The Western Desert Versus Nile Delta A C PDF

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Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334
Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect
Marine and Petroleum Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpetgeo
The Western Desert versus Nile Delta: A comparative molecular

biomarker study
W.Sh. El Diasty a, *, J.M. Moldowan b
a
Mansoura University, Faculty of Science, Geology Department, El Mansoura 35516, Egypt
b
Biomarker Technologies, Inc., 638 Martin Avenue, Rohnert Park, CA 94928, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The Western Desert and the Nile Delta are prolific petroleum-producing basins; the correlation and
Received 23 February 2013 matching between their petroleum systems have been briefly studied.
Received in revised form Overall, geochemical and biological marker analyses of twelve crude oil and condensate samples taken
20 June 2013
from seven oil-gasfields located in the Nile Delta and the Western Desert basins of Egypt, were effective
Accepted 3 July 2013
Available online 16 July 2013
in identifying and geographically defining two major oil families related by age and source rock depo-
sitional environment. These samples were classified, respectively, as Late Cretaceous/Tertiary and Jurassic
eEarly Cretaceous. The source rocks giving rise to the Late Cretaceous/Tertiary oils are associated with
Keywords:
Oleanane
abundant terrestrial organic matter. The source rocks giving rise to JurassiceEarly Cretaceous oil are
C30 sterane presumably generated from a mixed terrestrial/marine source. Meanwhile, the Western Desert oil
HBI samples show prominent C30 steranes, elevated C27 monoaromatic steroids, and a distinct homohopane
NDR distribution, suggesting this oil type is derived from a more marine-influenced source rock than
Aromatic biomarkers terrigenous-sourced oil in the Nile Delta.
Biodegradation The most crucial geochemical fingerprinting biomarkers that have been used to differentiate between
Nile delta vs. Western Desert oils Nile Delta and the Western Desert oil are oleananes, highly-branched isoprenoids (HBI), sterane isom-
erization, 24-norcholestanes, aromatic steroid hydrocarbons and C30 24-n-propylcholestanes.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction the east Mediterranean gas fields are Petrobel (Egas/Agip), Agip-BP
JV, Bapetco (Egas/Shell), the Western Desert Petroleum Company
The study areas represented in this investigation include the (WEPCO, Egas/Apache), and BG. Petrobel is the biggest gas producer
north Western Desert and the offshore Nile Delta (Fig. 1). These two in Egypt, as a result of its present output exceeding 980 MCF/d and
hydrocarbon provinces plus the Gulf of Suez represent Egypt’s main expected to peak at 1304 MCF/d by 2010 (El Diasty, 2010).
oil and gas supply. Companies producing non-associated gas The geochemical characteristics of the Mesozoic and Tertiary
operate in the Nile Delta and its offshore extensions into the hydrocarbons in the Western Desert and Nile Delta were briefly
Mediterranean, as well as in the Western Desert. The Mediterra- addressed in a paper by Halim et al. (1996). However, it did not
nean is by far the largest gas producer in Egypt, accounting for 60% differentiate the two with detailed molecular biomarker charac-
of the country’s 68 TCF of proven reserves of natural gas. At a teristics that can distinguish Western Desert and the Nile Delta oil.
minimum, the Mediterranean could hold at least another 60e80 They conclude that the studied oil and condensate samples are
TCF of probable reserves, not yet found. Since late 2003, most gas genetically related to a common source rock that contained mainly
production has come from deep-water offshore Mediterranean terrigenous organic matter of coaly facies. However, despite simi-
fields north of the Nile Delta, the Western Desert and Sinai. EGPC’s larities between the Nile Delta, Western Desert and offshore
equities in gas-producing ventures have been taken over by the Mediterranean liquid hydrocarbons, oleanane is detected only in
new Egyptian Natural Gas Holding Company (Egas), which was the Nile Delta oils and can be used to differentiate between the
created in August 2001. The main operators in the Nile Delta and Tertiary and Mesozoic source rocks.
Zein El Din et al. (1990) divided the oils from the northern
Western Desert hydrocarbon province into two main oil groups
based on oil characterization procedures. Group-I (Umbarka
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ20 0106 244 3492.
group), is characterized by high pristane/phytane, high API gravity
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]
(W.Sh. El Diasty). (30 ), low-sulfur oils/condensates that are common in the
0264-8172/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2013.07.003
320 W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334
o o
28 33
2D Seismic lines coverage 1200000
Nile Delta - Western Desert

La 52-1
0 200 Km Kj 49-1
SHOROU K-1
MOROUG-1 ODP-Ho lo-967E

ODP-Holo-966F
Kg 45-1 LEIL-1
1100000
ITEM-1
DELTA -1A
MATHILDE-1
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WEST QARUN 30-12-1 D ARB EL RUBI-1 KAC-1 RAMADA N-6
KAE-1 EL TOR-3
DARB EL RU BI VH-1A JETTY-1 EL QA A-1
KAREEM-1 SETHOS-16
T UT-48
WEST BENI SUEF-1 WANDA-1 EL TOR-4
W. GHARIB-3 KHEIR-2 HAYA T-29
KHEIR-3 YASSER-20 YORA M-1
100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000 900000 1000000
3
WDDM
o
32
12
1
o
31 4
Matruh Basin
10
9 7
11
2
Alamein Basin
o
30
Abu Gharadig Basin

8 5
0 130 Km
o o o o o
28 29 30 31 32
Figure 1. Map showing sample locations in the Nile Delta and north Western Desert basins. Numbers of samples refer to Table 1.
northwestern part of the Western Desert. This oil often has high El Diasty (2010) stated that the analyzed oil and condensate
wax content and is generally thought to be derived from highly from northwest offshore Nile Delta originated from non-marine,
mature source rock of terrestrial origin. The coal-rich sediments clay-rich source rocks, as judged from scarcity or absence of the
from the Middle Jurassic Khatatba Formation represent the most C30 n-propylcholestanes and high diasterane/sterane ratios. How-
likely source for this oil type (EGPC, 1992; Bagge and Keeley, 1994). ever, source- and age-related biomarker data show that these fluids
Group-II (Abu Gharadig group), is of intermediate maturity, low to originated from organic-rich and mature Late CretaceouseEarly
moderate pristane/phytane (w1.0), low waxy content, moderate Tertiary deposits, which are confirmed by high oleanane and C26
API gravity (w30 ) and high sulfur content (up to 1.8%). This oil 24-norcholestane indices. These likely source rocks may extend
has slightly more negative d13C values than the oil belonging to beneath the entire length of the Nile Delta.
Group-I, and was probably derived predominantly from marine El Diasty and Moldowan (2012) conducted detailed geochemical
source rocks. The argillaceous limestones from the Upper Creta- analyses on crude oil and condensate samples from the Abu
ceous Abu Roash-F Member represent the prime source rock Gharadig Field in the north Western Desert of Egypt. The analyses
candidates (EGPC, 1992; El Diasty and Moldowan, 2012). This type reveal three genetic oil families, designated as A, B and C. Oils from
of oil is common in the Abu Gharadig basin and its eastern Family-A and C were derived from Cretaceous marine source rocks
extension in the Gindi basin. (shales, calcareous shale) with Type II/III kerogen. Oil from Family-B
W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334 321
Table 1
Geological and geochemical data for crude oils and condensates from offshore Nile Delta and north Western Desert e Egypt.
N Well name Basin Reservoir Properties Wax. Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 Ph/n-C18 CPI OEP
1 EG-ND-1 Nile Delta Abu Madi Light brown condensate 0.37 5.74 0.47 0.11 1.12 1.10
2 EG-WD-1 Western Desert Alamein Dolomite Black oil 0.90 2.17 0.19 0.10 1.07 1.03
3 EG-ND-2 Nile Delta Kafr El Sheikh Light brown oil þþ 0.77 0.41 0.88 7.83 NA NA
4 EG-WD-10 Western Desert Upper Safa Waxy brown oil 1.56 4.97 0.23 0.05 1.06 1.00
5 EG-WD-11 Western Desert Abu Roash Heavy black oil 0.96 1.22 0.51 0.48 1.04 1.04
6 EG-ND-3 Nile Delta Wakar Waxy yellow oil 1.07 3.30 0.41 0.13 1.10 1.08
7 EG-WD-14 Western Desert Alamein Dolomite Black oil 0.82 2.13 0.16 0.08 1.04 1.00
8 EG-WD-15 Western Desert Bahariya Waxy black oil 1.10 4.22 0.20 0.05 1.07 1.07
9 EG-WD-Kh44 Western Desert Bahariya Black oil 1.70 4.21 0.35 0.08 1.07 1.07
10 EG-WD-Am10 Western Desert Bahariya Black oil 1.35 4.21 0.35 0.09 1.06 1.04
11 EG-WD-AlN4 Western Desert Alamein Dolomite Black oil 0.88 1.95 0.26 0.15 1.08 1.08
12 EG-ND-TNW-5 Nile Delta Sidi Salem Waxy yellow condensate 1.08 2.61 0.45 0.19 1.11 1.07
Waxiness content ¼ S(n-C21en-C31)/S(n-C15en-C20).

þþ
: Biodegraded oil.
NA: No analysis, no data.
Pr: Pristane.
Ph: Phytane.
h i
þC27 þC29 þC31 þC33 þC27 þC29 þC31 þC33
CPI: Carbon preference index CPI ¼ 1=2 CC25
24 þC26 þC28 þC30 þC32
þ CC25
26 þC28 þC30 þC32 þC34
Bray and Evans, 1961.
OEP: Odd-even predominance OEP ¼ (C25 þ 6C27 þ C29)/(4C26 þ 4C28) Scalan and Smith, 1970.
was probably derived from Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous source rocks The Abu Madi sandstones have proven to be the most suitable
(non-marine shales) with Type III/II kerogen. Moreover, they sug- reservoirs in the Nile Delta and most of the fields produced gas.
gested that the Late Cretaceous Abu Roash-F Member is the major Additional reservoirs are represented by the Qantara (Tineh, Tem-
source for the oil in the Abu Gharadig Basin. sah, and Raven) and Qawasim Formation (S.Batra, Khilala and
The objectives of this geochemical study were to utilize high- W.Dikirnis). The occasional sandstones in the Sidi Salem (Denise,
resolution geochemical methods, including metastable reaction- Temsah and Seth) and Kafr El Sheikh (Sienna, N.Idku and Akhen)
monitoring gas chromatography mass spectrometry (MRM- are thin and fairly porous with moderate permeability. Offshore
GCMS) of biomarkers (Peters et al., 2005), in order to evaluate ge- discoveries were made on new plays (include mostly biogenic gas)
netic relationships among oils and condensates from both the Nile such as the Pliocene shallow marine reservoirs in the form of slope-
Delta and the Western Desert, so as to study their source rock age, channel complexes and the base of slope fans (Harwood et al., 1998;
paleoenvironments, relative thermal maturity and extent of Samuel et al., 2003).
biodegradation.
2.2. Petroleum geology of the Western Desert basin
2. Discussion
The stratigraphic succession of the north Western Desert is
The following discussion briefly summarizes the petroleum characterized by several carbonate-clastic alternations from Pre-
geology of the key areas represented by samples in this study. cambrian basement rocks to Recent deposits.
The hydrocarbon potential of the north Western Desert pet-
2.1. Petroleum geology of the Nile Delta basin roliferous province indicates the presence of multiple organic-rich
source intervals in the JurassiceCretaceous sedimentary sequence
The sedimentary sequence of the Nile Delta ranges in age from (Keeley et al., 1990; Hegazy, 1992; Bagge and Keeley, 1994; EGPC,
Precambrian to Recent. The NeogeneeQuaternary clastic sediments 1994; Kamel et al., 1998; Younes, 2002; El Diasty and Moldowan,
of the Nile Delta can be classified into three sedimentary cycles 2012). Potential oil- and gas-prone source rocks have been iden-
(Rizzini et al., 1978; Schlumberger, 1984; Deibis et al., 1986; Abu El tified in the Upper Cretaceous Abu Roash and Khoman limestone
Ella, 1990; Harms and Wray, 1990; Alfy et al., 1992; Sestini, 1995). A and argillaceous limestone formations, the Lower Cretaceous Alam
Miocene cycle, comprising non-marine to shallow marine deposits El Bueib Formation and coals and associated carbonaceous shales
of the Sidi Salem, Qawasim and Rosetta formations; a PlioePleis- of the Jurassic Khatatba Formation (Hegazy, 1992; Bagge and
tocene cycle is subdivided into shallow marine to open marine Abu Keeley, 1994; Moustafa et al., 2003; El Diasty and Moldowan,
Madi, Kafr El Sheikh, El Wastani and Mit Ghamr formations and a 2012).
topmost Holocene cycle, Bilqas Formation. The sedimentation Shale sequences intercalated with carbonate or clastic reservoir
regime of this sequence is primarily controlled by the establish- rocks are the most common type of seal in Western Desert fields.
ment of the Nile Riverand secondarily by the Messinian desiccation Potential reservoirs, composed primarily of sandstones, are widely
crisis and its causal low sea level. represented throughout the Mesozoic section. Reservoirs produc-
The geologic history of northern Egypt created multiple source, ing from carbonate rocks are mainly the Aptian Alamein dolomite
reservoir and seal combinations in the Western Desert and Nile and Abu Roash D&G members (Schlumberger, 1984). The Creta-
Delta. It is believed that the main source rock in the eastern Nile ceous sand and sandstone reservoirs belong to different strati-
Delta is the OligoceneeEarly Miocene sedimentary sequence, graphic levels, starting from Albian Kharita sands, Early
which is considered to be the primary source of the gas and Cenomanian Bahariya sands (El Ayouty, 1990), and Turonian Abu
condensate (Kamel et al., 1998; Sharaf, 2003). In the Mediterranean Roash “C”, “E”, and “G” sands, which are excellent reservoir rocks
deep water along with offshore Nile Delta, the Cretaceous to Early (Ghanem, 1985; EGPC, 1992).
Tertiary sequence is considered to be the primary source of light oil/ Typical traps are combined from stratigraphicestructural com-
condensate and gas (El Diasty, 2010). This gas is a mixture of ponents. Expulsion, migration (essentially vertical) and accumulation
biogenic and thermogenic origin, where the latter is generally occurred during Late or post-Eocene time, when many basins and
increasing with reservoir age (Vandré et al., 2007; El Diasty, 2010). structures had already formed (Sestini, 1995).
counts
counts
200
250
175
Main biomarker region

150
Response x 1000
200
Response x 10
125
150
100
75
100
50
50
25
0
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 10 20 30 40 50 60
Retention time Retention time
counts counts
200 350
175
300
Response x 1000
Response x 10
150
250
125
200
100
150
75
100
50
25 50
0 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 10 20 30 40 50 60
Retention time Retention time
counts counts
200
250
175
Response x 10
150 200
Response x 10
125
150
100
75 100
50
50
25
0
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
5 10 15 20 25 30
Retention time
Retention time
Figure 2. Selected gas chromatograms of representative oils and condensates from the Western Desert and the Nile Delta.
3. Samples and methods samples selected for study are well-suited representations because
they characterize the main oil production in the offshore Nile Delta
Multiple analytical parameters of oil and condensate samples, (east, central and west) and north Western Desert (east, central and
collected from both Mesozoic (JurassiceCretaceous) and Tertiary northwest).
(MioceneePliocene) reservoirs from the north Western Desert and Asphaltenes were separated by precipitation in excess n-hep-
offshore Nile Delta, were used to compare their genetic relation- tane. The deasphalted oil and condensate samples were separated
ships. The locations of collection sites are shown on Figure 1 and a by liquid chromatography into saturate, aromatic, and resin (NSO)
list of oil pools is provided in Table 1. The twelve oil and condensate fractions on an alumina and silica column. The saturate fractions
100
Nile Delta samples
Western Desert samples
III
T ype
u s
eno
rig
T er II
10
II/I
Pr / n-C 17
e
atio
n Typ
rad xed II
eg Mi e
Typ
Ox
d
Bio l
ida
a
Alg
Re
tion
e
rin
duc
1.0 Ma
tio
n
n
atio
atur
M
0.1
0.1 1.0 10
Ph / n-C18
Figure 3. Plot of pristane/n-C17 vs. phytane/n-C18 from whole-oil chromatograms can be used to infer oxicity and organic matter type in the source rock depositional environment
(Peters et al., 1999). Increasing thermal maturation and biodegradation displace points toward the lower left and upper right, respectively. Notice the effect of biodegradation on the
ND-2 oil sample.
were subjected to GC and GCeMS analyses for biomarkers. Total moderate to high n-alkanes with neither odd nor even carbon
alkane fractions or branched/cyclic subfractions were analyzed in preference indices in the range n-C24 to n-C34 (Fig. 2, Table 1) and
the selected ion recording (SIR) mode on an HP 5890 GC system moderate to high pristane/phytane ratios [of varying proportions,
connected to a Hewlett Packard 5972 mass spectrometer, which but the calculated value (0.41) of the ND-2 oil is misleading because
monitored ions at mass-to-charge ratios (m/z) 191, 217, 218, and 238 the sample is biodegraded], suggesting a significant terrestrial
for saturate fractions. In addition, monoaromatic and triaromatic input (Bray and Evans, 1961; Peters and Moldowan, 1993; Peters
steranes were identified in the aromatic fraction by the ions m/z et al., 2005), along with abundant oxic depositional conditions
253 and m/z 231, respectively. The GC column was a 30 m HP-5 with (Peters et al., 1994). This is consistent with the plot of Pr/n-C17
temperature programmed from 60 to 320 C at 4 C/min and he- versus Ph/n-C18 (Fig. 3) where the Nile Delta samples are located
lium carrier gas at 1.5 ml/min. solely within the zone of higher terrestrial plants of type-III
Metastable reaction monitoring (MRM)-GCMS analyses kerogen and abundant oxic conditions, whereas isoprenoid to n-
(Moldowan, 1984; Moldowan et al., 1985) were performed on paraffin ratios for the Western Desert oils indicate an origin from
various samples utilizing a procedure in which transitions suitable mixed types-III and -II/III organic matter deposited under oxice
for steranes and terpanes (m/z 330 / 217, 372 / 217, 386 / 217, dysoxic conditions of higher maturity than Nile Delta oils.
400 / 217, 414 / 217, 414 / 231 and m/z 412 / 191, 369) were Alternatively, there is a distinct feature that may be used to
recorded. The instrument was an HP 5890II gas chromatograph, distinguish Western Desert from Nile Delta oils, based upon GC
coupled with a VG Micromass Autospec Q mass spectrometer sys- traces. The Western Desert oils display either unimodal or bimodal
tem. The 60-m column was J&W fused silica DB-1 with a 0.25 mm n-alkanes distributions (centered at C15 and C25 as shown by Fig. 2),
internal diameter and a 0.25 mm film thickness. Fractions analyzed suggesting a diverse range of biological contributions to their
were branched and cyclic derived by treatment of saturate fractions source kerogens. Figure 2 shows that all five of the non-
that had been spiked with cholane (Peters and Moldowan, 1993) biodegraded whole-oil gas chromatograms shows signs of evapo-
with Z5M-5 zeolite. rative losses of the lighter n-alkanes. This can be attributed to bad
A standard composite oil sample was analyzed to ensure quality storage conditions, transportation and during field sampling.
control and to be used as a reference index for compound identi- Conversely, the Nile Delta oil (ND-2 sample, WDDM concession)
fication and absolute quantification of steranes (Seifert and underwent biodegradation in the reservoir, resulting in a low API
Moldowan, 1979). gravity (27 API) and unusual terpane and sterane distributions
(Peters et al., 1993).
4. Crude oil geochemistry The GC of ND-2 shows a moderately biodegraded oil (level 2e3
on the scale of Peters and Moldowan, 1993; Wenger et al., 2002) as
4.1. Source and depositional environment relevant parameters concluded from relative n-paraffin concentrations and the values of
certain molecular ratios. As the pristane/phytane ratio decreases
Data from the present study generally agrees with the results of (Fig. 2), the amount of non-hopanoid pentacyclic triterpanes (e.g.,
Halim et al. (1996), not only supporting the initial separation of Nile oleanane) increases (relative to hopane), with increasing biodeg-
Delta from Western Desert oils based upon the occurrence of ole- radation, possibly due to selective destruction/removal of the
anane, but also providing more geochemical evidence for further 17a(H)-hopane series. The general sequence of increasing resis-
differentiation of each oil family. tance to biodegradation among compound classes in petroleum is
Typical gas chromatograms of the studied oils are presented in n-alkanes, isoprenoids, steranes, hopanes, diasteranes, aromatic
Figure 2. The majority of the samples analyzed display both steroids, and porphyrins (Seifert and Moldowan, 1979; Connan,
324
28
C
EG - ND - TNW5 well EG - ND - TNW5 well EG - ND - TNW5 well

Offshore NE Nile Delta Basin Offshore NE Nile Delta Basin f Offshore NE Nile Delta Basin
Sidi Salem condensate Sidi Salem condensate Sidi Salem condensate
GC-MS m/z 191 GC-MS m/z 217 GC-MS m/z 218
U
K S
N T
22
M Q
L
D e
J P R
26
30
a d
23 E G
31 O b
16 33 B c
17 27 29 F I
34 35 A H XY
25 W
W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334
15 36
20 24 32 Z
12 1314 21 37
3839
1 2 3 5 6 9 11 1819 40
4 78 10
EG - WD - AlN4 well EG - WD - AlN4 well EG - WD - AlN4 well

North Western Desert Basin North Western Desert Basin North Western Desert Basin
Alamein oil Alamein oil Alamein oil
EG - WD-11 well EG - WD-11 well EG - WD-11 well

North Western Desert Basin North Western Desert Basin North Western Desert Basin
Abu Roash oil Abu Roash oil Abu Roash oil
Figure 4. m/z 191, 217 and 218 mass fragmentograms for representative Western Desert and Nile Delta oils (peaks identifications are given in Table 2).
1984; Moldowan et al., 1990). Aerobic conditions could be domi-

nated in the subsurface only with hydrodynamic influx of meteoric Table 2
Peaks identification for terpanes (m/z 191) and steranes (m/z 217, m/z 218).
water. However, recent extensive research indicates that anaerobic
processes prevail in the degradation of petroleum in reservoirs Pk N Ion Biomarker compounds
(e.g., Wilhelms et al., 2001; Larter et al., 2003, 2005; Jones et al., 1 191 C19 Tricyclic Diterpane
2008). 2 191 C20 Tricyclic Diterpane
Representative gas chromatograms and mass fragmentograms, 3 191 C21 Tricyclic Diterpane
4 191 C22 Tricyclic Terpane
showing the distributions of triterpanes (m/z 191) and steranes (m/
5 191 C23 Tricyclic Terpane
z 217, 218) are shown in Figure 4 with peaks identification given in 6 191 C24 Tricyclic Terpane
Table 2. Diagnostic biomarker ratios and indices highlighting sim- 7 191 C25 Tricyclic Terpane (22S)
ilarities and differences in the oil types are listed in Tables 3 and 4. 8 191 C25 Tricyclic Terpane (22R)
9 191 C24 Tetracyclic Terpane (TET)
Many terpanes in petroleum originate from bacterial (prokary-
10 191 C26 Tricyclic Terpane (22S)
otic) membrane lipids (Ourisson et al., 1982). These bacterial ter- 11 191 C26 Tricyclic Terpane (22R)
panes include several homologous series, including acyclic, bicyclic 12 191 C28 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22S)
(drimanes), tricyclic, tetracyclic and pentacyclic compounds. The 13 191 C28 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22R)
C19/C23, C23/C24, C26/C25 and (C28 þ C29)/Ts (Table 3) tricyclic ter- 14 191 C29 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22S)
15 191 C29 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22R)
pane ratios help to identify depositional environments of extracts
16 191 C27 18aH-Trisnorhopane (Ts)
and crude oils. 17 191 C27 17aH-Trisnorhopane (Tm)
The most important molecular feature of the Nile Delta oil is the 18 191 C30 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22S)
high relative abundance of 18a(H)-oleanane (Fig. 4). This biological 19 191 C30 Extended Tricyclic Terpane (22R)
20 191 C28 17aH, 18aH, 21bH-Bisnorhopane
marker is diagnostic for oil derived from Cretaceous or Tertiary
21 191 C29 Nor-25-hopane
containing terrestrial organic matter input (Moldowan et al., 1994). 22 191 C29 Tm 17aH, 21bH, 25-Norhopane
The presence of 18a(H)-oleanane in oil suggests a terrestrial input 23 191 C29 Ts 18aH Norneohopane
and has been found in most Tertiary oil worldwide (Grantham et al., 24 191 C30 17aH-Diahopane
1983; Brooks, 1986; Philp and Gilbert, 1986; Mello et al., 1988; 25 191 C29 Normoretane
26 191 C30 a-Oleanane
Kennicutt et al., 1991).
27 191 C30 b-Oleanane
Figure 5 shows different geochemical parameters (e.g., waxi- 28 191 C30 17aH-Hopane
ness, pristane/phytane, hopane/sterane, C23/C24, C24/C26, C26/C25 29 191 C30 17bH, 21aH-Moretane
terpanes, norhopane/hopane, C35/C34 homohopanes and C29/C27 30 191 C31 17aH, 21bH-Homohopane (22S)
regular steranes) were plotted to show the origin of the deposi- 31 191 C31 17aH, 21bH-Homohopane (22R)
32 191 C30 Gammacerane
tional organic matter. A positive correlation is observed between 33 191 C32 17aH, 21bH-Bishomohopane (22S)
the various parameters and, at the same time, it is hard to 34 191 C32 17aH, 21bH-Bishomohopane (22R)
discriminate between the samples from both regions. It shows that 35 191 C33 17aH, 21bH-Trishomohopane (22S)
the samples have varying proportions of bacterial, terrestrial and 36 191 C33 17aH, 21bH-Trishomohopane (22R)
37 191 C34 17aH, 21bH-Tetrahomohopane (22S)
algal organic matter, but all are indicative of source rocks with
38 191 C34 17aH, 21bH-Tetrahomohopane (22R)
significant terrestrial input. All the analyzed samples have rela- 39 191 C35 17aH, 21bH-Pentahomohopane (22S)
tively high and variable C19/C23 tricyclic terpanes ratios except WD- 40 191 C35 17aH, 21bH-Pentahomohopane (22R)
11 oil where it has the lowest value (0.04). So, the source of the WD- A 217 C21 sterane
11 oil sample from the Western Desert seems to be different from B 217 C22 sterane
C 217 5b Cholane (internal standard)
others (Table 3; Fig. 4). The much higher tricyclic terpane to hopane D 217 C27 ba (20S) diacholestane
ratio and occurrence of C30 steranes and the greater contribution of E 217 C27 ba (20R) diacholestane
C27 steranes versus C29 steranes suggest an open-marine deposi- F 217 C28 ba (20S) diasterane a
tional environment to the source rock. These molecular fingerprints G 217 C28 ba (20S) diasterane b
H 217 C28 ba (20R) diasterane a
are very similar to several source rocks, for example, the Khatatba
I 217 C28 ba (20R) diasterane b
and Abu Roash-F extracts described in El Diasty and Moldowan J 217 C27 aa (20S) cholestane
(2012). So, perhaps WD-11 oil has the same, or a similar source to K 217 C27 bb (20R) cholestane
the Family-A oils in the Abu Gharadig Basin, Western Desert sam- L 217 C27 bb (20S) cholestane
ples (El Diasty and Moldowan, 2012). M 217 C27 aa (20R) cholestane
N 217 C29 ba (20R) diastigmastane
The effect of biodegradation on Nile Delta sample 2 greatly af- O 217 C28 aa (20S) ergostane
fects the m/z 191 terpane distribution (Fig. 6; Table 3). The m/z 191 P 217 C28 bb (20R) ergostane
of ND-2 oil showed a biomarker biodegradation pattern with Q 217 C28 bb (20S) ergostane
depletion of the C30 17a(H), 21b(H)-hopane, relative to the C30 18a- R 217 C28 aa (20R) ergostane
S 217 C29 aa (20S) stigmastane
oleanane peak. Depletion of the C31eC34 homohopanes is also
T 217 C29 bb (20R) stigmastane
evident, with preferential degradation of the lower molecular U 217 C29 bb (20S) stigmastane
weight homologues (C31 > C32 > C33 > C34 > C35). Degradation of V 217 C29 aa (20R) stigmastane
the trisnorhopanes decreased the Ts (C27 18a-22,29,30- W 217 C30 aa (20S) sterane
trisnorneohopane) and Tm (C27 17a-22,29,30-trisnorhopane) X 217 C30 bb (20R) sterane
Y 217 C30 bb (20S) sterane
peaks relative to C30 18a-oleanane (Fig. 6). Homohopane degrada- Z 217 C30 aa (20R) sterane
tion favored depletion of the S epimer over the R epimer (Fig. 6). It is a 218 C27 bb 20R cholestane
interesting to note that, the second most abundant peak, after the b 218 C27 bb 20S cholestane
oleanane, is C29Tm (17a-30-norhopane) merged with C29Ts (18a- c 218 C28 bb 20R ergostane
d 218 C28 bb 20S ergostane
30-norneohopane). The latter compound, eluting immediately after
e 218 C29 bb 20R stigmastane
C29 17a-30-norhopane, is widespread in crude oil, except that poor f 218 C29 bb 20S stigmastane
resolution from C29 17a-30-norhopane obscures its presence
(Fig. 6). It is also possible that another triterpane, a third compound,
326
Table 3
Summary of biomarker characteristics (terpanes) for crude oils and condensates from offshore Nile Delta and north Western Desert e Egypt.
N Well name Region A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
1 EG-ND-1 Nile Delta 0.12 0.03 0.48 0.02 0.14 1.12 0.56 0.50 2.21 1.57 1.74 1.27 0.10 0.13 1.32 98 0.22
2 EG-WD-1 Western Desert 0.00 0.02 0.72 0.06 0.10 0.61 0.58 0.81 4.60 1.77 1.28 1.10 0.15 0.14 0.90 29 0.34
3 EG-ND-2 Nile Delta 10.7 0.02 NA 0.02 0.76 0.29 0.28 1.07 1.87 0.80 0.22 0.91 1.14 0.29 0.26 784 5.85
6 EG-ND-3 Nile Delta 0.62 0.02 0.41 0.05 0.16 0.99 0.55 0.52 2.79 1.37 1.94 1.53 0.18 0.08 0.43 84 0.17
9 EG-WD-Kh44 Western Desert 0.00 0.02 0.70 0.14 0.13 0.33 0.57 0.68 19.8 2.07 22.00 1.13 0.12 0.13 1.09 12 0.12
10 EG-WD-Am10 Western Desert 0.01 0.01 0.64 0.13 0.14 0.44 0.57 0.48 13.2 1.83 15.07 0.96 0.12 0.16 1.34 12 0.11
11 EG-WD-AlN4 Western Desert 0.00 0.02 0.75 0.06 0.10 0.60 0.57 0.84 5.00 1.89 1.44 1.28 0.13 0.12 0.95 13 0.36
W.Sh. El Diasty, J.M. Moldowan / Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334
12 EG-ND-TNW-5 Nile Delta 0.35 0.04 0.48 0.06 0.15 1.21 0.55 0.43 2.69 1.42 1.49 1.92 0.14 0.05 0.34 100 0.12
A: Oleanane/Hopane ¼ OL/H30; B: Gammacerane/Hopane ¼ GAM/H30; C: Norhopane/Hopane ¼ H29/H30; D: Diahopane/Hopane ¼ DH30/H30; E: Moretane/Hopane ¼ M30/H30; F: Ts/Tm trisnorhopanes ¼ TS/TM; G: H32 S/
(R þ S) Homohopanes ¼ H32S/(H32R þ H32S); H: H35/H34 Homohopanes ¼ (H35R þ H35S)/(H34R þ H34S); I: C24 Tetracyclic/C26 Tricyclics ¼ (TET24)/(TR26A þ TR26B); J: C23/C24 Tricyclic terpanes ¼ Tr23/Tr24; K: C19/C23
Tricyclic terpanes ¼ Tr19/Tr23; L: C26/C25 Tricyclic terpanes ¼ (TR26A þ TR26B)/(TR25A þ TR25B); M: [Steranes]/[Hopanes] ¼ (DIA27S þ DIA27R þ DIA28SA þ DIA28SB þ DIA28RA
þ DIA28RB þ C27S þ C27bbR þ C27bbS þ C27R þ DIA29R þ C28S þ C28bbR þ C28bbS þ C28R þ C29S þ C29bbR þ C29bbS þ C29R)/(TS þ TM þ H28 þ H29 þ C29TS þ DH30 þ H30
þ H31R þ H31S þ H32R þ H32S þ H33R þ H33S þ H34R þ H34S þ H35R þ H35S); N: [Tricyclic terpanes]/[Hopanes] ¼ (TR19 þ TR20 þ TR21 þ TR22 þ TR23 þ TR24
þ TR25A þ TR25B þ TR26A þ TR26B þ TR28A þ TR28B þ TR29A þ TR29B þ TR30A þ TR30B)/(TS þ TM þ H28 þ H29 þ C29TS þ DH30 þ H30 þ H31R þ H31S þ H32R þ H32S þ H33R þ H33S þ H34R þ H34S þ H35R þ H35S); O:
[Tricyclic terpanes]/[Steranes]¼(TR19 þ TR20 þ TR21 þ TR22 þ TR23 þ TR24 þ TR25A þ TR25B þ TR26A þ TR26B þ TR28A þ TR28B þ TR29A þ TR29B þ TR30A þ TR30B)/
(DIA27S þ DIA27R þ DIA28SA þ DIA28SB þ DIA28RA þ DIA28RB þ C27S þ C27bbR þ C27bbS þ C27R þ DIA29R þ C28S þ C28bbR þ C28bbS þ C28R þ C29S þ C29bbR þ C29bbS þ C29R); P: HBI (Highly branched isoprenoids m/z
238) ¼ peak areas of C25 HBI (ppm); Q: ETR (extended tricyclic terpane ratio) ¼ (TTC28 þ TTC29)/Ts; NA: No analysis, no data.
Table 4
Summary of biomarker characteristics (steranes) for crude oils and condensates from offshore Nile Delta and north Western Desert e Egypt.
N Well name Region A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q
1 EG-ND-1 Nile Delta 20.25 31.01 48.75 28.57 33.57 37.86 0.34 0.44 0.30 0.84 21.43 37.79 40.78 0.12 0.07 0.40 0.63
2 EG-WD-1 Western Desert 28.20 20.39 51.41 27.18 19.11 53.71 0.53 0.50 0.54 0.85 27.61 28.64 43.75 0.14 0.11 0.11 0.21
3 EG-ND-2 Nile Delta 11.75 74.78 13.46 52.34 21.77 25.89 0.21 0.13 0.21 0.01 20.47 49.30 30.22 0.06 0.03 NA NA
4 EG-WD-10 Western Desert 06.99 34.49 58.51 03.05 29.90 67.05 0.34 0.54 0.58 0.89 40.87 19.98 39.15 0.18 0.45 0.14 NA
6 EG-ND-3 Nile Delta 06.23 12.88 80.88 14.48 29.19 56.33 0.45 0.51 0.45 0.95 18.96 36.18 44.86 0.13 0.22 0.47 0.44
9 EG-WD-Kh44 Western Desert 8.34 29.62 62.04 28.92 22.17 48.90 0.59 0.48 0.47 0.95 24.35 22.62 53.03 0.16 0.26 0.27 0.21
10 EG-WD-Am10 Western Desert 10.37 30.27 59.35 18.74 26.51 54.75 0.90 0.48 0.46 1.14 30.41 23.00 46.59 0.17 0.42 0.25 0.17
11 EG-WD-AlN4 Western Desert 29.83 21.19 48.98 25.91 22.58 51.51 1.21 0.52 0.55 0.51 31.73 27.42 40.85 0.13 0.18 0.45 0.16
12 EG-ND-TNW-5 Nile Delta 8.73 13.09 78.18 15.16 24.84 60.00 0.63 0.42 0.38 0.96 20.08 28.93 50.99 0.08 0.12 0.42 0.32
A: %C27 abbS (218) [ 100*C27abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); B: %C28 abbS (218) [ 100*C28abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); C: %C29 abbS (218) [ 100*C29abbS/(C27abbS þ C28abbS þ C29abbS); D: %C27 aaaR (217)
[ 100*C27R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); E: %C28 aaaR (217) [ 100*C28R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); F: %C29 aaaR (217) [ 100*C29R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R); G: %C30 aaaR (414 / 217) ¼ 100*C30R/(C27R þ C28R þ C29R þ C30R); H: S/(S D R)
(C29 aaa) (217) [ C29S/(C29S þ C29R); I: bbS/(aaR D bbS) (C29) (217) [ (C29bbS þ C29bbR)/(C29S þ C29bbS þ C29bbR þ C29R); J: Diaster/aaa Ster (C27) (217) [ (DIA27S þ DIA27R)/(C27S þ C27R); K: %C27 Monoaromatic steroids
P P
(MAS, 253); L: %C28 Monoaromatic steroids (MAS, 253); M: %C29 Monoaromatic steroids (MAS, 253); N: C21 D C22/ MAS (253); O: C20 þ C21/ TAS (231); P: C24 norcholestanes ratio (NCR, 358 / 217) ¼ C24/( C24 þ C27)
norcholestanes; Q: C24 nordiacholestanes ratio (NDR, 358 / 217) ¼ C24/(C24 þ C27) nordiacholestanes; NA: No analysis, no data.
Figure 5. Interpretation of the depositional environment based upon bulk geochemical parameters and biomarkers of oils and condensates from the Western Desert and the Nile
Delta.
contributes to this broad peak. The ND-2 oil is rich in 18a-oleanane. The common features of oils containing a high concentration of
Oils containing oleananes (18a þ 18b) also contain rearranged terrigenous organic material would be the relatively low concen-
oleananes. Two of these rearranged oleananes coelute with C29 17a- tration of steranes relative to the triterpanes (based on the ion in-
30-norhopane and/or C29Ts (Nytoft et al., 2010). tensities in the m/z 217 to 191 chromatograms) and high C29
In addition, 17a-25-norhopane is the next most abundant peak. steranes (24-ethylcholestanes) relative to the C27 and C28 homo-
The decrease in concentration of 17a-hopanes is roughly propor- logues (Huang and Meinschein, 1979; Moldowan et al., 1985).
tional to the increase in 17a-25-norhopanes with one less carbon Table 4 shows the C27, C28 and C29 sterane distributions based on m/
atom (the C-25 carbon) in the structure, suggesting strongly that z 218 (A, B and C respectively) and also on m/z 217 mass chro-
microbes have demethylated hopanes in the reservoir (McCaffrey matograms (D, E and F respectively), but only m/z 217 distributions
et al., 1996). Hence, 25-norhopanes would be produced as are used in Figure 7.
hopanes are consumed as a result of direct conversion by certain Although it is now traditional to present the m/z 217 mass
microbial populations (Peters et al., 2005). chromatogram when discussing oileoil correlations and oil source
EG - ND-2 well Oleanane

Offshore N Nile Delta Basin
Kafr El Sheikh oil
GC-MS m/z 191
C29Ts 30-Norneohopane + C2930-Norhopane
C29 17 (H)-25-Norhopane
28,30-Bisnorhopane Hopane
Tr21
Tr20 Tm
Ts
Tr23 Tr24 Tet24 Homohopanes

Tr19
EG - ND-2 well M
Offshore N Nile Delta Basin
Kafr El Sheikh oil
GC-MS m/z 217
R
J
U
Z
Figure 6. m/z 191 and m/z 217 mass fragmentograms for moderately biodegraded oil sample from north offshore Nile Delta. The m/z 217 chromatogram shows dominance of the
20R (biologic) epimers and nearly indistinguishable diasteranes, indicative of very low thermal maturity (see Table 2 for peaks identification).
Figure 7. Triangular plot showing the relative distributions of C27, C28 and C29 aaa20R steranes for oil and condensate samples analyzed.
rock depositional environments, the m/z 218 mass chromatogram is lowest percentage of C29 and the highest percentages of C28 ster-
used (Table 4) to emphasize the relative distributions of C29 versus anes and plot very closely together. Also the four Western Desert
C27 or C28 steranes in this suite of oils. Elevated amounts of C29 oils (WD-1, WD-14, AIN4 and Kh44) show more of a C27 contribu-
steranes (38e67% m/z 217) and (37e81% m/z 218) in the oils tion than the Nile Delta oils, except for ND-2 where it attains the
(Table 4, Fig. 7) suggest a significant contribution to the organic highest C27 sterane (peak M, Fig. 6). The relatively high C27 and C28
matter from higher terrestrial plants. The sterane ternary diagram sterane proportions suggest a contribution of algae, bacteria and
(Fig. 7) shows that both of the ND-1 and WD-11 samples have the possibly fungi to the parent source rocks.
% C28 Nile Delta samples
% C27 % C 29
Figure 8. Ternary diagram showing the relative abundance of C27-, C28-, and C29-monoaromatic (MA) steroids in aromatic hydrocarbon fractions of oils and condensates from Nile
Delta and Western Desert, determined by multiple ion detectionegas chromatographyemass spectrometry (m/z 253).
1.2
Nile Delta samples

0.9
Jurassic oils Tertiary oils

0.6
0.3
0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Figure 9. Plot of oleanane vs. C30 sterane (24-n-propylcholestane) ratios separates oil groups. Oleanane ratios for oils greater than 0.20 indicate Tertiary source rocks (Nile Delta
group), whereas the absence of oleanane suggests pre-Late Cretaceous source rocks (Western Desert group). C30 24-n-propylcholestanes are diagnostic of marine source rock
depositional conditions. The C30 sterane ratio generally increases with marine versus terrigenous organic matter input to the source rock.
The monoaromatic steroids can be precursor-specific and useful than for the steranes in Figure 10. Furthermore, this figure provides
to describe the depositional environments, but may be derived additional supporting evidence to distinguish Nile Delta from
from different sterols than the steranes. Their origin could be from Western Desert oils.
sterols with a side-chain double bond during diagenesis (Peters Another interesting observation in the sterane distributions
et al., 2005). given in Table 4 for Western Desert Kh44 sample where C27abbS
Monoaromatic steroid triangular diagrams commonly distin- steranes have a value of 8.34% compared to that of 28.92% for
guish oil samples derived from non-marine versus marine shale C27aaaR steranes and 24.35% for C27 monoaromatic steroids. The
source rocks. Oils generated from marine shale generally contain remarkable variation in sterane distributions may be related to the
less C29 monoaromatic steroids than terrestrial non-marine oils pre-burial environments of the living organisms, the depositional
(Moldowan et al., 1985). Typically, more terrigenous organic matter environments of the organic matter and the diagenetic processes in
is deposited in non-marine than in marine source rocks, and the the source rocks (Peters et al., 2005).
non-marine source rocks thus received more C29 sterols. Terrigenous input is higher in C29 than C27 and C28 sterols that
Again in concert with Figure 7, the monoaromatic steroid dis- give rise to C29, C27 and C28 monoaromatic steroids, respectively.
tributions (Fig. 8) of the Western Desert oils show more of a C27 Thus, non-marine shales have monoaromatic steroid C29/
contribution than the Nile Delta oils, a trend which is displayed by (C28 þ C29) ratios >0.5. The C27-, C28-, and C29-monoaromatic (MA)
four Western Desert oils in Figure 7 (WD-1, WD-14, Kh44 and AIN4) steroids ternary diagram (Fig. 8) shows the relative abundance of
in addition to WD-10 oil sample (Fig. 8). Figure 8 shows mono- C29-monoaromatic steroids and C29/(C28 þ C29) ratios >0.5 signi-
aromatic steroid distributions with a greater contribution of C27 fying oils derived from abundant terrigenous source rocks.
60
50
40
30
30 40 50 60 70
Figure 10. Relative thermal maturity of oils and condensates from the Western Desert and the Nile Delta petroleum provinces based upon proposed isomerization reactions among
the C29 steranes. Vitrinite reflectance estimates after correlations in Waples and Machihara (1991); Peters and Moldowan, 1993.
0.5
Nile Delta samples

0.4
ity
tur
Ma
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.05 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.15 0.17 0.19 0.21
Figure 11. Relationship between monoaromatic MA-I/(MA-I þ MA-II) and triaromatic TA-I/(TA-I þ TA-II) steroids. Samples that plot toward the upper right are thermally more
mature than samples plotting near the origin.
Diasterane/sterane ratios are commonly used to distinguish the work of El Diasty (2010) who found that the oleanane index was
carbonate-rich from clastic source rocks. All the oil samples exhibit very low for the Abu Qir-5 oil sample that either has low angio-
a medium to high abundance of diasteranes (Table 4), which sug- sperm input, poor preservation of oleanane (Murray et al., 1997), or
gests dysoxiceoxic, clay-rich source rocks. On the other hand, the high hopane contents.
very low abundance of diasteranes in an oil sample from the Nile On the other hand, the Western Desert oils lack oleanane,
Delta (ND-2) is due to the very high abundance of C27 steranes. consistent with pre-Late Cretaceous source rocks, and contain low
Diasteranes are thermally more stable than steranes, so the dia- to moderate 24-n-propylcholestanes (C30 steranes, Fig. 9; Table 4).
sterane/sterane is also a maturity dependant ratio. In immature The C30 24-n-propylcholestanes are diagnostic for marine source
source rocks the conversion of sterenes to diasterenes with even- rock depositional environments (Moldowan et al., 1985; Peters
tual double-bond saturation to diasteranes may not be complete, et al., 1986).
resulting in low diasterane/sterane and low sterane isomerization The WD-11 oil sample was derived from a different source than
ratio (Peters et al., 2005) as will be discussed next. the others in the study. The extended tricyclic terpane ratio, ETR
(TTC28 þ TTC29)/Ts exceeds 4.0 (Table 3). Besides, the lack of ole-
4.2. Age and maturity-related parameters anane in this oil gives an indication it could be preeLate Cretaceous,
or it could be younger if the depositional environment received
Age-related biomarkers are frequently used by the oil and gas very little terrestrial input.
industry to constrain the age of petroleum with unknown source Observation of elevated 24-nordiacholestanes and 24-
rocks. However, the number of useful age-related chemical fossils is norcholestanes in Cretaceous or younger oils and sediments, rela-
still limited. Chemical fossils of diatoms may provide useful age- tive to their 27-nor analogs, indicated that the ratio of 24-nor to 27-
diagnostic compounds, especially since they evolved during that norcholestanes may be related to geologic age (Holba et al., 1998).
time period. For instance, highly branched isoprenoids are specific Oils derived from Tertiary and Cretaceous marine and lacustrine
diatom biomarkers, which so far have only been found in Late shales tend to have higher ratios than calcareous sources. The
Cretaceous, and younger, sediments (Sinninghe Damsté et al., response of deltaic sources appears to be dependent upon the level
2004). The age-diagnostic biomarkers applied in this study of dilution of the aquatic organic matter in the source by terrigenous
include oleananes, 24-norcholestanes and highly-branched organic matter. Table 4 lists the NCR and NDR ratios for a suite of
isoprenoids. crude oils and condensates from the offshore Nile Delta and the
Among the main striking features that distinguish the oils from Western Desert. The slightly elevated NCR and NDR values >0.3 in
the Nile Delta (Fig. 4) from those of the Western Desert is the Nile Delta oils signify Late Cretaceous continues into the Tertiary
relative abundance of oleanane, a biological marker diagnostic of sources as the highest NCR values (Table 4); whereas values mostly
higher plants. It has been suggested as a marker for angiosperms 0.25 for the Western Desert oils are consistent with the assertion of
(flowering plants) that originated in the Cretaceous but did not a Jurassic, or older age source rock. However, some of the Western
dominate the land until the Tertiary (Ekweozor et al., 1979; Peters Desert samples (WD-AIN4) have high NCR value (0.45) or the high
and Moldowan, 1993; Moldowan et al., 1994). The ratios of ole- NDR value (0.4) in WD-15 oil. In this respect, the applied source rock
anane to the ubiquitous microbial marker 17a(H)-hopane, provides is of Jurassic continuing into the Early Cretaceous (El Diasty and
information on the age of the source rock for oil (Moldowan et al., Moldowan, 2012). This result is consistent with the very low ETR
1994). Oleanane/hopane ratios over 0.20 are characteristic of Ter- values (Table 3) which reinforces the Jurassic age connotation.
tiary source rocks and oils. Oleanane can be absent from source Sinninghe Damsté et al. (2004) concluded that the molecular
rocks deposited far from angiosperm input. Application of oleanane record of C25 HBI chemical fossils in a large suite of well-dated
parameter to assess the angiosperm contribution to the source marine sediments and petroleum revealed that the older cluster,
rocks of the Nile Delta and Western Desert oils shows that the Nile composed of Rhizosolenid diatoms, evolved 91.5 1.5 million years
Delta oils with an oleanane index >0.20 were probably derived ago (Late Turonian). This enabled an accurate dating of the pace of
from Tertiary sources (Moldowan et al., 1994). Consequently, a diatom evolution that is unprecedented. The rapid rise of the Rhi-
sample from the Abu Qir basin (ND-1) with measurable oleanane zosolenid diatoms more than likely resulted from a major reorga-
concentration (<0.20) was almost certainly generated from Creta- nization of the nutrient budget in the mid-Cretaceous oceans,
ceous or early Tertiary source rocks. This finding is consistent with triggered by plate tectonics. Applying the HBI for age
discrimination between the Nile Delta and the Western Desert oils more sensitive to higher levels of thermal maturity than the sterane
(Table 3), the Nile Delta oils have HBI values near 100 ppm or stereoisomerization (Abbott et al., 1985; Mackenzie et al., 1988;
greater consistent with their Late Cretaceous or younger age, Peters and Moldowan, 1993). In this study we use the sum of all
whereas the other oils attain lower values conformable with source major C27eC29 monoaromatic steroids as MA (II) and C21 plus C22 as
rock age older than Cretaceous. Measured HBI concentration values MA (I) and C26eC28 triaromatic steroids as TA (II) and C20 plus C21 as
<50 ppm for the Western Desert oils are generally considered “nil.” TA (I).
Those values are below the typical threshold limits for recognizing The aromatic steroid ratios indicate the Western Desert oils are
HBI by analysis in the m/z 238 chromatogram due to other branched more mature than the Nile Delta oils (Fig. 11), which is in agreement
hydrocarbons that interfere with the measurement. with the sterane isomerization (Fig. 10) and other thermal-maturity
Biomarker parameters can be very useful in determining the indicators.
relative degree of thermal maturity of oil. Commonly used pa-
rameters such as C29aaa20S/C29aaa20R, Ts/Tm, moretane/hopane, 5. Conclusions
C32 hopane isomerization, and monoetriaromatic steroid indices
(Tables 3 and 4) are often used to assess the thermal maturity of oil Biomarkers are useful to differentiate oil/condensate families
(Moldowan et al., 1985; Waples and Machihara, 1990; Peters and and their inferred source rock characteristics between the Western
Moldowan, 1993). The analyzed oils and condensates can be Desert and the Nile Delta basins of Egypt (Table 5).
ranked by level of thermal maturity using a combination of thermal
maturity-related biomarker parameters (Tables 3 and 4). There are common characteristics that both of the two regions
The most distinguishable peaks in the ND-2 m/z 217 chromato- share and they are genetically related to source rocks con-
gram (Fig. 6) are the dominant 20R (biologic) epimers (peaks M, V) taining abundant terrigenous organic matter with varying
over the 20S (geological) epimers and the nearly indistinguishable proportions of terrestrialealgalebacterial organic matter.
diasteranes, both indicative of an oil sample of very low thermal The GC results indicate that oils from the Western Desert and
maturity. The sterane isomerization C29 20S/(20S/20R) and C29 bbS/ the Nile Delta regions were derived from two different types of
(bbS þ aaR) ratios are very low 0.13 and 0.21, respectively. Other source rocks. One consists of Jurassic continuing to Early
indicators of maturity [(low Ts/Tm ratio (0.29), high moretane/ Cretaceous non-marine terrestrial carbonaceous shales with
hopane (0.76), low C32 homohopane (0.28) value (Tables 3 and 4)] predominantly type-II/III kerogen, and the other comprises a
are all indicative of marginal or earliest oil-window maturity. Based Late Cretaceous/Tertiary more clastic-rich source with type-III
primarily upon the C29-sterane isomerization plot (Fig. 10), the Nile kerogen.
Delta oils show maturities less than the peak of the oil window. It is Most of the studied oil and condensate is void of any signal of
worthy to note here that the low maturity indicated by the sterane biodegradation except one sample from the Nile Delta basin
isomerization ratios is basically not surprising and commonly (ND-2 oil sample), which has experienced a moderate degree of
observed in Tertiary oils. These have been attributed to the short biodegradation based upon low API gravity, n-alkane concen-
heating times and rapid rates of subsidence and sedimentation for tration, and Pr/Ph ratio. Dominance of the non-hopanoid
the young source rocks in the Nile Delta, this may explain why all the pentacyclic triterpanes, e.g., oleananes and rearranged and
biomarker signatures are indicative of immature oils. On the other degraded oleananes, relative to hopane and the occurrence of
hand, most of the Western Desert oil shows maturity greater than 25-norhopane also suggest biodegradation effects.
the Nile Delta samples and is at or near the peak oil-generative stage. 18a-oleanane, a paleoenvironmental, organic matter type and
Ratios of monoaromatic and triaromatic steroids (Table 4), age indicator for the assessment of oileoil and oilesource rock
represented by MA-I/(MA-I þ MA-II) and TA-I/(TA-I þ TA-II), are correlations, is only detected in the Nile Delta oils. The high
oleanane indices corroborate a Late CretaceouseTertiary
Table 5
source rock, with terrigenous higher plant input including that
Summary of key biomarker ratios and characteristics of oil groups from the Nile
Delta and the Western Desert e Egypt. from angiosperms. Other age-related biomarker ratios
providing independent support for the age interpretation are
Properties e characteristics Nile Delta Western Desert
the high 24-nordiacholestane ratios and the high HBI. These
a
API >45 30e55 are also characteristic of oil from Late Cretaceous or Tertiary
a
Sulfur % <0.2 <0.5 source rocks.
b
Pr/Ph 2.61e5.74 1.22e4.97
Pr/n-C17 0.41e0.45 0.16e0.51
The Western Desert oil lacks oleanane, which in turn indicates
Ph/n-C18 0.11e0.19 0.05e0.48 absence of flowering higher plants and further suggests that
CPI 1.10e1.12 1.04e1.08 the source rock is Jurassic (presumably the Khatatba Forma-
a 13
d Csaturates (&) 28.0 25.5 tion) extends to Early Cretaceous. This is additionally sup-
a 13
d Caromatics (&) 27.0 23.5
ported by low C26 24-nordiacholestane ratios and negligible
C25/C26 Tricyclic terpanes 0.52e0.78 0.39e1.49
C35/C34 Homohopane 0.43e0.52 0.20e0.84 HBI concentrations.
Steranes/hopanes 0.10e0.18 0.11e2.38 The Western Desert oil contains more C30 24-n-propylcholes-
Thermal maturity Low High tanes than that from the Nile Delta, strongly suggesting marine
HBI High Absent depositional conditions for the source rock. However, some of
Oleananes Present Absent
C24 24-Nordiacholestanes High Low
the ND oils (TNW-5 and ND-3) have high C30 steranes, which
Age Late JurassiceEarly implies some contribution from a marine environment.
CretaceouseTertiary Cretaceous Based upon saturate and aromatic maturity related biomarkers,
Lithology Non-marine Non-marine the Western Desert oils generated at a higher thermal maturity
shales shaleseCalcareous
than those of the Nile Delta oils.
shale
Redox Oxic Dysoxiceoxic
Kerogen Type-III Type-IIIeType-II/III Acknowledgments
a
Data compiled from various sources including Zein El Din et al., 1990; EGPC,
1994, Halim et al., 1996. The funding for this study was provided by Molecular Organic
b
Data from ND-2 sample are excluded in these results. Geochemistry Industrial Affiliates (MOGIA) of Stanford University
and the study itself was conducted in the Molecular Organic 2008. Crude-oil biodegradation via methanogenesis in subsurface petroleum
reservoirs. Nature 451, 176e180.
Geochemistry Laboratory at Stanford. We would like to thank E. Idiz
Kamel, H., Eita, T., Sarhan, M., 1998. Nile Delta hydrocarbon potentiality. In: Pro-
(SHELL International) who provided a portion of the crude oil and ceedings of the 14th Egyptian General Petroleum Corporation Exploration and
condensate samples used in this study. We also want to thank F. Production Conference, Cairo, Egypt, pp. 485e503.
Fago and D. Zinniker (Stanford University) for their significant Keeley, M.L., Dungworth, G., Floyd, C.S., Forbes, G.A., King, C., McGarva, R.M.,
Shaw, D., 1990. The Jurassic system in northern Egypt: I. Regional stratigraphy
assistance with instrumentation and analytical work. Additionally, and implications for hydrocarbon prospectivity. Journal of Petroleum Geology
we appreciate the efforts of S. El Beialy (Mansoura University). We 13, 397e420.
thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive reviews Kennicutt, I.M., Mcdonald, T.J., Comet, P.A., Denoux, G.J., Brooks, J.M., 1991. The or-
igins of petroleum in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Geochimca et Cosmochimica
which helped improve this manuscript. Lastly, we are grateful to Acta 56, 1259e1280.
the SHELL and BP oil companies, for permitting the use of some of Larter, S.R., Wilhelms, A., Head, I., Koopmans, M., Aplin, A., di Primio, R., Zwach, C.,
the materials used in this study. Erdmann, M., Telnaes, N., 2003. The controls on the composition of biodegraded
oils in the deep subsurface, part 1, biodegradation rates in petroleum reservoirs.
Organic Geochemistry 34, 601e613.
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Marine and Petroleum Geology 46 (2013) 319e334

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Marine and Petroleum Geology

The Western Desert versus Nile Delta: A comparative molecular

2D Seismic lines coverage 1200000

Nile Delta - Western Desert

MOROUG-1 ODP-Ho lo-967E

SOLAR-1 SIMIAN-DP TAALA B-1

EPD-1 AMER-51 GIHAN-1

Abu Gharadig Basin

Waxiness content ¼ S(n-C21en-C31)/S(n-C15en-C20).

Main biomarker region

Western Desert samples

EG - ND - TNW5 well EG - ND - TNW5 well EG - ND - TNW5 well

EG - WD - AlN4 well EG - WD - AlN4 well EG - WD - AlN4 well

EG - WD-11 well EG - WD-11 well EG - WD-11 well

1984; Moldowan et al., 1990). Aerobic conditions could be domi-

N Well name Region A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q

N Well name Region A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q

EG - ND-2 well Oleanane

C29Ts 30-Norneohopane + C2930-Norhopane

Tr23 Tr24 Tet24 Homohopanes

% C28 Nile Delta samples

Western Desert samples

Western Desert samples

Jurassic oils Tertiary oils

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Western Desert samples

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