dams
In order to draw flow net to find quantity of seepage through the body of the
earth dam it is essential to locate top line of seepage. This upper boundary is a
free water surface and will be referred to as the line of seepage or phreatic line.
The phreatic line may therefore be defined as the line above which there is no
hydrostatic pressure (i.e. pore water pressure is zero) and below which there is
hydrostatic pressure. Therefore phreatic line is the top flow line which separates
saturated and unsaturated zones within the body of the earth dam.
It is essential to determine the position of the phreatic line, as its position will
enable us to determine the following things:
1- It gives us a divide line between the dry (or moist ) and submerged soil.( The
soil above the seepage line will be taken as dry and the soil below the seepage
line shall be taken as submerged for computation of shear strength of soil.)
2- It represents the top streamline and hence, helps us in drawing the flow net.
3- The seepage line determination, helps us to ensure that it does not cut the
downstream face of the dam. This is necessary for preventing softening of
sloughing of the dam.)

Phreatic Line Location

It has been noticed from experiments on homogeneous earth dam models that
the line of seepage assumes the shape of a parabola. In some sections a little
divergence from a regular parabola is required particularly at the surfaces of
entry. The properties of the regular parabola which are essential to obtain
phreatic line are shown in (Figure 26).

Figure (26): geometrical properties of regular parabola

65
Every point on the parabola is equidistant from focus and directrix therefore,
FA = AB
FG = GE = P = S / 2
Focus = (0,0)
Any point, A on the parabola is given by, A = ( x, z)

( )

1- Phreatic line for a homogeneous earth dam without toe filter (drainage)
In the case of a homogeneous earth dam resting on an impervious foundation
with no drainage filter, the top flow line ends at some point on the downstream
face of the dam, the focus of the base parabola in this case happens to be the
downstream toe of the dam itself as shown in (Figure 27).

Figure (27): Phreatic line for a homogeneous earth dam without toe filter

The following are the steps in the graphical determination of the top flow line
for a homogeneous dam resting on an impervious foundation without filters:
1. Draw the earth dam section and upstream water level (H) to some convenient
scale. Let Point-2 is the point on the upstream face coinciding with water level.
2. Let ∆ be the horizontal distance between point- 2 and upstream heel of the
dam. Locate Point-1 at a distance of 0.3∆ from Point-2 on the water surface.
That is distance 1- 2 is 0.3∆.
3. Focus of the base parabola is located at the downstream toe of the dam, that is
66
 Point-0 (horizontal distance 0 - 1 is d). Select x-z reference axis with focus 0 as
origin.
4. directrix of the parabola is at distance S from the focus 0, where S is given
by,

(√ )
5. By choosing suitable values of X-ordinates compute the Z-ordinates of the
base parabola using the relation,
√
6. Join all these points to get base parabola starting from Point-1 and
concluding at a point midway between focus-0 and directrix. This parabola will
be correct for the central portion of the top flow line. Necessary corrections at
the entry on the upstream side and at exist on the downstream side are to be
made.
7. Upstream correction: The portion of the top flow line at entry is sketched to
meet the boundary condition there that is phreatic line meets perpendicularly
with the upstream face, which is a boundary equipotential and the phreatic line
is made to meet the base parabola tangentially at a convenient point.
8. Downstream correction (Casagrande’s method): The breakout point on the
downstream discharge face may be determined by measuring out L from the toe
along the face. If ᵦ is the downstream slope angle then L may be computed from
the following equations,

For ᵦ < 30o

𝒅 𝒅
√
𝒐𝒔 ᵦ 𝒐𝒔 ᵦ 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ᵦ

For angles 30o < ᵦ < 60o

√𝒅 √𝒅 𝒐𝒕 ᵦ
9- The discharge through dam per unit length is given by:
𝒒 𝒌𝑺

67
Example 4: An earth dam made of homogeneous material has the following
data:

68
At exit, the point K at which the phreatic line intersects the d/s face can be easily
obtained by using the equation,

69
70
 Hence, a= 17.7m which is slightly above the value obtained, and is thus a safer
side.

2-Phreatic line for a homogeneous earth dam with horizontal filter

The phreatic line ADC is parabolic. The base parabola has its focus F at the
starting point of the horizontal drainage blanket.

Figure 28: Phreatic line through a homogenous earth dam with horizontal filter

3-Phreatic line for a homogenous earth dam with rock toe filter
In case of a homogenous earth dam with a rock toe filter, the focus point is located at
the upstream end of the filter (Figure 30). Usually, the angle α for a rock toe is greater
than 900 and sometimes it is 90o. The base parabola intersect the rock toe at point K.
Therefore, correction must be made. As in the previous case amount of (∆a) is
calculated and point J will be marked. Then a vertical line will be drawn at J and the
71
phreatic line must intersect the point J tangentially to the vertical. The entrance
correction is done as before.

Figure 29: Phreatic line for a homogenous earth dam with a rock toe filter

4-Phreatic line for zoned earth dam with a central core

In case of a zoned earth dam with an impervious core, the phreatic line is drawn as usual
(Figure 30). As the shell are significantly more pervious than the impervious core, their
effect on the phreatic line is neglected. Thus it is assumed that the reservoir continues
into the U/S shell and the phreatic line discharges into air at the D/S shell. Hence, the
impervious core is treated such as a homogenous earth dam.

Figure 30: Phreatic line for a zoned earth dam

72
9- Slope Stability of Earth Dams
The side slopes of earth dams should be safe against shear failure. The soil mass in an
earth dam, because of its slope, is subjected to the actuating (driving) forces which tend
to cause movement (or sliding) of the soil mass. This movement is resisted by the
stabilizing (or resisting) forces which develop at the potential sliding surface because of
the shear strength of the soil. It has been established by actual investigation that the
surface of sliding is usually close to cylindrical i.e. an arc of a circle in cross-section.

9.1 Method of Slices

In this method the soil mass above an assumed potential slip surface is divided into a
number of slices of width b (Figure 31). The base of each slice is assumed to be a
straight line. For any slice, the angle of inclination with the horizontal is α. The height
of each slice (h) is measured on its center line. The forces between these slices are
neglected. The weight W of each slice can be resolved into two components, normal
component (N) and a tangential component (T) . The normal component (N) will pass
through the center of rotation (O) and hence does not create any moment on the slice.
However the tangential component (T) causes a disturbing moment equal to (T. r)

Figure31: The method of slices

73
 9.2 The Fellenius (or Swedish) Solution
In this method, the resultant of the inter-slice forces is assumed to be zero i.e. the forces
of X and E are not considered in the analysis.( Figure 32) shows the free body diagram
for a slice.

α φ
W R
N

T
Figure32: Fellenius method U

Force equilibrium in the direction of normal is,

Force equilibrium in the tangential direction is,

( )
In the above formulae, c is the cohesion of the soil and T is the tangential component of
W and it is the sliding force.
The sliding force is balanced by the shear strength of the soil which is the right side of the
above formula.

74
 ∑
∑
( ( ) )

∑( ( ) )
∑

Where:
c: is the cohesion of the soil in KN/m2
l: is the base length
U: is the pore water force in KN
φ: is the internal angle of friction of the soil
α: is the angle which normal makes it with vertical

Example 5:
For the following cross section of dam with shown slip surface and the data tabulated
below, compute the factor of safety against sliding. γ is 20 KN/m3, φ is 35o and c is 10
KPa.

75
 h b α u Area W N T U N-U C *L
Slice
(m) (m) (deg) (KPa) (m2) (KN) (KN) (KN) (KN) (KN) (KN)
1 0 4.97 53.16 0 11.73 234.6 140.7 187.8 0 140.6 82.89
2 4.72 4.97 38.26 18 27.04 540.8 424.6 334.9 113.9 310.7 63.30
3 6.16 4.97 26.17 38.5 30.50 610.0 547.5 269.0 213.2 334.3 55.38
4 6.11 4.97 15.29 44.5 27.56 551.2 531.7 145.4 229.3 302.4 51.52
5 4.98 4.97 4.97 36.4 19.66 393.2 391.7 34.1 181.6 210.1 49.89
6 2.93 4.97 -5.19 14.25 7.28 145.6 145.0 -13.2 71.1 73.9 49.90
957.13 1372 352.88

Area = (h1+h2/2)*b
W = area *γ
N = W cos α
T = W sin α
U = L*u
L = b /cos α

∑( ( ) )
∑

∑( ( ) )
= 1.37

76
 Example 6:
For the slip surface shown below for the zoned earth dam cross section, calculate the
factor of safety against sliding.

Core Shells

ɤ (KN/m3) 20 21.5

C (KPa) 20 0

φ 20 40

Area(m2) b α u C *L
Slice Core Shell (m) (deg) (KPa) N(KN) T(KN) φ c (N-U)tanφ (KN)
1 29.536 6.45 41.99 0 439.10 395.19 20 20 159.82 173.60
2 63.064 6.45 35.25 8.18 1030.00 727.94 20 20 351.37 157.96
3 21.564 7.188 6.45 29.04 15.31 512.17 284.37 20 20 145.30 147.55
4 41.527 33.976 6.45 23.18 11.64 1435.01 614.45 20 20 492.58 140.33
5 15.031 60.127 6.45 17.58 0 1518.94 481.25 20 20 552.85 135.32
6 73.921 8.19 11.43 0 1557.78 314.95 40 0 1307.13 0
7 49.905 8.19 4.68 0 1069.38 87.54 40 0 897.32 0
8 17.94 8.19 -2.00 0 385.48 -13.46 40 0 323.46 0
2892.23 4229.83 754.76

∑( )
∑( )

77
9.3 Location of the Most Critical Circle
To account for the most critical slip surface, a number of slip surface centers are
assumed and the factor of safety is calculated for each. Then the most critical slip
surface is which that has the minimum factor of safety. Fellenius developed a method to
minimize the number of trials for a homogenous slope, the procedure is as follow:
1- The center of the most critical slip surface lies somewhere on the line QP (Figure 40).
First locate point Q using the coordinate (4.5 H, H) where H is the height of dam. The
toe of the considered slope is the point of origin for locating point Q.

Figure 33 Fellenius method to locate the center of the most critical slip surface

2- To locate point P, two lines are drawn from the crest of dam and the toe. Two angles
are required to direct these two lines.

Table: Directional angles

slope α1(degree) α2(degree)
1:1 28 37
1.5:1 26 35
2:1 25 35
3:1 25 35
4:1 25 35
5:1 25 35

The line is further extrapolated and a number of points are assumed as centers and
minimum F.S is discuss.

78
For a purely cohesive soil (φ=0) the center of the most critical slip surface lies on point
P.
In drawing the slip surface consider the following points:
- Except for the very small values of φ, the slip surface passes through the toe of a slope.
-If a hard stratum exists below an earth dam then the slip surface cannot pass through it
and would be tangential to it.
For the following cases the slip surface would pass below the toe: (Figure 34)

1-For small values of φ (0-15o) and slope inclinations below 53o the slip surface passes
under the toe.
2-When the soil of dam and foundation are homogenous.
3-When the soil of the dam and the foundation are of the same shear strength .

Figure 34: Slip surface for soils with small angles of internal friction

9-4 Stability of Foundation against Horizontal Shear

If the foundation of an earth dam consists of a strong stratum, such as compact gravel,
coarse sand, consolidated silt or clay, it has a high shear strength and generally safe
against horizontal shear. On the other hand, if the foundation consists of fine, loose
sand, unconsolidated silt or clay, it has a low shear strength. Such foundations should be
checked for stability against horizontal shear.

79
Stability of Foundation below U/S Slope
For checking the stability of the foundation below the U/S slope, the sudden drawdown
condition is the most critical. A horizontal shear force S acts on the vertical plane AB
(Figure 35), which is given by:

Figure 35: Stability of foundation below U/S slope

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Where;
S: shear force
Wm: mean unit weight of dam and foundation soil
Φ1: equivalent angle internal of friction of cohesion less soil
Wd: unit weight of soil of dam
WF: unit weight of soil of foundation
Φ: the angle of internal friction of soil of foundation
C: is the cohesion of the soil of foundation
: the average shear stress on the base of U/S shoulder
The maximum shear stress is located on the rigid boundary at a distance of 0.4 bu from
point B:
1.4
80
The average shear strength of the foundation is taken as the mean of the shear strengths
of the foundation at the point C below the toe of the dam and the point B below the
shoulder of the dam.
The shear strength below point C:
́
The shear strength below point B:
́

⁄ ( )

To find the factor of safety against maximum shear stress, the shear strength at point D
where the maximum shear stress occurs is given by:
́
Where;
w´m: the mean effective unit weight of the soil mass (Wm – Ww )

81
Example 7:
A homogenous earth dam 25 m high has a crest width of 8 m, U/S slope is 4:1 and D/S
slope is 3:1. The foundation consists of soft clay up to a depth of 10 m, and beneath that
there is a rigid boundary. Check the stability of foundation against shear for the
upstream portion of the dam. Assume the following properties:

soil ɣsat (KN/m3) Φo C (KN/m2)

Dam 20 25 20
Foundation 21 10 50

Solution:

( ) ( )

( ) ( )

82
 ( ) ( )

( ) ( )

Shear strength below U/S toe (S1)

Shear strength below shoulder (S2)

́

⁄ ( )

83
10- Design of Filters

So in earth dam, filters are provided to accomplish two objectives:

1-To intercept seeping water through the cracks and preventing particles of base soil
from movements.
2-To drain the pore water and preventing initiation of piping.
Therefore, filters usually are designed to achieve drainage and protection of base soil.
10-1 Design of Gradation of Filters
1- Plot the gradation curve of the base soil material. If there are more than one base
soil, use the one that has smallest D15.
2- Go to step 4 if there is no gravel (material larger than sieve No.4) in the base soil.
3-If the soil contains materials larger than sieve No. 4, then multiply the percentage of
passing of all sieves smaller than No.4 by the following correction factor:

4- Categorize the base soil depending upon percentage of passing over the sieve No.
200 according to the Table (1) .

84
 Table (1) Categorize of base soil

5- To satisfy filtration criteria determine the maximum D15 according to the Table (2)

Table (2) Maximum D15

6- To satisfy permeability criteria, determine the minimum D15 according to the

Table (3).

85
 Table (3) Minimum D15

7- Determine the following ratio. If its condition is not met then both values might be
adjusted.

8- Calculate maximum and minimum D10:

9- Calculate maximum D60 as follow:

10- Calculate the minimum D60 as follow:

11-Determine the maximum D100 and minimum D5 from Table (4).

Table (4) Maximum D100 and Minimum D5

86
 12- Use Table (5) to determine the value of maximum D90.
Table (5) Maximum D90

Example 8:
Design a filter with the main function of protection for a soil with the grain size
distribution given blow:

Grain Size Distribution

100
90
80
70
% passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Grain size (mm)

87
 Solution:
 The soil does not contain particles larger than sieve No 4. (diam. =4.75mm)
 d200 (0.075mm) is 90% and according to Table(1), the base soil is in the Category I.
 From table (2), determine maximum D15:

 The minimum D15 from Table (3), is 0.1 mm.

 Check the width of the filter band:

 Modify the maximum D15 to be 0.5 mm.

 Determine the maximum and minimum D10:

 Determine the maximum D60

From Table (4) the maximum D100 and minimum D5 are 75 mm and 0.075 mm
respectively.
From Table (5) the maximum D90 is 20 mm.
Maximum Minimum

% %
size(mm) size(mm)
Passing Passing
0.375 5 0.075 5
0.42 10 0.083 10
0.5 15 0.1 15
2.5 60 0.5 60
20 90 4 90
75 100 15 100

88
 Grain Size Distribution
100
90
80
70
% passing

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain size (mm)

9.2 Design of Thickness of Filters

The design of the thickness of filters is based on the Darcy’s Law. However, the
formula for the design of the horizontal and inclined filters are different.

Inclined Filter

89
 Horizontal Filter

Notes:
1- The safety factor for the thickness of the filter is 2.
2- The minimum thickness that should be adopted is 1 m due to construction limitations.
3- To estimate the permeability of the filters use Table (6).

90
Table(6): Permeability of different soil type

91
Example 9 :
Assume filter designed in Example 4 is inclined, calculate its thickness. The discharge
is 6.0122 m3/day. The d/s slope of the core is 45o with the horizontal.
Solution:
Estimate the permeability of the filter
D20-avg=0.36 mm, k is 346 * 10-4 cm/s

( )

Use t=1 m.

Example 10:
Design the thickness of a horizontal filter according to the following data:
L=56 m, K=3600*10-6 m/sec, Q=0.00015544 m3/sec

Solution

√ √

92