International Journal of Osteoarchaeology

Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)

Published online 24 March 2006 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/oa.839

The Burial of Bad Dürrenberg,

Central Germany: Osteopathology
and Osteoarchaeology of a Late
Mesolithic Shaman’s Grave
M. PORRa* AND K. W. ALTb
a
Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte,
Richard-Wagner-Str. 9, 06114 Halle (Saale), Germany
b
Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Fachbereich 21, Institut für Anthropologie (2150),
SB II 02, 55099 Mainz, Germany

ABSTRACT The isolated burial of Bad Dürrenberg is one of the richest Mesolithic graves in Europe.
Although it was excavated in the 1930s, new spectacular anthropological and archaeological
evidence has emerged during a recent re-study. Firstly, we present here the results of an
anthropological re-evaluation of certain features of the skull base and the foramen magnum.
Our work has clearly established that the observable features are caused by an anatomical
variation that also includes an atlar anomaly. This developmental variation possibly caused
various neuropathological symptoms. The Bad Dürrenberg burial consequently represents a
unique case of the possible interpretation of abnormal behaviours in a shamanistic fashion in
a prehistoric context. Secondly, we have identified the LSAMAT phenomenon (Lingual
Surface Attrition of the Maxillary Anterior Teeth) in the adult individual of the burial. The
activities leading to this condition are unknown so far. Thirdly, a split roe deer metatarsus
among the burial goods was identified as being involved in the preparation or application of
red pigment. The lack of polish and other use wear make it likely that it was produced and
used as part of the burial ritual. Copyright ß 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key words: Mesolithic; shaman; atlar anomaly; LSAMAT; pigment

Introduction discussion of the choreography of the rituals

of the Bad Dürrenberg burial and the interrela-
In this paper we present new anthropological tedness of its different elements (see e.g. Stutz,
as well as archaeological evidence that emerged 2003). This would require a much more extensive
during a recent re-study of the burial of Bad analysis and discussion of the archaeological
Dürrenberg, which is one of the richest isolated materials and artefacts, and consequently a
Mesolithic burials in Europe. The results we much larger publication beyond the scope of
present here were all established during the this contribution. Our aim here is rather to
preparation of the new permanent exhibition at concentrate on the presentation of a number
the Landesmuseum Halle (Porr, 2004). At this of new pathological observations in the adult
stage, we do not want to provide an extensive skeleton, as well as new observations concerning
bone artefacts found in the grave, and discuss
their possible significance. We first want to focus
* Correspondence to: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäo- on a pathological structure in the atlas vertebra
logie, Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Richard-Wagner-Str. 9,
06114 Halle (Saale), Germany. and the foramen magnum, which might have caused
e-mail: [email protected] variants of altered states of consciousness in the

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Received 30 March 2005
Revised 20 July 2005
Accepted 5 August 2005
396 M. Porr and K. W. Alt

adult individual and lead us to suggest the was completely recovered. Preservation is very
relevance of shamanistic elements in the social good. The child, however, only survived in a very
significance of this burial. Secondly, we will fragmented condition (Orschiedt, 1999: 291–2).
present evidence of the LSAMAT phenomenon The bones of the adult woman have been radio-
(Lingual Surface Attrition of the Maxillary Anterior carbon-dated to 7080–6230 cal. BC (Bln-2130:
Teeth) in the adult individual of the burial. The 7580  80 BP, 6590–6230 cal. BC; Bln-2221: 7730 
activities leading to this condition are unknown 80, 6770–6410 cal. BC; OxA 3136: 7930  90,
so far and a connection with the pathology 7080–6590 cal. BC).
mentioned above cannot be established at this The Bad Dürrenberg burial contained an
stage. Thirdly, we also present here two new exceptional number of grave goods. Altogether,
extraordinary objects that were recently identi- there were around 140 artefacts and animal
fied among the grave goods: a split roe deer bones, around 65 fragments of tortoise shells
metatarsus that was involved in the preparation and around 120 fragments of sweet-
or application of red ochre, and a pierced frag- water mussels. This collection contains a number
ment of a tongue bone of a wild boar. of remarkable objects. A long bone of a crane was
used as a container for 31 exceptionally well
made microliths. The persons were apparently
History of research adorned with a large number of pendants (50)
made from the frontal teeth of Bos, Bison priscus,
The burial was discovered in 1934 in a park Cervus elaphus and Capreolus capreolus (Geupel, 1977;
near the modern town of Bad Dürrenberg, in Teichert & Teichert, 1977). A polished axe made
southern Saxony-Anhalt. It needed to be exca- from local river gravel (Hornblendenschiefer) origin-
vated under pressure during a single day. Despite ally led to the conclusion that this burial has to be
this unfavourable situation it was possible for placed in the contact period between the Meso-
a conservator of the Landesmuseum (then lithic and Early Neolithic populations in Central
Landesanstalt für Volkheitskunde), W. Henning, Europe (Bicker, 1936; Geupel, 1977). However,
to personally direct the excavation and secure the the C14 dates mentioned above place it well
materials. Although it was not possible to make before the earliest evidence of the Linearbandker-
photographs and detailed drawings of the burial amik in the area (Küßner, 1994).
on site, detailed descriptions and a sketch of the Because of the exceptional amount of grave
grave’s position are still accessible in the archives goods, different interpretations have been put
of the Landesmuseum. They clearly demonstrate forward by several authors. It was interpreted as
the complete and closed structure of the burial a ‘medicine man’s grave’ (Otto, 1948: 13), as the
and the integrity of the skeletal and archaeolo- burial of a ‘healer’ (Geschwendt, 1972: 91), and
gical materials. This interpretation is also sup- finally, as a ‘shaman’s grave’ (Grünberg, 2000a:
ported by the uniformity of the sediment that is 204; 2001: 156). This latter interpretation was
still partly attached to the objects. purely based on the existence of two pieces of
The Bad Dürrenberg burial contained two skull bone of roe deer with attached antlers,
individuals, an adult woman (25–35 years old) which were possibly worn as headgear, and an
and a young child (4–6 months old, neonatus). assumed symmetric arrangement of wild boar
Our analyses have verified the latest available canines. As the positions of the grave goods are
determinations of sex and age of both individuals unknown, the implied analogies with Siberian
(Orschiedt, 1999: 128). The adult woman was shaman costumes with respect to the animal
apparently placed into a small pit in an upright symbolism and the metaphorical skeletal pattern
position with flexed legs and arms. The child (formed by the wild boar teeth) are therefore
was possibly positioned between her legs. The largely unfounded.
grave was completely filled with powder of The adult skeleton of the Bad Dürrenberg
red ochre of a light reddish-pink colour. With burial has been anthropologically studied a num-
the exception of most cervical vertebrae and ber of times in the decades since its discovery.
smaller hand and feet bones, the adult skeleton Heberer (1936) concentrated only on metrical
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
A Late Mesolithic Shaman 397

aspects and mentions no unusual features, except

the exposed pulp cavities of the upper incisors
(see below). Grimm (1957: 54), in contrast,
observed peculiar variations of and around the
foramen magnum, which he interpreted as evidence
of artificial damage resulting from the removal of
the head and possibly the brain as well. Despite
serious doubts that have been raised against this
diagnosis by Orschiedt (1999: 129), it has since
been reproduced several times (Grünberg, 2000a:
203; 2000b: 32; 2004: 277). Consequently, the
woman of Bad Dürrenberg became known as ‘the
decapitated shaman’ (Grünberg, 2001: 156).

A case of Mesolithic shamanism based

on neuropathological variations?
The results of our recent restudy of this case
largely support Orschiedt’s (1999) latest analysis.
The posterior aspects of the foramen magnum
are irregular and asymmetrical (Figure 1). On
the right posterior side an incision is clearly
visible. No cut-marks or sharp-edged damage
can be observed. The unusual shape of the foramen
magnum and the features of the occipital bone
clearly can be attributed to anatomical variations.
There is no evidence for artificial manipulations. Figure 1. View of the base of the adult Bad Dürrenberg
However, all anthropological studies have so far skull. The foramen magnum is irregularly shaped; on the
left side an impression and an incision into the edge is
omitted the atlas bone (C1) from all considera- clearly visible, both resulting from the passage of a blood
tions. Heberer (1936) and Grimm (1957) did not vessel.
mention this bone at all. In the original report by
W. Henning (report dated 31 October 1934) the
cervical vertebrae were reported as missing. variation that perfectly fits into the analysis of the
However, Orschiedt (1999: 127) listed the atlas occipital bone. The condition of the C1 points
as ‘fragmented’, although it is not clear on what to an aplasia of the posterior arch that only
information this statement is based (Orschiedt, affected the left side. This partial aplasia was
pers. comm.). In any case, we have now included caused by irregularities in the early stages of
this bone into the analysis, which, in combina- development. Incomplete fusions of the atlar arcus
tion with the occipital features of the skull base, posterior occur with a frequency of ca. 3% in
allows a much clearer picture of this case. modern populations (Köhler & Zimmer, 1989:
The C1 shows an unusual variation in that the 446). In the case of the Bad Dürrenberg skeleton,
posterior arch (arcus posterior) is missing on the left the exact process leading to the observed condi-
side and is only partially developed on the right tion cannot be completely reconstructed. It is
side, without reaching the medio-sagittal line. possible that the missing arch section was still
In vivo fractures, artificial manipulation, post- present as an isolated remnant; it might equally
mortem and taphonomic damage can be exclu- have been the case that it fused with the C2 or
ded as causes for the incomplete appearance of even with the occipital bone. The irregular devel-
this bone. The excellent preservation clearly opment of the C1 caused a scoliosis of the verte-
shows that the latter is a result of an anatomical bral column and the asymmetrical development
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
398 M. Porr and K. W. Alt

of other vertebrae as well, although these condi- points to an atypical development of the arteria
tions most likely were asymptomatic. vertebralis.
When the C1 is brought into its anatomically Despite the unequivocal diagnosis of the
correct position, one can observe that the irre- described unusual features, it is not possible to
gularities of the foramen magnum only affect the connect them to clinical consequences in a simi-
sections where the posterior arch is missing, and lar unequivocal way. This is not only due to the
that the remaining section of the arch ends missing cervical vertebrae, but also a consequ-
exactly at the defect in the right side of the ence of the complicated anatomy of the vertebral
foramen magnum (Figure 2). Orschiedt (1999: 129) column and the missing soft-tissue evidence.
suggested that the latter structure was caused by a Indeed, the variations described above could
blood vessel. This interpretation can now be have had no consequences for the adult indivi-
confirmed by the morphology of the C1. The dual from Bad Dürrenberg. Recently, Tyrrell &
arteria vertebralis normally runs through the foramina Benedix (2004) have described a case of a com-
transversaria of the C1 to enter the foramen magnum plete posterior arch aplasia in an adult man, who
on both sides. This large blood vessel corre- was killed in action during the Korean War and
sponds with symmetric impressions on the C1, obviously ‘withstood the rigours of military life’
the sulcus arteriae vertebralis. This latter anatomical (2004: 53) without exhibiting serious neurologi-
feature, however, cannot be observed on the cal symptoms. According to Tyrrell & Benedix
remaining sections of the C1, which clearly (2004: 58), about a third of all individuals with
atlar posterior arch defects are asymptomatic.
However, the literature also contains a large
number of possible neurological disorders that
could be caused by variations comparable to
the Bad Dürrenberg case. Tillmann & Töndury
(1998: 239) have stated that an asymmetric
fusion of parts of the atlas to the occipital
bone not only results in an irregular form and
reduced size of the foramen magnum, but very often
in neuropathological conditions. The latter
apparently can take a large number of different
forms. The most straightforward consequences
are temporary severe pains of the head, neck and
shoulder region. Köhler & Zimmer (1989: 448)
reported that a posterior C1 variation resulted
in temporary paresthesia and abnormal sensa-
tions of the body, such as numbness, itching,
tingling or burning. Patients have reported
that these sensations can feel like snakes or ants
crawling over or even under the skin (a condition
that is known as formication). Tyrrell & Benedix
(2004: 58) mention ‘ataxia of the limbs’ as ‘the
most common modern clinical presentation of
craniovertebral anomalies’. Instability at the cra-
niocervical junction may also have caused a
compromise or compression of the brainstem
and the medulla oblongata with respective symp-
toms. The latter might have affected all forms of
Figure 2. View of the base of the adult Bad Dürrenberg perception, resulting in nystagmus (involuntary
skull with the atlas vertebra in its correct anatomical
position. The irregularities of the foramen magnum cor- rapid, jerky eye movement) or diplopy (seeing
respond to the missing posterior arch of the vertebra. double).
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
A Late Mesolithic Shaman 399

Further research is needed to estimate the altogether and the exceptional amount of effort
exact relevance of these clinical conditions. This that was occasionally invested. Generally, Meso-
also applies to the possible consequences of the lithic burials within Germany are few and reflect
abnormal course of the arteria vertebralis with a high variability. True cemeteries as well as
respect to interruptions of the blood flow into graves with large numbers of grave goods, how-
the brain. Nevertheless, even at this stage it is ever, are almost completely absent (Orschiedt,
clear that the craniovertebral variation in the 1999; Grünberg, 2000b). Only two more Meso-
adult Bad Dürrenberg individual was possibly lithic burials have been found within the same
not trivial. In relation to the extraordinary nature region, which are both kept in the collection of
of the burial, one can indeed speculate if the the Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte in Halle
observation of unusual features in this individual (Saale). Near Unseburg an isolated grave of a
contributed to her social status. In relation to single mature woman who was buried in a flexed
the social interpretation of the Bad Dürrenberg position with a small number of microliths and
case, we regard it as highly significant that strik- flakes was excavated in 1986 (Weber, 1988). The
ing similarities exist between some of the above- radiocarbon dates place it very close to the Bad
mentioned conditions and clinical descriptions Dürrenberg burial (OxA-2918: 7670 BP, 6700–
of experiences of altered states of consciousness. 6340 cal. BC). Near Bottendorf a number of
Lewis-Williams (1997: 813–14) summarised Mesolithic individuals were discovered in 1939,
some of this evidence and reported that ‘tingling, adults as well as children. These were partly
prickling and burning sensations may be experi- disturbed and apparently intermixed with Bronze
enced . . . in various parts of the body . . . the Age graves. Only two retouched blades were
scalp, neck, shoulders, sternum, the outsides of recovered in close connection with an adult
the arms, hands and feet, stomach and the front male individual (Heberer & Bicker, 1941).
of the upper legs’. While these sensations are In general, these two cases demonstrate that
most often compared to ‘electricity’ by Western the Central European Mesolithic cannot easily be
subjects, other individuals interpret their experi- compared to the Mesolithic in coastal environ-
ences as the movement of ‘small animals or ments. In those areas, access to variable and
insects on or under the skin’ (Lewis-Williams, predictable marine resources apparently allowed
1997: 815). for a reduced mobility, greater social complexity
As the craniovertebral variation was a conse- and stratification, which is reflected in a large
quence of a developmental irregularity, peculiar number of rich burials and cemeteries in the
conditions in the behaviour of the woman were Atlantic and Baltic coastal regions as well as
either observed from an early age or only pre- in Scandinavia (e.g. Teviëc, Hoëdic, Vedbæk,
sented themselves when adulthood was attained Skateholm, Olenij ostrov; see Grünberg, 2000a,
(Tyrrell & Benedix, 2004: 58). Given the flexible for an overview; Larsson, 2004, with references).
and variable nature of the previously mentioned Similar developments cannot be observed within
experiences, it is difficult to estimate the amount the Central European Mesolithic, which has to
of control the individual was able to exercise over be understood as a product of very different and
her conditions. The involuntary and temporary apparently less favourable ecological and eco-
loss of control over body movements (ataxia) in nomic conditions. Within its regional context,
this individual could have been interpreted as a the burial of Bad Dürrenberg remains an excep-
possession by spirits by herself as well as others. tional case.
Similarly, she might indeed have been able to Although it is not possible to provide a
master her conditions over the course of the detailed reconstruction of the structure and
years. ritual processes connected with the burial—
For an adequate interpretation of the complete because of lack of space and the unfavourable
burial it is important to stress that within its circumstances of recovery—even a casual exam-
regional context the Bad Dürrenberg burial is ination of the artefacts shows that most objects
without doubt ‘special’–despite the general varia- can be described as pieces of personal ornamen-
bility displayed by European Mesolithic burials tation and as utilitarian objects. Most artefacts
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
400 M. Porr and K. W. Alt

(see below) within the burial are polished and logical phenomena and the character of the
carry signs (especially the awls and the pierced burial lead us to believe that the woman from
animal teeth) that point to extensive periods of Bad Dürrenberg can, in this sense, be interpreted
use before their deposition. Only the large num- as a ‘shaman’ who therefore held a prominent
ber of mussel shells as well as some animal bones social position during the Central German Meso-
(mostly roe deer) could be described as offerings lithic.
in the narrow sense of the term. We consequently
assume that most artefacts within the grave
reflect the personal belongings of the adult Dental pathologies
woman within the burial. This interpretation is
also supported by the overall composition of the In addition to the craniovertebral variation, the
inventory itself, which consists of a variety of re-study of the adult Bad Dürrenberg skeleton has
single objects or artefacts in small quantities also produced new results concerning patholo-
(awls, a single polished stone axe, a single antler gies of the upper teeth and maxilla. Orschiedt
axe shaft, one container with microliths, etc.) and (1999: 128) originally noted that the central
could very well be interpreted as an individual maxillary incisors (11 and 21) were affected by
‘tool kit’. Scapegoating, as recently suggested by an excessive abrasion. However, the upper inci-
Taylor (2002), can be excluded as a possible sors of the Bad Dürrenberg skeleton represent
motivation for the rich elaboration of the Bad advanced lingual wear of the first incisors, where-
Dürrenberg burial, because most objects can be as lingual facets are less developed on second
regarded as personal items and belongings. incisors (Figure 3). The canines and postcanine
While this interpretation cannot be excluded teeth show an occlusal wear pattern typical of
altogether for Mesolithic or Palaeolithic con- this prehistoric period. The progressive local
texts, there is nothing in the case of the Bad wearing of upper anterior lingual tooth surfaces
Dürrenberg burial that would justify this kind of without corresponding wear on the lower teeth,
interpretation. The structure of the burial sug- as in the Bad Dürrenberg skeleton, is known in
gests that the adult person within the grave was the literature as the LSAMAT phenomenon
not only richly equipped in death but also in life, (Lingual Surface Attrition of the Maxillary Anterior
and therefore held an important social position Teeth). Turner & Machado (1983) were the first
during her lifetime. to report this unusual form of attrition (e.g. Robb
Taking these lines of evidence together with et al., 1991; Irish & Turner, 1997). They postu-
the neuropathological evidence presented above, lated a connection between these findings in
we argue that these two phenomena were linked archaic South and Central American Indian
in that the neuropathological distortions were populations and the processing (peeling and
interpreted as a spiritual gift and in terms of chewing) of manioc, the main component of
shamanistic abilities. The term ‘shaman’ certainly their diet. LSAMAT patterns can also be found
has a variety of meanings and we do not want to among central European early medieval popula-
imply here that the social position of the person tions but in lower frequencies than reported by
of the Bad Dürrenberg burial can unequivocally Turner and co-authors (Alt & Pichler, 1995). As
and completely be described by this term (see there was no correlation with accompanying
e.g. Vitebsky, 2001; Hoppál, 1994, for over- archaeological finds, there is as yet no precise
views). We use the term ‘shamanism’ only in determination of the causes. The observed mod-
relation to the occurrence of trance phenomena ifications are regarded as an indicator of occupa-
and altered states of consciousness and their tional activities, often paraphrased as teeth-as-tool
acceptance as an access to the ‘other world’ activities or teeth-as-third-hand use (Alt & Pichler,
(Dowson & Porr, 2001: 172; Porr, 2002). A 1998). In the case of the Bad Dürrenberg skele-
‘shaman’ consequently acquires his or her social ton, the wear pattern of the upper first incisors
position because of his or her ability to access, seems to be due to teeth-as-tool activities of
master and communicate these states and experi- unknown genesis. SEM images of the first upper
ences. The unique combination of neuropatho- incisors illustrate a flat wear plane and a distinct
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
A Late Mesolithic Shaman 401

bone. Extreme wear exposing the dental pulp

results in dental abscess formation. Frequently,
a (chronic) pulpal infection results in the devel-
opment of periapical lesions around the root
apices. On radiographs, periapical defects appear
as roundish radiolucencies which are circum-
scribed by a dense margin (radicular cyst) or as
smaller irregular defects and resorption around
the tip of the root (periapical granuloma) as in the
case of Bad Dürrenberg. The diagnosis of a
nasolabial abscess in the Mesolithic skeleton is
suggested by details of the processus alveolaris
below the spina nasalis (Figure 4). In the anatomi-
cal area of the affected incisors the alveolar bone
was apparently resorbed in patches by an inflam-
matory process. Eventually, a comparable infec-
tion also affected the right sinus maxillaries, which
resulted in a loss of bone substance in the area of

Figure 3. Maxillary dentition of the adult Bad Dürrenberg

skull. The central maxillary incisors (11 and 21) show an
excessive attrition, which corresponds to the so-called
LSAMAT phenomenon.

crown margin of the lingual surfaces. In the

broader context of human behaviour, modifica-
tions such as chewing of leather (curved wear
plane and cupped crown margin) are excluded.
The main reasons for pulpal infections in
prehistoric populations are deep caries and severe
attrition with exposure of the dental pulp. In the
Bad Dürrenberg skeleton we observed excessive
lingual surface attrition of the central maxillary
anterior teeth. The pulp chamber of the first
incisors has been exposed as result of attrition,
followed by a bacterial infection of the dental
pulp and its subsequent death. Due to the char-
acteristics of the pulp cavity, which opens in the
apical region, a pulpal inflammation (chronic Figure 4. Frontal view of the processus alveolaris of the
adult Bad Dürrenberg skull. Below the spina nasalis the
pulpitis, necrosis, gangrene, pulpal abscess) can alveolar bone was apparently resorbed by a nasolabial
spread through the apical foramen to the alveolar abscess.

Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
402 M. Porr and K. W. Alt

the fossa canina. Prior to the era of antibiotics,

spread of infection caused by dental abscesses
was not uncommon. Chronic infections such as
periapical lesions that started from a local tooth
inflammation quite often progressed rapidly to a
life-threatening situation with possible lethal
consequences (Alt et al., 1998). Therefore, the
observed multiple infections in the maxillary and
facial parts of the adult Bad Dürrenberg skeleton
could have caused the death of this extraordinary
individual.

Osteoarchaeological analysis
Even though the grave goods of the Bad
Dürrenberg burial have been repeatedly studied,
two remarkable objects have been identified that
have never been observed before in a Mesolithic
context. Both objects were found among the
faunal remains that were marked as ‘unidentified’.
The first is a longitudinally split metatarsus of a
roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (Figure 5). This
object was not mentioned in Bicker’s (1936) ori-
ginal publication. In both Geupel’s (1977: 105) as
well as Teichert & Teichert’s (1977: 523) re-
analyses of the burial and the faunal remains it
is included as a metatarsus of a red deer. Our own
most recent examination (in collaboration with S.
Münzel, Tübingen University), however, has
clearly demonstrated that this bone belongs to
a roe deer. It is the planar section of a metatarsus Figure 5. The split roe deer metatarsus of the Bad
Dürrenberg burial that was used as a painting tool. The
with parts of the proximal joint. The distal end is length of the object is 16.2 cm.
irregularly broken; the distal joint is missing with
some spongiosa remaining on the inside.
The bone was so far only mentioned in rela- burial ritual and then deposited among the other
tion to the faunal remains. It was not recognised grave goods.
as an artefact. It is clear, however, that it was There is one piece of evidence in this object
laterally split open in a controlled fashion. No that has not previously been noticed, which is of
cut-marks are visible anywhere on the surface. critical importance for its interpretation. It was
The manipulation of this bone shows very close mentioned above that in the inner parts of the
similarities with most of the awls that were found distal tip of the bone small sections of spongiosa
in the grave. Altogether, the grave contained four are preserved. In these small cavities a dark red
awls that were made from longitudinally split substance can be observed that cannot be found
metatarsi of roe deer. The bone in question could in this density on any other object of the burial
consequently be described as a piece in the early (Figure 6). Although the whole burial pit was
stages of preparation. In contrast to the other reported to be filled with ‘red colour’ this only
awls, however, it is not polished at all and was resulted in the light red-pinkish colouring of the
apparently not handled over a longer period of materials from the grave which was also reported
time. It was most likely produced to be part of the by Geupel (1977: 102). A new analysis of the red
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
A Late Mesolithic Shaman 403

same material, pure haematite. Unfortunately, it

has not yet been possible to establish that the
colour on the tool originates from exactly this
piece of haematite.
The use of red colour is a very common
element within Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
archaeology. Ochre and haematite occur in
almost every Upper Palaeolithic site and were a
central element of Palaeolithic parietal art. They
also occur as regular components of Mesolithic
burial practices (see e.g. Larsson, 2004, with
references). Its uses, however, date back consid-
erably longer and were apparently already a very
well established trait during the Mousterian (e.g.
at Pech-de-l’Azé; Auffermann & Orschiedt, 2002:
70–71). Most recently, a geometrically decorated
piece of haematite was discovered in a Middle
Stone Age context in the Southern African
Blombos cave, emphasising the significance of
this material in human cultural development
(Henshilwood & d’Errico, 2005). However, des-
pite the evidence concerning the use of different
pigments during the Palaeolithic, there is no
evidence available on tools used in the applica-
tion of colour onto any surface. Detailed analyses
and experiments suggest that the application of
pigments in Palaeolithic parietal art was done
either directly with the hand or fingers or was
made with pieces of colour itself (e.g. charcoal;
Lorblanchet, 1995). If tools were used for paint-
ing in the Upper Palaeolithic or Mesolithic, no
Figure 6. The distal end of the roe deer metatarsus still traces of these objects have survived.
contains remains of haematite in cavities of spongiosa. Because of this extraordinary lack of evidence
the Bad Dürrenberg metatarsus could indeed
be the oldest painting tool known so far. The
substance on the tip of the metatarsus has estab- metatarsus itself shows no clear damage or use-
lished that it is in fact pure haematite (iron (III) wear on its tip that could help to establish its
oxide, Fe2O3). This result was obtained by a exact use. If it was used for painting, it was
direct GAAD (General Area Detector Diffrac- apparently used on a soft material (such as skin
tion) analysis of the tip of the artefact in question or leather) and, as it cannot hold much paint, in
at the Landeskriminalamt Magdeburg. delicate operations. One possibility is the paint-
The same examination was also applied to a ing of geometric patterns, which are not known
used piece of ‘ochre’ that was also found in the from the Mesolithic of Central Germany but are
burial and was mentioned in the original excava- common in Northern Germany and Denmark
tion report as well as in subsequent publications (Gramsch, 1973; Jensen, 2001; Terberger, 2003),
(Bicker, 1936: 60; Geupel, 1977: 105). This object and were possibly more widely distributed on
has a use-wear facet which clearly shows that red perishable materials.
colour was obtained from it. Our analyses have A bone, however, does not appear the most
now shown that the traces of red colour on the straightforward choice for a painting tool. The
metatarsus and the piece of ‘ochre’ are both of the presence of haematite on the tip of the bone
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
404 M. Porr and K. W. Alt

could just as well be the product of some kind of the bone was finely pierced; the edges of the hole
preparation of paint, while the application was show a fine polish. Only two other small sections
done with another object. As wild boar is present of this fragment are polished as well, which
among the faunal remains (see below), it can also allows reconstruction of the original use of the
be assumed that the red colour was actually complete object.
applied with bristle brushes. Another possibility On the ventral edge of the fragment the most
certainly would be the use of feathers, which can distal and most proximal sections show a clear
be inferred from the presence of bird bones polishing that has to be attributed to repeated
(Grus sp.) (Teichert & Teichert, 1977: 524). In contact with a soft material (hide or skin). As the
the absence of further evidence, this question remaining surface shows no polish, the object
cannot be answered at the moment. was apparently not carried in a bag or repeatedly
The second object that was recently identified handled manually. Taking into account both the
as artificially manipulated was an unusual piece position of the pierced hole and the shape of the
of personal ornamentation. A small fragment of complete bone, there can be little doubt that
bone was found among the unidentified faunal the bone was suspended from a string that was
remains (Figure 7). In cooperation with Susanne fitted in holes pierced through the proximal
Münzel (Tübingen) it was possible to identify sections of the bone. The object was then carried
this object as a fragment of the right Cornu majus with its dorsal side in contact with skin or leather
hom of the thyreohyoid (tongue bone) of a wild with the corpus pointing to the ground. In this
boar (Sus scrofa). The object is broken at its distal position only four points of the bone will receive
end. The proximal end shows the expected repeated polish, the most distal and proximal
cartilaginous irregularities. Laterally, some short sections of the ventral edges of the left and right
cut-marks are visible. Close to the proximal end thyreohyoid. This is the first recorded case of the
use of a tongue bone of a wild boar as an object of
personal ornamentation in a Mesolithic context
(Grünberg, 2000a: 116–120).

Conclusions
The recent re-examination of the Mesolithic
burial of Bad Dürrenberg which was excavated
more than 70 years ago has produced some
extraordinary results. They allow new insights
into the life, material culture and ideas of the last
hunter-gatherers of Central Europe. We have
presented here new anthropological as well as
archaeological aspects of the osteological mate-
rials of this burial. Some of these pieces of
evidence as well as their possible causal relation-
ships are preliminary at the moment. These as-
pects have to be evaluated in a larger comparative
study and a more detailed analysis of the com-
plete inventory in the future. However, the strik-
ing simultaneous occurrence of these elements in
the context of this exceptional burial of the
Central European Mesolithic demands at least a
Figure 7. A pierced fragment of the thyreohyoid preliminary explanation. Therefore, we suggest
(tonguebone) of a wild boar (Sus scrofa) that was used
as a piece of personal ornamentation. The object has a that this burial indeed has to be interpreted as a
length of 3.4 cm. shaman’s burial on the basis of the anatomical
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 16: 395–406 (2006)
A Late Mesolithic Shaman 405

variations that can be observed in the craniover- Bicker F-K. 1936. Ein schnurkeramisches Rötelgrab
tebral junction of the adult skeleton. The con- mit Mikrolithen und Schildkröte in Dürrenberg, Kr.
sequent neurological distortions caused the Merseburg. Jahresschrift für die Vorgeschichte der
experience of variations of altered states of con- sächsisch-thüringischen Länder 24: 59–81.
Dowson TA, Porr M. 2001. Special objects–special
sciousness in the woman, which were interpreted
creatures: Shamanistic imagery and the Aurignacian
in terms of shamanistic abilities and ultimately art of South-west Germany. In The Archaeology of
led to the extraordinary social significance of her Shamanism, Price N (ed.). Routledge: London; 165–
life and death. The Bad Dürrenberg burial does 177.
not explain the ‘origins of shamanism’, nor does it Geschwendt F. 1972. Der vor- und frühgeschichtliche
provide a general key to an understanding of this Mensch und die Heilquellen. Landesmuseum Hannover:
phenomenon. It presents unique lines of evidence Hildesheim.
which suggest that in a prehistoric context, Geupel V. 1977. Das Rötelgrab von Bad Dürrenberg,
mental or physical peculiarity could be inter- Kr. Merseburg. In Archäologie als Geschichtswissenschaft.
preted in terms of shamanistic abilities and were Schriften zur Ur- und Frühgeschichte 30, Herrmann J
highly valued by the respective society. (ed.). VEB Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften:
Berlin; 101–110.
Gramsch B. 1973. Das Mesolithikum im Flachland
Acknowledgements zwischen Elbe und Oder. VEB Deutscher Verlag der
Wissenschaften: Berlin.
Grimm H. 1957. Neue Gesichtspunkte zur Beurteilung
We would like to thank the following people des Rötelgrabes von Dürrenberg. Ausgrabungen und
for contributing to the results presented in this Funde 2(2): 54–55.
paper: Jörg Adam (Berlin), Hans-Jürgen Döhle Grünberg JM. 2000a. Mesolithische Bestattungen in Europa:
(Halle), Susanne Münzel (Tübingen), Renate Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Gräberkunde. Teil I: Auswer-
Schafberg (Halle), Mario Schulz (Magdeburg) tung. Internationale Archäologie 40. Marie Leidorf:
and Christian-Heinrich Wunderlich (Halle). Rahden.
Figures 1–4 and 6 are published with permission Grünberg JM. 2000b. Mesolithische Bestattungen in
of the Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle Europa: Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Gräberkunde. Teil
and J. Lipták. Figures 5 and 7 were drawn by M. II: Katalog. Internationale Archäologie 40. Marie Leidorf:
Wiegmann. Christopher Knüsel (Bradford) and Rahden.
John E. Robb (Cambridge) contributed valuable Grünberg JM. 2001. Die enthauptete ‘‘Schamanin’’ von
Bad Dürrenberg. In Schönheit, Macht und Tod. 120
comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Funde aus 120 Jahren Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte,
Meller H (ed.). Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und
Archäologie: Halle (Saale); 156–157.
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