Goyal2017 Gas Sensor

Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience
Recent Advances and Progress in Photonic Crystal Based Gas Sensors
This content has been downloaded from IOPscience. Please scroll down to see the full text.
Download details:
IP Address: 193.140.216.7
This content was downloaded on 25/03/2017 at 15:07
Manuscript version: Accepted Manuscript

Goyal et al
To cite this article before publication: Goyal et al, 2017, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., at press:
https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6463/aa68d3
This Accepted Manuscript is: © 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd
During the embargo period (the 12 month period from the publication of the Version of Record of this
article), the Accepted Manuscript is fully protected by copyright and cannot be reused or reposted
elsewhere.
As the Version of Record of this article is going to be / has been published on a subscription basis,
this Accepted Manuscript is available for reuse under a CC BY-NC-ND 3.0 licence after a 12 month embargo
period.
After the embargo period, everyone is permitted to use all or part of the original content in this
article for non-commercial purposes, provided that they adhere to all the terms of the licence
https://creativecommons.org/licences/by-nc-nd/3.0
Although reasonable endeavours have been taken to obtain all necessary permissions from third parties to
include their copyrighted content within this article, their full citation and copyright line may not be
present in this Accepted Manuscript version. Before using any content from this article, please refer to
the Version of Record on IOPscience once published for full citation and copyright details, as
permissions will likely be required. All third party content is fully copyright protected, unless
specifically stated otherwise in the figure caption in the Version of Record.
When available, you can view the Version of Record for this article at:
http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6463/aa68d3
Page 1 of 24 AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - JPhysD-111826.R1
1 Recent Advances and Progress in Photonic Crystal Based Gas Sensor

2
3 Amit Kumar Goyala,b,*, Hemant Sankar Duttaa,b, and Suchandan Pala,b.
a
4 Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-CEERI Campus, Pilani-333031, India
pt
b
5 CSIR - Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, Pilani-333031, Rajasthan, India
*
6 Corresponding author: [email protected]
7
8 Abstract:
9
cri
10
This review covers the recent progress made in the photonic crystal based sensing technology for gas sensing
11
12 application. Photonic crystal based sensing has tremendous potential because of its obvious advantages in
13 sensitivity, stability, miniaturisation, portability, on-line use, remote monitoring etc. Several one-dimensional
14 and two-dimensional photonic crystal structures including photonic crystal waveguides and cavities for gas
15 sensing application have been discussed in this review. For each kind of photonic crystal structure, the novelty,
16 measurement principle, and their respective gas sensing properties are presented. The reported works and the
us
17 corresponding results predict the possibility to realize a commercially viable miniaturized and highly sensitive
18
photonic crystal based optical gas sensors having flexibility in structure of ultra-compact size with excellent
19
20 sensing properties.
21
22 Keywords: Gas sensors, Photonic crystals, Photonic crystal cavity, Photonic crystal waveguide
23
24
25
26
27
28
1. Introduction
an
Tremendous research works are being carried out for last couple of decades in the field of inexpensive, accurate
and reliable gas sensors those are capable of measuring very low concentration of analytes. Optical sensors
exhibits immunity to electromagnetic interference, rapid response time, room temperature operation and offline
dM
29 monitoring where signal can be monitored at far from sensing location [1, 2]. This makes optical sensors a
30
promising device for gas sensing applications. Although conventional optical sensors possess high selectivity,
31
32 stability and real time detection capability, still photonic crystal (PhC) based sensing technique takes a lead
33 because of its compact structure and intricate light confinement capability [3, 4, 5]. The integration of
34 microfluidics with PhC technology promotes optical sensors with very high sensitivity, good limit of detection
35 (LOD) and detection multiplexing capability.
36 The most widely used technique for optical gas sensing is the absorption spectroscopy. This is highly
37 sensitive, however, it requires a long absorption length. Particularly, in the context of miniaturized absorption
38
spectrometers for lab-on chip applications, absorption detection may not be sensitive enough due to its short
39
absorption length. PhC structures recently attracted wide attention because of its capabilities of slowing down
pte
40
41 and confining the light. This results in an enhanced light-matter interaction leading to improvement in the
42 sensitivity. This light–matter interaction relies on the strength of interaction between the optical field and the
43 sample [6]. When light slows down, the optical energy is spatially compressed. This enhances the field
44 intensity, and correspondingly reduces the requirement of either the optical energy or the active length to
45 observe the same linear and nonlinear effects [7].
46 In order to realize the commercially viable PhC-based gas sensor in lab-on-chip, the next generation gas
47
sensors are expected to be miniaturized, portable and low cost, having capability of detecting minute gas
48
ce
49 concentrations in real time. In this context, PhC-based gas sensors have the ability to offer all these aspects and
50 provide a new insight in optical gas sensing technologies. In this review, an overview of optical gas sensors
51 based on PhC structures is introduced. This provides a new vision for further research on gas sensing
52 applications. The paper is organized as follows: In Section 2, various PhC-based structures and their optical
53 properties are analyzed and discussed. Sections 3 provides the detailed description of PhC-based gas sensing
Ac
54 mechanism. Various gas sensing structures based on PhC waveguides and PhC cavities and their sensing
55
properties are presented. Finally, in section 4, fabrication challenges in PhC-based devices are discussed.
56
57
58
59
60
AUTHOR SUBMITTED MANUSCRIPT - JPhysD-111826.R1 Page 2 of 24
1 2. Optical Properties of Photonic Crystal

2
3 PhCs are periodically structured dielectric materials exhibiting anomalous optical properties. The structural
4 variation in refractive index (RI) generates a photonic bandgap, analogous to the concepts in solid-state physics
pt
5 where the periodically arranged atoms possess an electronic bandgap. The photonic bandgap corresponds to a
6
range of frequencies that are prohibited to propagate inside the periodically varying dielectric medium.
7
8 Constructive and destructive interferences at the boundaries of the contrasting material are responsible for the
9 generation of the photonic bandgap [8]. The periodicity in PhCs can be in one, two or all three spatial
cri
10 dimensions. The proper arrangement of periodicity in PhC can lead to intricate manipulation of light
11 propagation.
12 1D-PhCs possess the photonic bandgap along the direction of periodicity. These structures can be formed
13 by placing alternating dielectric stacks periodically [9] or by etching a row of holes in an otherwise perfect
14 waveguide [10]. 2D-PhCs can be realized either by growing dielectric rods or by etching holes in a higher
15
dielectric material periodically in two-dimensions [11]. The periodicity is usually in square lattice, triangular
16
lattice or hexagonal lattice for any of the configurations: dielectric rods in air or air holes in dielectric material
us
17
18 [12]. Etching holes in dielectric material is easier to fabricate, thus is most commonly used. 3D-PhCs have
19 periodicity in all the three dimensions and exhibit a complete bandgap. 3D-PhCs are also found in nature, for
20 example, opals and insect scales [11]. Although, 3D-PhCs have many interesting applications, however,
21 fabrication of these types of structures is challenging. At the same time, they have limited applications in the
22 area of gas sensing and therefore are not been discussed in this paper. Interested readers may go through the
23
24
25
26
27
28
references [13, 14, 15].
2.1 Photonic Crystal Band Structure an

A homogenous material with no spatial RI variations possesses a straight line in the dispersion diagram.
dM
29 Inducing periodicity in the RI variation leads to coupling of optical modes at the crossing points of the folded
30 dispersion diagram i.e. the Brillouin zone edge [16]. The periodic RI contrast diffracts the propagating light. At
31 certain locations in the dispersion curve, the forward and the backward propagating modes couple each other by
32 means of the reciprocal lattice vector. This coupling splits the originally degenerate state into two states of
33
different frequencies. This results in absence of states for some band of frequencies that causes the generation of
34
35 photonic bandgap [17]. The photonic band diagram for the bulk material and material having RI contrast in 1D-
36 PhCs is shown in Fig. 1. In the case of bulk material, bandgap is missing; however, it appeared with the
37 presence of RI contrast. The width of the bandgap is also a function of RI contrast. The higher the RI contrast,
38 wider is the bandgap.
39
pte
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 1: Photonic band diagram for 1D PhC (a) Bulk material (b) Material having RI contrast
Ac
54
55 2D-PhC has periodicity in two-dimensions and exhibits the same principles as 1D-PhC for the formation of
56 photonic bandgap. However, the complexity in the dispersion diagram increases because of anisotropic nature
57 of PhC, and henceforth, needs to be specified in all possible propagation directions. The generated bandgap is
58 highly polarization-dependent. The hole-structure in high-dielectric material (connected region) favours TE-
59
60
1 bandgap [shown in Fig. 2(a)] whereas the rod-structure in low-dielectric material (isolated region) favours TM-
2 bandgap [shown in Fig. 2(b)] [18, 19]. Annular or ring-type PhC has the strengths of both isolated and
3 connected regions. Ring-type PhC can be realized by considering high-dielectric rods inside the low-dielectric
4 holes [20, 21]. Thus, it generates bandgap for both TE-polarized and TM-polarized light, as shown in Fig. 2(c).
pt
5
It is noteworthy to mention that careful designing of ring-type PhC can even lead to polarization independent
6
7 bandgap. The TM or TE bandgap size can be altered by varying the size of either the high dielectric rods or the
8 low dielectric holes. The size of high dielectric rods (or low dielectric hole) can be enlarged to increase the TM
9 (or TE) bandgap so that a substantial overlap in the bandgap is obtained, which leads to a polarization
cri
10 independent operation [22]. In practice, ring-type PhCs are considered for very specific applications [23, 24,
11 25], otherwise, in general applications, hole-type PhCs structure is commonly used. For analysis, an SOI
12 substrate having silicon (RI=3.45) guiding layer of thickness 220nm, buried oxide layer (RI=1.45) of thickness
13
2μm on a silicon substrate is considered, which gives the effective index of around 2.805. Therefore, a dielectric
14
15 slab of RI 2.805 is considered for dispersion analysis using plane wave expansion (PWE) method.
16
us
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
Fig. 2: Band structure of (a) hole-type PhC (b) rod-type PhC and (c) ring-type PhC structure. The structure is designed on a
dM
29 dielectric slab of RI 2.805 having following design parameters: lattice period, a =473nm, hole or rod radius, r =0.35a, ring
30 outer radius, rout =0.45a and ring inner radius, rin =0.24a. Insets show the lattice of the structure considered. Cyan-colored
31 band indicates bandgap for TE polarization and magenta-colored band indicates the TM bandgap
32
33 2.2 Defects in Photonic Crystals
34
35 Photonic bandgap in PhC prohibits propagation of light in the material. Frequencies falling in the bandgap are
36 not allowed to propagate due to inexistence of the optical modes and hence acts like a mirror. Nevertheless,
37 introducing some defects within structure can alter the dispersion diagram hence allow some of the mode to
38 propagates in the bandgap. The defect can be introduced by modifying either a single lattice point or a complete
39 row of hole. In case of hole-type PhC structure, increasing the hole-radius pulls a defect-mode from the low-
pte
40
frequency dielectric-band and reducing or completely removing a hole-radius pulls a defect-mode from the
41
42 high-frequency air-band.
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53
Ac
54
55
56 Fig. 3: Band structure of PhC structure (a) no defect (b) single lattice defect or cavity. Insets shows the super cell used in
57 calculating the dispersion curve for designed PhC structure on a dielectric slab of RI 2.805 having hole radius, r =0.35a and
58 lattice period, a=473nm.
59
60
1 The dispersion diagram of the PhC structure with and without point defect is shown in Fig. 3. The
2 calculation is performed by considering supercell approach that accounts the defect inside it. The size of
3 supercell is chosen in order to have a minimum amount of adjacent coupling due to the periodic boundary
4 conditions. Multiple point defect can also generate various localized defect modes, where the number of defect
pt
5
modes is only limited by the case when the spectral separation amongst the modes disappears. PhC cavity can
6
7 be designed to obtain high quality factor (Q) and very low modal volume, which is significant in many
8 applications [26, 27].
9 The defects can also be incorporated in a linear fashion to form a line defect PhC waveguide (PhCW). Line
cri
10 defect can be formed by eliminating or altering a row of holes (or row of rods) in case of hole-type PhCW (or
11 rod-type PhCW). This is used to propagate light from one point to another by generating a localized optical
12 mode in the bandgap region, as shown in Fig. 4. The guided modes of a PhCW have even or odd spatial
13
symmetry with respect to the center of the waveguide. In general, the modes with even spatial symmetry are
14
15 known as even mode. In contrast, the modes with odd spatial symmetry are termed as odd mode. Light falling
16 in the bandgap of the PhC structure is guided using the photonic bandgap effect from one point to another.
us
17 This effect has been utilized in realizing very low loss tight optical bends [28]. Moreover, the backscattering
18 due to the irregular boundaries in the waveguide region, leads to light wave propagation with a very low group
19 velocity thus producing slow-light, which promotes miniaturization of various optical devices.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38 Fig. 4: Band structure of (a) PhC structure and (b) line defect PhCW. Shaded area represents the modes out of the photonic
39 bandgap region. Inset shows the unit cell/supercell considered in the bandgap calculation for the designed PhC structure on
pte
40 a dielectric slab of RI 2.805 having hole radius, r =0.35a and lattice period, a=473nm.
41
42 3. Sensing of Gases using Photonic Crystals Structures
43
44 Gaseous analytes have a very weak interaction with light because of their dilute nature, which in turn
45 necessitates relatively long interaction paths (10 to 50 cm) or large interaction volume in order to determine
46
concentrations in ppm range. Such long interaction volume leads to relatively large dimensions of sensor
47
48 devices and also needs large amount of gaseous analyte for accurate results. Whereas, PhC-based sensor needs
ce
49 very small interaction volume to obtain the same results because of its intrinsic properties as already explained
50 above. A comparison of schematics of conventional gas sensor and PhC-based gas sensor has been displayed
51 in Fig. 5.
52
53
Ac
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
1
2
3
4
pt
5
6
7
8
9
cri
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
us
17 Fig. 5: Comparison of conventional gas sensor with PhC-based gas sensor (adapted from reference [29])
18
When a light beam passes through the gas chamber the corresponding light intensity at detector can be
19
20 expressed by
21
𝐼 = 𝐼0 e(−𝛼𝛾𝐿) (1)
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
where α is absorption coefficient of material, γ is enhancement factor, and L is light-matter interaction length.
Sensitivity is directly affected by interaction length; more the interaction length higher is the sensitivity.
Although in PhC-based sensor, the interaction length is very small than conventional gas sensor, still it gives a
comparable or higher sensitivity, which is because of minute absorption losses. So, decrease in interaction
length is compensated by increase in enhancement factor as indicated by Eq. (2).
dM
29 𝑐⁄
𝑛
30 𝛾=𝑓∗ (2)
𝑣𝑔
31
32 where 𝑓 is filling factor, c is velocity of light, 𝑛 is RI of slab material, and 𝑣𝑔 is group velocity. Higher the
33
34 filling factor and lower the group velocity, the enhancement factor will be improved; hence compensates low
35 interaction length problem. Sensitivity can further be enhanced by increasing the interaction time that inversely
36 depends on the group velocity that is given by
37
38 𝑣𝑔 = 𝜕𝜔�𝜕𝑘 (3)
39
Here 𝜔 is normalized frequency, which is expressed as
pte
40
41
42 𝜔 = 𝑎�𝜆 (4)
43
44 Therefore, wherever photonic bandgaps are flat, group velocity of light is small, which provides large
45 interaction time hence higher sensitivity. The optical properties of PhC also highly depend on the RI contrast
46 used to realize the structure. The bandgap and henceforth the transmission characteristics directly is a function
47 of the RI contrast. This feature has been exploited to realize PhC-based RI sensors [30, 31]. The phenomenon
48
ce
of small perturbation in dielectric constant (Δε) can be analyzed using the first-order electromagnetic
49
perturbation theory. Applying first-order perturbation theory to the master equation derived from the
50
51 Maxwell’s equation [32]
52 𝜔 ∫ 𝑑 3 𝑟∆𝜀(𝑟) |𝐸(𝑟)|2
53 ∆𝜔 = − (5)
2 ∫ 𝑑 3 𝑟𝜀(𝑟)|𝐸(𝑟)|2
Ac
54
55 This can be further rearranged as,
56
𝜔 ∆𝜀
57 ∆𝜔 = − . . 𝑓1 (6)
2 𝜀
58
59
60
1 ∆𝜔 ∆𝑛
=− . 𝑓1 (7)
𝜔 𝑛
2
3 where 𝑓1 is the fraction of energy in perturbed region. It is evident from above equations that a fractional
4
change in the RI of the PhC structure results in fractional change in the frequency of the optical mode. This
pt
5
6 property has been utilized in gas sensing purposes, as infiltration of various gases will change the RI contrast
7 of the PhC structure. Minute difference in the RI of various gases is even enough for detection as PhC enables
8 light localization that enhances the light-matter interactions and thus the sensitivity.
9 As seen from Eq. (7), the incremental change in the RI leads to a decrement in the frequency of the optical
cri
10 mode. Since, the frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength; increase in RI, increases the wavelength
11 of transmission as well. For better understanding, hole-type PhC structure is being chosen to analyze. This is
12 because the voids in the hole-type structure can easily be infiltrated with analytes leading to better light-matter
13
interaction for RI based sensing applications. The interaction is enhanced by incorporating defects (point and
14
15 line defects) so that localization of light is obtained. Initially, PhC cavity (formed by removing a lattice
16 completely) is analyzed by using plane wave expansion (PWE) method. It can be seen evidently from Fig. 6(a)
us
17 and 6(b) that as the analyte of RI 1.33 is infiltrated i.e. RI of the holes is increased by 33%, the cavity modes
18 move to a lower frequency. Similar is the case with the line defect PhCW as seen from Fig. 6(c) and 6(d).
19 However, it is noteworthy to mention that the amount of shift for the PhCW is much smaller than that of the
20 PhC-cavity. This can be ascertained to the reason being the dispersion curve flat in the PhC-cavity structure.
21
Flat dispersion curve indicates very low group velocity close to zero. Therefore, the zero-group velocity in PhC-
22
cavity increases the light-matter interaction significantly and henceforth the sensitivity.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
pte
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53
Fig. 6: Dispersion curve of PhC-based (a) cavity without analyte infiltration (b) infiltrating the cavity with RI 1.33 analyte
Ac
54
55 (c) line defect waveguide without analyte infiltration and (d) line defect waveguide infiltrated with analyte of RI 1.33. The
56 structure is designed considering a dielectric slab of RI 2.805 having following design parameters: lattice period, a =473nm,
57 and hole radius, r =0.35a.
58
59
60
1 The performance of a gas sensor is measured by limit of detection (LOD), sensitivity and selectivity. The
2 structure having the lowest LOD and the highest sensitivity is desirable because it enables the detection of very
3 small concentration of analytes. Whereas, highly selective gas sensor enables the detection of very minute
4 amounts of the gaseous analyte in a mixture of several other gases. By creating different types of line and point
pt
5
defects, various PhC sensor structures have been proposed for gas sensing. This paper reviews such recent PhC-
6
7 based structures and mechanism, which provides a new insight in developing, advanced optical gas sensors.
8
9 3.1 Gas Sensing Based on Photonic Crystal Waveguide
cri
10
11 To begin with, we analyze the property of PhCW, which is formed by removing a row of air holes from the
12 perfect PhC in Γ-K direction. Introduction of line defect enables to tailor the group velocity and dispersion
13 properties for light, i.e., propagation inside the PhCW. The group velocity is affected by backscattering and
14 omnidirectional reflections within PhCW [33] and obtains its minimum value (ideally zero) near the edge of the
15 Brillouin zone on dispersion curve. Fig. 7(a) shows a simple PhC structure without any defect, whereas Fig.
16
7(b) indicates formed PhCW structure. The dispersion relation having even and odd guided modes with their
us
17
18 corresponding modal field distribution is shown in Fig. 7(c), which further reveals a dramatic reduction is group
19 velocity at the vicinity of the band edge.
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
pte
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53 Fig. 7: (a) Schematic of designed PhC structure without any defect, (b) PhCW structure formed by removing a single row of
Ac
54 hole in Γ-K direction, and (c) Dispersion diagram and corresponding field distribution for even mode. The structure is
55 designed by embedding the circular holes of radius, r=0.35a having lattice spacing, a=473nm within a dielectric slab of RI
56 2.805.
57
58
59
60
1 The model field distribution is checked at three different points indicated by red (A), blue (B), and green
2 (C) circles. The mode profile for red circle (point A) is seen to be well-confined in the waveguide core, whereas
3 by entering into the slow-light regime (blue circle, point B), the mode starts to penetrate into the PhC cladding.
4 Eventually, the field becomes concentrated in adjacent row of holes (green circle, point C). Thus, to enhance
pt
5
light-matter interaction, this is the region of main interest. This concept has further been explored to achieve
6
7 high-sensitive and miniature sensors [34, 35, 36]. As also discussed previously, for PhC hole structure TE-like
8 polarized light can be strongly confined in waveguide region both in-plane direction (horizontally by PBG) and
9 out-plane direction (vertically by total internal reflection), having very less leakage of light. Therefore,
cri
10 modification of the waveguide region can increase the light-matter interaction. Various modification approaches
11 like inserting defect hole or defect rings in the waveguide region of the PhCW have been proposed to enhance
12 the sensitivity.
13
Based on slow-light properties, Awad et al [37] have proposed a PhCW based gas sensor structure in 2011
14
15 for detection of Argon and Helium gases and reported a 0.6nm and 0.05nm shift in cutoff wavelength for
16 Helium and Argon gas respectively. In particular, the interaction between the slow-light mode propagating in
us
17 the structure and the gas infiltrated in it, is transduced by the waveguide effective RI changes, resulting in
18 changes of slow-light regime wavelength. In 2012, Zhao et al [38] have reported a technique by combining the
19 PhC slow-light waveguide technology and the harmonic detection signal processing method for gas sensing. A
20 detectable concentration of CO gas down to 21.5 ppm is reported for the active region of 1 mm. A. Kumar et al
21 [39] have proposed a PhC-based bi-periodic waveguide structure, where an array of super-cavity is used to pass
22
the resonance wavelength through the waveguide. This structure shows a minimum detection limit of about
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
0.0001 RIU having a sensitivity of around 610nm/RIU.
The interaction among light and gaseous species can be improved by altering slow-light property of PhC
structure by using ring-shaped hole. Authors in reference [4] have proposed a PhCW structure based on ring-
shaped PhC for gas sensing applications. The effect of ring etch depth is also analyzed and reported a
513nm/RIU sensitivity for 50nm over etching in buried oxide layer (under cladding). This is because of
dM
29 enhancement of guided mode near the core-cladding interface. However, etching of the buried oxide layer
30
beyond a certain thickness leads to degradation in sensitivity. Further extending this work, Benelarbi et al [40]
31
32 have reported an improved sensitivity of value of 606nm/RIU by selective infiltration of adjacent two row of
33 PhCW.
34 However, in all the discussed PhCW structures, light is confined in high RI material where light-matter
35 interaction is not sufficient. The interaction can be enhanced by confining light in low RI material. This is
36 obtained by introducing an air-slot within PhCW structure, which has high potential for sensing applications.
37 Since the demonstration of this concept, a lot of research has been carried out to explore its application in
38 sensing [41, 42, 43]. Low group velocity combined with high electric field intensity in the slot leads to
39
significant reduction in the interaction length required to sense samples in slotted photonic crystal waveguide
pte
40
41 (SPhCW). Reference [44] has experimentally demonstrated 300µm long silicon PhC slot waveguide for
42 methane gas sensing application and has successfully measured 100ppm gas concentration in nitrogen using
43 absorption spectroscopy technique. However, the high group index is highly frequency dependent and easily
44 affected by surrounding perturbation. Therefore, PhCW having both high group index and large operating
45 bandwidth is needed to enhance applicability of gas sensors. Ya-nan Zhang et al [45] have worked in this area
46 and presented a SPhCW based gas sensor for acetylene gas and used spectroscopy method for signal processing.
47
This structure possesses a detection limit of about 1ppm having 1mm interaction length. Extending their work,
48
ce
49 the authors further demonstrated an enhanced detection limit of about 3.15ppm for acetylene gas considering
50 300µm long active region [46] by modifying adjacent row of SPhCW. Although the presented structure has
51 very good detection limit, still it is not widely used because of very low fabrication tolerance. Later, authors
52 proposed a method to overcome this problem by selective infiltrating two row of hole adjacent to SPhCW with
53 liquids of different RI [47]. Liquids are selected such that the structure possesses overall large group index with
Ac
54 tunability in slow-light properties. By tuning the working wavelength to match the absorption peaks of different
55 gases, authors showed the detection of CO, CO2, and H2S gases with high sensitivity. At the same time, new
56
optimization methods (post fabrication optimization) have also been proposed to optimize SPhCW without
57
58
59
60
1 affecting their potential in gas sensing [48, 49, 50, 51]. Table 1 provides a comparison of recently reported PhC
2 waveguide structure for gas sensing.
3
4 Table 1: Comparison of various reported PhC waveguide structures
pt
5 Schematic Design S Detection Material Application Year Reference
6 Limit Referred/ RI
7 Range
8
9 - 3.15 ppm SOI Acetylene 2013 [46]
cri
10 Sensing
11
12
13 - 1.56ppm SOI CO, CO2, 2013 [47]
14 H2S Sensing
15
16
us
17 513 0.0001 RIU SOI N2, H2, NH3, 2015 [4]
18
(nm/RIU) O2 Sensing
19
20
21
22 610 0.0001 RIU Si Sensing in RI 2015 [39]
23
24
25
26
27
28
(nm/RIU)
606
(nm/RIU)
an
0.0001 RIU Si
range of
1.00-1.002
Sensing in RI
range of
1.00-1.50
2016 [40]
dM
29
30
31 181 - SOI Acetylene 2017 [52]
32 Sensing
33
34
35
36
3.2 Gas sensing based on Photonic Crystal Cavity
37
38
39 PhC cavity based RI sensors are widely explored for sensing of aqueous analytes [53, 54], however, because of
their inherent trait, nowadays a tremendous research has also been carried out in gas sensing applications. Gas
pte
40
41 sensor based on PhC cavity has been widely used for detection of low concentration gaseous species. For gas
42 sensing applications quality factor (Q), sensitivity (S), mode volume (V), signal strength and LOD are
43 considered as characteristic parameters. Quality factor is proportional to energy stored inside the cavity
44 structure whereas mode volume is related to size of cavity. However, there is a trade-off between sensitivity
45
and quality factor: the optical mode should be distributed more into the target analytes to achieve a higher S,
46
47 whereas, in order to obtain a high Q, the confinement of the optical mode in the wave guiding medium has to be
48 large. Sensitivity can also be defined as ratio of shift in resonance wavelength with change in RI and may be
ce
49 expressed as.
50 ∆𝜆 Γ𝜆𝑟
𝑆= = (8)
51 ∆𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓
52 where S in the sensitivity, Γ is the spatial overlap factor between the cavity mode and the analytes, λr is the
53 cavity resonant wavelength, and neff is the effective RI experienced by the cavity mode. Similarly, the mode
Ac
54 volume (Vmode) of cavity can be described by [55]

55
56 ∭ 𝑑 3 𝑟⃗∈(𝑟⃗)|𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 (𝑟⃗)|2
𝑉𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 = (9)
57 𝑚𝑎𝑥{∈(𝑟⃗)|𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 (𝑟⃗)|2 }
58 where, ∈ (𝑟⃗)is the RI variation in space, and 𝐸𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 (𝑟⃗) is the electric field profile of the mode.
59
60
1 Normally, SOI substrate is used to design PhC-based slab structures, where vertical light confinement is not
2 perfect because of asymmetric claddings. This reduces the vertical confinement of light and increases the
3 radiation losses in vertical direction, which is described by Qver [56]. Similarly, in horizontal direction also the
4 confinement is not perfect as losses are present because of a finite number of layers surrounding the defect that
pt
5
is described by Qlat [57]. The lateral loss can be compensated by increasing number of surrounding layers to
6
7 defects. Hence, the vertical loss determines the overall quality factor of PhC cavity. The LOD inversely depends
8 on both Q and S. Therefore, a PhC cavity having both higher S and Q is desirable to have good LOD value. PhC
9 cavity based gas sensors having very high quality factor, sensitivity and limit of detection have been widely
cri
10 explored. Although conventional PhC waveguide based sensors are well known but cavity sensors are used
11 because of their lowest mode volume, which require very less amount of analytes for sensing. This type of
12 sensor can be used to detect very minute concentration of gaseous analytes (i.e. monitoring baby breath system
13
or detecting very small leakage).
14
15
3.2.1 Two-dimensional Photonic Crystal Cavities
16
us
17 Most of PhC cavity designs rely on either formation of an acceptor or donor type point defect or trapping the
18
light in very small area by structure modification (i.e. by creating hetero-structures). Normally in PhC, bands
19
20 above and below a bandgap are distinguished by low ϵ region (air band) and high ϵ region (dielectric band)
21 similar to conduction and valence band of semiconductor. By increasing the radius of the central hole, an
22 acceptor defect state is pulled from the dielectric band into the band-gap [58], while by decreasing the radius of
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
the center hole, a donor defect state is pulled into the band-gap from the air band. Acceptors tend to concentrate
their electric field energy density in regions where the larger RI is located in the unperturbed PhC, while the
electric field energy density of donors is to its contrary. Based on this, various types of two-dimensional PhC
cavities like simple PhC cavity see fig. 8(a) [59], Ln (n≥3) cavity see fig. 8(b) [60, 61, 62], coupled cavity
optical waveguide (side-coupled cavity) see fig. 8(c) [63, 64], and hetero-structure cavity (mode-gap cavity) see
fig. 8(d) [65] have been reported.
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
pte
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47 Fig. 8: Schematic of PhC cavity structure widely used for gas sensing applications: (a) Simple PhC cavity structure [59], (b)
48 Ln (n =1,2,3..) PhC cavity [62], (c) Side-coupled PhC cavity [63], (d) Hetero-structure PhC cavity [65]
ce
49
Fig. 8(a) shows the simplest kind of PhC cavity, formed by introducing a point defect (donor defect) into
50
51 the unperturbed periodic PhC slab, which involves a modification of a single hole inside the crystal. As a result
52 of the defect, the translational symmetry of the PhC is broken. For appropriate defect dimensions and position,
53 localized modes can arise; those have frequencies inside the photonic bandgap. PhC line defect cavity (Ln PhC
Ac
54 cavity) is an extension of a point defect cavity, as shown in Fig. 8(b), where ‘n’ numbers of point defects are
55 introduced. In most applications, these types of cavities are coupled vertically by shining light on top. The Ln
56 PhC cavity possesses larger mode volume and much lower quality factor than point defect PhC cavity. In-line
57 coupling (side coupling) concepts exist, however, these are rarely used. This is because the coupling waveguide
58
59
60
1 distorts the symmetry of the point defect cavity and thus splits the resonances; a schematics of side-coupled
2 PhC cavity structure is shown in Fig. 8(c). Finally Fig. 8(d) represents PhC hetero-structure cavity, which is
3 designed by varying lattice hole diameter and forming two PhC structures PhC1 and PhC2. PhC2 act as cavity
4 whereas PhC1 is used as a mirror for the designed PhC cavity structure.
pt
5
Particularly, PhC cavities that are formed either by point defect or structure modification, exhibit strong
6
7 confinement of a local mode in defect area and have long photon lifetime leading to an enhanced light-matter
8 interaction. Because of this increased interaction, the resonance wavelength of the optical mode becomes highly
9 sensitive to local changes in their surrounding medium. In addition, PhC cavity with small sensing area (< 10
cri
10 μm2) only requires very minute amount of target analytes [66]. Therefore, many optical sensors based on PhC
11 cavity on SOI substrate have been proposed and utilized to monitor the gaseous species.
12
13
14
A. Photonic crystal based line defect cavity (Ln PhC cavity)
15 This type of PhC cavity structure has been widely explored for gas sensing applications. Sensitivity and quality
16
factor mainly depends on the number of perturbed lattice hole. As number of perturbed lattice hole (‘n’)
us
17
18 increases, quality factor also increases. Initially, Rajisankar et al [67] have designed Ln (n=3) cavity for sensing
19 in mid-IR range (at 4.4µm) to detect gases because most of gases have their characteristic absorption peak in
20 mid-IR range. However, because of cost of source and detector of mid-IR region, most of the work has been
21 carried out in near-IR region using RI based sensing mechanism. To increase light-matter interaction, various
22 approaches have been proposed, which enhances the capability of this structure for gas sensing applications.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
Authors in reference [68] have designed a slot Ln (n=9) cavity where ‘n’ number of holes are replaced by an air-
slot inside the cavity structure and reported a quality factor of about 30000 having 421nm/RIU sensitivity based
on the experimental analysis. Yazhao Liu et al [69] have introduced additional rectangular slots within Ln
cavity. The surroundings were optimized to enhance light-matter interaction in order to improve the quality
factor and the sensitivity. Authors experimentally showed a sensitivity of about 195nm/RIU for water and oil
dM
29 sample having 23.5nm shift in resonance wavelength. A schematic diagram of Ln (n=4) cavity having single air-
30 slot and number of rectangular slot is shown in Fig. 9(a) and 9(b).
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
pte
40
41
42 Fig. 9: Schematic of different PhC Ln cavity structures (a) PhC Ln cavity with air-slot [68], (b) PhC Ln cavity with four
43 number of rectangular slot [69]
44
45 Recently, the reference [70] has proposed a PhC Ln (n=3) cavity based spectrometer to measure absorption
46 spectra of both acetylene and hydrogen cyanide within 100nm band. Temperature dependency of resonance
47 wavelength of structure is tested and 0.07nm / ͦC shift in resonance wavelength is reported. This is because of
48
ce
temperature dependency of material over which structure has been fabricated. Temperature dependency is
49 important parameter as most of the proposed structures are realized on SOI substrate (to have large index
50
contrast) where the material parameters change along with temperature. This problem can be eliminated by
51
52 using opto-fluidic temperature stabilization method. A material having negative thermo-optic coefficient
53 (immersion oil) is introduced within structure to balance the thermal drift of the host PhC material. However,
surface contamination, analyte infiltration and selectivity are some issues, which prohibit its widespread use.
Ac
54
55 The temperature dependency can also be compensated by using different materials. Siraji. et al [71] have used
56 Schott glass to design PhC Ln cavity sensor and has showed a temperature sensitivity of about 18.5 pm/ ͦC. Apart
57 from the material dependency on temperature, the RI of analyte also depends on to external temperature [72,
58
59
60
1 73]. For individual RI sensor, the measurement accuracy of analyte concentration is easily interrupted by
2 temperature. Therefore, it is necessary to discriminate or compensate the influence of temperature when the
3 PhC cavity based RI sensor is used for concentration measurement [74].
4
pt
5 B. Photonic crystal based hetero-structure cavity
6
7 Hetero-structure cavity structures have also been explored for gas sensing applications. This type of cavity
8 features highest Q-factors while still maintaining relatively small mode volumes. Sunner et al [75] have
9 designed hetero-structure cavity using free standing GaAs as active layer and have reported the value of quality
cri
10
factor and sensitivity of about 40000 and 80nm/RIU based on the experimental measurement. This PhC
11
12 structure has potential to identify vacuum, nitrogen, and SF6. The reported sensitivity is very less for gas
13 sensing application, which has been further enhanced by using slot within hetero-structure PhC cavity structure.
14 In such a structure, the major component of the electric filed is in the horizontal direction, normal to the walls of
15 the slot. Due to the high index contrast, the electric field is discontinuous at the walls. This enables higher
16 optical mode confinement inside the area of low RI material and therefore, improves sensitivity and quality
us
17 factor. Typically air-slot cavity, which is based on PhC waveguide with an air-slot embedded within line defect
18
region [45], can be designed by either shifting nearby holes or varying PhC mirror dimensions [30, 76, 77, 78]
19
20 (PhC Hetero-structure cavity) or slot dimension [79], as shown in Fig. 10.
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38 Fig. 10: Schematic of different PhC hetero-structure cavity structures: (a) Air-slot PhC waveguide [45], (b) Air-slot PhC
39 hetero-structure cavity [78], (c) Air-slot shifted lattice hole PhC hetero-structure cavity [76], (d) Air-slot PhC hetero-
pte
40 structure cavity by varying slot width [79]

41
42 Fig. 10(a) represents air-slot PhC waveguide structure, where a slot is introduced within the line defect to
43 enhance light-matter interaction. This structure is used to design various air-slot based hetero-structure cavities.
44 Fig. 10(b) represents air-slot PhC hetero-structure cavity formed by varying lattice hole dimensions (PhC mirror
45 dimensions). PhC cavity can also be formed by shifting lattice hole adjacent to slot transversely with optimized
46 value, as shown in Fig. 10(c). The value of quality factor of these cavities are much more susceptible to disorder
47 or imperfections and have very less fabrication tolerance. Fig. 10(d) represents air-slot PhC cavity structure
48
ce
formed by varying slot dimensions. This type of structure also works as hetero-structure PhC cavity, where
49
50 reflective barriers for cavity mode are produced by increasing slit width. Jagerska et al [79] have studied this
51 type of cavity structure and proposed an air-slot PhC cavity having experimental sensitivity of about
52 510nm/RIU along with a quality factor of ~2.6 x 104. Air-slot PhC hetero-structure cavities seem to be very
53 good for gas sensing because of their both high quality factor and good sensitivity; however, it suffers from
Ac
54 progressive oxidation of slot sidewall and sample surface (in SOI substrate), which induces a shift in resonance
55 frequency of air-slot PhC cavity. Temperature and humidity also affect performance of the device, as already
56
discussed previously. These effects can only be eliminated by carefully calibration of device with an identical
57
58 reference structure.
59
60
1 C. Photonic crystal based side-coupled cavity

2
3 Another type of PhC cavity structure, called as side-coupled or coupled-waveguide cavity, is also explored for
4 gas sensing applications. The transmission spectrum of a side-coupled cavity will look flat inside the pass band
pt
5 of the coupling waveguide, which exhibits decrease in group velocity; hence, results in much better sensitivity
6
and signal strength. A transmission efficiency of 40% has been reported by using ridge dielectric waveguide
7
8 [80]. Recently, Qian et al [81] have designed a PhC side-coupled cavity structure for gas sensing application
9 and proposed fiber ring-down technology for high precision demodulation of output resonance spectrum of PhC
cri
10 cavity. Authors also demonstrated the minimum detectable methane concentration as accurate as 2.37 ppm.
11 Similarly, authors in reference [82] have proposed a nano-mechanical 3D force PhC structure using side-
12 coupled cavity, where resonance wavelength changes with pressure. Because of linear relation between
13 wavelength shift and applied pressure, force can be detected hence concentration of gases is measured
14 accurately.
15
To enhance PhC cavity sensor resolution, various other techniques have also been explored. Griffin et al [83]
16
have proposed a PhC cavity fabricated on VCSEL structure having palladium metal on the top surface. The
us
17
18 cavity is formed by etching air-holes in top distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) including palladium metal. The
19 authors measured the change in resonance wavelength and reflected power along with hydrogen gas
20 concentration. Similarly, Tsai et al [84] have explored the magneto-optic effect in PhC structure and claimed to
21 detect very minute change of around 0.0001 in RI variation by using a gyro-tropic material (i.e. Bi-YIG), which
22 was filled within PhC cavity formed by acceptor defect.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
To ease the fabrication process, polymer based PhC cavity structure has also been explored for gas sensing
applications. Maeno et al [85] have presented a cavity structure in polymer material for visible range making
whole sensor system cost-effective by eliminating the need of costly IR source and detector. Quan et al [86]
have fabricated a PhC cavity using polymer material having experimental quality factor in the order of 36000
and sensitivity around 386nm/RIU. Authors have also analyzed thermo-optic effect (i.e. change of RI due to
dM
29 heat) and reported a shift in resonance wavelength of 20pm at 170µW input power. Although the designed
30 structure shows good sensitivity and quality factor, still their use is limited in gas sensing application because of
31 problem with long-term stability of polymer material. Table 2 displays a comparison of some recent work
32
carried out by various researchers in gas sensing applications by using PhC cavity.
33
34 The PhC cavity based structures exhibit their applications in optical sensors. However, it is noteworthy to
35 mention that the RI of target gas is always small (~1.0) and the corresponding RI variation due to concentration
36 change is usually lower than 10-4 RIU. Thus, different approaches like fiber ring-down and spectroscopy
37 techniques are proposed to measure the concentration accurately [81, 82]. Selectivity is another major limiting
38 parameter that needs considerable attention. Besides, as any other gases and environment parameters can also
39 result in the RI variation of air hole, they would bring many unpredictable errors to the measurement system. In
pte
40
order to achieve an efficient and effective PhC-based sensor, all these problems needs to be addressed and
41
42 solved.
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53
Ac
54
55 Fig. 11: (a) Designed PhC cavity structure infiltrated with cryptophane and, (b) Shift in resonance wavelength by changing
56 methane concentration (Fig. adapted from reference [87])
57
58
59
60
1 The problem of surrounding perturbation and selectivity can be solved by using a material whose RI changes
2 with the concentration of a given gas. Cryptophane-E is such a material whose RI changes with the variation of
3 methane concentration which then induces a shift of resonant wavelength of PhC cavity, allowing precision
4 measurement of methane concentration, as shown in Fig. 11. By combining selective adsorption property of
pt
5
cryptophane-E to methane and excellent resonant properties of PhC, the resonant spectrum of PhC would shift
6
7 sharply with the concentration change of methane gas, as shown in Fig. 11(b). A detection limit of 697.35 ppm
8 for methane sensing has already been achieved [87], which provides a new direction in gas sensing technology
9 based on PhC cavity.
cri
10
11 Table 2: Comparison of various reported PhC cavities structures
12
Schematic Design Q S Material Application Year Reference
13
14 (nm/RIU) Referred/
15 RI Range
16
40000 80 GaAs N2, SF6 2008 [75]
us
17
18 Sensing
19
A B C B A
20
21 2.6 x 104 510 SOI N2, CO2 2010 [79]
22 Sensing
23
24
25
26
27
28
7500 an
370 SOI Hexane,
Acetone
Sensing
2013 [88]
dM
29
30
3.29 x 104 421 SOI N2, H2, CO2 2014 [68]
31
32 Sensing
33
34
35 11477 160 Si Sensing in 2015 [89]
36
RI range of
37
38 1.000-1.377
39
4459 388 Si Acetylene, 2015 [70]
pte
40
41 Hydrogen-
42 Cyanide
43 Sensing
44
45 1105 450 Si Slab Methane 2016 [81]
46 Sensing
47
48
ce
49 105 500 SOI Sensing in 2016 [90]

50 RI range of
51
1.00-1.20
52
53
59219 200 SOI Sensing in 2016 [91]
Ac
54
Light in Monitor
55 RI range of
56 1.00-1.08
57
58
59
60
1 32000 400 SOI Sensing in 2016 [92]

2 RI range of
3 1.00-1.20
4
pt
5
6
7 3.2.2 One-dimensional Photonic Crystal Cavities:
8
9 Two-dimensional PhC cavities are promising building block for gas sensing applications having very high
cri
10 sensitivity and quality factor as discussed previously. Introduction of slot enhances their capability for gas
11 sensing by increasing light-matter interaction. However, structural disorder that is introduced unintentionally
12
during the fabrication process limits the widespread application of PhC [93]. It also has larger footprint of
13
14 device along with low transmission, which degrades the signal-to-noise ratio. The footprint of the devices can
15 be reduced by using one-dimensional (1D) PhC cavities. This seems to be an alternative to 2D PhC devices [94,
16 95, 96], which greatly reduces the design and fabrication complexity. At present, 1D PhC cavity structures have
us
17 also been explored for gas sensing applications because of their very low mode volume along with high
18 sensitivity and quality factor. The 1D PhC structure can be designed either by depositing layer-over-layer
19 method (Bragg reflector) or by etching a single layer of holes in the substrate, as shown in Fig. 12. The cavity is
20
introduced in this case either by varying one layer width or by perturbing one-hole dimensions.
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35 Fig. 12: (a) Layered 1D PhC cavity structure, (b) 1D PhC cavity structure designed by etching a single row of hole
36
37 Bragg reflector is designed by depositing alternate layer of two different materials having large RI contrast
38 (i.e. SiO2, Si3N4 etc.) where thickness and number of layers are optimized for desired application. Appropriate
39 termination of these structures may lead to existence of surface state (Tamm State) at the interface [97]. Tamm
pte
40
states are lossless interface modes, exist between two adjacent 1D PhCs having overlapped band gap and can be
41
42 used in spontaneous emission control, polariton laser and optical switching applications [98]. Bragg reflector
43 can further be used to design 1D PhC cavity structure as shown in Fig. 12(a). The PhC cavity is formed by
44 either varying the width of a layer or by using a third material having different RI. Recently, Bouzidi et al [99]
45 have proposed a gas monitoring system based on 1D PhC cavity structure using magnesium fluoride and silicon
46 as alternate layers and showed a sensitivity of around 700nm/RIU. An empty defect layer (air) in middle of
47 structure is used as cavity where the analyte under test is infiltrated. The RI variation in the range of 10-5 can be
48
ce
detected easily. This sensitivity can further be improved by increasing index contrast between two layers. The
49
index contrast can be improved by introducing porosity within one of the layers. As the porosity increases, the
50
51 effective index of the layer decreases [100]. The another approach to design PhC cavity structure having
52 improved index contrast is shown in Fig. 12(b), where Si and Air is used as alternate layer (i.e. etching hole in
53 silicon). Based on this, M. Mohebbi [101] has proposed a 1D PhC cavity structure comprising silicon and air as
Ac
54 alternate layers and reported a sensitivity of about 1200nm/RIU for gas sensing applications. To obtain the high
55 sensitivity, author presented a detailed optimization process to optimize the thickness of silicon and air layer. To
56 improve the quality factor of 1D PhC device, T. Li et al [102] carried out theoretical investigation by
57
introducing an air-slot within 1D Si-air PhC cavity structure. Authors showed a quality factor of about 105 along
58
59
60
1 with 851nm/RIU sensitivity. Recently, F. J. Aparicio et al [103] have designed and fabricated a dye based 1D
2 layered PhC cavity structure for NO2 gas sensing, where optically active dye thin film is deposited on top of the
3 PhC cavity structures. The PhC cavities are formed by a 1-D periodic distribution of stacked thin layers of SiO2
4 and Si3N4 forming Bragg reflectors (DBRs). The sensing transduction at this wavelength results from the
pt
5
changes in the luminescence intensity due to the dye thin-film interaction with the medium. Table 3 represents
6
7 comparison of recently reported 1D PhC cavity structures.
8 Table 3: Comparison of various reported 1D PhC cavities structures
9
Schematic Design Q S Material Application Year Reference
cri
10
11 (nm/RIU) Referred/
12 RI Range
13
14 3 x 105 700 MgF2/Si as Methane, 2015 [99]
15 Alternate Ethane
16 Layers Sensing
us
17
18
19 - 1200 Si/Sir as N2, He,CO2 2015 [101]
20 Alternate Sensing
21
Layer
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
105
106
an 851
500
SOI
Si
Sensing in
RI range of
1.000-1.045
Sensing in
2015
2015
[102]
[104]
dM
29 RI range of
30 1.00-1.01
31
32
33
34
4. Fabrication Challenges With Photonic Crystal Based Gas Sensor
35 Although, PhC-based devices have emerged as highly efficient technique for sensing application, still, several
36
factors such as fabrication accuracy, coupling techniques etc., are there, which limits its operation at large scale.
37
These factors need to be considered to utilize full potential of this technology. The photonic bandgap and
38
39 transmitted signal strength are critically dependent on diameter of hole or rods. For example, a small deviation
in the diameter of just a few nm can mean a shift of tens of nm in the operating wavelength of the device. This
pte
40
41 is very significant for PhC cavity structures, where typical bandwidths are of the order of nanometers.
42 Transmitted signal strength also depends on diameter of holes or rods. Attenuation in the transmission of
43 15dB/mm would be caused by 1% pore radius fluctuation [105]. By using perturbation theory, it is estimated
44 that for a transmission above 90% of a device 1 mm in length, the lattice variation has to be below 0.3% and the
45 hole diameter fluctuations have to be below 0.5%. Since, hole/rod diameters of PhC structure are in submicron
46 scale, a high fabrication accuracy is required.
47 Techniques to fabricate PhCs have gained a great attention along with the conception of device design.
48
ce
Various alternate lithography techniques such as e-beam lithography, focused ion beam, holography and dip-
49 pen nanolithography technique have been proposed to fabricate these types of devices. However, these
50 techniques are very costly and time consuming [106, 107]. Fabrication complexity also increases while multiple
51 defect structures of varying dimensions are incorporated within PhCW. This restricts their operations in
52
fabricating the unperturbed device in a very small area keeping them from being viable commercial
53
applications. To utilize the full potential of PhC structures, there is a need of cost effective and less complex
Ac
54
technique that can fabricates these devices at very large scale with comparable accuracy. Recently, our group
55
56 has demonstrated an approach for fabricating large-scale PhC devices using a combination of optical and
57 alternate lithography technique [108, 109]. Optical lithography with specially designed mask is used to fabricate
58 the device outline whereas focused ion beam milling is used to realize PhC structures at predefined locations.
59
60
1 By this method, a complete device of length >1 cm can be fabricated easily in one process without enhancing
2 further complexity. Furthermore, it overcomes the problem of slow writing (as mentioned before) because of
3 using FIB only in selected areas (where PhC structures are to be fabricated).
4 In addition, another important challenge for nano-photonics is its interfacing to the outside world. Because
pt
5 of larger diameter of the optical fiber core (8-10µm), there presents a modal mismatch at the interface of optical
6 fiber and PhC device. This affects the overall device performance hence needs to be taken care [110]. To
7 overcome such coupling problems, various vertical and lateral coupling techniques have been demonstrated
8
[111]. Vertical coupling usually requires grating to couple light from fibers to nano-photonic structure, whereas,
9
lateral coupling utilizes spot-size converters to couple the light. Gratings coupling techniques are wavelength
cri
10
11 dependent. This limits the operating bandwidth to few tens of nanometers, whereas, lateral coupling has a large
12 operating bandwidth, which is requisite in generalized sensing applications. However, as gas samples have very
13 minute variations in RI, grating coupling technique can also be utilized efficiently. With the development of
14 PhC technology and the advance of manufacturing and interfacing technology, more and better methods will
15 arrive on the scene, which will open up a new breakthrough in the study of PhC sensors.
16
Conclusion:
us
17
18 In this review, a thorough study in the field of PhC-based optical gas sensors has been carried out, which focus
19 on recent progress made in the field. Reported works and their corresponding results demonstrates that PhC-
20 based structures play a significance role in the field of optical gas sensor. Various PhC structures, their sensing
21 properties and corresponding sensing mechanism are discussed in detail. Because of very low group velocity,
22 PhC cavity based structures seems to have an edge for gas sensing applications than PhCW based structures.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
The sensing mechanism largely relied on modulation of the optical properties of the PhC with a change in their
eff ective RI or lattice constant through the external gas. Furthermore in future, the key technologies of PhC-
based sensor will be the controllability, integrated and explorations on new design and methods which will open
a new way to design highly sensitive and integrated gas sensor.
dM
29
30 Acknowledgement:
31
32 Authors are thankful to the director, CSIR-CEERI, Pilani for his encouragement in this work. Authors thank to
33 all members of Optoelectronic Devices Group for their help and cooperation. Authors would like to
34 acknowledge CSIR for sponsoring the PSC-0102 network project. Authors (AKG and HSD) would like to
35 acknowledge CSIR for their support through SRF fellowship.
36
37
38
39
References
pte
40
41 [1] J. Hodgkinson and R. Tatam, "Optical gas sensing: a review," Meas. Sci. Technol., vol. 24, p. 012004, 2013.
42
43 [2] W. R. Seitz, "Chemical sensors based on fiber optics," Anal. Chem., vol. 56, p. 16A, 1984.
44
45 [3] S. Singh, R. K. Sinha and R. Bhattacharyya, "Photonic crystal slab waveguide-based infiltrated liquid sensors:
46 design and analysis," J. Nanophotonics, vol. 5, p. 053505, 2011.
47
48
ce
[4] A. K. Goyal and S. Pal, "Design and simulation of high-sensitive gas sensor using a ring-shaped photonic
49 crystal waveguide," Physica Scripta, vol. 90, no. 2, p. 025503, 2015.
50
51 [5] T. Tung, "Strain sensitive effect in a triangular lattice photonic crystal hole-modified nanocavity," IEEE Sens.
52 J., vol. 11, no. 11, pp. 2657-2663, 2011.
53
Ac
54 [6] T. F. Krauss, "Why do we need slow light?," Nature Photon., vol. 2, pp. 448-450, 2008.
55
56 [7] Y. Zhang, H. Tian, X. Zhang, N. Wang, J. Zhang, H. Wu and P. Yuan, "Experiment evidence of enhanced
57 rotation sensing in a slow-light structure," Opt. Lett., vol. 35, pp. 691-3, 2010.
58
59
60
1 [8] J. Sun, B. Bhushan and J. Tonga, "Structural coloration in nature," RSC Adv., vol. 3, pp. 14862-14889, 2013.
2
3 [9] A. Kuchyanov, P. Chubakov and A. Plekhanov, "Highly sensitive and fast response gas sensor based on a
4 light reflection at the glass-photonic crystal interface," Opt. Commun., vol. 351, pp. 109-114, 2015.
pt
5
6 [10] S. Schönenberger, ThiloStöferle, N. Moll, R. F. Mahrt, M. S. Dahlem, T. Wahlbrink, J. Bolten, T.
7 Mollenhauer, H. Kurz and B. J. Offrein, "Ultrafast all opticak modulator with femto joule absorbed switching
8 energy in silicon-on-insulator," Opt. Express, vol. 18, no. 21, pp. 22485-22496, 2010.
9
cri
10 [11] J. D. Joannopoulos, S. G. Johnson, J. N. Winn and R. D. Meade, Photonic Crystals: Molding the Flow of
11 Light, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008.
12
13 [12] R. Wang and X.-H. Wang, "Effects of shapes and orientations of scatterers and lattice symmetries on the
14
photonic band gap in two-dimensional photonic crystals," Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 90, p. 4307, 2001.
15
16
[13] S. Ogawa, M. Imada, S. Yoshimoto, M. Okano and S. Noda, "Control of light emission by 3D photonic
us
17
crystals," Science, vol. 305, no. 5681, pp. 227-229, 2004.
18
19
[14] S. Takahashi, K. Suzuki, M. Okano, M. Imada, T. Nakamori, Y. Ota, K. Ishizaki and S. Noda, "Direct
20
21 creation of three-dimensional photonic crystals by a top-down approach," Nat. Mater., vol. 8, pp. 721 - 725,
22 2009.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
[15] L. A. Woldering, A. P. Mosk and W. L. Vos, "Design of a three-dimensional photonic band gap cavity in a
diamond-like inverse woodpile photonic crystal," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 90, p. 115140, 2014.
[16] T. Starkey and P. Vukusic, "Light manipulation principles in biological photonic systems," Nanoph., vol. 2,
no. 4, pp. 289-307, 2013.
dM
29
30 [17] J. Jagerska, "Dispersion properties of photonic crystals and silicon nanostructures investigated by fourier-
31 space imaging," infoscience, 2011.
32
33 [18] S. G. Johnson, S. Fan, P. R. Villeneuve, J. D. Joannopoulos and L. A. Kolodziejski, "Guided modes in
34 photonic crystal slabs," Phys. Rev. B, vol. 60, no. 8, pp. 5751-5758, 1999.
35
36 [19] A. K. Goyal, H. S. Dutta, P. B. Agarwal and S. Pal, "Realization of rod-type photonic crystal structure for
37 optical sensing using dip-pen nano-lithography," in 12th International Conference on Fiber Optics and
38 Photonics, Kharagpur, India, 2014.
39
pte
40 [20] H. Kurt and D. S. Citrin, "Annular photonic crystals," Opt. Express, vol. 13, no. 25, pp. 10316- 10326, 2005.
41
42 [21] H. S. Dutta, A. K. Goyal and S. Pal, "Analysis of dispersion diagram for high performance refractive index
43 sensor based on photonic crystal waveguides," Photonics and Nanostructures - Fundamentals and
44 Applications, vol. 23, pp. 21-27, 2017.
45
46 [22] H. S. Dutta, A. K. Goyal and S. Pal, "Sensitivity enhancement in photonic crystal waveguide platform for
47 refractive index sensing applications," J. Nanophotonics, vol. 8, p. 083088, 2014.
48
ce
49 [23] M. Turduev, I. H. Giden and H. Kurt, "Modified annular photonic crystals with enhanced dispersion relations:
50 polarization insensitive self-collimation and nanophotonic wire waveguide designs," J. Opt. Soc. Am. B, vol.
51
29, no. 7, pp. 1589-1598, 2012.
52
53
[24] H. Wu, D. S. Citrin, L. Y. Jiang and X. Y. Li, "Polarization-independent slow light in annular photonic
Ac
54
crystals," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 102, p. 141112, 2013.
55
56
[25] Y.-n. Zhanga, Y. Zhaoa and R.-q. Lv, "A review for optical sensors based on photonic crystal cavities," Sens.
57
58
59
60
1 Actuator A-Phys., vol. 233, p. 374–389, 2015.

2
3 [26] K. Rivoire, S. Buckley and J. Vuckovic, "Multiply resonant photonic crystal nano cavities for nonlinear
4 frequency conversion," Opt. Express, vol. 19, no. 22, pp. 22198-22207, 2011.
pt
5
6 [27] M. Tokushima, H. Kosaka, A. Tomita and H. Yamada, "Lightwave propagation through a 120° sharply bent
7 single-line-defect photonic crystal waveguide," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 76, p. 952, 2000.
8
9 [28] T. Hasek, H. Kurt, D. Citrin and M. Koch, "Photonic crystals for fluid sensing in the subterahertz range,"
cri
10 Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 89, p. 173508, 2006.
11
12 [29] A. Lambrecht, S. Hartwig, S. L. Schweizer and R. B. Wehrspohn, "Miniature infrared gas sensors using
13 photonic crystals," in Photonic Crystal Materials and Devices VI, 2007.
14
15 [30] A. Di Falco, L. O’Faolain and T. F. Krauss, "Chemical sensing in slotted photonic crystal heterostructure
16
cavities," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 94, pp. 063503-1–063503-3, 2009.
us
17
18
[31] Y. Zhao, Y.-N. Zhang and Q. Wang, "Research advances of photonic crystal gas and liquid sensors," Sens.
19
Actuator B-Chem., vol. 160, pp. 1288-1297, 2011.
20
21
[32] H. S. Dutta and S. Pal, "Design of a highly sensitive photonic crystal waveguide platform for refractive index
22
based biosensing," Opt. Quant. Electron., vol. 45, pp. 907-917, 2013.
23
24
25
26
27
28
2670, 2007. an
[33] T. F. Krauss, "Slow light in photonic crystal waveguides," Journal of Applied Physics D, vol. 40, pp. 2666-
[34] S. Bakhshi, M. K. Morawej-Farshi and M. Ebnali, "Design of an ultra compact low power all-optical
modulator by means of dispersion engineered slow light regime in a photonic crystal Mach-Zehnder
dM
29
30 interferometer," Applied Optics, vol. 51, pp. 2687-2692, 2012.
31
32 [35] K. H. Jensen, M. N. Alam and B. Scherer, "Slow light enhanced light-matter interactions with applications to
33 gas sensing," Opt. Commun., vol. 281, no. 21, pp. 5335-5339, 2008.
34
35 [36] G. R. Jaime, T. Veronica and J. B. María, "Label-free antibody detection using band edge fringes in SOI
36 planar photonic crystal waveguides in the slow-light regime," Opt. Express, vol. 18, no. 23, p. 24276, 2010.
37
38 [37] H. Awad, I. Hasan, K. Mnaymneh, T. J. Hall and I. Andonovic, "Gas sensing using slow light in photonic
39 crystal waveguides," in 7th Workshop on Fibre and Optical Passive Components (WFOPC), Montreal, QC,
pte
40 2011.
41
42 [38] Y. Zhao, Y.-n. Zhang and Q. Wang, "High sensitivity gas sensing method based on slow light in photonic
43 crystal waveguide," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 173, pp. 28-31, 2012.
44
45 [39] A. Kumar, T. S. Saini and R. K. Sinha, "Design and analysis of photonic crystal biperiodic waveguide
46 structure based optofluidic-gas sensor," Optik, vol. 126, pp. 5172-5175, 2015.
47
48
ce
[40] D. Benelarbi, T. Bouchemat and M. Bouchemat, "Design of high-sensitive refractive index sensor using a
49 ring-shaped photonic crystal waveguide," Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, vol. 6, no. 1A, pp. 105-109,
50 2016.
51
52 [41] A. Di Falco, L. O'Faolain and T. Krauss, "Photonic crystal slotted slab waveguides," Phot. Nano. Fund. Appl.,
53
vol. 6, pp. 38-41, 2008.
Ac
54
55
[42] H. Aghababaeian, M.-H. Vadjed-Samiei and N. Granpayeh, "Temperature stabilization of group index in
56
silicon slotted photonic crystal waveguides," J. Opt. Soc. Korea, vol. 15, pp. 398-402, 2011.
57
58
59
60
1 [43] A. D. Falcoi, L. O’Faolain and T. F. Krauss, "Dispersion control and slow light in slotted photonic crystal
2 waveguides," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 92, p. 082501, 2008.
3
4 [44] W.-C. Lai, S. Chakravarty, X. Wang, C. Lin and R. T. Chen, "On-chip methane sensing by near-IR absorption
pt
5 signatures in a photonic crystal slot waveguide," Opt. Lett., vol. 36, no. 6, 2011.
6
7 [45] Y. N. Zhang, Y. Zhao, D. Wu and Q. Wang, "Theoretical research on high sensitivity gas sensor due to slow
8 light in slotted photonic crystal waveguide," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 173, pp. 505-509, 2012.
9
cri
10 [46] Y. N. Zhang, Y. Zhao and Q. Wang, "Optimizing the slow light properties of slotted photonic crystal
11 waveguide and its application in a high sensitivity gas sensing system," Meas. Sci. Technol., vol. 24, p.
12
105109, 2013.
13
14
[47] Y. N. Zhang, Y. Zhao and Q. Wang, "Multi-component gas sensing based on slotted photonic crystal
15
waveguide with liquid infiltration," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 184, pp. 179-188, 2013.
16
us
17
[48] S. Lü, J. Zhao and D. Zhang, "Flat band slow light in a symmetric photonic crystal waveguide based on micro
18
19 fluidic infiltration," Appl. Opt., vol. 49, no. 20, pp. 3930-3934, 2010.
20
21 [49] C. Y. Lin, X. L. Wang and S. Chakravarty, "Electro-optic polymer infiltrated silicon photonic crystal slot
22 waveguide modulator with 23dB slow light enhancement," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 97, p. 093304, 2010.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
[50] C. L. C. Smith, D. K. C. Wu, M. W. Lee, C. Monat, S. Tomljenovic-Hanic, C. Grillet, B. J. Eggleton, D.
Freeman, Y. Ruan, S. Madden, B. Luther-Davies, H. Giessen and Y.-H. Lee, "Microfluidic photonic crystal
double heterostructures," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 91, p. 121103, 2007.
[51] J.Wu, Y.P.Li and C.Peng, "Numerical demonstration of slow light tuning in slotted photonic crystal
waveguide using micro-fluidic infiltration," Opt. Commun., vol. 284, pp. 2149-2152, 2011.
dM
29
30
31 [52] A. Zakrzewski and S. Patela, "Investigation of the laser acetylene sensor based on two-dimensional photonic
32 crystal," Sensors and Actuators A: physical, vol. 256, pp. 51-58, 2017.
33
34 [53] R. K. Gangwar and Vinod Kumar Singh, "Refractive index sensor based on selectively liquid infiltrated dual
35 core photonic crystal fibers," Phot. Nano. Fund. Appl., vol. 15, pp. 46-52, 2015.
36
37 [54] A. K. Goyal and S. Pal, "Design and simulation of high sensitive photonic crystal waveguide sensor," Optik,
38 vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 240-243, 2015.
39
pte
40 [55] R. Coccioli, M. Boroditsky, K. W. Kim, Y. Rahmat-Samii and E. Yablonovitch, ""Smallest possible

41 electromagnetic mode volume in a dielectric cavity," IEEE Proceedings - Optoelectronics, vol. 145, no. 6, pp.
42 391-397, 1998.
43
44 [56] J. Vuckovic´, M. Loncar, H. Mabuchi and A. Scherer, "Design of photonic crystal microcavities for cavity
45 QED," Physical Review, vol. 65, p. 016608, 2001.
46
47 [57] D. Englund, I. Fushman and J. Vuckovic, "General recipe for designing photonic crystal cavities," Opt.
48
ce
Express, vol. 13, pp. 5961-5975, 2005.

49
50 [58] E. Yablonovitch, T. J. Gmitter, R. D. Meade, A. M. Rappe, K. D. Brommer and J. D. Joannopoulos, "Donor
51
and acceptor modes in photonic band structure," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 67, pp. 3380-3383, 1991.
52
53
[59] Y. Tang, A. M. Mintairov, J. L. Merz, V. Tokranov and S. Oktyabrsky, "Characterization of 2D-photonic
Ac
54
crystal nanocavities by polarization-dependent photoluminescence," in Proceedings of 5th IEEE Conference
55
56 on Nanotechnology, Nagoya, Japan, 2005.
57
58
59
60
1 [60] Y. Akahane, T. Asano, B. Song and S. Noda, "High-Q photonic nano-cavity in a two dimensional photonic
2 crystal," Nature, vol. 425, no. 6961, p. 944–947, 2003.
3
4 [61] Y. Zhang, D. Li, C. Zeng, Z. Huang, Y. Wang, Q. Huang, Y. Wu, J. Yu and J. Xia, "Silicon optical diode
pt
5 based on cascaded photonic crystal cavities," Opt. Lett., vol. 39, no. 6, pp. 1370-1373, 2014.
6
7 [62] A. Majumdar, J. Kim, J. Vuckovic and F. Wang, "Electrical control of silicon photonic crystal cavity by
8 graphene," Nano Lett., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 515-518, 2013.
9
cri
10 [63] Y. Yang, D. Yang, H. Tian and Y. Jia, "Photonic crystal stress sensor with high sensitivity in double
11 directions based on shoulder-coupled aslant nanocavity," Sens. Actuators; A: Phys., vol. 193, pp. 149-154,
12
2013.
13
14
[64] Y. Zhang, Y. Zhao, D. Wu and Q. Wang, "Fiber loop ring-down refractive index sensor based on high-Q
15
photonic crystal cavity," IEEE Sens. J., vol. 14, no. 6, pp. 1878-1885, 2014.
16
us
17
[65] C. Caer, X. L. Roux and E. Cassan, " High-Q silicon-on-insulator slot photonic crystal cavity infiltrated by a
18
19 liquid," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 103, no. 25, p. 251106, 2013.
20
21 [66] E. Chow, A. Grot and L. W. Mirkarimi, "Ultracompact biochemical sensor built with two-dimensional
22 photonic crystal microcavity," Opt. Lett., vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 1093-1095, 2004.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
[67] R. Shankar, R. Leijssen, I. Bulu and a. M. Loncar, "Mid-infrared photonic crystal cavities in silicon," Opt.
Express, vol. 19, no. 6, p. 5579, 2011.
[68] K. Li, J. Li, Y. Song, G. Fang, C. Li, Z. Feng, R. Su, B. Zeng, X. Wang and C. Jin, "Ln slot photonic crystal
microcavity for refractive index gas sensing," IEEE Photon. J., vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 1-9, 2014.
dM
29
30 [69] Y. Liu and H. W. M. Salemink, "All-optical on-chip sensor for high refractive index sensing," Appl. Phys.
31 Lett., vol. 106, p. 031116, 2015.
32
33 [70] A. C. Liapis, B. Gao, M. R. Siddiqui, Z. Shi and R. W. Boyd, "On-chip spectroscopy with thermally-tuned
34 high-Q photonic crystal cavities," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 108, p. 21105, 2016.
35
36 [71] A. Siraji and Y. Zhao, "High-sensitivity and high-Q-factor glass photonic crystal cavity and its applications as
37 sensors," Opt. Lett., vol. 40, no. 7, p. 1508, 2015.
38
39 [72] J. Harris, P. Lu, H. Larocque, L. Chen and X. Bao, "In-fiber Mach-Zehnder interferometric refractive index
pte
40 sensors with guided and leaky modes," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 206, pp. 246-251, 2015.
41
42 [73] L. V. Nguyen, M. Vasiliev and K. Alameh., "Three-wave fiber fabry-pérot interferometer for simultaneous
43 measurement of temperature and water salinity of seawater," IEEE PhotonicsTechnology Letters, vol. 23, no.
44 7, pp. 450-452, 2011.
45
46 [74] Y. Zhao, L. Cai and X. G. Li, "Liquid concentration measurement based on SMS fiber sensorwith
47 temperature compensation using an FBG," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 196, pp. 518-524, 2014.
48
ce
49 [75] T. Sünner, T. Stichel, S. Kwon, T. W. Schlereth, S. Höfling, M. Kamp and A. Forchel, "A Photonic crystal
50 cavity based gas sensor," Appl. Phy. Lett., vol. 92, p. 261112, 2008.
51
52 [76] T. Yamamoto, M. Notomi, H. Taniyama, E. Kuramochi, Y.Yoshikava, Y. Torii and T. Kuga, "Design of a
53
high-Q air-slot cavity based on a width-modulated line-defect in a photonic crystal slab," Opt. Express, vol.
Ac
54
16, no. 18, p. 13809, 2008.
55
56
[77] G. Jie, M. J. F., W. Ming-Chung, Z. Jiangjun, A. Solomon and W. C. Wei, "Demonstration of an air-slot
57
58 mode-gap confined photonic crystal slab nanocavity with ultrasmall mode volumes," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol.
59
60
1 96, p. 051123, 2010.

2
3 [78] J. H. Wülbern, A. Petrov and M. Eich, "Electro-optical modulator in a polymer infiltrated silicon slotted
4 photonic crystal waveguide heterostructure resonator," OPTICS EXPRESS, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 304-313, 2009.
pt
5
6 [79] J. Jagerska, H. Zhang, Z. Diao, N. L. Thomas and R. Houdré, "Refractive index sensing with an air-slot
7 photonic crystal nanocavity," Opt. Lett., vol. 35, no. 15, p. 2523, 2010.
8
9 [80] X. Wang, N. Lu, J. Zhu and G. Jin, "An ultra-compact refractive index based gas sensor based on photonic
cri
10 crystal micro-cavity," Proc. SPIE 6831, Nanophotonics, Nanostructure, and Nanometrology II, , pp. 68310D-
11 6, 2008.
12
13 [81] X. Qian, Y. Zhao, Y.-n. Zhang and Q. Wang, "Theoretical research of gas sensing method based on photonic
14
crystal cavity and fiber loop ring-down technique," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 228, pp. 665-672, 2016.
15
16
[82] Y. Yang, H. Tian, D. Yang, N. Wu, J. Zhou, Q. Liu and Y. Ji, "Nanomechanical three dimensional force
us
17
photonic crystal sensor using shoulder-coupled resonant cavity with an inserted pillar," Sens. Actuator A-
18
19 Phys., vol. 209, pp. 33-40, 2014.
20
21 [83] B. G. Griffin, A. Arbabi, A. M. Kasten, K. D. Choquette and L. L. Goddard, "Hydrogen detection using a
22 functionalized photonic crystal vertical cavity laser," IEEE J. Quant. Electron., vol. 48, no. 2, p. 160, 2012.
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
[84] T.-A. Tsai, C.-C. Wang, H.-W. Wang, I.-L. Chang and L.-W. Chen, "A high-resolution refractive index
sensor based on a magnetic photonic crystal," International Journal of Mathematical; Computational;
Physical; Electrical and Computer Engineering, vol. 9, no. 7, p. 403, 2015.
[85] K. Maeno, S. Aki, K. Sueyoshi, H. Hisamoto and T. Endo, "Polymer-based photonic crystal cavity sensor for
optical detection in the visible wavelength region," Anal Sci., vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 117-120, 2016.
dM
29
30
31 [86] Q. Quan, I. B. Burgess, S. K. Y. Tang, D. L. Floyd and M. Loncar, "High-Q low index-contrast polymeric
32 photonic crystal nanobeamcavities," Opt. Express, vol. 19, no. 22, p. 22191, 2011.
33
34 [87] Y.-N. Zhang, Y. Zhao and Q. Wang, "Measurement of methane concentration with cryptophane E infiltrated
35 photonic crystal microcavity," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 209, pp. 431-437, 2015.
36
37 [88] S. Hamed Mirsadeghi, E. Schelew and J. F. d Young, "Photonic crystal slot-microcavity circuit implemented
38 in silicon-on-insulator: high Q operation in solvent without undercutting," Appl. Phys. Lett., vol. 102, no. 13,
39 p. 131115, 2013.
pte
40
41 [89] L. Huang, H. Tian and J. Zhou, "Label-free optical sensor by designing a high-Q photonic crystalring-slot
42 structure," Opt.Commun., vol. 335, pp. 73-77, 2015.
43
44 [90] A. K. Goyal, H. S. Dutta and S. Pal, "Design and analysis of photonic crystal micro-cavity based optical
45 sensor platform," in AIP Conference Proceedings, 2016.
46
47 [91] D. Yang, C. Wang, W. Yuan, B. Wang, Y. Yang and Y. Ji, "Silicon on-chip side-coupled high-Q micro-
48
ce
cavities for the multiplexing of high sensitivity photonic crystal integrated sensors array," Opt. Commun, vol.
49
374, pp. 1-7, 2016.
50
51
[92] A. K. Goyal, H. S. Dutta and S. Pal, "Performance optimization of photonic crystal resonator," Opt Quant
52
Electron, vol. 48, p. 431 (11pp), 2016.
53
Ac
54
[93] A. F. Koenderink, A. Lagendijk and W. L. Vos, "Optical extinction due to intrinsic structural variations of
55
56 photonic crystals," Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 72, p. 153102, 2005.
57
58
59
60
1 [94] H. Liu, D. Liu, H. Zhao and Y. H. Gao, "Study on complete photonic band gaps of two-dimensional air
2 annular photonic crystals," Acta Phys. Sin., vol. 62, p. 194208, 2013.
3
4 [95] Z. Chang-Xin and X. Xing-Sheng, "Low group velocity in a photonic crystal coupled-cavity waveguide,"
pt
5 Chin. Phys. B, vol. 21, p. 44213, 2012.
6
7 [96] Q. Quan and M. Loncar, "Deterministic design of wavelength scale ultra-high Q photonic crystal nanobeam
8 cavities," Opt. Express, vol. 19, no. 19, p. 18529, 2011.
9
cri
10 [97] A. V. Kavokin, I. A. Shelykh and G. Malpuech, "Lossless interface modes at the boundary between two
11 periodic dielectric structures," Physical review B , vol. 72, p. 233102, 2005.
12
13 [98] Z. Chen, P. Han, C. W. Leung, Y. Wang, M. Hu and Y. Chen, "Study of optical Tamm states based on the
14
phase properties of one-dimensional photonic crystals," OPTICS EXPRESS, vol. 20, no. 19, p. 21618, 2012.
15
16
[99] A. Bouzidi, D. Bria., A. Akjouj, Y. Pennec and B. Djafari-Rouhani, "A tiny gas-sensor system based on 1D
us
17
photonic crystal," J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys., vol. 48, p. 495102, 2015.
18
19
[100] A. K. Goyal, H. S. Dutta and S. Pal, "Porous multilayer photonic band gap structure for optical sensing," in
20
21 13th International Conference on Fiber Optics and Photonics, Kanpur, India, 2016.
22
[101] M. Mohebbi, "Refractive index sensing of gases based on a one-dimensional photonic crystal nanocavity," J.
23
24
25
26
27
28
Sens. Sens. Syst., vol. 4, pp. 209-215, 2015.
an
[102] T. Li, D. Gao, D. Zhang and E. Cassan, "High Q and high-sensitivity one-dimensional photonic crystal slot
nanobeam cavity sensors," IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett., vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 689-692, 2015.
[103] F. J. Aparicio, M. Alcaire, A. R. González-Elipe, A. Barranco, M. Holgado, R. Casquel, F. J. Sanza, A. Griol,

dM
29
30 D. Bernier, F. Dortu, S. Cáceres, M. Antelius, M. Lapisa, H. Sohlström and F. Niklau, "Dye based photonic
31 sensing system," Sens. Actuator B-Chem., vol. 228, no. 2, pp. 649-657, 2016.
32
33 [104] T. Lin, Y. Zou, F. S. Chau, G. Zhou and J. Deng, "Novel one-dimensional photonic crystal air-slotted nano-
34 beam cavity for gas sensing," in International Conference on Optical MEMS and Nanophotonics (OMN),
35 2015.
36
37 [105] D. Pergande, T. Geppert, A. Rhein, S. Sweizer, R. Wehrspohn, S. Moretton and A. Lambrecht, "Miniature
38 infrared gas sensors using photonic crystals," J. Appl. Phys., vol. 109, no. , (8):, p. 083117, 2011.
39
pte
40 [106] R. K. Dey and B. Cui, "Electron beam lithography with feedback using in situ self-developed resist,"
41 Nanoscale Res. Lett., vol. 9, no. 1, p. 184, 2014.
42
43 [107] C. Vieu, F. Carcenac, A. Pépin, Y. Chen, M. Mejias, A. Lebib, L. Manin-Ferlazzo, L. Couraud and H.
44 Launois, "Electron beam lithography: resolution limits and applications," Appl. Surf. Sci., vol. 164, no. 1-4,
45 pp. 111-117, 2000.
46
47 [108] A. K. Goyal, H. S. Dutta, S. Singh, M. Kaur, S. Husale and S. Pal, "Realization of large-scale photonic crystal
48
ce
cavity-based devices," J. Micro/Nanolith. MEMS MOEMS, vol. 15, no. 3, p. 031608, 2016.
49
50 [109] H. S. Dutta, A. k. Goyal, S. Singh, M. Kaur, S. Husale and S. Pal, "Fabrication of photonic crystal line defect
51
waveguides by use of optical lithography and focused ion beam," in 13th International Conference on Fibre
52
Optics and Photonics, Kanpur, India, 2016.
53
Ac
54
[110] C. Kopp, S. Bernabe, B. Bakir, J. Fedeli, R. Orobtchouk, F. Schrank, H. Porte, L. Zimmermann and T. Tekin,
55
"Silicon photonic circuits: on-CMOS integration, fiber optical coupling, and packaging," IEEE J. Sel. Top.
56
57 Quantum Electron., vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 498-509, 2011.
58
59
60
1 [111] H. S. Dutta, A. K. Goyal, V. Srivastava and S. Pal, "Coupling light in photonic crystal waveguides: A
2 review," Phot. Nano. Fund. Appl., vol. 20, pp. 41-58, 2016.
3
4
pt
5
6
7
8
9
cri
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
us
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
an
dM
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
pte
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
ce
49
50
51
52
53
Ac
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

Goyal2017 Gas Sensor

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Goyal2017 Gas Sensor

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Goyal2017 Gas Sensor

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Home Search Collections Journals About Contact us My IOPscience

Recent Advances and Progress in Photonic Crystal Based Gas Sensors

Manuscript version: Accepted Manuscript

This Accepted Manuscript is: © 2017 IOP Publishing Ltd

1 Recent Advances and Progress in Photonic Crystal Based Gas Sensor

1 2. Optical Properties of Photonic Crystal

2.1 Photonic Crystal Band Structure an

54 volume (Vmode) of cavity can be described by [55]

40 structure cavity by varying slot width [79]

1 C. Photonic crystal based side-coupled cavity

49 105 500 SOI Sensing in 2016 [90]

1 32000 400 SOI Sensing in 2016 [92]

1 Actuator A-Phys., vol. 233, p. 374–389, 2015.

40 [55] R. Coccioli, M. Boroditsky, K. W. Kim, Y. Rahmat-Samii and E. Yablonovitch, ""Smallest possible

Express, vol. 13, pp. 5961-5975, 2005.

1 96, p. 051123, 2010.

[103] F. J. Aparicio, M. Alcaire, A. R. González-Elipe, A. Barranco, M. Holgado, R. Casquel, F. J. Sanza, A. Griol,

You might also like