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Chemical composition and functional properties of gum exudates from the trunk of the almond tree (
Prunus dulcis)
N Mahfoudhi, M Chouaibi, F Donsì, G Ferrari and S Hamdi
Food Science and Technology International 2012 18: 241
DOI: 10.1177/1082013211415173

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Article

Chemical composition and functional properties of gum

exudates from the trunk of the almond tree
(Prunus dulcis)

N Mahfoudhi1, M Chouaibi1, F Donsı̀2, G Ferrari2 and S Hamdi1

Abstract
The physicochemical components and functional properties of the gum exudates from the trunk of the
almond tree (Prunus dulcis) have been investigated, along with the emulsification and foaming properties.
The gum exudates are composed on dry weight basis by 2.45% of proteins, 0.85% of fats and 92.36% of
carbohydrates. The latter consist of arabinose, xylitol, galactose and uronic acid (46.8 : 10.9 : 35.5 : 6.0 mass
ratio) with traces of rhamnose, mannose and glucose. Moreover, gum exudates are rich in minerals, such as
sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium and iron. The emulsifying capacity was studied for a 20% w/w olive
oil in water emulsion as a function of gum concentration (from 3% to 12% w/w in the aqueous phase) as well
as pH levels (from 3.0 to 10.0). The most stable and homogeneous emulsion was prepared with an 8% w/w
aqueous almond gum solution at a pH between 5.0 and 8.0. In particular, for the same formulation, the
emulsion processed by high pressure homogenization (5 passes at 200 MPa) resulted to be extremely
stable under accelerated ageing, exhibiting no significant change in droplet size distribution for 14 days at
55  C. All the tested systems exhibited an extremely low foaming capacity.

Keywords
Prunus dulcis, gum exudates, functional properties, emulsion stability, foaming capacity, minerals
Date received: 23 November 2010; revised: 12 May 2011

pectin) or proteins (i.e. gelatin). Polysaccharides

INTRODUCTION secreted by plants or synthesized by microorganisms
A large number of systems incorporated in cosmetic are known as gums (Sciarini et al., 2009). They are
and food products are in the form of oil in water emul- used to modify the texture and the appearance of
sions (Tan, 1998). Stabilizing an emulsion requires not food products, as well as improve the preservation
only a source of energy to homogenize the immiscible of foodstuffs due to their ability to absorb water
phases but also includes an emulsifier with surface (Rosell et al., 2001).
active properties, such as hydrocolloids gums. They Gum arabic from Acacia senegal is the most well-
are hydrophilic polymers, which have a high molecular known natural gum, and is widely used as an emulsifier
weight as well as the ability to increase the viscosity of in the food industry. It was accepted as a healthy and
the solutions in which they are suspended. They are non-toxic food additive in 1982 (FAO, 1982). It is a
used in food emulsions not only as emulsifiers and sta- complex branched polysaccharide mainly composed
bilizers but also as foaming and gelling agents, due to
their functional properties. 1
UR Valorisation et conservation des produits alimentaires, Ecole
Food hydrocolloids are either polysaccharides (i.e. Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires de Tunis, 58 Rue Alain
xanthan gum, carrageenan gum, gum arabic, starch, SAVARY, Cité Elkhadra, Tunis, Tunisie
2
Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, University of
Food Science and Technology International 18(3) 241–250
Salerno, via Ponte Don Melillo, Fisciano (SA), Italy
! The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permissions: Corresponding author:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav N Mahfoudhi, UR Valorisation et conservation des produits alimen-
DOI: 10.1177/1082013211415173 taires, Ecole Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires de Tunis, 58
fst.sagepub.com Rue Alain SAVARY, Cité Elkhadra, Tunis 1003, Tunisie
Email: [email protected]

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Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

of 39–42% galactose, 24–27% arabinose, 12–16% dry matter was determined, after dehydration at
rhamnose and 15–16% glucuronic acid (Idris et al., 105  C for 24 h in an oven, using a MB45 Moisture
1998). It is also rich in calcium, potassium, magnesium Analyzer (Ohaus, Switzerland). The protein content
and sodium (Anderson and Stoddart, 1996; Islam et al., was calculated from the nitrogen content and analyzed
1997; Verbeken et al., 2003). by means of a Kjeldahl apparatus. The ash content of
The cost and availability fluctuations of gum arabic the almond gum exudates was determined according to
are strong driving forces in seeking novel natural hydro- the official methods (AACC, 2000), with the carbohy-
colloid gums with good functional properties. Several drate content being evaluated by difference.
fruit-bearing trees belonging to the Rosaceae family, In order to indentify the neutral sugars, the gum
such as Peach (Prunus persica), Damson (Prunus insitia), samples were hydrolyzed with a solution of 1 M
Egg Plum (Prunus domestica), Cherry (Prunus cerasus H2SO4 at 100  C for 3 h and converted into alditol acet-
and Prunus virginiana) and Almond (Prunus dulcis), ate according to the Blakeney method (Blakeney et al.,
can produce abundant amounts of gum exudates from 1983). Alditol acetate derivatives were separated and
the trunk (Simas et al., 2008), as a consequence of a quantified by gas chromatography using a high per-
disease (gummosis) and/or a mechanical injury followed formance capillary column, BP1-methylsiloxane
by a microbial attack. In particular, the gum exudates (30 m  0.32 mm ID, 0.25 mm film thickness, Scientific
from the trunk of the almond trees (P. dulcis) represent Glass Engineering, S.G.E. Pty. Ltd., Melbourne,
a potential natural resource of hydrocolloid gums, Australia) mounted on a Hewlett–Packard HP-6890
which are widely available in Tunisia as well as through- series GC system (Hewlett–Packard Co., Palo Alto,
out the Mediterranean Africa. CA, USA). 2-desoxy-D-glucose (purity >99.5%,
Therefore, the aim of this work was to study the Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA) was used
chemical composition and the functional properties as an internal standard. The total neutral sugars were
(such as emulsifying and foaming capabilities) of the calculated as the sum of the individual neutral sugars.
gum collected from the trunk of almond trees (P. dulcis). Uronic acid was determined using the carbazole
method (Bitter and Muir, 1962).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Mineral analysis. In order to determine the mineral
Raw materials
content of the gum, the ash from the almond exudate
The gum samples were collected from different almond solutions was dissolved in concentrated sulfuric acid.
trees (P. dulcis), in the region of Sidi Bouzid, southern The solutions obtained were then filtered into a 50 mL
Tunisia, during July 2008, and stored under dry condi- flask, which, in turn, was filled up to the mark with
tions. They were then crushed with a mortar in order to ultrapure water. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, cal-
obtain a fine powder, which could be easily dissolved in cium, zinc, iron and copper were determined using an
water. The powder of the almond gum was purified by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Analytic Jena,
first dissolving it in water, then filtering it through a ZEEnit 700, Germany).
Whatman filter paper, and finally dialyzing it for 2
days against tap water. Functional properties of the almond gum
Subsequently, samples for chemical analysis were exudates. In general, the functional properties of
further freeze-dried. gums are related to their physicochemical composition
Samples for the characterization of the functional with regard to the protein and carbohydrate contents.
properties were prepared from gum suspensions, at dif- These polymers are best known for their ability to
ferent gum concentrations, which were homogenized increase the viscosity of the solutions in which they
overnight with a magnetic stirrer and used in the prep- are suspended.
aration of oil-in-water emulsions.
The commercial olive oil utilized for the preparation Viscosity measurements. The intrinsic viscosity of the
of the emulsions (Riviera d’Or) was purchased from a almond gum was evaluated by measuring the specific
local supermarket in Tunisia. viscosities at different concentrations (4%, 5%, 6% and
8% w/w) of the gum in the aqueous phase, with the
addition of 0.5 M KCl. The specific viscosity sp of
Methods
the gum aqueous solutions was measured using an
Gum exudates composition AVS 400 capillary viscometer (Schott Gerate,
Hofhein, Germany) at 20  C, equipped with an
Chemical analysis. The fat content of the gum Oswald capillary tube (flow water time 75.15 s). The
exudates was determined using a Soxhlet apparatus sp was related to the gum concentration C in order
according to the official methods (AOAC), while the to obtain reduced viscosity red ¼ sp/C (mL/g)

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 Mahfoudhi et al.

according to Rao (1993). The intrinsic viscosity [] was homogenizer (BEE International, USA), equipped
determined by the Huggins equation, shown in equa- with a 200 mm orifice. After each passage through
tion (1) (Huggins, 1942) the homogenizer, the emulsions were cooled down to
5  C by a heat exchanger fitted immediately down-
sp stream of the homogenization valve in order to com-
¼ ½ þ KH ½2 C ð1Þ
C pensate the significant heating induced by friction
losses.
where sp is the specific viscosity, C is the polymer
concentration and KH is the Huggins constant. The Screening of optimal formulations. The functional
determination of the intrinsic viscosity is therefore, properties of the almond gum exudates were initially
the extrapolation of the reduced viscosity to the value investigated by screening the formulations with better
at zero solute concentration. emulsifying and foaming properties.
The emulsion stability (ES) was calculated as
Emulsion preparation. Aqueous solutions of the reported in equation (2)
almond gum were prepared, at different gum concen-
Ew
trations, which ranged from 3% to 12% w/w, and pH ESð%Þ ¼  100 ð2Þ
levels. Tw
These solutions were homogenized overnight with a where Ew is the remaining emulsion weight after centri-
magnetic stirrer and used to determine the foaming fugation and removal of the separated oil or water
capacity of the aqueous phase, as well as to prepare layers, and Tw the total weight of the emulsion.
and characterize the oil in water emulsions.
The gum suspensions of different concentrations Physical stability of the emulsions under accelerated
were mixed with commercial olive oil and homogenized aging. The droplet size distributions (DSD) of the
under high shear according to the following procedure: HPH-treated emulsions were monitored over time by
in a beaker containing the aqueous suspension of hydro- laser diffraction (Mastersizer 2000, Malvern
colloids gum at different concentration, 20% w/w of Instruments, Malvern, UK). In particular, the DSD
olive oil was subsequently added to make a 50 g was characterized in terms of the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 diam-
biphasic system, which was subsequently treated in a eters, where d’ is defined as the diameter such that the
high-shear homogenizer (Ultra Turrax STL, Germany) fraction ’ (in volume) of the population is smaller or
for 10 min at 9000 rpm in order to produce oil-in-water equal than d’, with ’ ¼ 0.1, 0.5 or 0.9. Another signifi-
emulsions. The emulsions were then centrifuged cant parameter of the size distribution was considered
at 10,000 g for 10 min (Beckman Coulter Avanti J25, the diameter d4,3, defined according to equation (3)
Brea, CA, US), as previously described (Huang et al.,
P 4
2001). The pH of the emulsions was regulated to x
the desired value (between 3.0 and 10.0) by adjusting d4,3 ¼ P i3 ð3Þ
xi
the pH of the gum aqueous solutions, by adding either
0.1 M NaOH or 0.1 M HCl prior to emulsification. where xi is the diameter of the single droplet, with the
The emulsions, which resulted to be more stable and sum being extended to the whole population.
sufficiently fluid to be pumped, were further processed The d4,3 value can be considered a reliable indicator
by high pressure homogenization (HPH) in order to of the mean droplet diameter in the case of emulsions
produce fine emulsions with good physical stability (spherical particles).
over time. In particular, the pumpability requirement The emulsions were stored in glass tubes at 55  C and
refers to the capability of any emulsion to be sucked by periodically sampled to measure their DSD by laser dif-
the high pressure pump and be forced through the fraction, in order to monitor incipient coalescence phe-
disruption valve, which were both part of the high pres- nomena (Walstra, 1996). In addition, the emulsion
sure homogenizer. The emulsions prepared with the samples were also visually examined in order to detect
almond gum aqueous solutions at 10% and 12% w/w any sign of destabilisation, such as creaming, which was
resulted to be excessively viscous and thick to be pro- quantified in terms of the creaming index (CI), defined,
cessed by the HPH system. similarly to ES, according to equation (4)
Fine emulsions stabilized by almond gum were pre-
pared by HPH, according to a procedure previously Vsep
CIð%Þ ¼  100 ð4Þ
described (Donsı̀ et al., 2010, 2011). The primary Vtot
emulsions, produced by high-shear homogenization,
were subjected to five passes at 200 MPa through a where Vsep is the volume of the separated oil or water
Nano DeBEE Electric Bench-top Laboratory layers, and Vtot the total volume of the emulsion.

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Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

Stability tests were carried in duplicate on independ- magnesium (300 mg/100 g) and calcium (142.5 mg/
ent samples. 100 g). The significant amount of minerals in the gum
samples (Table 1) was probably due to the high
Foaming capacity and stability. One hundred mL of concentration of these elements in the soil where the
gum suspensions (3%, 5%, 7%, 8%, 10%, 12% w/w trees grew. The mineral content of the gums is
in aqueous phase) were whipped at a moderate speed not only related to the cultivation site but is also
for 5 min with a homogenizer (Philips ESSENCE HR strongly affected by the age and the species of the tree
1357/05). The pH of the gum solutions was adjusted to (Li et al., 2007).
the final pH (in a range from pH 3.0 to pH 10.0) by
adding either 0.1 M NaOH or 0.1 M HCl solutions. The
Functional properties
foam volumes generated by the whipping procedure
were recorded over time to evaluate the foaming Preliminary screening of the emulsifying
capacity. properties. The ability of a protein to form a stable
emulsion is related to its capacity to absorb at the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION oil–water interface and stabilize the film (Pearce and
Kinsella, 1978). Thus, the protein level in the gum
Chemical composition
may be the most important factor responsible for the
The collected almond gum exudates were tasteless and high emulsion stability observed when using the
odourless, readily soluble in water, with a pale-white almond trunk gum exudates.
colour. The main constituents were carbohydrates and A preliminary screening of the emulsifying proper-
proteins as well as some minerals, with a relatively low ties of the almond gum was carried out, investigating
lipids content being detected (Table 1). the effect of gum concentration and pH level on
As shown in Table 1, the polysaccharide and protein primary emulsions, prepared through high-shear hom-
content of the almond gum samples were 92.36% and ogenization. The effect of gum concentration on the
2.45% w/w, respectively. Both biopolymers contribute emulsifying properties is directly related to the surface
to the functional properties of the gum (foaming and coverage at the water–oil interface, while pH level is
emulsifying capacity and gelling properties), as well as
to the regulation of the viscosity of the aqueous gum
solutions.
The natural pH of the almond gum, measured in an Table 1. Composition of almond gum exudates
8% w/w aqueous solutions, was slightly acidic, with an Composition
average value of 5.7, which was higher than the pH of
Gum arabic, with a reported value of 4.4 (Chikamai, Moisture % (w/w) 2.04
1997; Karamalla et al., 1998; Mhinzi, 2003). Ash % (w/w) 2.30
All these parameters obviously depend on the season Fat % (w/w) 0.85
as well as on the cultivation site. Protein % (w/w) 2.45
Carbohydrates of the almond gum are mainly con- Carbohydrates þ fiber % (w/w) 92.36
stituted of Arabinose (Ara), Xylitol (Xyl), Galactose Carbohydrate compound (% (w/w)
(Gal) and Uronic acid (46.8 : 10.9 : 35.5 : 6.0 mass Rha 0.83
ratio), with traces of Rhamnose (Rha), Mannose Ara 46.82
(Man) and Glucose (Glc) (0.83 : 0.75 : 0.24 mass ratio),
Xyl 10.90
thus suggesting an arabinogalactan structure of the
Glc 0.24
gum (Table 1). The monosaccharide components are
Man 0.75
similar to those of the Peach gum polysaccharide
PPNA (Simas et al., 2008), consisting of Ara, Xyl, Gal 35.49
Man and Gal in a 36 : 7 : 2 : 42 ratio, although PPNA Uronic acid 5.97
has a greater amount of Gal and Man as well as a lower Mineral compound (mg/100 g)
Ara and Xyl content. Potassium 1112.3
In addition, the mineral content of the almond exud- Magnesium 300
ates was determined, due to the importance of the min- Calcium 142.5
erals in many functions such as tissues formation, Sodium 12.5
muscular contraction and blood clotting as well as Iron 10.75
enzymatic activities. Almond trunk gum exudates Copper 3.31
presented large amounts of minerals, with the main
Zinc 1.5
constituents being potassium (1112.3 mg/100 g),

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 Mahfoudhi et al.

important, as it affects the interactions between the improving the kinetic stability of the emulsions
surface active molecules, such as the gum polysacchar- (Benichou et al., 2004), due to the reduction of the sep-
ides and proteins. aration velocity of the emulsion droplets (Damodaran,
Figure 1 shows the effects of the gum concentration 2005; McClements, 1999).
on the emulsion stability. The data refer to emulsions In particular, the intrinsic viscosity [] of the almond
made with 20% olive oil at a pH value of 5.7 of the gum was 1.73 dL/g in 0.5 M KCl at 20  C. The intrinsic
almond gum aqueous solutions the emulsions viscosity of the almond gum was lower when compared
were prepared with. The effect of the pH of the aqueous to that of the arabinogalactans of other gum exudates,
phase on the emulsion stability is reported in Figure 2. such as that of peach gum, which had intrinsic viscos-
In this case, the data refer to emulsions made with an ities of 1.95 dL/g in 0.5 M KCl at 22  C.
8% gum aqueous solution and 20% olive oil. Figure 2 reports the dependence of the emulsion sta-
Emulsion stability increased by increasing the bility as a function of the pH. It is worth noting that the
almond gum concentration. More specifically, gum con- stable emulsions were obtained for pH values greater
centrations <5% w/w induced creaming phenomena than 3.0 and lower than 10.0, with a maximum ES
after only 3 h from the preparation of the samples, sug- value around pH 8.0. The experimental measurements
gesting a high degree of instability. Higher gum concen- were also corroborated by the visual observations of
trations caused the emulsions to become more creaming occurring in the pH 3.0 and pH 10.0 samples.
homogeneous and more stable, according to the visual This behavior could be explained in terms of the
observations and emulsion stability measurements. interaction between the proteins and the gum polysac-
The results showed that for a 20% w/w olive oil, an charides for the emulsion stabilization (Jones and
almond gum concentration of 7% w/w in the aqueous McClements, 2010). For a pH value significantly
phase was the minimum required to increase the ES higher than the proteins isoelectric point (pH  pI),
index to >80%, thus suggesting that this almond gum both the proteins and polysaccharides are negatively
concentration is sufficient to cover the oil–water inter- charged, with the electrostatic repulsion preventing
face of the oil droplets, which are sufficiently fine to be them from associating in a stable emulsifier. For a pH
stable under the centrifugal field. Previously reported value lower than the proteins isoelectric point and
results showed that an oil/Gum arabic ratio below 1 higher than the acid dissociation constant of the
was required in order to cover the totality of the oil– polysaccharides (pKa < pH < pI), stable protein–poly-
water interface and stabilize a sub-micrometer emulsion saccharide associations are formed, which, depending
(McNamee et al., 1998). on the residual charge, may enhance repulsive inter-
The increase of the emulsifying capacity and emul- droplet forces and therefore promote emulsion stabil-
sion stability, observed when increasing the gum con- ity. For a pH value lower than the acid dissociation
centration, may also be ascribed to the increase of the constant of the polysaccharides (pH  pKa), both the
viscosity of the continuous phase, which contributes to proteins and polysaccharides are positively charged,

100 100

80 80

60
ES (%)

60
ES (%)

40
40

20
20

0
2 4 6 8 10 12 0
Gum concentration (% w/w) 3 5 7 8 10
pH

Figure 1. Emulsion stability (ES) of emulsions prepared

with aqueous solutions of almond gum at different Figure 2. Emulsion stability (ES) of emulsions prepared
concentrations (3–12% w/w) and 20% olive oil at pH 5.7 with an 8% w/w aqueous almond gum solution and 20%
(natural pH). olive oil, at different pH levels (pH 3 to pH 10).

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Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

with the electrostatic repulsion preventing them from Physical stability of almond gum based
associating in a stable emulsifier. emulsions. On the basis of the preliminary screening
Figure 2 is integrated by Figure 3, where the cumu- results, almond gum based emulsions were prepared by
lative distribution of the droplet sizes of the freshly high pressure homogenization at the natural pH of the
prepared emulsions at different pH are reported, as gum (pH ¼ 5.7) and three different gum concentrations:
calculated from microscopic image analysis (an exam- namely 4%, 6% and 8% w/w of gum in the aqueous
ple image is reported in Figure 3(f)). Interestingly, the solution.
droplet size distributions of the emulsions prepared at Figure 4 shows the droplet size distribution (DSD)
pH 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9 differed from each other only mar- of the three emulsions immediately after preparation.
ginally, and within the experimental error of the image Interestingly, the DSD slightly differed from each
analysis technique applied. It is worth noting that the other, with the 8% w/w emulsion exhibiting a
emulsions at pH ¼ 3.0 and pH ¼ 10.0 were not analyzed d4,3 ¼ 2.8 mm, which is measurably smaller than the
due to instability phenomena (phase separation), which d4,3 of 6% and 4% w/w emulsions (3.0 and 3.4 mm
progressed relatively quickly, with a transparent serum respectively).
forming on the bottom of the emulsion already 24 h The initial DSD data already suggest that 6% and
after preparation. In contrast, the emulsions at all the especially 4% w/w concentrations of almond gum in
remaining pH levels were visually stable to creaming for the aqueous phase are not sufficient to fully cover and
more than 24 h. thus stabilize an emulsion hosting a 20% w/w olive oil

(a) 100 (b) 100

80 80

60 60
F (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 40 60 80 100 120 140
(c) 100 (d) 100

80 80

60 60
F (%)

40 40

20 20

0 0
40 60 80 100 120 140 40 60 80 100 120 140
(e) 100 (f)

80

60
F (%)

40

20

0
40 60 80 100 120 140
D (µm)

Figure 3. Cumulative droplet size distribution (F) of emulsions prepared with an 8% w/w aqueous almond gum solution
and 20% olive oil at different pH levels: (*) pH ¼ 4.0, (#) pH ¼ 5.0, (~) pH ¼ 7.0, (O) pH ¼ 8.0 and (#) pH ¼ 9.0.
(f) Example of emulsion micrograph (pH ¼ 5.0) used for the image analysis for the determination of the droplet size
distribution.

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 Mahfoudhi et al.

disperse phase. In particular, Figure 4 shows DSD data The homogeneity and physical stability of the emul-
after 7 days (middle panel of Figure 4) and 14 days sions over time is more evident from the evolution of
(lower panel of Figure 4), and the evolution over time d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 (Figure 5) as well as of the creaming
of the particle size distribution and the creaming index index CI (Figure 6).
are reported in Figures 5 and 6 respectively, occuring In particular, the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values are signifi-
under accelareted storage. cantly closer for the 8% emulsion (they were between 2
Remarkably, the DSD curves of Figure 4 clearly and 4 mm) than for the 6% emulsion (they were between
show that the 8% emulsion was significantly more 2 and 5 mm) and for the 4% emulsion (they were
stable than the 4% and 6% emulsions, without any between 1.5 and 6 mm), suggesting that a higher gum
sign of physical instability after 7 or 14 days and with concentration is required in order to obtain a more
a constant d4,3 value. In contrast, the 4% emulsion and, uniform surface coverage and thus a more homoge-
at a more limited extent, the 6% emulsion, exhibited neous and narrowly distributed emulsion. In addition,
the appearance of secondary peaks in the distribution the 8% emulsion was also very stable, without any vari-
and the increase of the d4,3 values. ation over time of the d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values. In con-
trast, the 6% emulsion exhibited a slight increase of the
d0.9 values over the 14 days of storage, while the 4%
emulsion exhibited the greatest variations, with all the
20 d0.1, d0.5 and d0.9 values increasing or fluctuating over
4%, d4,3 = 3.39
6%, d4,3 = 3.01 time (Figure 5).
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.78 The fluctuations of the 4% emulsion can be ascribed
to the occurrence of instability phenomena, which led
Volume (%)

to evident phase separation after 5 days at 55  C, as

10
shown by the corresponding creaming index, which
reached values >50% (Figure 6), as a consequence of
5 the separation at the bottom of an aqueous serum. The
6% emulsion exhibited a more limited degree of phys-
0 days
20 ical instability, with a creaming index reaching an
4%, d4,3 = 3.53 asymptotic value of 20% after 7 days. In contrast, the
6%, d4,3 = 3.09
8% emulsion confirmed to be the most stable formula-
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.79
tion, with the separation of an aqueous serum only for
Volume (%)

about 5% of the total emulsion volume after 14 days

10 (Figure 6).
In particular, the reason for the optimal gum con-
5
centration being at 8% w/w (in the aqueous solution)
could be noted in the balance among the efficiency of
7 days the emulsification process, the rate of formation of an
20 emulsifier film at the oil–water interface and the rate of
4%, d4,3 = 3.53
6%, d4,3 = 3.09 coalescence and separation.
15 8%, d4,3 = 2.78 If the gum concentration is excessively high, the vis-
cosity of the continuous phase is significantly increased
Volume (%)

and, consequently, the mean diameter of the oil drop-

10
lets becomes larger. This may be related to the deform-
ation energy requirements during homogenization. In
5 fact, it appears that the higher the continuous phase
viscosity the lower the efficiency of the homogenization
14 days process (McClements, 1999; Walstra, 1996). On the
0
0.1 1 10 100 other hand, at low emulsifier concentrations the film
Size (µm) formation rate is slow (low driving force), therefore
increasing the extent of coalescence.
Figure 4. Droplet size distribution determined by laser
scattering of emulsions stored at 55  C after 0 days (upper Foaming capacity and stability: effect of pH and gum
panel), 7 days (middle panel) and 14 days (lower panel). concentration. The ability of gum exudates suspen-
Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7 (natural pH) with sions prepared under different conditions (various pH
20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of almond gum and gum concentrations) to produce a stable foam was
different concentrations. also studied. The results showed that these solutions

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Food Science and Technology International 18(3)

(a) 10 (b) 10

8 8

d (µm) 6 6

d (µm)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

(c) 10

6
d (µm)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
time (days)

Figure 5. Evolution of d0.1 (), d0.5 (n) and d0.9 («), determined by laser scattering, of emulsions stored at 55  C.
Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7 (natural pH) with 20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of different almond gum
concentrations: (a) 4% w/w, (b) 6% w/w and (c) 8% w/w.

compounds in the biopolymer composition. The

proteins present in this gum were unable to significantly
100
4% unfold at the interface when air was incorporated into
6%
8%
the aqueous phase.
80
Several hypotheses can be made to explain this
behavior. First of all, the observed phenomenon
60
could be due to the high molecular weight of the pro-
CI (%)

teins. Secondly, the proteins could contain a significant

40
amount of disulphide bonds that prevent their migra-
tion at the air–water interface (Dickinson, 1992).
20 Finally, it is also possible to assume that, due to the
significant amount of the carbohydrates fraction, the
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
migration of the protein at the air–water interface is
time (days) impeded. Carbohydrates are, in fact, characterized by
their water-holding ability and their gelling properties.
Therefore, they are able to prevent foaming formation
Figure 6. Evolution of creaming index (CI) of emulsions
stored at 55  C. Emulsions prepared by HPH at pH 5.7
(Dickinson, 1992). Similar results were previously
(natural pH) with 20% olive oil and aqueous solutions of reported in a study on the foaming capacity
different almond gum concentrations: () 4% w/w, (n) 6% of Australian wattle seed extracts of Acacia victoriae
w/w and («) 8% w/w. (Ee et al., 2009).

conferred a very low foaming capacity as well as foam

CONCLUSIONS
stability. In fact, the foam disappeared after just 2 min The growing interest in the use of natural hydrocolloid
of observation. This is related to the proteins content of gums, as an alternative to gum arabic, in the formula-
the gum, their molecular weight and nature (Agboola tion of functional foods, is at the basis of this work.
et al., 2007), as well as to the presence of the other In particular, the use of gum exudates collected from

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 Mahfoudhi et al.

the trunk of almond trees (P. dulcis) in the formation of monosaccharide analysis. Carbohydrate Research 113(2):
food colloidal systems was discussed. The chemical 291–299.
composition as well as the physicochemical character- Chikamai BN. (1997). Production, markets and quality con-
istics of the gum were determined, showing that high trol of gum arabic in Africa: Findings and recommenda-
tions from an FAO project. In: Mugah JO, Chikamai BN,
amounts of carbohydrates and proteins as well as a low
Mbiru SS and Casadei E. (eds) Proceedings; Regional
fat level are present. The exudates are also relatively Conference for Africa on Conservation, Management and
rich in minerals, especially potassium, magnesium and Utilisation of Plant Gums, Resins and Essential Oils. 6–10
calcium. October 1997, Nairobi, Rome: FAO.
Different gum concentrations were used in the prep- Damodaran S. (2005). Protein stabilization of emulsions and
aration of the emulsions, with the pH of the water foams. Journal of Food Science 70(3): R54–R66.
phase also being changed in order to understand the Dickinson E. (1992). Interfacial interactions and the stability
effects of both parameters on the emulsion stability. of oil-in-water emulsions. Pure and Applied Chemistry
The smaller mean droplets size (2.8 mm) was obtained 64(11): 1721–1724.
for the emulsions produced through the high pressure Donsı̀ F, Senatore B, Huang QR and Ferrari G. (2010).
homogenization of 20% w/w olive oil with an 8% w/w Development of novel pea protein-based nanoemulsions
for delivery of nutraceuticals. Journal of Agricultural and
gum aqueous solution, in a pH range between 5.0 and
Food Chemistry 58(19): 10653–10660.
9.0. In particular, the 8% gum emulsion resulted to be
Donsı̀ F, Annunziata M, Sessa M and Ferrari G. (2011).
extremely stable under accelerated ageing at 55  C for Nanoencapsulation of essential oils to enhance their anti-
14 days, without any change in the mean droplet size. microbial activity in foods. LWT Food Science and
In contrast, the almond tree gum exudates resulted Technology 44(9): 1908–1914.
to be unsuitable for the formation of stable foams, Ee KY, Rehman A, Agboola S and Zhao J. (2009). Influence
which was probably due to the high carbohydrates of heat processing on functional properties of Australian
level as well as the nature of their proteins. wattle seed (Acacia victoriae Bentham) extracts. Food
The results obtained so far were able to increase the Hydrocolloids 23(1): 116–124.
understanding and knowledge of the possible uses of FAO (1982). Food and Nutrition Paper No. 25. Rome: FAO.
the gum exudates of almond trees in the formation Huang X, Kakuda Y and Cui W. (2001). Hydrocolloids in
emulsions: particle size distribution and interfacial activ-
and stabilization of emulsions, in substitution of
ity. Food Hydrocolloids 15(4): 533–542.
either Gum arabic or artificial emulsifiers and
Huggins ML. (1942). Theory of solutions of high polymers.
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Idris OHM, Williams PA and Phillips GO. (1998).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Characterisation of gum from Acacia senegal trees of dif-
ferent age and location using multidetection gel perme-
The authors wish to thank Luigi Esposito for the laser dif-
ation chromatography. Food Hydrocolloids 12(4):
fraction measurements.
379–388.
Islam AM, Phillips GO, Sljivo A, Snowden MJ and Williams
FUNDING PA. (1997). A review of recent developments on the regu-
This research received no specific grant from any funding latory, structural and functional aspects of Gum arabic.
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Food Hydrocolloids 11(4): 493–505.
Jones OG and McClements DJ. (2010). Functional biopoly-
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