Foundation Technology

Selection of foundation type:-

The selection of the type of foundation for a given structure-subsoil system is largely a matter of
judgment based on both
 An analysis of scientific data
 experience
The type of foundation most appropriate for a given structure depends on several factors but
commonly the principal factors are three which are as follows:
1. The function of the structure and the loads it must carry:
• Purpose of the structure i.e. residential, office, industrial, bridge etc.
• Service life
• Loading, number of stories, basement
• Type i.e. framed RCC , masonry, column spacing etc.
• Construction method and scadule.
2. Subsurface conditions
• thickness and sequence of soil strata with subsoil parameters
• GWT position and fluctuation limits
• Presence of any underground anomalies.
3. The cost of the foundation in comparison with the cost of super structure.
• i.e. funds availability for the construction of foundation.
4. Other considerations:
• For members carrying only axial loads or axial loads combined with bending moments that
can change the direction, a square footing is desirable.
• For members carrying only axial loads combined with bending moments that do not change
the direction ,rectangular footing is most suitable than a square footing.
• If the edge of isolated pads are too close along a line or columns, it is cheaper to excavate the
complete strip and form strip/combined foundation.
• If all the pads are too close in both directions, it is more economical to excavate the whole
area and construct a flexible raft.
• Another important consideration is the question of differential settlement. With isolated pads
and strip foundation, the differential settlement could be excessive. In this case, a rigid raft
foundation should b constructed.

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 Foundation Technology

Depth and location of footing

Foundation must be located properly (both vertical and horizontal orientation), so as not to be
adversely affected by the outside influence.
Thus the depth and location of foundation are dependent on the following factors:
• Frost action
• Significant soil volume changes
• Adjacent structures and property lines
• Groundwater
• Underground defects
• Scour and undermining by water.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:-
a) Shallow Foundation System
i) Spread Foundation
ii) Mat / Raft Foundation
b) Deep Foundation System
i) Pile iii) Diaphragm wall
ii) Pile walls iv) Caissons

SHALLOW FOUNDATION:-
Advantages
a) Cost (affordable)
b) Construction Procedure (simple)]
c) Material (mostly concrete)
d) Labour (doesn’t need expertise)
SPREAD FOOTING FOUNDATION:-
 Also known as a footer or footing
 It’s an enlargement at the bottom of a column/ bearing wall that spreads the applied
structural loads over a sufficiently large soil area.
 Each column & each bearing wall has its own spread footing, so each structure may include
dozens of individual footings.
 The foundation consists of concrete slabs located under each structural column and a
continuous slab under load-bearing walls.
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 Foundation Technology

 For the spread foundation system the structural load is literally spread out over a broad area
under the building
 Most common type of foundation used due to their low cost & ease of construction.
 Most often used in small to medium size structure with moderate to good soil condition.
 Spread footings may be built in different shapes & sizes to accommodate individual needs
such as the following:
a) Square Spread Footings / Square Footings
b) Rectangular Spread Footings
c) Circular Spread Footings
d) Continuous Spread Footings

e) Combined Footings
f) Ring Spread Footings

a) Square Spread Footings / Pad Foundation:-

- support a single centrally located column
- Use concrete mix 1:2:4 and reinforcement
- The reinforcement in both axes are to Resist/carry tension loads.

b) Rectangular Spread Footings:-

- Useful when obstructions prevent

Construction of a square footing with a
Sufficiently large base area and when
Large moment loads are present
c) Circular Spread Footings:-
- are round in plain view

- Most frequently used as foundation for

Light standards, flagpoles and power
Transmission lines.

d) Continuous Spread Footings / Strip Foundation:-

- Used to support bearing walls

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 Foundation Technology

e) Combined Footings:-
- support more than one column

- Useful when columns are located too close

Together for each to have its own footing

f) Ring Spread Footings:-

- Continuous footings that have been wrapped into a circle
- Commonly used to support the walls above-ground circular storage tanks.
- The contents of these tanks are spread evenly across the total base area and this weight is
probably greater that the tank itself
- Therefore the geotechnical analyses of tanks usually treat them as circular foundations with
diameters equal to the diameter of the tank.

RAFT FOUNDATION:-
 A foundation system in which essentially the entire building is placed on a large continuous
footing.
 It is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced with steel, which carries the downward loads of
the individual columns or walls.
 Raft foundations are used to spread the load from a structure over a large area, normally the
entire area of the structure.

MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION:-
 It is normally consists of a concrete slab which extends over the entire loaded area.
 It may be stiffened by ribs or beams incorporated into the foundation.
 Raft foundations have the advantage of reducing differential settlements as the concrete slab
resists differential movements between loading positions.
 They are often needed on soft or loose soils with low bearing capacity as they can spread the
loads over a larger area.
Mat Foundation often considered to be used when dealing with the following conditions:-

a) The structural loads are so high or the soil condition so poor that spread footings would be
exceptionally large. As a general rule of thumb, if spread footings would cover more than
50% of the building footprint area, a mat or some type of deep foundation will usually be
more economical.
b) The soil is very erratic & prone to excessive differential settlements. The structure continuity
and flexural strength of a mat will bridge over these irregularities.
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 Foundation Technology

c) The same is true of mats on highly expansive soils prone to differential heaves.
d) The structural loads are erratic and thus increase the likelihood of excessive differential
settlements. Again, the structural continuity and flexural strength of the mat will absorb these
irregularities.
e) The lateral loads are not uniformly distributed through the structure and thus may cause
differential horizontal movements in spread footings and pile caps.
f) The continuity of a mat will resist such movement.
g) The uplift loads are larger than spread footings can accommodate. The greater weight and
continuity of a mat may provide sufficient resistance.
h) The bottom of the structure is located below the groundwater table, so waterproofing is an
important concern. Because mats are monolithic, they are much easier to waterproof. The
weight of the mat also helps resist hydrostatic uplift forces from the groundwater.
DEEP FOUNDATION:-

 Extend several dozen feet below the building

a) Piles
b) Piers
c) Caissons
d) Compensated Foundation

PILES?????

 A slender, structural member consisting steel or concrete or timber.

 It is installed in the ground to transfer the structural loads to soils at some significant depth
below the base of the structure.

PILES FOUNDATION IS USED WHEN:

 The soil near the surface doesn’t have sufficient bearing capacity (weak) to support the
structural loads.
 The estimated settlement of the soil exceeds tolerable limits
 Differential settlement due to soil variability or non-uniform structural loads is excessive
 Excavations to construct a shallow foundation on a firm soil are difficult or expensive.
LOAD CAN BE TRANSFERRED BY PILE TO THE GROUND BY 2 WAY THAT IS:
a) End Bearing Piles OR :-
- Pile will transmit load into the firm soil layer of the ground such as rock, gravel, very dense sand
b) Friction Piles:-
- Pile transmit the load from the structure to the penetrable soil by means of skin friction or
cohesion between the soil & the embedded surface of the pile.
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 Foundation Technology

TYPES OF PILES:-
a) Concrete Piles
i) Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles
ii) Precast Concrete Piles
iii) Drilled Shafts
b) Steel Piles
I) H-Piles ii) Cylindrical iii) Tapered
c) Timber Piles
d) Composite Piles

CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE PILES:-

i. Formed by driving a cylindrical steel shell into the ground to the desired depth and cavity of
shell is filled with fluid concrete.
ii. The steel shell doesn’t contribute to the load transfer capacity of the pile.
iii. It’s purpose is to open a hole in a ground and keep it open to facilitate the construction of
concrete pile. (same function as formwork)
iv. Vigilant quality control & good construction practice are necessary to ensure the integrity of
cast-in-place piles.
Among the advantages of Cast-In-Place Concrete are as follows:
 Can sustain hard driving
 Resistant to marine organism
 Easily inspected
 Length can be changed easily
 Easy to handle and ship
PRECAST CONCRETE PILES:-

i. Usually have square/circular/octagonal cross sections.

ii. Fabricated in a construction yard from reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
iii. Disadvantages of this pile are problems in transporting long piles, cutting and lengthening.
iv. It has higher capacity than timber piles.
STEEL PILES:-

i. It comes in various shapes & sizes

ii. Steel H-Piles are rolled steel sections

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 Foundation Technology

iii. Steel pipe piles are seamless pipes that can be welded to yield lengths up to 70m.
iv. They are usually driven with open ends into the soil.
v. A conical tip is used where the piles have to penetrate boulders & rocks.
vi. However it needs to be treated before embedded in corrosive environment.
TIMBER PILES:-

i. Have been used since ancient times

ii. Length of timber piles depends on types of trees used to harvest the piles,
iii. Common length are 12m
iv. It is susceptible to termites, marine organisms and rot within zones exposed to seasonal
changes.
v. Even though it’s cheaper but it has low capacity and can’t take hard driving.
TYPES OF PILE CHOSEN DEPENDS ON FOLLOWING FACTORS:
a) What type of pile is readily available
b) Location & type of structure (magnitude of loading)
c) Ground Condition (soil type)
d) Cost
e) Durability
TYPES OF PILE CONSTRUCTION:-

a) Displacement Piles:-
- It cause the soil to be displaced radially as well as vertically as pile shaft is driven or jacked into
the ground.
b) Non Displacement Piles:-
- It cause the soil to be removed and the resulting hole filled with concrete or a pre cast concrete
pile is dropped into the hole and grouted in.

TYPES OF DISPLACEMENT PILES:

 Can be classified into different type’s base on how they are constructed and how they are
inserted.
 There are 3 types as follows:
a) Totally Preformed Displacement Piles (precast concrete or steel pile)
a) Driven & Cast-In-Place Displacement Pile
b) Helical Cast-In-Place Displacement Piles
a) Totally Preformed Displacement Piles

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 Foundation Technology

- Precast Concrete or Steel Pile

b) Driven & Cast-In-Place Displacement Pile
- This type of pile can be of 2 forms.
- The first involves driving a temporary steel tube with a closed end into the ground to form a void
in the soil which is then filled with concrete as the tube is withdrawn.
- The second type is the same except the steel tube is left in place to form a permanent casing.

c) Helical Cast-In-Place Displacement Piles

- This type of construction is performed using a special type of auger.
- The soil is however compacted, not removed as the auger is screwed into the ground.
- The auger is carried on a hollow stem which can be filled with concrete, so when the required
depth has been reached concrete can be pumped down the stem & the auger slowly unscrewed
leaving the pile cast in place.
METHOD OF INSTALLATION:-
a) Dropping Weight or Drop Hammers
- commonly used method of insertion of displacement piles
b) Diesel Hammers
- Most suitable to drive pile in non-cohesive granular soil
c) Vibratory Hammers or vibratory method of pile driving
- very effective in driving piles through non cohesive granular soil
c) Jacking Method Of Insertion
Diesel Hammer:-

 Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the diesel hammer.

 The explosions raise a ram which is used to drive the pile into the ground.
 Although the ram is smaller than the weight used in the drop hammer the increased frequency
of the blows can make up for this inefficiency.
 This type of hammer is most suitable for driving piles through non-cohesive granular soils
where the majority of the resistance is from end bearing.
Vibratory Method of Pile Driving:-
 Vibratory methods can prove to be very effective in driving piles through non cohesive
granular soils.
 The vibration of the pile excites the soil grains adjacent to the pile making the soil almost free
flowing thus significantly reducing friction along the pile shaft.
 However the large energy resulting from the vibrations can damage equipment, noise and
vibration propagation can also result in the settlement of nearby buildings.

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 Foundation Technology

Dropping Weight / Drop Hammers:-

 A weight approximately half that of the pile is raised a suitable distance in a guide and
released to strike the pile head.
 When driving a hollow pile tube the weight usually acts on a plug at the bottom of the pile
thus reducing any excess stresses along the length of the tube during insertion.
Jacking Method Of Insertion:-
 Jacked Piles are most commonly used in underpinning structures
 By excavating underneath a structure short lengths of pile can be inserted and jacked into the
ground using the underside of the existing structure as a reaction.
NON DISPLACEMENT PILES;-

THERE ARE 4 TYPES THAT IS:

a) Small Diameter Cast-In-Place
b) Large Diameter Cast-In-Place
c) Partially Preformed Piles
d) Grout or Concrete Intruded Piles
PIERS:-
 It’s a vertical bridge support.
 It’s a foundation for carrying a heavy structural load which is constructed in site in a deep
excavation.
Among the things to be taken in consideration during construction of pier are as follows:
a) Drilling through wet or caving soils may need use of temporary steel casing. May also require
the use of a termite & a pump to dewater the hole & place concrete. This is more expensive
and require a large diameter hole.
b) For the purpose of reinforcing, it’s difficult to get bars to the full depth of the pier with the
proper concrete cover in deep holes. Use centralizes. Use large diameter bars versus more
bars.
c) Don’t leave holes open for any length of time even in dry condition. Cuttings fall in or etc.
Have concrete on site and fill right after drilling and cleaning.

WHAT IS CAISSONS?
 It’s a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder.
 It is sunk into the ground to some desired depth and then filled with concrete thus forming a
foundation.
 Most often used in the construction of bridge piers & other structures that require foundation
beneath rivers & other bodies of water.

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 Foundation Technology

 This is because caissons can be floated to the job site and sunk into place.
 Basically it is similar in form to pile foundation but installed using different way
 Used when soil of adequate bearing strength is found below surface layers of weak materials
such as fill or peat.
 It’s a form of deep foundation which are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the
required level by excavating or dredging material from within the caisson.
 A caisson foundation consists of concrete columns constructed in cylindrical shafts excavated
under the proposed structural column locations
 Caissons are drilled to bedrock or deep into the underlying strata if a geo-tech Eng. find the
soil suitable to carry the building load.
 It’s created by auguring a deep hole in the ground.
 Then, 2 or more ‘stick’ reinforcing bar are inserted into and run the full length of the hole
and the concrete is poured into the caisson hole.
 The caisson foundations carry the building loads at their lower ends, which are often bell-
shaped.
TYPES OF CAISSONS:-
 Box Caissons
 Excavated Caissons
 Floating Caissons
 Open Caissons
 Pneumatic Caissons
 Sheeted Caissons

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