Tropical Forests Introductory article

Sean C Thomas, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Article Contents

Jennifer L Baltzer, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada . Geographic Delimitation and Varieties of Tropical
Forests
. Historical Importance of Tropical Forests in Biology
Tropical forests, while occupying only one-tenth of the world’s land area, are
. Species Diversity
disproportionately important in terms of global biogeochemical cycles and as home to
. Alternative Mechanisms for Maintaining Diversity
more than half of the world’s species. Research on these most complex of ecological
. Tropical Forests in Global Perspective
systems has focused on mechanisms for the maintenance of high diversity, and forest
. Conservation and Sustainable Management of
responses to fragmentation, logging, and other human impacts. Tropical Forests

Geographic Delimitation and Varieties experience an annual dry period. In tropical dry forests
of Tropical Forests (also called ‘monsoon forests’) the dry period is severe, and
during this most trees drop their leaves in order to reduce
Distribution patterns water loss. In semi-evergreen rain forests the seasonal
drought is less extreme, and a leafless period does not occur
To understand where and why tropical forests exist, one to the same extent.
must begin with some essential facts of geography and Within these broad moisture regimes, tropical forests are
climatic systems. By definition, ‘the tropics’ lie between subdivided on the basis of elevation and soil type, and
238N and 238S latitude, the area within which the sun lies corresponding differences in forest structure. The distin-
directly overhead at some point in its seasonal progression. guishing structural characteristics include canopy height,
The flux of solar energy within this region is high, due to the crown layering and the presence (or absence) of different
fact that incoming sunlight is projected at a 908 angle to the climbers and epiphytes. Tree buttressing, crown shape, leaf
surface of the earth. This high solar energy flux results in a structure, and position of flower/fruit formation are other
high rate of water evaporation over the tropical oceans and important physiognomic descriptors of tropical forests.
of evapotranspiration over tropical land surfaces. The On a global basis the most important types of tropical
result is a rising column of warm, moist air at tropical moist forest include lowland evergreen rain forests, upper
latitudes. As this air rises it cools as a result of the gradient and lower montane rain forests, heath forests, peat swamp
in air pressure through the atmosphere (adiabatic cooling). forests, freshwater swamp forests and mangroves (Table 1).
Water condenses out from this air mass, generating
rainfall. The air mass ultimately dries out, and is carried
poleward from the tropics as a part of wind circulation Lowland evergreen rain forests
patterns known as Hadley cells. At subtropical latitudes The tall, lush evergreen forests envisioned by most when
near 23–308N and S, the now-dry air mass descends, referring to tropical forests are lowland evergreen rain
creating a region of high pressure that corresponds closely forests. These forests are characterized by canopies with
to the world distribution of deserts. As a consequence of multiple layers of vegetation and the presence of large
these climatic circulation patterns, the earth’s equatorial canopy emergent trees. Lowland evergreen rain forests
zone is warm and wet, corresponding to the broad band of generally have very high species diversity, with over 1000
tropical forests found along the earth’s equatorial axis tree species per square kilometre found in the richest forests
(Figure 1). of Amazonia and southeast Asia. Canopy and emergent
trees in lowland evergreen forests often have large
Tropical forest formations spreading crowns with a radius of 420 m at maturity,
can grow to more than 1 m in girth, and commonly possess
The main types of tropical forest are distinguished by plank-like buttresses important in physical support.
differences in the distribution of rainfall throughout the Beneath the upper canopy layer are smaller understorey
year, by elevation, and by soil type. Tropical forests that trees, treelets, and a layer of herbaceous ground vegetation.
experience ever-wet conditions with no month receiving Cauliflory and ramiflory are especially common among
less than 100 mm of precipitation are generally referred to understorey trees in lowland tropical rain forests. One also
as ‘tropical rain forests’, although a distinction is also generally finds abundant lianas; woody climbers that
sometimes made between tropical ‘moist forests’ and ‘rain germinate in the understorey, but possess climbing
forests’ in a strict sense that receive annual rainfall in excess mechanisms (such as tendrils or hooks) that allow them
of 4000 mm. The two other main tropical forest types, to use free-standing trees as support structures. Lianas that
‘tropical dry forests’ and ‘semi-evergreen rain forests’, reach the canopy thus remain anchored to the forest floor.

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 Tropical Forests

Table 1. Key physiognomic features of tropical forest formations (adapted from Richards, 1996; Whitmore, 1998).
Forest type Canopy Emergent Typical Tree buttresses Lianas Vascular Non-vascular
height trees leaf size epiphytes epiphytes
Lowland evergreen 25–45 m Common 45–180 cm2 Common Common Common Occasional
rain forest
Semi-evergreen rain 20–30 m Common 45–180 cm2 Common Abundant Occasional to Occasional
forest common
Dry deciduous forest 3–25 m* Absent 2–180 cm2 Occasional Common to Absent to Absent to
abundant occasional occasional
Lower montane forest 15–33 m Occasional 45–180 cm2 Occasional Rare Common Occasional
to common
Upper montane forest 3–18 m Absent 2–20 cm2 Absent Absent Common Abundant
Heath forest 3–30 m* Absent 20–45 cm2 Occasional Rare Common Occasional
Mangrove (mangal) 3–30 m* Absent 45–180 cm2 Prop roots and Rare Occasional Occasional
pneumatophores
common
Freshwater swamp 3–35 m* Absent - 2–180 cm2 Prop roots Common to Occasional to Common
Forest comon common abundant abundant
Peat swamp forest 12–55 m* Absent - 2–180 cm2 Prop roots Rare to Rare to Occasional to
common common abundant abundant common
* Indicates forest formations generally characterized by gradients in canopy height and other physiognomic features.

Also common are epiphytes; plants that live on other common. In many regions tropical dry deciduous forests
plants (most often trees), but which at no point in their life grade into savannah ecosystems.
history are rooted in the ground. Orchids, ferns and
bromeliads provide many examples of tropical epiphytes, Montane rain forests
which enhance tropical diversity immensely (epiphytes are
An observant mountain-climber in the tropics will notice
thought to comprise  10% of all vascular plants).
pronounced changes in vegetation with altitude. The upper
Another group of plants characteristic of tropical forests
montane forests nearer the summit are short in stature
are hemi-epiphytes, which germinate in the canopy, as do
(1.5–1.8 m), with a canopy dominated by small, thick
epiphytes, but produce roots that grow down the trunk of
leaves affixed to gnarled branches. Bryophytes and
the host tree to become rooted in the ground. The most
epiphytes are extremely abundant in these forests, but
important group of tropical hemi-epiphytes are figs (many
buttresses, woody climbers and vines are virtually absent.
species of Ficus), the fruits of which are an important
The boundary between upper and lower montane forests is
resource for many vertebrate species.
generally quite distinct, with the latter showing a structure
much more similar to lowland evergreen rain forest. Lower
Semi-evergreen rain forests montane forests contain many features similar to lowland
Semi-evergreen rain forests replace lowland evergreen rain forests. Changes in vegetation structure with altitude are
forests in areas where there is an annual period of moderate ultimately driven by adiabatic cooling, though wind
drought. As the name implies, some trees in these forests exposure and changes in soil characteristics can also be
exhibit a seasonal leafless period, with the deciduous important factors.
component comprising up to one-third of the upper
canopy. Clumping of deciduous and evergreen trees does Heath forests
occur, so some parts of the forest may be dominated
Heath forests (called kerangas in parts of Asia) have a low,
entirely by deciduous trees. Species diversity in semi-
uniform canopy with little vertical stratification. The
evergreen tropical forests is generally somewhat lower than
relatively small leaves that are predominant in the canopy
that of the evergreen rain forests.
tend to be brownish and reddish in colour. The canopy is
relatively open, and light levels in the understorey are high.
Tropical dry deciduous forests An unusual feature of the heath forests are numerous
In tropical dry deciduous forests (also called monsoon insectivorous plants, such as the Bornean pitcher plants
forests) most canopy trees lose their leaves during the dry (Nepenthes) found in Asian kerangas. Podzolic soils
season. The period of drought when trees are leafless is 2–6 develop in heath forests, which are highly acidic with very
months. High light levels penetrate the understorey of good drainage. Water draining from heath forests is
these forests for much of the year, and grass species are generally blackish or tea coloured and highly acidic.

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 Tropical Forests

Mangroves Historical Importance of Tropical

Mangrove forests, also called ‘mangal’, are associated with Forests in Biology
salt or brackish water and thus are found along the
coastlines in tropical regions. Floristically, they are Tropical forests have played a central role in the
extremely impoverished in relation to the other forest conceptual development of biology from the time of the
types. One family, the Rhizosphoraceae, dominates the major biological expeditions that began at the close of the
system. As these trees grow in salt or brackish water, they eighteenth century.
require special adaptations to tolerate the anaerobic Alexander Von Humbolt initiated the study of plant
conditions and high salt concentrations in their rooting ecology on his voyages through South America in the early
zone. Stilt roots and pneumatophores enable these species nineteenth century. While climbing Mount Chimborazo in
to maintain part of their rooting system above water, thus the Andes, Von Humbolt characterized the vegetation
avoiding the problems associated with inhabiting an changes with climate as he ascended. These early observa-
anaerobic environment. Mangroves are also able to retain tions on plant distributions provided the foundation of the
very high salt concentrations in their tissues, enabling field of biogeography. The most significant development in
uptake of water from the saline environment. biological thinking inspired by tropical forests was the
theory of evolution by natural selection. Charles Darwin
Freshwater and peat swamp forests and Alfred Russel Wallace independently derived this
The swamp forest formations are distinguished mainly by theory as a result of their scientific voyages in the tropics
the habitat in which they occur rather than by forest during the mid nineteenth century. Darwin’s inspiration
structure and physiognomy. Peat is accumulated, non- was his exploration of various parts of South America as
decomposed plant material. Some tropical peat swamp the naturalist aboard the Beagle beginning in 1831.
forests occur in swampy areas that formed as a result of Wallace conducted expeditions in both South America
rising sea levels since the last glacial maximum; others are (1848–1852) and the Malay Archipelago (1854–1862),
found in areas of restricted drainage along river courses, where he characterized two sets of fauna distinct to the
such as oxbow lakes. These forests are found primarily in different parts of the archipelago, a division now known as
Asia and parts of the Neotropics. Freshwater swamp Wallace’s Line. For both Darwin and Wallace, the high
forests are associated with low-lying areas near rivers, and diversity of species in the tropics, and particularly patterns
are periodically inundated by river water. This frequent of diversification associated with island groups, allowed an
inundation results in high soil nutrients and rapid growth appreciation of evolutionary relationships not apparent in
of trees, particularly where flooding also results in physical the poorer faunas of the temperate zone. The high diversity
disturbance of the forest. of the tropics continues to be an important inspiration and
testing ground for ideas in biology, particularly in the fields
Tropical landmasses of ecology and evolutionary biology.
Tropical forests occur in all three main tropical land-
masses, America, Africa and Asia (Figure 1). Differences in
the geological history, climate, topography, and extent of Species Diversity
these three areas have resulted in characteristic differences
in biota. By far the largest area of tropical forest occurs in Tropical rain forests are more biologically diverse than any
the American or neotropical region, which contains other biome, lying at the extreme of a latitudinal diversity
approximately half (4  106 km2) of the world’s total. The gradient that extends from the poles to the tropics (Figure 2).
neotropical rain forests consist of three main sections. The High species diversity in tropical forests is perhaps most
largest occurs in the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The impressively illustrated by the results of surveys of insects
second region is found in the Andes on the Pacific coasts of obtained using canopy fogging with broad-spectrum
Ecuador and Colombia and runs as far north as southern insecticides. A landmark study by Terry Erwin sampled
Mexico. The third and smallest neotropical forest region the canopy of a single Luehea seemannii tree in Panama,
lies along the Atlantic coast of Brazil. The rain forests of finding 163 species of beetles (Coleoptera) co-occurring in
Asia are centred on the Malay Archipelago but extend this one tree. Through a series of extrapolations (based on
from Papua New Guinea north into continental Asia. This estimates of the total number of world tree species and the
area constitutes the second largest tropical forest area proportion of insect species comprised of beetles), Erwin
covering approximately 2.5  106 km2. Finally, Central estimated that there may be 30 million species of insects
and West Africa contains approximately 1.8  106 km2 of occurring in the tropical forests of the world. This figure
tropical forest, extending from the Congo basin westward implies that 4 95% of the earth’s species remain to be
to the Atlantic Ocean. Additional smaller areas of tropical described. While more recent sampling efforts have tended
forest occur in Australia, Madagascar, East Africa, Hawaii to yield lower estimates of tropical insect diversity, there
and the islands of the South Pacific. are conservatively between 5 and 10 million species. This

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 Tropical Forests

30 30

Tropic of Cancer
0 0

Tropic of Capricorn

30 30

Key
Tropical forest

Figure 1 Global distribution of tropical forests (adapted from various sources).

1500

Birds (per 6 × 106 km2)

1000

500
Number of species

Forest trees (per 0.1 ha)

200

100

0
–60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60
Latitude (°N)

Figure 2 Latitudinal gradient in species richness of bird and tree species, in both cases showing a peak in tropical forest areas near the equator. Data are
from Gaston (2000) and the 0.1 ha forest plot data archive of Alwyn Gentry (Gentry, 1988 and unpublished data)

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 Tropical Forests

quantity is 5-to 10-fold greater than all species described to Pleistocene, mainly involving decreased precipitation and
date. Thus, while tropical forests occupy only 7% of the changes in sea level. In many tropical regions forests were
earth’s land surface they are thought to contain over half of reduced to small island-like regions called refugia. These
all of the species on the planet. The idea that species areas now often show particularly high levels of both
diversity of tropical animals (which are mostly insects) is a species diversity and endemism. Examples of important
simple function of the number of plant species also implies glacial refugia include the foothills and eastern slopes of
that any effort to explain tropical diversity in general must, the Andes, the Choco region of Colombia, and the Mt
first and foremost, address the problem of the origin and Cameroon region in Cameroon, West Africa.
maintenance of plant diversity.

Climate and biological productivity Alternative Mechanisms for

The warm, wet, and relatively aseasonal climate of the Maintaining Diversity
tropics is apparently more favourable for maintaining
higher diversity than anywhere else in the world. But why is Equilibrium versus non-equilibrium
this the case? One simple idea is that the high solar energy hypotheses
inputs and productivity of tropical regions result in greater
numbers of species that can be supported energetically. Although climatic changes in the Pleistocene are clearly
However, it is not entirely clear why a small number, or relevant to the problem of the origin of tropical diversity,
even one species, could not monopolize most or all of the one is still left with the problem of the ‘maintenance’ of
incoming solar energy. Another idea is that climate diversity: that is, how do so many species manage to
stability is the main factor promoting species diversifica- coexist, and why do not one or a few species out-compete
tion and coexistence. In the harsher temperate and polar the others? Many hypotheses for the maintenance of
regions, species must be able to tolerate drastic fluctuations tropical diversity have been proposed, although research-
in seasonal temperatures. Species occurring in habitats ers have yet to reach a unified conclusion. There are two
nearer the poles are therefore adapted to a wider range of main lines of thought regarding mechanisms: namely,
local environments in order to survive the winter months. equilibrium and non-equilibrium hypotheses. According
As a consequence, one expects a narrower range of to the equilibrium viewpoint, forests are relatively stable in
adaptation to environmental conditions and narrower their species composition such that species are highly
latitudinal and altitudinal distributions in the tropics, a adapted to suit the particular environment in which they
hypothesis sometimes referred to as ‘Rapoport’s rule’. have evolved. Forest species composition is considered a
The more limited ranges of species in the tropics may facet of past and present competition among species.
allow for greater ‘species packing’ compared to temperate Equilibrium hypotheses also assume that after some
or boreal regions. Although this idea has received much perturbation the forest will return to this pre-defined
research attention, recent analyses give only equivocal species composition given adequate time. Non-equilibrium
support, at best, for Rapoport’s rule. On the other hand, it hypotheses, on the other hand, view species as having more
is clear that the relatively aseasonal nature of tropical rain generalist tendencies and niche requirements. Non-equili-
forests allows for the evolution of highly varied and brium hypotheses assume that species diversity is main-
complex species interactions. This complexity itself con- tained through disturbance and chance events, and that
tributes to the overall species diversity found in the tropics. species composition is in constant flux. According to the
For example, ‘dependent’ ecological forms, such as non-equilibrium view, species exist in guilds that share
specialist herbivores or predators, only persist in the similar resource requirements and are more or less
community if their host species is present. interchangeable within the guild.

Niche differentiation
Pleistocene refugia
Equilibrium hypotheses for the maintenance of tropical
Another important factor favouring high tropical diversity diversity generally invoke some form of niche differentia-
is the relative stability of these areas over geological time. tion. This hypothesis is based upon the idea that
Large expanses of the temperate and boreal zones were ecologically similar species are unable to coexist unless
covered in ice during the latest glacial maximum, only they have developed different patterns of habitat distribu-
10 500 years ago. Glaciation contributed directly to the tion and/or resource use. Within this framework, the more
extinction of many species at high latitudes, and there has specialized the resource requirements of each species are,
been a much shorter time period over which speciation the more species can be packed into a given habitat. Niche
could potentially occur following glacial retreat. Tropical differences among tropical animals are generally related to
forests also experienced climatic changes during the the type of food resources utilized, or spatial or temporal

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 Tropical Forests

differences in habitat use. For example, otherwise ecolo- habitat requirements and growth rates, and therefore that
gically similar animals can differ in terms of height of every species has an equal chance of inhabiting openings as
activity in the canopy, or the time of day they are active. In they become available in the forest. Basically this hypoth-
contrast, all plant species utilize essentially the same set of esis suggests that local diversity is based on the number of
basic resources, namely: light, water, carbon dioxide, species contributing seeds in the local area, and that tree
physical space, and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus replacement occurs via random chance. Recent modelling
and potassium. However, plant species can differ in terms studies indicate that simple null models of tropical forest
of more subtle ecological characteristics, such as the communities can retain very high species diversity over
efficiency of resource use, tolerance of physiological stress, long periods of time. Although species in such a null
or dependence on specific pollinators, seed-dispersers or community eventually go extinct via a ‘random walk’
root symbionts. Many studies of tropical forest trees have process, the time to extinction is sufficiently long that
emphasized differences in the ‘regeneration niche’, or the speciation may act to add new species to the system. For
resources and conditions required by seedlings and such a null community to maintain very high levels of
saplings to successfully establish in the forest. An diversity, one more kind of process is also generally
important distinction is made between ‘pioneer’ tree required: namely ‘dispersal limitation’, which refers to the
species that can grow rapidly in large canopy openings or fact that seeds of a given species do not germinate in all
cleared areas, and ‘late-successional’ or ‘primary forest’ possible sites that could potentially be occupied by that
tree species that can establish under low light conditions in species. The result of dispersal limitation is that many
the understorey. Other kinds of niche differences among species fail to encounter one another. If dispersal limitation
tropical trees include ‘structural niche’ differences related is sufficiently strong, competitive exclusion can be avoided
to the size reached by adult trees, and differences in ‘habitat entirely. Recent studies have shown that the absence of
preference’ related to soil characteristics and hydrology. plant species at a given site is in fact commonly due to a lack
of seed dispersal rather than their inability to compete in
Gap phase dynamics that particular area.
Gap phase dynamics has been hypothesized to play an
important role in the maintenance of high diversity in the The Janzen–Connell hypothesis
tropics. When one or a few trees die, an opening in the Host specificity of herbivores and pathogens of tropical
canopy occurs, resulting in increases in light levels and forest trees is generally high, with many plant predators
other plant resources. Seedlings and saplings grow rapidly and parasites being specific to only a few species. Such
in gaps, competing for these resources; only one canopy ‘natural enemies’ often preclude growing tropical tree
tree ultimately will be able to occupy the space relinquished species in monocultures in their native range, a fact of great
by the original gap-forming tree. For gap phase dynamics economic importance for such crops as coffee (Coffea
to contribute to species diversity, one must assume that arabica), rubber (Hevea braziliensis) and oil palm (Elaeis
there are differences in resources (light, nutrients, etc.) guinensis). In the early 1970s Daniel Janzen and Joseph
associated with different parts of the gap (i.e. gap edge or Connell independently proposed that the actions of
centre), and that different species are adapted to these species-specific natural enemies could promote species
differences. Such a pattern is referred to as ‘gap partition- diversity in natural tropical forests by ensuring that no
ing’. Larger gaps are expected to contain greater resource single species could become dominant. This hypothesis has
heterogeneity than smaller gaps, and thus should show been supported by several kinds of evidence. First, studies
higher diversity of regenerating trees. This hypothesis was of specific tropical tree species generally show little
recently tested by Stephen Hubbell and co-workers using recruitment directly under the crown. Second, broader
data from a 50-ha mapped forest plot on Barro Colorado statistical analyses of mapped forest plots show a trend
Island in Panama. Although gap sites were found to have toward lower recruitment near conspecific neighbours,
greater species diversity of saplings, this was due entirely to especially among more common tree species. Finally,
higher stem density in the gap sites. The number of species recent comparisons of seed input versus seedling recruit-
encountered per stem did not differ between gap and non- ment suggest large effects of species-specific natural
gap sites. Thus, recent evidence suggests that gap phase enemies near the time of germination and seedling
dynamics may not be the major mechanism for maintain- establishment.
ing diversity in tropical forests. There is, however, clear
evidence for important niche differences in tropical trees
related to soil types and forest hydrology. Summary
At present, niche differentiation, equal chance/dispersal
Equal chance and dispersal limitation limitation, and the Janzen-Connell hypothesis have all
The equal chance or null community hypothesis is based on received support as explanations for the maintenance of
the idea that all species are equivalent in terms of their species diversity in tropical forests. These proposed

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 Tropical Forests

mechanisms are by no means mutually exclusive, but evapotranspiration is retained regionally, recycling as
rather are likely to act in concert and to vary among regions rainfall. Tropical deforestation also results in a large net
and forest types. Continued research, particularly in large flux of carbon into the atmosphere. Roughly 25% of net
mapped tropical forest plots, will provide a much better global carbon emissions in the 1980s derived from tropical
understanding regarding the generality of proposed deforestation. Recent studies suggest that primary tropical
mechanisms for the maintenance of tropical forest forests also act as globally important carbon sinks. Thus,
diversity. tropical deforestation results not only in the release of
carbon stored in biomass and soils, but also in the loss of
carbon dioxide that would have been taken up by the intact
forest. Recent observations and analyses indicate that
Tropical Forests in Global Perspective replacing primary tropical forests with regenerating
secondary forests generally results in large carbon losses
Tropical forest products rather than increased carbon sequestration. Reforestation
projects for carbon sequestration may, however, be a
Tropical rain forests are of great importance from an viable strategy to increase carbon sequestration in
economic as well as an ecological viewpoint. These forests previously deforested areas.
encompass over half of the world’s standing timber, and
could potentially produce as much as 75% of the world’s
future wood products. There are also many valuable
tropical forest products other than timber, in particular Conservation and Sustainable
food products and pharmaceuticals. With the tremendous Management of Tropical Forests
diversity of species yet to be described, future cures for
many diseases await discovery, particularly in the form of Greatly refined estimates of tropical deforestation have
natural chemicals derived from tropical plants, fungi and recently been obtained through analyses of changes in
microorganisms. The developed world relies on many forest cover in satellite images. For example, analyses of
foods and other products derived from native tropical Landsat imagery covering the Brazilian Amazon indicated
plants: bananas, Brazil nuts, cocoa, coffee, natural rubber, an increase in deforested area of 78 000 km2 in 1978 to
palm oil, rattan and vanilla, to name but a few. Some of the 230 000 km2 in 1988, or a loss of approximately 6% of the
most valuable tropical forest products are in fact non- total forested area. Tropical deforestation rates vary
timber forest products. The incense gaharu (eaglewood), greatly across geographic regions, and have shown marked
derived from fungus-infected heartwood of the southeast swings over the last decades. Through the 1980s the highest
Asian tree Aquilaria malaccense, sells by the ounce in the deforestation rates were observed in southeast Asia, but
markets of the Middle East. Although there are a great more recently deforestation has shifted to the neotropics
variety of current and potential non-timber tropical forest and Africa. In addition to the outright removal of forest,
products, timber continues to be the most widely exploited tropical deforestation also acts to fragment landscapes, a
tropical forest resource. Uses for tropical timbers range pattern of great conservation concern. Tropical forest
from luxury woods such as mahogany (Swietenia spp.) and fragments offer an insufficient amount of habitat for many
rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) to low-grade plywood com- larger or wide-ranging species of animals, and forest
monly manufactured from meranti species of southeast fragments can be seriously degraded by decreased humid-
Asia (Shorea spp., family Dipterocarpaceae). ity and high wind exposure near edges.
The internal fragmentation of tropical forests caused by
Tropical forests, the global carbon cycle and selective logging is also a major concern. Studies suggest
climate change that low-intensity logging can allow for recovery of
primary forest conditions within a couple of decades;
The world’s tropical forests play a major role in the global however, heavy logging requires a much longer recovery
carbon cycle and in regional climatic patterns. Tropical period, and some highly degraded forests may not be able
forests maintain very high rates of moisture and energy to approach pre-harvest conditions even after hundreds of
exchange with the atmosphere. Tropical forests also years. In many regions construction of logging roads
absorb the vast majority of incoming solar radiation, and makes forested areas far more accessible to those interested
thus have a very low albedo (reflectivity of solar radiation). in further exploitation such as subsistence farmers, hunters
Forest removal will result in an increased albedo, which and fuelwood gatherers. For example, when a commercial
can alter patterns of tropical and even temperate zone logger leaves the concession, subsistence farmers are able
precipitation. Loss of tropical forest vegetation also results to penetrate deeper into the forest than would have
in reduced evapotranspiration, thereby reducing water previously been the case. Post-logging forest use is
cycling between the land and the atmosphere. In Amazonia becoming increasingly intense due to high population
50–80% of the water vapour entering the atmosphere via growth rates in many tropical countries.

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 Tropical Forests

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Whitmore TC (1998) An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests, 2nd edn.
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Deforestation: The Economic and Statistical Analysis of Factors Giving Wilson EO (1999) The Diversity of Life, new edn. New York: WW
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diversity – the plot thickens. Science 291: 606–607.

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