Unit-II: Ecosystem

Class Teacher: Mr. Dev Raj

Ecosystem

An ecosystem consists of the biological community that occurs in some locale, and the physical
and chemical factors that make up its non-living or abiotic environment. There are many
examples of ecosystems -- a pond, a forest, an estuary, a grassland. The boundaries are not fixed
in any objective way, although sometimes they seem obvious, as with the shoreline of a small
pond. Usually the boundaries of an ecosystem are chosen for practical reasons having to do with
the goals of the particular study.

The study of ecosystems mainly consists of the study of certain processes that link the living, or
biotic, components to the non-living, or abiotic, components. The two main processes that
ecosystem scientists study are Energy transformations and biogeochemical cycling. As we
learned earlier, ecology generally is defined as the interactions of organisms with one another
and with the environment in which they occur. We can study ecology at the level of the
individual, the population, the community, and the ecosystem.

Studies of individuals are concerned mostly about physiology, reproduction, development or

behavior, and studies of populations usually focus on the habitat and resource needs of
particular species, their group behaviors, population growth, and what limits their abundance or
causes extinction. Studies of communities examine how populations of many species interact
with one another, such as predators and their prey, or competitors that share common needs or
resources.

In ecosystem ecology we put all of this together and, insofar as we can, we try to understand
how the system operates as a whole. This means that, rather than worrying mainly about
particular species, we try to focus on major functional aspects of the system. These functional
aspects include such things as the amount of energy that is produced by photosynthesis, how
energy or materials flow along the many steps in a food chain, or what controls the rate of
decomposition of materials or the rate at which nutrients (required for the production of new
organic matter) are recycled in the system.
Components of an Ecosystem You are already familiar with the parts of an ecosystem. From
this course and from general knowledge, you also have a basic understanding of the diversity of
plants and animals, and how plants and animals and microbes obtain water, nutrients, and food.
We can clarify the parts of an ecosystem by listing them under the headings "abiotic" and
"biotic".
 

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS BIOTIC COMPONENTS

Sunlight Primary producers
Temperature Herbivores
Precipitation Carnivores
Water or moisture Omnivores

Soil or water chemistry (e.g., P, NO3, NH4) Detritivores

etc. etc.
All of these vary over space/time

By and large, this set of components and environmental factors is important almost everywhere,
in all ecosystems.

Usually, biological communities include the "functional groupings" shown above. A functional
group is a biological category composed of organisms that perform mostly the same kind of
function in the system; for example, all the photosynthetic plants or primary producers form a
functional group. Membership in the functional group does not depend very much on who the
actual players (species) happen to be, only on what function they perform in the ecosystem.
 Processes of Ecosystems

This figure with the plants, zebra, lion, and so forth, illustrates the two main ideas about how
ecosystems function: ecosystems have energy flows and ecosystems cycle materials. These
two processes are linked, but they are not quite the same (see Figure 1).
 Energy flows and material cycles.

Energy enters the biological system as light energy, or photons, is transformed into chemical
energy in organic molecules by cellular processes including photosynthesis and respiration, and
ultimately is converted to heat energy. This energy is dissipated, meaning it is lost to the system
as heat; once it is lost it cannot be recycled.  Without the continued input of solar energy,
biological systems would quickly shut down. Thus the Earth is an open system with respect to
energy.

Elements such as carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus enter living organisms in a variety of ways.
Plants obtain elements from the surrounding atmosphere, water, or soils. Animals may also
obtain elements directly from the physical environment, but usually they obtain these mainly as a
consequence of consuming other organisms. These materials are transformed biochemically
within the bodies of organisms, but sooner or later, due to excretion or decomposition, they are
returned to an inorganic state (that is, inorganic material such as carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus, instead of those elements being bound up in organic matter). Often bacteria
complete this process, through the process called decomposition or mineralization (see next
lecture on microbes).

During decomposition these materials are not destroyed or lost, so the Earth is a closed
system with respect to elements (with the exception of a meteorite entering the system now and
then...). The elements are cycled endlessly between their biotic and abiotic states within
ecosystems. Those elements whose supply tends to limit biological activity are called nutrients.
 

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic

(2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the abiotic
components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour and inter-
relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:
Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors:

Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered rock
fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms. Soils
provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for organisms. The vegetation
found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this component of an ecosystem through
nutrient cycling.

The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration and
precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water
into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the
energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic food for other forms of life.

Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even exceeding
90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content drops below 10%, and
most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.

Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is also
necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical
reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil. The original
source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that
are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into three
main groups:
(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

(A) Producers:
The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar energy and change it
into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds namely water and
carbon dioxide. This process is known as photosynthesis. As the green plants manufacture their
own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder)

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.
(B) Consumers:

The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food. Therefore, they
depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e. heteros = other,
trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:
These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats,
foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any
other animal. Examples are lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and release to the environment the
simple inorganic and organic substances produced as by-products of their metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic exchange of materials
between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The decomposers
are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
Simplified diagram of an ecosystem and its components
Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands
of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystems
2. Grassland Ecosystems
3. Tundra Ecosystems
4. Desert Ecosystem

Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, animals and microorganisms that live in
coordination with the abiotic factors of the environment. Forests help in maintaining the
temperature of the earth and are the major carbon sink.
Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs. Temperate
grasslands, savanna grasslands are some of the examples of grassland ecosystems.
Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climate or where rainfall is scarce.
These are covered with snow for most of the year. The ecosystem in the Arctic or mountain tops
is tundra type.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with very little rainfall. The days are
hot and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into
two types, namely:

1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, and
wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem.
Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a larger salt content and greater
biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems and renders
the stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and abiotic
components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components that involves
the exchange of energy.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain:
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required for all plant
life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis, which is used to synthesise
their food.
During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and is passed on
through successive levels. The flow of energy from a producer, to a consumer and eventually, to
an apex predator or a detritivore is called the food chain.
Dead and decaying matter, along with organic debris, is broken down into its constituents by
scavengers. The reducers then absorb these constituents. After gaining the energy, the reducers
liberate molecules to the environment, which can be utilised again by the producers.
Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and biomass of the
successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was a first ecologist to describe the
ecological pyramid and its principals in the year 1927.
The biomass, number, and energy of organisms ranging from the producer level to the consumer
level are represented in the form of a pyramid; hence, it is known as the ecological pyramid.
The base of the ecological pyramid comprises of the producers, followed by the primary and
secondary consumers. The tertiary consumers hold the apex. In some food chains, the quaternary
consumers are at the very apex of the food chain.
The producers generally outnumber the primary consumers, and similarly, the primary
consumers outnumber the secondary consumers. And lastly, apex predators also follow the same
trend as the other consumers; wherein, their numbers are considerably lower than the secondary
consumers.
For example, Grasshoppers feed on crops such as cotton and wheat, which are plentiful. These
grasshoppers are then preyed upon by common mice, which are comparatively less in number.
The mice are preyed upon by snakes such as cobras. Snakes are ultimately preyed on by apex
predators such as the brown snake eagle.
In essence:

Grasshopper →Mice→  Cobra → Brown Snake Eagle

3. Food Web
Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises of all the food chains within a
single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the foundation of all the food chains