EDUC 106

Basic Guidance

I. Foundations of guidance

A. Development of guidance

1. Multidisciplinary nature of guidance

i. Philosophy
 Philosophers1
o Pythagoras (c. 580-500 BC). Fulfilment and peace of mind came from
understanding the harmony of the universe. This was best achieved by
music and mathematics.
o Sophocles (c. 496-406 BC). Greek tragedy can show a more
sophisticated understanding of the human predicament than can
contemporary psychology. Storytelling is a valuable medium for
exploring psyche and circumstance.
o Plato (c. 427-347 BC). For Plato, self-expression was inseparable from
self-control. Self-discipline, reason and reflection distinguished us from
other forms of life and allowed us to be self-aware. Personal
development could not take place without the development of the
society of which we are part.
o Aristotle (384-322 BC). Understanding was built up from action and
observation rather than down from Platonic abstraction. Choice was
only possible and meaningful in those who could exert control over
their passions. We are social creatures, therefore we learn with and in
relation to others more than via introspection and isolation.
o St. Augustine (354-430 AD). If we turn from God, the result can only
be evil. We find ourselves only within God. We develop ourselves
only through God. God is our counselor; the method of contact is
prayer.
o Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Hobbes asked how we could live
together constructively and cooperatively within societies. He believed
that a central royal authority was essential. Without such authority, our
lives were ‗nasty, brutish, and short‘. Social values shaped individual
consciences more than vice-versa. Therefore, society was the bedrock
of individual identity, development and well-being.
o Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). There is no such thing as direct
observation. Presuppositions cannot be put to one side. Observations
are always, by their very nature, constructions of events. Constructions
of human perception are determined by individual mental sets and also
by categories of thinking that we all share and cannot avoid. The

1
Based on: Howard, A. (2000). Philosophy for Counselling and Psychotherapy: From Pythagoras to
Postmodernism. NewYork, NY: Palgrave.
 underlying conditions, without which no experience can be read at all,
include space, time, causality, freedom, and order.
o Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). The greatest happiness of the greatest
number is the foundation of morals and legislation. We can calculate
the individual pleasures and pains and then determine our best
individual actions. We can total the individual pleasures and pains that
will be consequent upon political decisions and thereby calculate the
best social policies. Ethical decision making thereby becomes a
problem of accountancy—we must add up the net pleasure of each
available option and select the one that delivers the most happiness.
o Sören Aabye Kierkegaard (1813-1855). Self is not simply to be found.
It must be created. Self is always seeking to become more than it
currently is. Self is forever becoming, yet unbecoming to itself. This is
painful. Human spirit lies in our ability to despair; but if we succumb to
despair, we are ruined.
o Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Psychoanalysis can become indispensable
to all the sciences which are concerned with the evolution of human
civilization. The religions of mankind must be classed among the mass
delusions. What decides the purpose of life is simply the programme of
the pleasure principle.
o Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961). Jung criticized Freud for reducing
human motivation to sexual drives and the ‗pleasure principle‘. The
spiritual dimension of existence was not an infantile avoidance of
adulthood, but a feature of growing maturity and insight. Human
qualities mattered more than professional qualifications.
o Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980). The ‗self‘ is a little God which inhabits
me and which possesses my freedom as a metaphysical virtue. Human
reality is its own surpassing toward what it lacks. ‗Being for itself‘ is
that restless spirit that moves on from whatever we had made of
ourselves. ‗Being for others‘ is the ‗me‘ that is an observed object for
others making something of themselves. It is absurd that we are born;
it is absurd that we die.

 Beck‘s study of the philosophical foundations of guidance2

o An objective order of physical reality exists, independent of the
knower, unaffected by the act of cognition.
o Causality and regularity apply to both physical objects and human
actions, although these are complex.
o Human organisms have an organization of potentialities (possibilities)
which remain relatively stable throughout life, ―differentiating‖ and
―weakening or strengthening‖ rather than ―changing‖ in a genuinely
ontological sense.
o Man can know only what is inside his phenomenal field; even
inferences are made on the basis of the organization of his field.
o Understanding a client precedes assisting him.
2
Based on: Beck, C.E. (1963). Philosophical foundations of guidance. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
o Empathy is possible because of the common meanings due to culture
and common objects of experience. It cannot be total, but need not be.
o Determinism is at present accepted as the framework of nature. Man
infers this from the fact that he has found much lawlessness, and seeks
more.
o Each organism has the potential to solve his own life‘s problems if only
the obstacle to seeing them clearly can be pointed out.
o Each individual must, in the final analysis, make his own ―choices‖ and
must assume responsibility for his decisions.
o The dignity and worth of the individual, and his right to purse his own
lifestyle, are presupposed.
o Guidance is concerned with the ―optimum development‖ of each man‘s
(presupposed) potentialities.
o Organisms react as a whole; the total life-space of an individual must
be taken into account in counseling.
o ―Change‖ is apparently not a presupposition, but a confusion in
meaning stemming from the early history of guidance. ―Dynamic
transition‖ is here offered to express the intended meaning of
―constantly restructured fields, but not irreversibly restructured.
o Correspondence with truth or reality is the test of knowledge claims.
Since the restructuring of fields is constantly taking place, man cannot
see reality ―whole‖. Therefore, the nearest approximation to truth is the
consensus of ―qualified observers,‖ a difficult but necessary concept.
o Inference made on the basis of past experiences constitutes a useful tool
in making predictions in this lawful, ―closed system‖ universe.
o Inference is the only source of knowledge. Even ―new‖ experiences are
accepted into the field of the observer via a restructuring process.
o ―Intuition‖ can be explained naturalistically in terms similar to the
Gestalt ―closure‖ phenomenon.
o Naturalism is the ontological concomitant of phenomenology;
supernaturalism is excluded as non-parsimonious.
o The individual has ―needs‖ which represent the actions necessary to
maintain and/or enhance his phenomenal self.
o Freeing the individual to make his own choices is proposed frequently,
but this anomaly is under phenomenology. Choice is an illusion under
the phenomenological system.
o Any means of studying the client, thereby enabling the counselor to
restructure the field in the direction of the client‘s goals, is permissible
if such method does not infringe upon other areas of the client‘s life
which he values more than the particular goals under discussion.
o There are optimum ways of behaving which society approved as
preserving itself and keeping ―social equilibrium‖ intact.
  Wrenn‘s approach to a philosophy of guidance3
o See the individual totally. That is, to judge him as a person of many
facets, not as a one-dimensional subject to be studied in isolation.
o Treat the individual with dignity. Respect his worth as a person in his
own right, since guidance is a mutual relationship.
o Personnel work is concerned with the student‘s future. Hence there
must be effective plans drawn up for a continuous and long-range
program designed to help each student as he grows and develops.
o Guidance is a prime advocate of the doctrine of individual difference.
Variation is not only to be accepted as a fact but it is to be encouraged.
o Personnel work is most effective when it uses a number of different
methods. To help pupils use whatever means are available to
consummate the desired goal.
o The relationship of counselor to counselor must be based upon mutual
trust and respect. Counseling is an interactive function, the success of
which depends on all those concerned.
o Guidance must remain in the mainstream of educational affairs.
Guidance workers should not remain on the periphery of education
since its concerns are those of education itself: helping the young
develop into mature and productive citizens.

ii. Psychology4
 The mental health of the community
o The development of one‘s positive self-attitudes is fostered.
o Each individual is given the opportunity to become what he has the
potential to become.
o Respect for all individuals is demonstrated and encouraged.
o Each is enabled to maintain his individuality while remaining a part of
his society.
o Each is helped to find meaning and purpose in life.
o Each is helped to develop the ability to take life as it comes and master
it.

 The educational motivation of the community

o A community‘s recognition of the importance of education for all of its
youth and its desire to provide the staff, facilities, equipment, and
programs for maximally effective educational opportunities is basic to
the development of educationally motivated youth.
o Foundational aspects of educational motivation are the attitudes,
values, and behavior norms which prevail in the homes from which the
school‘s population is drawn.

3
Wrenn, G. (1962). The counselor in a changing world. Washington, DC: APGA Press.
4
Based on: Gibson, R.L., Mitchell, M.H., & Higgins, R.E. (1973). The development and management of school
guidance programs. Dubuque, IA: Wm. C. Brown.
  Prejudice and behavior
o ―Show me a person who is full of prejudice, and I will show you a sick,
unhappy, fearful individual, who is not going anywhere and who is not
growing. People don‘t shut other people out; they fence themselves in.
Show me, on the other hand, an individual who is free of prejudice, and
I will show you an exciting, creative, developing human being, who is
both secure and mature, and who will certainly relate in a well-adjusted
fashion to the society in which we live.‖5
o Prejudice is an unfavourable attitude toward an object which tends to
be highly stereotyped, emotionally charged, and not easily changed by
contrary information. The problems arising from prejudice are
compounded by its emotionally charged nature and its resistance to
change. One‘s social actions reflect his attitudes. Thus if prejudice is
an unfavorable attitude, and if one‘s social actions are engendered by
his attitudes, prejudice is indeed a powerful determinant of behavior.
o A major effect of prejudice and its resultant social actions is its impact
upon the development of one‘s self-concept, or identity.

 Other relevant psychological constructs (read about them from any

introductory textbook on psychology)
o Learning
o Memory
o Intelligence
o Motivation
o Emotion
o Stress
o Coping
o Personality
o Behavior
o Development
o Career
o Vocation

iii. Sociology
 The school and the community
o The school is an institution of society. While it will reflect national
goals, attitudes, and beliefs, it will also respond to the direct social
influences of the local school community.
o The educational manager is concerned with the accurate identification
of the role and status of the educational institution within the
community; community concepts of education and the educational
process; influences and ―pressures‖ which can affect that process;
significant community groups; and roles and patterns of living within a
community.

5
Young, W.M. Jr. (1964). To be equal. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  The school as a social institution
o The school is a social institution whose members participate in social
activities, assume or are assigned social roles, and in general behave
and function in a way within the system that is expected or approved by
the members.
o The school may be studied as a distinct social institution with
characteristics which distinguish it and set it apart, such as a definite
population, a clearly defined structure, a network of anticipated social
relationships within this structure, and its own unique personality or
culture.
o School practices either reinforce existing differences between students
or create a more common culture by establishing situations in which
contact is encouraged between students of varying backgrounds and
abilities.

 Sociological factors and individual adjustment

o The sociological nature and climate of the institution itself is
particularly significant in the pupil‘s adjustment to his educational
environment.
o Any educator concerned with pupil adjustment should also be aware of
the variety of external sociological factors which can influence this
adjustment. It may be noted that demographic and ecological factors
such as the size and structure of the family unit, the size and structure
of the neighborhood or community, the organization and distribution of
community resources, the occupational backgrounds and educational
level of parents, ethnic background, and a number of other such
variables have been shown to bear a relationship to such factors as
delinquent behavior, dropping out of school, career choice, scores on
intelligence, achievement, and personality tests, school grades,
participation in extracurricular activities or voluntary associations, and
mental illness.

iv. Anthropology
 Culture and the individual
o Man is born into a culture that is man-made. In other words, our culture
includes both the material objects which man has developed for his use
and the meanings that they have for him. It further includes the
attitudes and values which we exhibit and the institutions we create to
preserve them. It is also evident that individuals are not only born into
a culture but that they are shaped by that culture.
o This culture in which the individual lives and develops will determine
his coping styles, language, child rearing and family expectancy
patterns, prejudices, beliefs, and traditions. Based on this cultural
environment, his personal hierarchy of values will also include
concepts of education, worthwhile educational goals, views of teachers
and other educators, plus viewpoints on student expectancies at the
 different education levels, all of which influence the individual as he
pursues his formal education.

 Culture and education

o Educational systems are developed to preserve and advance the cultures
they serve. The attitudes, values, and needs of a culture will be
reflected in who goes to school, when he goes, where he goes, what is
taught, by whom, and how.
o Because schools do become part of the tradition of a culture, they are
strongly resistant to revolutionary change. When educational changes
do take place, they are usually gradual and reflect changing needs as
perceived by the society they serve.

2. Historical development of guidance

i. Foreshadowings of guidance
 Early civilizations (Greek and Hebrew)
 Middle Ages
 17th century (e.g. Vives, Garzoni, Powell,Drury)
 18th century (e.g. Rousseau, Pestalozzi)

ii. Guidance movement in the USA6

 Late 1890s (Beginnings in industrial centers)
o Migration to industrial centers in search of the ―good life‖
o Misery and insecurity instead
o Injustice and suffering during this period would shape the early destiny
of guidance
 1900s-1920s (Emphasis on vocational guidance)
o The pioneers (Jessie B. Davis, Frank Parsons, Anna Y. Read, Eli W.
Weaver, and David S. Hill)
o National Vocational Guidance Association
 1930s-1950s (Guidance in schools)
o 1930s – guidance programs in elementary and college; The Great
Depression
o 1940s – World War II; George Barden Act of 1946
o 1950s – APGA and National Defense Education Act
 1960s-1980s (Personal development, legislation, etc.)
o 1962 – The Counselor in a Changing World by Gilbert Wrenn
o Passage of relevant legislation
o 1965 – Elementary and Secondary Education Act
o 1975 – PL 14-142
o 1979 – Elementary School Guidance and Counseling Incentive Act
o Increased collaboration between counselors and teachers

6
Partly based on: Aubrey, R.F. (1977). Historical development of guidance and counseling and implications for the
future. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 55: 288-295 and Pope, M. (2000). A brief history of career counseling in
the United States. The Career Development Quarterly, 48(3): 194-211.
 o Certification of counselors; APGA to ACDA
 1990s-present (Modern guidance)
o Multicultural counseling
o Use of technology in guidance
o Impact of globalization on guidance
o Comprehensive guidance programs
o Lifespan guidance

3. Guidance in the Philippines7

i. 1913-1934 (Occupational information)
 1913 – report of Bureau of Public Schools
 1926-1930 – educational and career guidance in schools
 1932 – UP established first psychological clinic in the country
 1933 – Rotary Club of Manila helped publish references on trades and
professions
ii. 1935-1945 (Guidance and counseling services in the schools)
 Growth of guidance and counseling services in public and private high
schools
 Dean of Boys / Dean of Girls
 But growth not accompanied by counselor training
 1945 – Guidance Institute
 Schools closed during World War II
iii. 1946-1969 (Counselor training and professional organizations)
 Counselor training
o Seminars
o Training
o Degree programs
 Joint Congressional Committee on Education (1951)
 Professional organizations
o Guidance Association of the Philippines (1945)
o Philippine Association of Guidance Counselors (1953)
o Philippine Guidance and Personnel Association (1965)
iv. 1970-1986 (Intensified career guidance efforts)
o Presidential Commission to Survey Philippine Education (1970)
o Government response to PCSPE report
o Private sector response to PCSPE report
v. 1987-present (Expanding career counseling services)
o Local conditions
o Socio-economic problems
o Challenges of globalization and information technology
o Response of the guidance field
o Professionalization

7
Based on: Salazar-Clemeña, R.M. (2002). Family ties and peso signs: Challenges for career counseling in the
Philippines. The Career Development Quarterly, 50(3): 246-256.