Limits and Continuity

Objectives
- Know what left limits, right limits, and limits are.
- Know how to compute simple limits.
- Know what it means for a function to be continuous.
- Know what is the L Hopital′s rule.

1
 What is a limit?
 A limit is what happens when you get
closer and closer to a point without
actually reaching it.
 Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 then as 𝑥 → 1,
𝑓 𝑥 → 2.
 We write this as lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2.
𝑥→1

x 0 .9 .99 .999 .9999

f(x) 0 1.8 1.98 1.998 1.9998

2
 Why are limits useful?
 Many functions are not defined at a poin
but are well-behaved nearby.
𝑥 2 −1
 Example: If 𝑓(𝑥) = then 𝑓 1 is
𝑥−1
undefined. However, as 𝑥 → 1, 𝑓 𝑥 → 2,
4
so lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 2 . 3
𝑥→1
2
1
f(x)0
-1
x 0 .9 .99 .999 .9999
-2
f(x) 0 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.999 -3

-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x 3
 Left Limits and Right Limits
𝑥
Consider 𝑓(𝑥) = . 𝑓 0 is undefined. As
𝑥
𝑥 → 0− , 𝑓(𝑥) = −1 4
x -1 -.1 -.01 -.001 -.0001 3
f(x) -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 2
1
As 𝑥 → 0+ , 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 f(x) 0
-1
x 1 .1 .01 .001 .0001
f(x) 1 1 1 1 1 -2
-3
-4
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x
We write this as lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = −1 , lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 1
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
4
 Limit Definition Summary
 We say that lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 → 𝑎−
 We say that lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 if 𝑓 𝑥 → 𝐿 as
𝑥→𝑎
𝑥 → 𝑎+
 If lim− 𝑓 𝑥 = lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿 (i.e. it
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
doesn’t matter which side x approaches
a from then we say that lim 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝐿
𝑥→𝑎

5
 Absence of Limits
 Limits can fail to exist in several ways
1. lim− 𝑓 𝑥 or lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 may not exist.
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
1
- Example: sin oscillates rapidly between
𝑥
+ − 1
0 and 1 as 𝑥 → 0 (or 0 ). Thus, lim+ sin
𝑥→0 𝑥
DNE (does not exist)
1
- Example: gets larger and larger as 𝑥 → 0+ .
𝑥
1
We write this as lim+ =∞
𝑥→0 𝑥
2. lim− 𝑓 𝑥 and lim+ 𝑓 𝑥 may both exist but
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
𝑥
have different values. Ex: 𝑓 𝑥 = near
|𝑥|
𝑥=0 6
 Computing Limits
 To compute lim 𝑓 𝑥 :
𝑥→𝑎
 If nothing special happens at 𝑥 = 𝑎, just
compute 𝑓 𝑎 . Example: lim (3𝑥 − 1) = 5
𝑥→2
0
 If plugging in 𝑥 = 𝑎 gives , factors can
0
often be cancelled when 𝑥 ≠ 𝑎.
Example:
𝑥 2 −4 (𝑥−2)(𝑥+2)
lim ( ) = lim ( ) = lim (𝑥 + 2) = 4
𝑥→2 𝑥 −2 𝑥→2 𝑥 −2 𝑥→2

7
 Computing Limits
Continued
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎2 −𝑏2
 Useful trick: 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑎 − 𝑏 ∙ =
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎+𝑏
𝑥+1−1
 Example: What is lim ?
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥+1−1 𝑥+1−1 𝑥+1+1
lim = lim ∙
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥+1+1
𝑥 1 1
= lim = lim =
𝑥→0 𝑥( 𝑥 + 1 + 1) 𝑥→0 ( 𝑥 + 1 + 1) 2

8
 Limits at Infinity

 We can also consider what happens

when 𝑥 → ∞ or 𝑥 → −∞. Example:
𝑥−1 1
Consider 𝑓 𝑥 = = 1 − . As x → ∞
𝑥 𝑥
(or −∞), 𝑓 𝑥 → 1. We write this as
𝑥−1
lim =1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥

9
 Computing Limits at ±∞
 General strategy : figure out the
largest terms and ignore
everything else
3𝑥 2 −𝑥
 Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = , as
4𝑥 2 +2𝑥 −5
𝑥 → ∞ only the 3𝑥 2 in the
numerator and the 4𝑥 2 will really
3
matter, so lim 𝑓 𝑥 =
𝑥→∞ 4

10
 Limit Laws
 If lim 𝑓 𝑥 = L and lim 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑀
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
then:
 lim (𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑔(𝑥)) = L + M
𝑥→𝑎
 lim (𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑔(𝑥)) = L − M
𝑥→𝑎
 lim (𝑓 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)) = LM
𝑥→𝑎
𝑓(𝑥) 𝐿
 lim ( ) = (if 𝑀 ≠ 0)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑀
 Etc.
11
 Continuity
 Definition: 𝑓 𝑥 is continuous at a if
both 𝑓 𝑎 and lim 𝑓 𝑥 exist and are
𝑥→𝑎
equal.
 Note: Polynomials are always
continuous everywhere. Most
functions we will be working with are
continuous almost everywhere.

12
 Discontinuous functions
𝑓 𝑥 may fail to be continuous at 𝑥 = 𝑎
because:
1. lim 𝑓 𝑥 or 𝑓 𝑎 does not exist.
𝑥→𝑎
 Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 then lim 𝑓 𝑥 does
𝑥→0
not exist.
𝑥 2 −1
 Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = then 𝑓 1 is
𝑥−1
undefined.
2. lim 𝑓 𝑥 or 𝑓 𝑎 both exist but have
𝑥→𝑎
different values.
 Example: If 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥 then lim 𝑓 𝑥
𝑥→1
= 1 but 𝑓 1 = 0 13
L Hopital′s rule

Johann Bernoulli
1667 - 1748
Consider:
x2  4
lim
x2 x  2

Zero divided by zero can not be evaluated, and is an example of

indeterminate form.

If we try to evaluate this by direct substitution, we get:

0
0

In this case, we can evaluate this limit by factoring and canceling:

lim
x2  4
 lim
 x  2  x  2 
 lim  x  2  4
x2 x  2 x 2 x2 x2
 f  x x2  4
lim  lim
x a g  x  x 2 x  2

The limit is the ratio of the numerator over the denominator as x

approaches 2.

x 4
2 0.05
4
3
2
1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 0 1.95 2 2.05
x
0
-1
-2
-3
-0.05

x2
-4
-5
If we zoom in far enough,
the curves will appear as
straight lines.
 f  x x2  4
lim  lim
x a g  x  x 2 x  2

0.05

df
As x 2
f  x becomes:
dg
g  x
0 1.95 2 dx 2.05
x
df
df
 dx
dg dg
-0.05 dx
 f  x x2  4 
d 2
x  4
2x
lim  lim  lim dx  lim 4
x a g  x  x 2 x  2 x 2 d
 x  2
x 2 1

dx

L’Hôpital’s Rule:
f  x
If lim is indeterminate, then:
x a g  x 

f  x f  x
lim  lim
x a g  x  x a g   x 
 Example:

1  cos x  lim sin x  0

lim x 0 1  2 x
x 0 x  x 2

If it’s no longer indeterminate,

then STOP!

If we try to continue with L’Hôpital’s rule:

sin x cos x 1 which is wrong,

 lim  lim  wrong, wrong!
x 0 1  2 x x 0 2 2
On the other hand, you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule as
many times as necessary as long as the fraction is still
indeterminate:
x
1  x 1 0
lim 2
x 0 x2 0
1
1
1  x   1  x
2 (Rewritten in
exponential form.)
lim 2
x 0 x2
1
1 1
1  x  

2
0
 lim 2 2
x 0 2x 0
1
1 3 
 1  x 

0 4 1
2
not  
 lim 4 0 2 8
x 0 2
L’Hôpital’s rule can be used to evaluate other
indeterminate forms besides 0 .
0

The following are also considered indeterminate:


0  
1 0 0
 0

 0
The first one, , can be evaluated just like .
 0
The others must be changed to fractions first.
  1
lim  x sin 
x 
 x
This approaches
0
1
sin
lim x
This approaches
0
x  1
x 0
 sin x 
We already know that lim   1
x 0
 x 
but if we want to use L’Hôpital’s rule:

1 1  1 
sin cos      2 
x  x   x   lim cos  1 
lim  lim  
x  1 x 
 2
1 x 
 x
x x  cos  0   1
  1 1 
lim 

x 1 ln x
 
x 1 
This is indeterminate form  
If we find a common denominator and subtract, we get:

 x  1  ln x  0
lim  
x 1  x  1 ln x 
Now it is in the form
  0
 1 
 1 x 
lim   L’Hôpital’s rule applied once.
x 1
 x  1
 ln x 
 x 

 x 1  0
lim   Fractions cleared. Still
x 1 x  1  x ln x
  0
  1 1 
lim   

x 1 ln x x 1   1 
lim  
x 1 1  1  ln x
 

 x  1  ln x 
lim  
x 1  x  1 ln x 
  1
 1  2
 1 x 
lim  
x 1
 x  1
 ln x 
 x 

 x 1 
lim  
x 1 x  1  x ln x
 