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Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

NCHRP REPORT 547

Simple Performance Tests:
Summary of Recommended
Methods and Database

MATTHEW WITCZAK
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ

S UBJECT A REAS
Pavement Design, Management, and Performance

Research Sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in Cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration

TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD

WASHINGTON, D.C.
2005
www.TRB.org

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH NCHRP REPORT 547

PROGRAM

Systematic, well-designed research provides the most effective Project 9-19

approach to the solution of many problems facing highway
administrators and engineers. Often, highway problems are of local ISSN 0077-5614
interest and can best be studied by highway departments ISBN 0-309-08843-7
individually or in cooperation with their state universities and
Library of Congress Control Number 2005935134
others. However, the accelerating growth of highway transportation
develops increasingly complex problems of wide interest to © 2005 Transportation Research Board
highway authorities. These problems are best studied through a
coordinated program of cooperative research. Price $28.00
In recognition of these needs, the highway administrators of the
American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials initiated in 1962 an objective national highway research
program employing modern scientific techniques. This program is
supported on a continuing basis by funds from participating
member states of the Association and it receives the full cooperation
and support of the Federal Highway Administration, United States NOTICE
Department of Transportation.
The project that is the subject of this report was a part of the National Cooperative
The Transportation Research Board of the National Academies
Highway Research Program conducted by the Transportation Research Board with the
was requested by the Association to administer the research
approval of the Governing Board of the National Research Council. Such approval
program because of the Board’s recognized objectivity and reflects the Governing Board’s judgment that the program concerned is of national
understanding of modern research practices. The Board is uniquely importance and appropriate with respect to both the purposes and resources of the
suited for this purpose as it maintains an extensive committee National Research Council.
structure from which authorities on any highway transportation
The members of the technical committee selected to monitor this project and to review
subject may be drawn; it possesses avenues of communications and
this report were chosen for recognized scholarly competence and with due
cooperation with federal, state and local governmental agencies, consideration for the balance of disciplines appropriate to the project. The opinions and
universities, and industry; its relationship to the National Research conclusions expressed or implied are those of the research agency that performed the
Council is an insurance of objectivity; it maintains a full-time research, and, while they have been accepted as appropriate by the technical committee,
research correlation staff of specialists in highway transportation they are not necessarily those of the Transportation Research Board, the National
matters to bring the findings of research directly to those who are in Research Council, the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
a position to use them. Officials, or the Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation.
The program is developed on the basis of research needs Each report is reviewed and accepted for publication by the technical committee
identified by chief administrators of the highway and transportation according to procedures established and monitored by the Transportation Research
departments and by committees of AASHTO. Each year, specific Board Executive Committee and the Governing Board of the National Research
areas of research needs to be included in the program are proposed Council.
to the National Research Council and the Board by the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
Research projects to fulfill these needs are defined by the Board, and
qualified research agencies are selected from those that have
submitted proposals. Administration and surveillance of research
contracts are the responsibilities of the National Research Council
and the Transportation Research Board. Published reports of the
The needs for highway research are many, and the National
NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM
Cooperative Highway Research Program can make significant
contributions to the solution of highway transportation problems of are available from:
mutual concern to many responsible groups. The program,
however, is intended to complement rather than to substitute for or Transportation Research Board
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not endorse products or manufacturers. Trade or manufacturers’ names appear
herein solely because they are considered essential to the object of this report. Printed in the United States of America

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished schol-
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Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 547

ROBERT J. REILLY, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
CRAWFORD F. JENCKS, Manager, NCHRP
EDWARD T. HARRIGAN, Senior Program Officer
EILEEN P. DELANEY, Director of Publications
HILARY FREER, Senior Editor
NATALIE BARNES, Editor

NCHRP PROJECT 9-19 PANEL

Field of Materials and Construction—Area of Bituminous Materials
LARRY A. SCOFIELD, American Concrete Pavement Association, Mesa, AZ (Chair)
HUSSAIN BAHIA, University of Wisconsin–Madison
LUIS JULIAN BENDANA, New York State DOT
E. RAY BROWN, National Center for Asphalt Technology
DALE S. DECKER, Bailey, CO
JON A. EPPS, Granite Construction Inc., Sparks, NV
ERIC E. HARM, Illinois DOT
DALLAS N. LITTLE, Texas A&M University, Texas Transportation Institute
CARL L. MONISMITH, University of California–Berkeley
JAMES A. MUSSELMAN, Florida DOT
LINDA M. PIERCE, Washington State DOT
JOHN BUKOWSKI, FHWA Liaison
THOMAS HARMAN, FHWA Liaison
LESLIE ANN MYERS, FHWA Liaison
LARRY L. MICHAEL, Maryland State Highway Administration Liaison
FREDERICK HEJL, TRB Liaison

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

This report summarizes key information on three recommended simple performance tests
FOREWORD for permanent deformation of hot mix asphalt (HMA). In the final phase of the work
By Edward T. Harrigan described here, and as described in two companion reports to be published later, the candi-
Staff Officer date tests for permanent deformation were validated with field performance data, and spec-
Transportation Research ifications for their use were developed. The report will be of particular interest to materials
Board engineers in state highway agencies, as well as to materials suppliers and paving contrac-
tor personnel responsible for designing and producing HMA.

A key objective of NCHRP Project 9-19, “Superpave Support and Performance Models
Management,” was to develop simple performance tests for permanent deformation and
fatigue cracking for incorporation in the Superpave volumetric mix design method. The
2002 NCHRP Report 465: Simple Performance Test for Superpave Mix Design, summa-
rized analytical and experimental work conducted between 1995 and 2001 at the Univer-
sity of Maryland and Arizona State University to (1) survey the range of potential simple
performance test methods and (2) select the most promising methods for a field validation
program.
The resulting field validation and specification development program were conducted
between 2001 and 2005. Both plant mixes and laboratory-blended, short-term oven-aged
mixes were tested in the field validation program. Mixtures from MnRoad, NCAT Test
Track, Indiana, Nevada I-80, WesTrack, FHWA-ALF, and Arizona I-10 sites constituted
the complete test matrix. The results of the validation program supported the selection of
the dynamic modulus (E*), flow number (Fn), and flow time (Ft) tests as simple perfor-
mance tests for permanent deformation of HMA mixes.
The project findings summarized in this report were extensively reviewed with the
research team by the NCHRP Project 9-19 panel. In 2004, the project panel formally rec-
ommended the dynamic modulus test as the primary simple performance test for permanent
deformation. The panel further recommended the flow number test as an optional, comple-
mentary procedure for evaluating the resistance of an HMA mix design to tertiary flow.
Subsequently, the research agency prepared a specification, in the form of a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet, that determines a critical minimum E* value for HMA, which is based on
project-specific information on climate, traffic, pavement structure, and layer depth. The
specification is based on a series of pavement design examples pre-solved using the pave-
ment design guide software from NCHRP Project 1-37A. The agency also developed guide-
lines for using the flow number or flow time test to estimate the rutting potential of HMA
mixes under specific project conditions. These detailed results, supported by the findings of
the field validation program, will be presented in the two companion reports to this report.
A fourth report will describe the use of the E* test to estimate the fatigue cracking poten-
tial of HMA mixes.
This report summarizes the theory behind the three validated tests and briefly describes
the test methods. A set of appendices, included (in DVD format) as CRP-CD-46, contains:

1. All test data, mixture data, master curves, and master curve parameters obtained from
the E* testing and analysis,

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

2. All test and mixture data obtained from the Fn and Ft tests, including εp (permanent
strain at flow), εr (recoverable strain at flow), εp /εr (from the Fn test), and compliance
(from the Ft test), and
3. A collection of technical reports, theses and dissertations, and other relevant docu-
ments prepared during the course of NCHRP Project 9-19 and its predecessor FHWA
project to support the development of the simple performance tests.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

CONTENTS 1 CHAPTER 1 Introduction

2 CHAPTER 2 Theory
2.1 Dynamic Modulus (E*), 2
2.2 Flow Number (Fn), 3
2.3 Flow Time (Ft), 5
6 CHAPTER 3 Summary of Test Methods
3.1 Dynamic Modulus, 6
3.2 Flow Number and Flow Time, 6
8 CHAPTER 4 Organization of CRP-CD-46

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

A key objective of NCHRP Project 9-19, “Superpave Sup- CD-ROM (CRP-CD-46) that contain (1) all the test data,
port and Performance Models Management,” was to develop mixture data, master curves, and master curve parameters
simple performance tests for permanent deformation and obtained from the E* testing and analysis; and (2) all the test
fatigue cracking for incorporation in the Superpave volu- and mixture data obtained from the Fn and Ft tests, including
metric mix design method. NCHRP Report 465: Simple εp (permanent strain at flow), εr (recoverable strain at flow),
Performance Test for Superpave Mix Design summarized εp/εr (from the Fn test), and compliance (from the Ft test).
analytical and experimental work conducted originally at the Both plant mixes and laboratory-blended short-term oven-
University of Maryland from 1995 to 2000 and then at aged mixes were tested under the project. Mixtures from
Arizona State University (ASU) to (1) survey the range of MnRoad, NCAT Test Track, Indiana, Nevada I-80, Wes-
potential simple performance test methods and (2) select the Track, FHWA-ALF, and Arizona DOT (ADOT) I-10 sites
most promising methods for a field validation program. constituted the complete test matrix.
Based on the results of the testing program in Project 9-19, ASU also conducted dynamic modulus, flow number, and
three tests were recommended for further field validation as flow time testing for these other research projects:
promising simple performance tests for permanent deforma-
tion: (1) dynamic modulus, E*, determined by the triaxial 1. ADOT AC Mixture Stiffness Characterization Data-
dynamic modulus test; (2) the flow number, Fn, determined base (Project #3 of the ASU-ADOT Research Program:
from the repeated load test; and (3) the flow time, Ft, deter- “Development of Performance Related Specifications
mined from the static creep test. for Asphalt Pavements in the State of Arizona”) and
Between 2001 and 2004, ASU and its subcontractors car- associated tasks (US-60 plant mixes and Two Guns lab
ried out an extensive series of experiments to validate the blend and plant-mixed conventional and rubber mixes);
dynamic modulus, flow time, and flow number tests with 2. Asphalt Rubber Demonstration Project (ADOT I-40
materials and data from accelerated pavement tests and full- site);
scale field tests. In 2004, based on the results of these exper- 3. Performance Evaluation of Arizona Asphalt Rubber
iments, the dynamic modulus test was recommended as the Mixtures Using Advanced Dynamic Material Charac-
primary simple performance test for rutting. The flow num- terization Tests (ADOT I-17 site);
ber test was recommended as a complementary procedure for 4. Alberta Asphalt Rubber Project (2002 AR Mix #1 and
evaluating the resistance of a hot mix asphalt (HMA) mix 2003 AR Mix #2);
design to tertiary flow; the flow time test was shown to be a 5. NCHRP 9-23 Project (Environmental Effects in
simple, practical surrogate for the flow number test. Pavement Mix and Structural Design Systems);
In subsequent work, ASU prepared a specification for 6. Development of an E* Master Curve Database for
rutting, in the form of a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, that Lime Modified Asphaltic Mixtures;
determines a critical minimum E* value for HMA (based on 7. ADOT AC Mixture Permanent Deformation Database
project-specific information on climate, traffic, pavement (Project #5 of the ASU-ADOT Research Program:
structure, and layer depth); work to develop a simple speci- “Development of Performance Related Specifications
fication for fatigue cracking will be completed in 2005. Both for Asphalt Pavements in the State of Arizona”); and
specifications are based on a series of pavement design 8. ADOT AC Mixture Simple Performance Tests (Project
examples pre-solved with the mechanistic-empirical pave- #7 of the ASU-ADOT Research Program: “Develop-
ment design guide software developed in NCHRP Project ment of Performance Related Specifications for
1-37A, “Development of the 2002 Guide for the Design of Asphalt Pavements in the State of Arizona”).
New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures: Phase II.”
This report summarizes the theory behind the three For completeness all E*, Fn, and Ft results obtained through
recommended simple performance tests, briefly describes the the testing and analysis of these other projects are also
test methods, and presents appendixes on the included included in the appendixes contained on CRP-CD-46.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

CHAPTER 2

THEORY

2.1 DYNAMIC MODULUS (E *) dynamic modulus testing of HMA is normally conducted

using a uniaxially applied sinusoidal stress pattern as shown
For linear viscoelastic materials such as HMA, the stress- in Figure 1.
to-strain relationship under a continuous sinusoidal loading
is defined by its complex dynamic modulus (E*). This is a
complex number that relates stress to strain for linear 2.1.1. Dynamic Modulus: Master Curve
viscoelastic materials subjected to continuously applied
sinusoidal loading in the frequency domain. The complex In the Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
modulus is defined as the ratio of the amplitude of the sinu- developed in NCHRP Project 1-37A, the modulus of HMA
soidal stress (at any given time, t, and angular load at all levels of temperature and time rate of load is deter-
frequency, ω), σ = σ0 sin(ωt), and the amplitude of the sinu- mined from a master curve constructed at a reference
soidal strain ε = ε0 sin(ωt − φ), at the same time and fre- temperature (generally taken as 70°F). Master curves are
quency, that results in a steady-state response (Figure 1): constructed using the principle of time-temperature super-
position. The data at various temperatures are shifted with
σ σ eiω t σ 0 sin(ωt ) respect to time until the curves merge into a single smooth
E* = = 0i(ω t − φ ) = (Eq. 1) function. The master curve of the modulus, as a function of
ε ε 0e ε 0 sin(ωt − φ)
time, formed in this manner describes the time dependency
where of the material. The amount of shifting at each temperature
σ0 = peak (maximum) stress required to form the master curve describes the temperature
ε0 = peak (maximum) strain dependency of the material. In general, the modulus master
φ = phase angle, degrees curve can be mathematically modeled by a sigmoidal func-
ω = angular velocity tion described as
t = time, seconds
α
Log E * = δ + β + γ (log tr )
(Eq. 3)
Mathematically, the dynamic modulus is defined as the 1+ e
absolute value of the complex modulus, or

σ0 where
E* = (Eq. 2) tr = reduced time of loading at reference temperature
ε0
δ = minimum value of E*
δ + α = maximum value of E*
For a pure elastic material, φ = 0, and it is observed that β, γ = parameters describing the shape of the sigmoidal
the complex modulus (E*) is equal to the absolute value or function
dynamic modulus. For pure viscous materials, φ = 90°. The
The shift factor can be shown in the following form:

φ/ω t
a(T ) = (Eq. 4)
tr
σ0 ε0

where
σ0 sin(ωt) a(T) = shift factor as a function of temperature
t = time of loading at desired temperature
ε0 sin(ωt − φ)
tr = time of loading at reference temperature
Figure 1. Dynamic (complex) modulus test. T = temperature

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

Although classical viscoelastic fundamentals suggest a log E * = −1.249937 + 0.02923ρ 200 − 0.001767(ρ 200 )
2

linear relationship between log a(T) and T (in degrees Vbeff

−0.002841ρ 4 − 0.058097Va − 0.802208
Fahrenheit), experience has shown that for precision, a Vbeff + Va (Eq. 8)
second-order polynomial relationship between the logarithm 3.871977 − 0.0021ρ 4 + 0.003958ρ 38 − 0.000017(ρ 38 ) + 0.00547ρ 34
2

of the shift factor, that is log a(Ti), and the temperature in + [ −0.603313 − 0.313351 log( f ) −0.393532 log( η )]
1+ e
degrees Fahrenheit (Ti) should be used. The relationship can
thus be expressed as follows:
where
|E*| = dynamic modulus, 105 psi
Log a(Ti) = aTi + bTi + c
2
(Eq. 5)
η = binder viscosity at the age and temperature of inter-
est, 106 Poise
where
f = loading frequency, Hz
a(Ti) = shift factor as a function of temperature Ti
Va = air void content, %
Ti = temperature of interest, °F
Vbeff = effective binder content, % by volume
a, b and c = coefficients of the second-order polynomial
ρ34 = cumulative % retained on 19-mm sieve
ρ38 = cumulative % retained on 9.5-mm sieve
If the value of the coefficient a approaches zero, the shift
ρ4 = cumulative % retained on 4.76-mm sieve
factor equation collapses to the classic linear form.
ρ200 = % passing 0.075-mm sieve

The Witczak predictive equation (Equation 8) can be pre-

2.1.2. Dynamic Modulus: Levels sented in the same form as Equation 3 for a mixture-specific
of Analysis master curve as follows:

The Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide uses α

the laboratory-measured E* data for the Level 1 design Log E* = δ + (Eq. 9)
1 + eβ+ γ (log t )
r

analysis; it uses E* values predicted from the Witczak E*

predictive equation in Levels 2 and 3. The master curve for
where
the Level 1 analysis is developed using numerical optimiza-
|E*| = dynamic modulus, 105 psi
tion to shift the laboratory mixture test data into a smooth
master curve. Before shifting the test data, the relationship δ = −1.249937 + 0.02923ρ200 − 0.001767(ρ200 ) 2
between binder viscosity and temperature must be estab- ⎛ Vbeff ⎞ (Eq. 9a)
−0.002841ρ4 − 0.058097Va − 0.802208 ⎜
lished. This is done by first converting the binder stiffness ⎝ Vbeff + Va ⎟⎠
data at each temperature to viscosity using Equation 6. The
parameters of the ASTM Ai-VTSi equation are then found α = 3.871977 − 0.0021ρ4 + 0.003958ρ38
by linear regression of Equation 7 after log-log transforma- − 0.000017(ρ38)2 + 0.00547ρ34 (Eq. 9b)
tion of the viscosity data and log transformation of the tem- β = − 0.603313 − 0.393532 log (ηTr) (Eq. 9c)
perature data. γ = 0.313351 (Eq. 9d)
G * ⎛ 1 ⎞ 4.8628
η= (Eq. 6) tr = reduced time of loading at reference temperature
10 ⎝ sin δ ⎠ Va = air void content, %
Vbeff = effective binder content, % by volume
log log η = A + VTS log TR (Eq. 7) ρ34 = cumulative % retained on 19-mm sieve
ρ38 = cumulative % retained on 9.5-mm sieve
where ρ4 = cumulative % retained on 4.76-mm sieve
η = binder viscosity, cP ρ200 = % passing 0.075-mm sieve
G* = binder complex shear modulus, Pa ηTr = binder RTFOT viscosity at the reference tempera-
δ = binder phase angle, degree ture, 106 Poise
A, VTS = regression parameters
TR = temperature, ºRankine
2.2 FLOW NUMBER (Fn)
The master curve for the Level 2 analysis is developed
using the Witczak Dynamic Modulus Predictive Equation An approach to determine the permanent deformation char-
(Equation 8) from specific laboratory test data. The Level 3 acteristics of paving materials is to employ a repeated dynamic
analysis requires no laboratory test data for the AC binder, load test for several thousand repetitions and record the cumu-
but requires those mixture properties included in the Witczak lative permanent deformation as a function of the number of
predictive equation. cycles (repetitions) over the testing period. This approach was

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

employed by Monismith and coworkers in the mid-1970s using

uniaxial compression tests. Several research studies conducted
by Witczak and coworkers used a temperature of 100oF or
130oF at 10, 20, or 30 psi deviator stress level. A haversine
pulse load of 0.1 sec and 0.9 sec dwell (rest time) is applied for
the test duration of approximately 3 hours. This approach
results in approximately 10,000 cycles applied to the specimen.
Several parameters describing the accumulated permanent
deformation response can be obtained from the Fn test. Fig-
ure 2 illustrates the typical relationship between the total
cumulative permanent strain and number of load cycles. Like
the creep test, the cumulative permanent strain curve is gener-
ally defined by three zones: primary, secondary, and tertiary.
In the primary zone, permanent deformations accumulate
rapidly. The incremental permanent deformations decrease
Figure 3. Regression constants “a” and “b” when
reaching a constant value in the secondary zone. Finally,
plotted on a log-log scale.
the incremental permanent deformations again increase and
permanent deformations accumulate rapidly in the tertiary
zone. The starting point, or cycle number, at which tertiary
flow occurs is referred to as the flow number. The intercept a represents the permanent strain at N = 1,
Typical permanent deformation parameters, which are whereas the slope b represents the rate of change in perma-
obtained and analyzed from the repeated load permanent nent strain as a function of the change in loading cycles [log
deformation test, include the intercept (a, μ) and slope (b, α) (N)]. An alternative form of the mathematical model used to
parameters. The permanent deformation properties (α, μ) characterize the permanent strain per load repetition (εpn)
have been used as input for predictive design procedures. All relationship can be expressed by
of the parameters derived from the linear (secondary) portion
of the cumulative permanent strain–repetitions curve ignore
∂ε p ∂( aN b )
the tertiary zone of material deformability. Thus, all four of = ε pn = or, ε pn = abN ( b−1) (Eq. 10)
the parameters noted (α, μ, b, a) are regression constants of ∂N ∂N
a statistical model that is only based on the “linear” sec-
ondary phase of the permanent strain–repetition curve. The resilient strain (εr) is generally assumed to be indepen-
The log-log relationship between the permanent strain and dent of the load repetition value (N). As a consequence, the
the number of load cycles can be expressed by the classical ratio of permanent-to-elastic strain components of the material
power model: εp = aNb, where a and b are regression con- in question can be defined by
stants depending on the material-test combination condi-
tions. Figure 3 illustrates the relationship when plotted on a ε pn ⎛ ab ⎞ b-1
=⎜ ⎟ N (Eq. 11)
log-log scale. εr ⎝ εr ⎠
ab
By letting μ = and α = 1 − b, one obtains
εr

ε pn
= μ N -α (Eq. 12)
εr

In the above equation, εpn is the permanent strain resulting

from a single load application; that is, at the Nth application.
μ is a permanent deformation parameter representing the
constant of proportionality between permanent strain and
elastic strain (i.e., permanent strain at N = 1). α is a perma-
nent deformation parameter indicating the rate of decrease in
incremental permanent deformation as the number of load
applications increases.
Figure 4 illustrates the above relationship and the occur-
Figure 2. Typical relationship between total cumulative rence of the flow point when the rate of decrease in perma-
permanent strain and number of load cycles. nent strain is constant.

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Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

The flow time, Ft, is therefore defined as the time when

shear deformation, under constant volume, starts. The flow
time is also viewed as the minimum point in the relationship
of rate of change of compliance versus loading time. Figures
6 and 7 show typical static creep test plots. Figure 6 shows
the total axial strain versus loading time on a log-log scale.
The estimation of compliance parameters a and m are
obtained from the regression analysis of the linear portion of
the curve. Figure 7 shows a plot of the rate of change in com-
pliance versus loading time in log-log scale along with the
calculated value of the flow time.

Figure 4. Permanent deformation parameters α and μ

and the flow number.

2.3 FLOW TIME (Ft)

Figure 5 shows a typical relationship between the calcu-

lated total compliance and time measured in a static creep
test. This figure shows that the total compliance can be
divided into three major zones: (1) primary, (2) secondary,
and (3) tertiary. In the primary zone, the strain rate decreases;
Figure 6. Total axial strain vs. time from an actual static
in the secondary zone, the creep rate is constant; and in the
creep / flow time test.
tertiary zone, the creep rate increases.

D(t)

Secondary
Tertiary

Flow Time Defines When

Shear Deformation Begins
Primary

time

Figure 5. Typical test results between the calculated total Figure 7. Typical plot of the rate of change in compliance
compliance and time. vs. loading time.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

CHAPTER 3

SUMMARY OF TEST METHODS

3.1 DYNAMIC MODULUS mixture was compacted in a Servopac gyratory compactor to

a 6-inch diameter by 6.7 inches high. All test specimens were
The NCHRP 1-37A Test Method DM-1 (available as sawed and cored to obtain the final 4-inch-diameter by 6-
AASHTO TP-62, Determining Dynamic Modulus of Hot- inch-high E* test specimen. Before the E* testing, AASHTO
Mix Asphalt Concrete Mixtures) was followed for E* test- T166-93 was followed to measure the bulk specific gravity
ing. For each mix, generally two or three replicates were and water absorption of the specimens. All final 4-inch-
prepared for testing. For each specimen, E* tests were gen- diameter by 6-inch-high E* test specimens were prepared to
erally conducted at 14, 40, 70, 100, and 130°F and 25, 10, 5, have the target in-place air voids ± 0.5 percent.
1, 0.5, and 0.1 Hz loading frequencies. A 60-second rest
period was used between each frequency to allow some spec-
imen recovery before applying the new loading at the next 3.2 FLOW NUMBER AND FLOW TIME
lower frequency. Table 1 presents the E* test conditions.
The E* tests were done using a controlled stress mode, Fn and Ft test methods are presented in NCHRP Report
which produced strains smaller than 200 micro-strain. This 465. Test methods adapted for the simple performance tester
ensured, to the best possible degree, that the response of the developed in NCHRP Project 9-29, “Simple Performance
material was linear across the temperature range used in the Tester for Superpave Mix Design,” are presented in Appen-
study. The dynamic stress levels were 10 to 100 psi for colder dix D of NCHRP Report 513: Simple Performance Tester for
temperatures (14°F to 70°F) and 2 to 10 psi for higher tem- Superpave Mix Design: First-Article Development and Eval-
peratures (100°F to 130°F). All E* tests were conducted in a uation, which is available online at http://gulliver.trb.org/
temperature-controlled chamber capable of holding temper- publications/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_513.pdf.
atures from 3.2 to 140°F (−16 to 60°C). In this research at ASU, repeated load and static creep
The axial deformations of the specimens were measured tests, confined and unconfined, were conducted using at least
through two spring-loaded linear variable differential trans- two replicate test specimens for each mixture. All tests were
ducers (LVDTs) placed vertically on diametrically opposite carried out on cylindrical specimens, 100 mm (4 inches) in
sides of the specimen. Parallel brass studs were used to diameter and 150 mm (6 inches) in height. For the repeated
secure the LVDTs in place. Two pairs of studs were glued on load tests, a haversine pulse load of 0.1 second and a 0.9 sec-
the two opposite cylindrical surfaces of a specimen with each ond dwell (rest time) was applied for a target of 300,000
stud in a horizontal pair being 100 mm (4 inches) apart and cycles. This number was lower if the test specimen failed
located approximately the same distance from the top and under tertiary flow before reaching this target level. For the
bottom of the specimen. Top and bottom surface friction is a static creep tests, a static constant load was applied until ter-
very practical problem for compressive type testing. To elim- tiary flow occurred.
inate the possibility of having shear stresses on the specimen An IPC Universal Testing Machine (UTM 25 kN) electro-
ends during testing, pairs of rubber membranes, with vacuum pneumatic system was used to load the unconfined specimens.
grease within the pairs, were placed on the top and bottom of For confined testing, an IPC UTM 100 kN machine was used.
each specimen during testing. Figure 8 is a schematic pre- The machines were equipped to apply necessary confining
sentation of the instrumentation of the test samples used in pressure. The load was measured through the load cell; the
the dynamic modulus testing. deformations were measured through six spring-loaded
All E* test specimens were prepared and the E* tests were LVDTs. Two axial LVDTs were mounted vertically on dia-
carried out according to the NCHRP Project 1-37A Test metrically opposed specimen sides. Parallel studs, mounted
Method DM-1. Before compaction, the laboratory-blended on the test specimen, placed 100 mm (4 inches) apart, and
HMA mixtures were short-term aged in the oven for 4 hours located at the center of the specimen were used to secure the
at 275°F, according to the AASHTO Test Method AASHTO LVDTs in place. The studs were glued using a commercial
PP2, “Standard Practice for Short and Long Term Aging of 5-minute epoxy. An alignment rod with a frictionless bushing
Hot Mix Asphalt.” Any laboratory-blended or plant-obtained was used to keep the studs aligned at extreme failure

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

TABLE 1 Test conditions of the dynamic modulus (E*)

test

Test Temp. Freq. Cycles Rest Period Cycles to

(°F) (Hz) (Sec) Compute E*

14, 40, 70, 100, 25 200 - 196 to 200

130 10 100 60 196 to 200
(Unless otherwise 5 50 60 96 to 100
specified) 1 20 60 16 to 20
0.5 15 60 11 to 15
0.1 15 60 11 to 15
Figure 9. Vertical and radial LVDTs set-up for an
unconfined test.

conditions. Figure 9 is a photograph of an actual specimen set

up for an unconfined test. For radial deformations, four exter-
nally mounted LVDTs aligned on diametrical and perpendic-
ular lines were located at the center of the specimen and along
opposite specimen sides. The radial LVDTs set-up is also
shown in Figure 9. Thin and fully lubricated membranes at the
test specimen ends were used to warrant frictionless surface
conditions. All tests were conducted within an environmen-
tally controlled chamber throughout the testing sequence (i.e.,
temperature was held constant within the chamber to ±1oF
throughout the entire test).
Figures 10 and 11 show a typical confined test set-up.
Figure 10. Confined test set-up.

a. Sample Assembly b. Lateral View

Figure 11. Test set-up within triaxial cell with mounted
Figure 8. Specimen instrumentation of E* testing. radial LVDTs.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

CHAPTER 4

ORGANIZATION OF CRP-CD-46

This report is accompanied by CRP-CD-46 (in DVD for- 7. Appendix G: E* Database of NCHRP Project 9-23,
mat), which contains two main folders: (1) Testing Data- “Environmental Effects in Pavement Mix and Struc-
bases and (2) Ancillary Reports. tural Design Systems.”
The Testing Databases folder contains subfolders of Excel 8. Appendix H: E* Database of Lime Modified
files (named Appendixes A through M) that present the fol- Asphaltic Mixtures of the NLA-Arizona State Uni-
lowing databases of dynamic modulus (E*), flow number versity research project titled: “Development of an E*
(Fn), and flow time (Ft) test results: Master Curve Database for Lime Modified Asphaltic
Mixtures.”
1. Appendix A: Summary of all major E* testing con- 9. Appendix I: Summary of major Fn and Ft testing con-
ducted at Arizona State University during 1999-2004. ducted on conventional AC mixtures at Arizona State
2. Appendix B: E* Database of Task C of NCHRP University during 1999-2005.
Project 9-19. 10. Appendix J: Fn Database of Task C of NCHRP Project
3. Appendix C: E* Database of ADOT AC Mixture Stiff- 9-19.
ness Characterization Database Project (Project #3 of 11. Appendix K: Fn Database of Projects #5 and #7 of the
the ASU-ADOT Research Program titled: “Develop- ASU-ADOT research program titled “Development
ment of Performance Related Specifications for of Performance Related Specifications for Asphalt
Asphalt Pavements in the State of Arizona”) and asso- Pavements in the State of Arizona.”
ciated tasks (US-60 plant mixes and Two Guns lab 12. Appendix L: Ft Database of Task C of NCHRP
blend and plant-mixed conventional and rubber mixes). Project 9-19.
4. Appendix D: E* Database of the “Asphalt Rubber 13. Appendix M: Ft Database of Projects #5 and #7 of the
Demonstration Project” (ADOT I-40 Section). ASU-ADOT research program.
5. Appendix E: E* Database (AR Tasks 2 and 3) of the
ASU-ADOT project titled: “Performance Evaluation
of Arizona Asphalt Rubber Mixtures Using Advanced The Ancillary Reports folder contains the portable document
Dynamic Material Characterization Tests” (Arizona format (PDF) files listed in Table 2. These are technical
Asphalt Rubber Mixtures of ADOT I-17 Section). reports, theses and dissertations, and other relevant
6. Appendix F: E* Database of 2002 and 2003 phases of documents prepared during the course of NCHRP Project
the “Alberta Asphalt Rubber Project” (Alberta AR 9-19 and its predecessor FHWA project to support the devel-
mix #1 and #2). opment of the simple performance tests.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
9
(continued on next page)
TABLE 2 Technical reports, theses and dissertations, and other documents from NCHRP Project 9-19
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
10
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
11
(continued on next page)
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
12
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
13
(continued on next page)
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
14
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database
15
TABLE 2 (Continued)
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Simple Performance Tests: Summary of Recommended Methods and Database

Abbreviations used without definitions in TRB publications:

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATA American Trucking Associations
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
DHS Department of Homeland Security
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NCTRP National Cooperative Transit Research and Development Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSA Transportation Security Administration
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.