Ma History Paper 1

MA HISTORY
MUSLIM FREEDOM
MOVEMENT IN INDIA
1857 - 1947
THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE & ITS AFTERMATH:
CAUSES:
1. POICY OF EXPANSION
2. THE EXCLUSION OF INDIANS FROM ADMINISTRATIVE JOBS
3. ILL-TREATMENT OF EUROPEANS
4. INTERFERENCE IN RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS OF INDIANS
5. ECONOMIC POLICY OF EAST INDIA COMPANY
6. NATURAL CALAMITIES AND EPIDEMICS
7. THE SENSE OF DEPRIVATION AMONG THE MUSLIMS
8. THE UN-REST IN THE ARMY
CAUSES OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

The mass uprising of the people of Indo-Pakistan against the British rule in 1857 was not a spontaneous reaction of alien
rule but the eruption of the volcano of discontent that had kept smoldering for about a century. The causes of the War
of Independence were political, economic, social, religious and military.
(A) POLITICAL CAUSES
The English East India Company got strongly implanted in the Sub-continent after its historic victory over Nawab of
Bengal in the Battle of Plassey fought in 1757. Soon afterwards in 1764 the British recorded another important triumph
in the Battle of Buxar. This time the English defeated the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Oudh and the Mughal
Emperor. This victory further brightened the prospects of the Company in the country. Later on through skillful
diplomacy the British continued their policy of expansion. By the end of the first half of the 19th century they succeeded
in removing from their way the main hurdles of the lion of Mysore Tipu Sultan, the Marathas, the Sikhs and the state of
Oudh. As a result territorial limits of the British Empire increased at a tremendous pace. By 1857, that is about a hundred
years after the battle of Plassey the frontiers of the British territory included provinces like Bengal, Bihar, Oudh,
Maysore, Maharashtra, Sindh, Punjab, Kashmir and North West Frontier. W. Hastings (1773-85), Lord Cornwallis (1786-
93), Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) and Dalhousie (1848-56) were great annexationists. They annexed many states.
 Doctrine of Lapse: Lord Dalhousie applied Doctrine of Lapse for the expansion of the British Empire. According
to this doctrine the rulers of the states were not allowed to adopt sons. As a result their states were annexed
when they died without issues. Lord Dalhousie annexed many states through Doctrine of Lapse which created a
great sense of insecurity among the princes and the general public. They became suspicious of the British
policies. The intensions of the British rulers are clear from the statement of Sir Charles Napier:
 Annoyance of rulers of State: The policy of ruthless expansion adopted by the British created a lot of bitterness.
Lord Dalhousie left no stone unturned for the expansion of the English territory. He annexed states on the
grounds of Doctrine of lapse and misgovernment. As such the rulers of the affected states like Sindh, Punjab,
Jhansi, and Oudh became sworn enemies of the Company. Nama Sahib the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao was
refused the pension of 80,000 pounds annually. The state of Oudh was annexed and no consideration was
shown for the unflinching loyalty of the ruling house of Oudh to the British Government. In fact the annexation
of Oudh was nothing short of gross violation of national faith. According to Sir Henry Lawrence,
“To the same point that British interference with that province has been as prejudicial to its court and people as it has
been disgraceful to the British name”.
 Confiscation of Estates: The nobles were granted large estates by past rulers which served as a source of their
honorable living. The British Government reversed this policy and confiscated thousands of such estates. As a
result numberless affected persons turned against the Company. This is why the deposed landlords were the
standard bearers of the war of Independence.
(B) ECONOMIC CAUSES OF THE WAR
The new agrarian policy of the British, destruction of local industry, permanent settlement, large scale unemployment,
monopoly of trade by the English and the Stamp Act were some important economic causes of the war.
 New Agrarian Policy: The new agrarian policy of the Government shook the foundations of the village
communities. The Zamindars were asked to provide documentary proof of their holdings; otherwise, they were
deprived of their lands. The rate of taxes on the lands was increased burdening the Zamindars and the
cultivators. These steps alienated the majority of the working class from the Government. This class was in the
front rank when the war of Independence broke out in 1857.
Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

 Destruction of Local Industry: Due to Industrial Revolution of England cheaper and superior goods flowed into
the markets of the Sub-continent. The local industry could not compete with the imported stuff and suffered
badly. Millions of people were left jobless. This resulted in frustration among the lower classes.
 Permanent Settlement: The after effects of the permanent settlement of land were very disastrous for the
landowners. It had fixed the income of the Government but had put the Zamindar under a lot of pressure. They
had to deposit regularly a fixed amount which was not always possible. The defaulters were very often degraded
and subjected to oppression by the collectors. These acts created a lot of bitterness and discontent among the
peasants.
 Unemployment: The British did not trust the Indians. As a result they were not appointed on important jobs and
high posts. This policy resulted in unemployment for the educated classes. The policy of annexation to the
British Empire also left thousands of people jobless.
 Domination of trade by the English: The British facilitated their trade in Indo-Pakistan. Many seaports were
declared fee ports and custom duty on imported goods was withdrawn. These steps ruined the local industry.
Imported goods flooded local markets that were cheaper and superior in quality. Consequently the local working
class became distressed.
 Court Fee Stamps: The English Government declared court fee compulsory to be paid in the form of court
stamps. Thus the people were denied the right of free justice. The general public greatly resented this action.
(C) RELIGIOUS CAUSES
 Propagation of Christianity: Although at the outset the English had shown respect towards all religious yet with
the passage of time they changed their mind and devised ways and means for the propagation of Christianity in
Indo-Pakistan. The Government officials often became vocal in their intentions to convert the locals to
Christianity. Mr. Mangles chairman of the Directors of the Company while speaking in the House of Commons
said:
“Province has entrusted the extensive empire of Hindustan to England in order that the banner of Christ should wave
triumphant from one end of India to the other. Every one must exert all his strength that there may be no dilatoriness
on any account in continuing in the country the grand wok of making all Indians Christians.”
The missionaries enjoyed full government support. They were allowed to perform their work at all public places. The
Bible was included in the syllabi of various educational institutions. Orphans, widows and distressed people were
converted to Christianity. Moreover as act was passed through which the converts were allowed to inherit their
ancestral properties. The Indians became suspicious of this act because they thought that this act was passed in order to
facilitate conversion to Christianity. It may be interesting to note that even the highest ranked officials did not conceal
their efforts of preaching Christianity. To quote Lord Dalhousie:
“It is announced also as a matter of great significance that the daughter of the Raja of Coorg had been baptized and
that our gracious sovereign was her god-mother.”
Keeping in view all these facts is interesting to note that the leaders of the war of Independence like Nana Sahib, Rani of
Jhansi, Maharaja Peshwa Bahadur and Bahadur Shah Zafar called upon the people to defend their faith against the
propagation of Christianity.
 Introduction of new inventions: In the mid of the 19th Century, the British introduced in Indo-Pakistan many
inventions like railway, post and telegraph. Moreover they made English as medium of education. These
inventions made the Indians suspicious of the intentions of the British. They considered these inventions as
moves of some ulterior motives on the part of the rulers.
 Jihad Movement: Syed Ahmed Shaheed launched the Jehad Movement in the second decade of the 19th
century. It was a sort of large-scale effort by the Muslims to snatch freedom from alien rule. After their initial
successes at Akora and Hazru the Mujahdeens were defeated at Balakot in 1831. The Jehad Movement though
failed to achieve immediate aims yet it succeeded in kindling a flame of freedom which served as a beacon of
inspiration for the coming generations. In 1857, particularly the Muslims were conscious of the need to
overthrow the British Government.
 Anti-religion Laws: The British Government enacted many laws which were contradictory to the fundamentals
of various religions of Indo-Pakistan. For example, rape was declared a civil offence. It greatly aroused the
feeling of the Muslims. Similarly the widow remarriage act offended Hindu religious sentiments. The abolition of
the age-old Hindu custom of Sati produced the dame results.

(D) SOCIAL CAUSES
 Mockery of cultural heritage: The British considered the Muslims as their archenemy in the sub-continent because
the Muslims had been the rulers of the country in the recent past. The British were afraid of the Muslim cultural
heritage which was very rich in all aspects. The English wanted to prove their culture as superior to others. Thus they
adopted a policy of ridiculing the Muslim culture. This attitude greatly agitated Muslim religious feelings.
 Insulting treatment with the people: A hundred year rule over the sub-continent had given the English as air of
superiority. They considered themselves a super creation and often resorted to insulting attitude towards the people
of the sub-continent. The Company adhered to a policy of racial discrimination which preferred white over the black.
The people of Indo-Pakistan were greatly agitated by this attitude.
(E) MILITARY CAUSES
 Disbanded armies of annexed states: The Company annexed many states to the British Empire under ‘Doctrine of
Lapse’ and misgovernment. The British disbanded the armies of the annexed states resulting in thousands of
unemployed local soldiers. Consequently a number of families were rendered economically distressed. These
policies created a class which wanted to get rid of the British rule.
 Dearth of English troops: In the middle of the 19th century most of the British troops were stationed in Punjab
where they were deployed during and after the conquest of Punjab. Similarly the Crimean War had ended in 1856
but the English troops had not returned yet. Eventually the number of troops in Bengal and central parts of the
country was very small but the ratio of the Indian troops had increased in the Company Army which tilted the
balance in favour of the natives and they were encouraged to launch the War of Independence.
 Greased cartridges: The use of greased cartridges proved as the immediate cause of the war. It was rumored that
the cartridges were greased with the fat of the cow or pig. This situation agitated the religious feeling of both the
Muslim and Hindu soldiers and created widespread discontent among the native soldiers. Keeping with their
religious beliefs they refused to use these cartridges.
EVENTS OF THE WAR
The first incident of the war took place on 26th February 1857 when the native soldiers of the 19th Native Infantry at
Behrampur refused to use the greased cartridges. Then on 19th march 1857, Mangal Pande a native soldier of the 34th
native infantry fired at his British officers. His fellows did not join him. As a result he was caught and hanged. However,
all the 34th native infantry was disbanded on 6th May 1857. Thus the war was triggered on and the flames of war soon
spread to all parts of the country. Meerat, Delhi, Lucknow, Baraille, Kanpur and Jhansi were the prominent centers of
the struggle for independence.
 Meerat: Meerat shot into prominence on 23rd April 1857 when 80 soldiers disobeyed the orders of Colonel Smyth
to use the cartridges. Consequently on 8th May 1857 the 80 soldiers were sentenced to ten years imprisonment.
However two days late their colleagues attacked the jail and freed the 80 soldiers. This incident led to a general
revolt and the freedom fighter marched to Delhi.
 Delhi: The freedom fighters of Meerat reached Delhi and occupied the city without any resistance. They placed
Bahadur Shah Zafar the last Mughal Emperor on the throne. The revolutionaries were no doubt full of emotions but
they lacked discipline. However soon afterwards Bakht Khan arrived from Baraille with a strong contingent. The
Mughal prince was made incharge of the revolutionaries. The British faced much difficulty. They appealed to the
Sikhs of Punjab for assistance. The Sikhs joined hands with the British to fight against the Muslims. As a result
combined forces of the English and the Sikhs under Sir John Shore recovered the city of Delhi. Bahadur Shah Zafar
was deposed and deported to Rangoon forever. The Mughal princes were shot dead.
 Lucknow: Lucknow was another important centre of the war. The people of Oudh and the disbanded soldiers of the
state rose in unison to overthrow the British domination. The freedom fighters defeated the small British garrison
and placed a ten years old prince Bergees Qadir on the throne. Queen Hazrat Mahal, widow of the late Nawab
became the regent. Ahmed Ullah was among the prominent leaders of the war. Sometime later the British forces led
by General Outram and Havelock succeeded in defeating the revolutionaries at Lucknow.
 Baraille: Baraille, the capital of Rohil Khand too, took a prominent part in the war of independence. Khan Bahadur
Khan, Son of Hafiz Rehmat Khan was incharge of all operations. The garrison at Baraille was joined by defeated
troops from Delhi and Lucknow. The struggle continued till the freedom fighters were defeated y combined forces of
Sikhs, Gurkhas and the British.
 Kanpur: Kanpur was a great centre of the freedom fighters. Nana Sahib the adopted son of the last Peshwa Baji Rao
II raised the standard of revolution. He declared himself Peshwa and occupied the city of Kanpur. He massacred the
English soldiers. However, the British recovered Kanpur and perpetrated great atrocities on the people.

 Jhansi: Rani Jhansi Bai the widow of Raja Gangadhar Rao led the fight in Jhansi, another important centre of war of
independence. She raised an army of more than 20000 freedom fighters.. She captured Gwalior with the help of
Tanta Topia. Te British troops attacked Jhansi and captured the city in June 1858. Rani Jhansi laid down her life while
fighting gallantly.
 Bihar: Kanwar Singh, a great military leader, led the freedom fighters in Bihar. He defeated the British troops at
Arrah. He received fatal wounds and died. The British succeeded in taking control of Bihar after great struggle.
CAUSES OF FAILURE OF WAR
The WOI of 1857 failed to achieve its immediate political objectives. Following were the causes of this failure.
 Lack of Leadership and Discipline: The freedom fighters fought mostly in independent groups at different places led
by leaders of their particular regions. There was no leader who could single handed lead all the groups. The
revolutionaries lacked discipline. Thus their efforts could not get the required momentum.
 Lack of unity: There was no unity among the freedom fighters. They fought independent of one another. As a result
they could not assemble their resources against a common enemy. They were defeated at different places. On the
other hand the British fought the war of their survival with dedication and purpose.
 Lack of Resources: The freedom fighter lacked resources of all types. They were short of equipment and food-stuffs.
They had to face well equipped and well-organized enemy The Mughal Emperor had no treasury to support the war.
 Lack of Popular Support: The WOI never assumed the shape of a concerted national struggle. It lacked popular
support. Although it spread to various parts of the country yet some places did not take part in the war.
 Superior Technology of English troops: The British troops fought with latest weapons. They had the backing of the
latest technology. There were also led by capable and experienced generals
 Non-cooperation of the rulers of the State: The rulers of different states of Indo-Pakistan did not come to help the
freedom fighters. Thus the War remained confined to a few centres.
 Non-Cooperation of Sikhs of Punjab: The Sikhs of Punjab considered the Muslims as their traditional enemies. They
decided to support the British in the War of Independence. The Sikh soldiers played a decisive role in the recovery of
Delhi from the freedom fighters. Had the Sikhs not assisted the English in the war the history of Indo-Pakistan would
have been different.
 Role of traitors: The British succeeded in finding traitors in ranks of freedom fighters. Maulvi Rajab Ali and Hakeem
Ehsan Ullah blew off the royal ammunition depot at Delhi. Thus the revolutionaries suffered a great set back.
 Return of British troops from Crimea: The War of Crimea ended in 1856. The British troops fighting there were free
to return to the sub-continent. The War of Independence started in 1857. In the beginning the Company had to
depend on the few soldiers present in the country. But soon afterwards the surplus troops from Crimea poured into
Indo-Pakistan. These troops were experienced and equipped with latest weapons. The balance of war tilted in
favour of the English. The freedom fighters fighting without formidable resources could not avoid the inevitable
defeat for long.
EFFECTS OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
The War of Independence 1857 despite its failure changed the entire political, social and economic outlook of the sub-
continent. The British were forced to revive their policy. Some important effects of the war were as under.
 Immediately after the war, through the Queen’s Proclamation of 1858, the crown took over the control of Indo-
Pakistan from the English East India Company. Lord Canning the last Governor General of the East India
Company became the first Viceroy of the British Government in India. Consequently the Indians were placed on
equality with the subjects of the British crown.
 The British Government abolished the Doctrine of Lapse the rules of the states the right to adopt their heirs.
 The policy of annexations was totally abandoned. Rulers of the sates were guaranteed that there would be no
more annexations.
 After the War the number of European soldiers was increased in Indo-Pakistan. It is estimated that there were
65,000 European soldiers against 140,00 native soldiers. The army was reorganized into separate regiments. The
artillery was totally put under the control of Europeans.
 One ugly effect of the war of Independence was that the English subjected the Muslims to oppression. The
British considered Muslims responsible for the War of Independence. Accordingly the head of repression fell
more heavily on the Muslims than on the Hindus. Many of the leading Muslims were hanged or exiled.
 As a result of the War the British Government changed its agrarian policy in Indo-Pakistan. The Permanent
Settlement of Bengal was reconsidered. The land owners were provided safeguards.
 After the War the British wrath was directed at the Muslims. The properties of the Muslims were confiscated

and they were subjected to all sorts of terror and repression. The British adopted a discriminatory policy
towards the Hindus and the Muslims. The Hindus were given preference over the Muslims. Soon a wide gulf
between the two communities assumed dangerous proportions.
 The failure of the Independence War encouraged the Christian missionaries to resume the propagation of their
religion with new vigour and assurance.

Educational Institutions-Aligarh Movement
1) Introduction
a. The War of Independence 1857 ended in disaster for the Muslims.
b. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their adversaries because they had ousted them from
power
c. The British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes
d. Arabic, Persian and religious education banned in schools
e. English made not only the medium of instruction but also the official language in 1835
f. Seeing this atmosphere of despair and despondency, Sir Syed launched his attempts to revive the spirit of
progress through modern education.
2) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (17 Oct, 1817 – 27 Mar 1898)
a. Got knowledge from Farid ud Din (maternal-grandfather – Ex Mughal PM)
b. Got knowledge of Quran, Arabic, Persian, History, Maths and Medicine
c. Joined gov’t in 1839 – after father’s death – in a clerical job
 1841 – Promoted as Sub-Judge
 1846 – transferred to Delhi, Chief Judge in 1846
 was offered an estate for services rendered to British during war 1857 but he rejected
 1877 – Member of imperial council.
 1886 – University of Edinburgh – LL.D degree
 1888 – Knighthood
3) Educational Aspect of Aligarh Movement

a. Objective:
i. Modern education for Muslims to compete Hindus
ii. Cooperation with the British government
b. Schools
i. Muradabad (1859) ii. Ghazipur (1863)
c. Scientific society at Gahazipur (1864)
i. (to translate modern work from English to urdu and Persian)
ii. 1866 – Society published Aligarh Gazette (to arouse sentiments of goodwill & friendship)
d. Muhammadan Educational Conference
i. Established in 1866
 Held public meetings, discussed modern education techniques
 Nawab Mohsan al Malik, Vaqar ul Malik, Maulana Shibli and Maulana Hali as members
ii. 1869 – went to England, studied education system of Oxford & Cambridge
e. Anjuman-i-Taraqi-i-Musalmanan-i-Hind (1870)
i. to impart modern knowledge to Muslims
f. Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College
i. On pattern of Oxford
 Fund raising committee formed
 24th May, 1874, MAO High school established
 1877 – got status of college
 western, eastern and Islamic education
 1920 – status of University
4) Political Aspects of Aligarh Movement

a. Muslims should avoid active politics
b. Sir Syed wrote “Risala-i-Asbab-Baghawqat-i-Hind
c. Non-representation of the Indians in the legislative councils.
d. Forcible conversion of Indians to Christianity.
e. Mismanagement of Indian army.
f. Many other ill-advised measures of the Government which created large scale dissatisfaction among the

various sections of society.
5) Religious Services of Aligarh Movement
a. Wrote “Essay on the Life of Muhammad & Rebattle” in response to William Muire’s objectionable remarks in
“Life of Muhammad”
b. Philosophical commentary “Tabaeen-al-Kalam” on bible – point out similarities
c. Influenced by MBA Wahab and Shah Ismail Shaheed – having positive attitude towards religion
6) Social services of Aligarh Movement
a. “Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq” criticized conservative way of life and advised to adopt new trend
b. Established Orphanage houses
c. Founded Anjuman-i-Tariki-i-Urdu (protecting Urdu)
d. Ahkam-i-Taham-i-Ahle-Kitab (Muslims can eat with Christians)
e. Pioneer of two nation theory
i. Advocate of Hindu Muslim unity
ii. Urdu Hindi controversy 1867 in Banaras, changed his views
iii. Shakespeare dialogue
7) Features of Aligarh
a. Western & Eastern Education d. European and Indian staff
b. Islamic Education e. Non-Muslim students
c. Residential College f. Loyalist Disposition
8) Aligarh Movement after Sir Syed’s death
a. 1889 – Sir Syed proposed a trustee bill
 Sir Syed as Sec. of the trust & Syed Mahmud (son) as joint sec.
b. After Sir Syed’s death (1898), Syed Mahmud as Sec.
 was a weak manager
 resigned
c. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk as new sec
 Devoted
 deposited six lac Rupees to gov’t
 handled the conflict b/t two groups – Sahibzada Aftab Khan & Muhammad Ali Johar
 Died in 1907
d. Nawab Vaqar ul Malik took over
 tussle on European staff arouse
 Nawab resigned in 1912 – health
e. Nawab Muhammad Ishaq Khan
 deposited 20 lac for status of University
 1919- college student played role in Tehrik e Khilafat
9) Effects of Aligarh Movement
 English-Muslim Reconciliation
Due to Aligarh Movement the feelings of hatred against Muslims started diminishing from the hearts of the
English. The English started coming closer to the Muslims.
 Protection of Rights
Aligarh Movement created an awareness of the protection of rights among the Muslims. Sir Syed spent
whole of his life in improving the educational, social, economic and political affairs of the Muslims. Aligarh
College was the biggest educational institution of the Muslims. It’s educated persons presented the
problems of the masses before the government that considered from favourably. In 1906 the demand for
separate electorate forwarded through the Simla Deputation was accepted.
 Supply of Political Leadership
The Muslims got education from Aligarh Movement and made themselves capable to face Hindus and the
English. Muslim League was established by the educated political leadership that also owed to Aligarh
Movement. Political awareness was created among the masses by Aligarh Movement. In fact the struggle for
the establishment was originated from this movement.

 Concept of Separate Nation
Aligarh Movement made the Muslims realized that they were a separate nation having a glorious past, and
also made it clear that Hindus and Muslims were two nations and could not unite together. Moreover
Hindus were not the well-wishers of Muslims. This two nation theory was made the basis of Pakistan
Movement by Allama Iqbal and Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah who got a separate homeland for
Muslims.
 Acquisition of Western Education
Muslims were afraid of western education but they could not make progress without it. As the source of
modern sciences was the English language so it was necessary for them to learn it. Therefore arrangements
of western sciences side by side with Islamic education were made in AligarhCollege that motivated a large
number of Muslims to get education. Aligarh Movement also persuaded other affluent Muslims to start
educational institutions; and in a short time the Muslims became prominent in the fields of English and
modern education.
 Economic Progress
Aligarh Movement attracted the Muslims towards education and made them enabled to improve their
economic conditions. By getting the share in government jobs, the Muslims rose to the higher positions, and
in this way the economic condition of the Muslims improved a lot.
 Muslim Unity
Aligarh Movement created a sense of Muslims nationality. A Muslim wherever he lives in the world is a
member of Muslim ‘Nation’. In 1919 the educated youth of AligarhCollege launched Khilafat Movement for
the Muslims of Turkey. They created a sense of unity among the Muslims. Hence feelings of union,
relationship and brotherhood were developed among them.
Educational Institutions-DEOBAND
1) Introduction
a. Started at April 1866)
b. Aligarh movement was cooperating with British
c. Christians working to convert Muslims into Christianity
d. Apr 1866 – Madrasah established at Deoband
 2nd to Al Azhar Cairo
e. Founder
 Haji M. Abid floated the idea
 Collection of fund
 Managing committee – Maulana M Qasim , Maulana Fazl ur Rehman, Maulana Zulfiqar, Maulana
M Yaqoob
 Maulana Shabir A Usmani taught
f. Maulana M Qasim
 first principal
 worked devotedly
 Madrasah came to known as “Qasim al Uloom I Deoband”
g. Madrasah followed Madrasah I Rahimia (Shah Wali Ullah’s father) and British education system
h. Produced
 Shah Abdur Rahim, Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Rashid Ahmad Ganghoi, Maulana Mehmood ul Hassan
2) Political Services of Deoband

a. Jamiat Ulama I Islam
 Thanvi group
 lead by Ashraf Ali Thanvi, Shabir Ahmad Usmani
 Muslim league
b. Jamiat-ul-Ulema-i-Hind
 Madni group
 lead by Maulana Hussain Madani, Mufti Kafayat Ullah influenced by Abu-ul-Kalam Azad
 Congress
3) Educational Services of Deoband
a. A great religious Madrasah (2nd to Al Azhar)
b. Principals
 Maulana M Qasim (1880)
 Rashid Ahmad Ganghoi
 Sheikh ul Hind M. Mehmood Ul Hassan.
4) Deoband and Aligarh
a. Policy towards British
b. Political role of Muslims
c. Emphasizing area of education
5) Rapprochement with Aligarh
a. Jamiat-ul-Ansar (1906) at Deoband
 Sahibzada Aftab A Khan attended the meeting
 Swap of education – religious and western
b. Jamiat-i-Milia (1920)
PARTITION OF BENGAL 1905:

The decision to affect the Partition of Bengal was announced on 19 July 1905 by the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon. The
partition took place on 16 October 1905 and separated the largely Muslim eastern areas from the largely Hindu western
areas. The Hindus of West Bengal who dominated Bengal's business and rural life complained that the division would

make them a minority in a province that would incorporate the province of Bihar and Orissa. Hindus were outraged at
what they recognized as a "divide and rule" policy, where the colonizers turned the native population against itself in
order to rule, even though Curzon stressed it would produce administrative efficiency. The partition animated the
Muslims to form their own national organization on communal lines. The former province of Bengal was divided into
two new provinces "Bengal" (comprising western Bengal as well as the province of Bihar and Orissa) and Eastern
Bengal and Assam with Dacca as the capital. The Population of Bengal was 78 million and it’s Area was 490,000 km2.
REASON:
 The main argument advanced by the British government in favour of the Partition was administrative convenience,
namely, Bengal was too big a province to be efficiently administered.
 But behind the ostensible argument of 'administrative convenience' the real motive of the government was political
and economic.
 East Bengal was dominated by Muslims and West Bengal was dominated by Hindus.
 On the basis of government papers, letters and secret documents it can be said that the expansion of Assam was
necessary to the British on economic grounds.
 The political motive behind the scheme of Partition was to stem the rising tide of nationalism in Bengal. By
cutting out some portions of Bengal, Curzon sought to break up the political unity of the Bengalees.
RESPONSES:
1. BOYCOTT MOVEMENT: Boycott of British Good
2. SWADESHI MOVEMENT: Swadeshi means “OF ONE’S OWN COUNTRY”. People should use goods produced by own
country. It was the First Mass Movement in Freedom Struggle.
SIGNIFICANCES:
 Strength to National Movement  People’s Sacrifices and new mode of Protest
 Stimulus to native industry  Formation of All Muslim League and Hindu

Mahasabha.
Strength to Culture
RE-UNIFICATION:
Due to these political protests, the two parts of Bengal were reunited on 12 December 1911. A new partition which
divided the province on linguistic, rather than religious grounds followed, with the Hindi, Oriya and Assamese areas
separated to form separate administrative units: Bihar and Orissa Province was created to the west and Assam Province
to the east. The administrative capital of British India was moved from Calcutta to New Delhi as well.
AFTERMATH:
In 1909, separate elections were established for Muslims and Hindus. Before this, many members of both communities
had advocated national solidarity of all Bengalis. With separate electorates, distinctive political communities developed,
with their own political agendas. Muslims, too, dominated the Legislature, due to their overall numerical strength of
roughly twenty two to twenty eight million. Nationally, Hindus and Muslims began to demand the creation of two
independent states, one to be formed in majority Hindu and one in majority Muslim areas.
SIMLA DEPUTATION 1906:

POLITICAL SCENE:
1. Ever since its establishment in 1885 as a political organization, All India Congress had been actively striving for the
Hindu cause. It had ignored the aims and objectives which said that the Congress would work for the protection of
interests of all communities of India irrespective of their religion and nationality. It, however, could not pursue this
lofty principle of looking after the interests of all communities of India and very soon indulged in purely pro-Hindu
activities. It became clear, by Congress designs, that it was a forum meant to project the Hindu demands only.
2. The Hindu opposition to Urdu and partition of Bengal revealed it to the Muslims that the Hindus and Congress would
never allow them a respectable place in the Indian society. The Hindu and Congress agitation intensified these
feelings and aroused Muslim suspicions about Hindu designs.
3. The rise of Hindu Nationalism awakened Muslim’s feelings of separate identity.
4. The movement launched by Swami and Tilak raised Muslims eye-brows who seriously pondered over their future
plans to safeguard their interests.
SIMLA DEPUTATION:
 The Simla Deputation of 1906 was the first systematic attempt on the part of the Muslims to present their demands,
to the British government and to seek their acceptance.
 Simla deputation comprised 35 Muslims from all over India. It was a galaxy of Muslims leaders from all the
provinces, from one end of India to the other and it had Muslims of all background. Therefore, when in 1906, this
deputation called on the Viceroy, it was the most representative Muslim delegation. This delegation was led by Sir
Agha Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul Malik served as a secretary and this delegation met the Viceroy in Simla that was
why it was called as Simla Deputation.
 The memorandum which they presented was a kind of demands which were the uppermost in the minds of the
Muslims at that time. The delegation emphasized that the Muslims should not be viewed simply in numerical terms
but they should take into account their historical importance and the kind of contribution the Muslims had made to
British India and keeping in view that importance they should work towards accommodating their demands.
 The delegation emphasized that democratic principle should be introduced keeping in view the peculiar conditions
and circumstances of India. The diversity, the fact that there different kinds of people living in India and the fact that
the Muslims consider themselves to be a separate entity, all these things had to be taken into account because the
India was not a homogenous amalgamated or monolithic political identity. It was a political identity comprising
diversity, divergence in view, divergence in outlook and when you introduce some kind of system then these
realities had to be accommodated.
DEMANDS OF SIMLA DEPUTATION
 Representation more than their population because of their importance.
 Separate electorate AND Reservations of Muslims seats in government jobs.
 Special share in Municipal or district boards University senates and syndicates
 Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive Council.
 Muslim University at Aligarh.
The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands. It encouraged the Muslims to launch struggle for their rights
parallel to the Indian National Congress but it required an organized platform.
At this time the Muslims had left the Congress and had not political platform to project their demands. They badly
needed a forum for the projection and safeguard of their interests to counter the false propaganda of the Congress. This
led to the formation of All India Muslim League.
FORMATION OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE

 Time had come to formally organize the Muslims after the success of the Simla Deputation. The Muslim leaders
desired to create a permanent political forum. The Congress’s anti-Muslim activities too emphasized the need of a
political platform for the Muslims from where the interests of Muslims could be projected. The Muslim leaders of
Simla Deputation after their meeting with the Viceroy held consultations among themselves as to the possibility of
forming a political association.
 The annual session of All India Muslim Educational Conference was held in 1906 at Dacca. The prominent Muslim
leaders from all over the country were attending this meeting. When the meeting ended, Nawab Saleem Ullah Khan
of Dacca, convened a meeting of the Muslim leaders at his residence. The objective of this meeting was to discuss

the possibilities of forming a political association for the Muslims. The meeting was presided by Nawab Viqar-ul-
Malik on 30th December 1906. Nawab Saleem Ullah of Dacca had already circulated an idea of the political
organization known as All India Muslim Confederacy. Nawab Viqar-ul-Mailk in his presidential address stressed the
need for a political platform for the Muslims. He said that Congress political activities were highly injurious for the
Muslims for which Sir Syed Ahmed Khan had asked the Muslims to keep away from the Congress politics. He said the
Muslims form only one-fourth of the total population of India. It is obvious that if the British leave the country at any
time, the Muslims will come under the domination of that nation which is four times bigger than the Muslims. The
other participants also expressed their views in favour of forming a political organization for the Muslims.
 Nawab Saleem Ullah Khan of Dacca, therefore, proposed Muslim League which was supported by Hakim Ajmal Khan,
Maulana Zafar Ali Khan and other participants.
 Nawab Mohsin-ul-Malik and Nawab Viqar-ul-Malik were elected provisionally as Joint Secretaries of the Muslim
League. A Committee consisting of sixty members was set up to draft the constitution of the Muslim League. The
Constitution Committee included all the members of Simla Deputation. Muhammad Ali Jauhar, a distinguished
student of Aligarh and Oxford, was given the responsibility of drafting the rules and regulations of the League.
 The first regular session of the Muslim League was held at Karachi on 29th and 30th December, 1907 exactly after
one year of its formation. Sir Adamjee Pirbhai, a prominent leader of Bombay, presided over this session. The draft
Constitution prepared by the committee was placed before the session for approval. The Constitution was adopted
after a further scrutiny by the members of the Constitution Committee present at Karachi session.
 The Karachi session of the League was adjourned after adopting the Constitution. The session resumed after a few
months and met again on 18th March, 1908 at Aligarh. Agha Khan was formally elected as the President and Major
Hassan Bilgrami as the Secretary.
LONDON BRANCH: MAY 1908:
Justice Amir Ali Syed organized a branch of Muslim League at London and responded effectively to the
misunderstandings and conspiracies of the Hindus against the Muslims.
OBJECTIVES AND GOALS OF MUSLIM LEAGUE:
1. Protection and promotion of political rights and interests of the Muslims.
2. Cooperation with other communities without prejudice to the above goal.
3. Fostering sense of loyalty, among the Muslims, towards the government.
CHANGE IN THE GOALS OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE 1913:
The Muslim League with its establishment became active for the protection of the Muslim interests. It took over the
Muslim struggle launched by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and was successful in securing a number of demands from the
Government for the Muslims. The most important demand was the separate electorate, which the Government at last
conceded in the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909. The acceptance of separate electorate was the first step by the
Government taken towards the establishment of self-rule in India.
In spite of some early successes the Muslim League could not assume that political importance and significance which All
Indian Congress had achieved. The Government too, was not very considerate and sympathetic towards Muslim League
as it was towards Congress.
Some important developments occurred during the first decades of the 20th century like annulment of the Partition of
Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan wars, Libya-Italy war, Demolition of the mosque in
Kawnpur (1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the British. This led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s policy. In
1913, the League changed its goals:
 Self-government
 Under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar conditions in India.
 Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party working for similar goals.
This change brought the Muslim League and Congress closer. In this way the era of cooperation between Hindus and
Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the Congress and the Muslim League to the
table. He joined the Muslim League in 1913.
Lucknow Pact 1916
In 1913, the Quaid-e-Azam’s inclusion in the Muslim League was a historic event which gave new dimensions to Muslim

League’s struggle. He was a great advocate of Hindu-Muslim unity and was widely respected in Muslim League and the
Congress. He succeeded in persuading both the Congress and the Muslim League parties to hold their annual sessions
in Bombay in 1915. Both the parties set up Reform Committees for making a scheme for constitutional changes in
consultation with other political parties. The atmosphere of Lucknow in 1916, where the Muslim League and the
Congress, for the first time in the history of India, held their joint sessions, was even more cordial. The scheme for
constitutional reforms prepared by the Reform Committees of Congress and Muslim League, in which the Quaid-e-Azam
played a major role, was placed before the joint session for approval. Finally the scheme was approved and an
agreement on the scheme of constitutional reforms was reached between Congress and Muslim League known as
Lucknow Pact. It was decided that both Congress and Muslim League would submit the jointly approved scheme to the
Government for its introduction after the war in order to introduce self-Government in India.
Main Recommendations
1. One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council.
2. Separate Electorate
3. Half members of the Executive Council should be Indian to be elected by the Imperial Legislative Council.
4. Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians.
5. Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils.
6. Half members of Governor’s EC should be Indians to be elected by the elected members of the Legislative Council.
7. Weightage to minorities in provinces.
8. Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be passed.
Role of the Quaid-e-Azam
Jinnah was the principal architect of the Lucknow Pact and was hailed as an ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity. He
presided over the League session at Lucknow in December 1916. Jinnah said,
“To Hindus our attitude should be of good-will & brotherly feelings. Co-operation in cause of our motherland should
be our guiding principle. India’s real progress can only be achieved by a true understanding and harmonious relations
between two great sister communities. With regard to our own affairs, we can depend upon nobody but ourselves”
Gains from Muslim Point-of-view
1. Separate Electorate 3. Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members
2. One Third Muslim seats in Central Legislature. of a community, it will not be passed.
Achievements of Lucknow Pact:
On August 20, 1917 the Secretary of State Montague promised for:
1. Greater association of Indian in all branches of 2. Responsible government
government. 3. Induction of Indians in the commissioned ranks.
Importance of Lucknow Pact
The Lucknow Pact was a bright chapter in the dark and gloomy environs of the Indian political history marred with
communal strife and narrow-mindedness. It was a political agreement which set in a new path leading towards a happy
and prosperous future. The Lucknow pact created political homogeneity between the two separate political entities,
Hindus and Muslims, who frankly and fairly admitted each other’s interests with sincerity. The credit for creating this
harmonious situation undoubtedly went to the unflinching and untiring efforts of the Quaid-e-Azam who was conferred
with a proud title of Ambassador of Hindu-Muslim Unity by the famous poet politician Mrs. Sarojni Naidu. The historical
struggle of the Muslims confirmed their identity. They organized their political party to address the demands. They also
got recognition by the Hindus as a separate nation. The British accepted their role in the political domain.
Reaction of the Hindus and the Muslims
The Hindus of the United Provinces expressed their resentment because it granted separate electorates to the Muslims
of India. All India Hindu Mahasbaha also did the same. Muslims belonging to the “Sir Syed School of Thought” in
the Punjab and United Provinces went against the Lucknow Pact. Sir Muhammad Shafi led this group. In retaliation, Sir
Muhammad Shaft’s Punjab Muslim League was disaffiliated from the Central Muslim League and the Muslim League
under Sir Fazal Hussain was recognized. The Bengali Muslims also disapproved the Lucknow Pact because their majority
was changed into minority in the Provincial Legislative Council. Newspaper of Aligarh i.e., “Al-Bashir”, “Al-Mizan”,
“Zulqurnain”, “Mashriq” and “Aligarh Institute Gazette” were against the Lucknow Pact.
The Indian Council Act, 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms)

Background
By 1909 the political turmoil and unrest prevailed in India. The Extremists Hindu and Congress activities had forced the

Muslims to give a serious thought to their future line of action in order to protect and safeguard their interests as a
nation. By now the Muslims had come to realize with firmness that they were a separate nation. The demand for
separate electorate by the Simla Deputation and later by the Muslim League was the first step taken into the direction
to protect and maintain the separate image of the Muslims.
Minto-Morley Reforms
The British Government had realized the importance of Muslim’s anxiety about their future and was convinced that the
present constitutional provisions were inadequate to provide safeguards to the Muslims. The Government therefore,
decided to introduce new constitutional reforms to dispel Muslim suspicions. The Government made it clear that it was
in favour of giving more rights to the Indian people. The Viceroy Lord Minto in accordance with the policy of the
Government set to the task of preparing a draft Bill, in collaboration with Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for India,
for the introduction of constitutional reforms. The Bill was prepared and presented in the Parliament for approval. The
Bill, after approval by the Parliament and Royal Assent, was enforced in 1909 and came to be known as Minto-Morley
Reforms of 1909.
Salient Features, Government of India Act 1909
The Act contained the following provisions:
 Separate Electorate was accepted for minorities.
 The preparation of separate electoral rolls was ordered.
 The Legislative Councils were expanded.
 The authority of the Council was enhanced. The members were given more liberties. Members were allowed to
present Resolutions, discuss Budget and put up questions.
 The Viceroy’s Council’s membership was fixed at sixty members.
 The membership of the provinces of Bengal, U.P., Bihar, Bombay, Madras and Orissa was fixed at 50 members
whereas the membership of the provinces of Punjab, Burma, and Assam was fixed at 30 members.
 The Indian were included in the Executive Council of the Viceroy and in the provincial Executive Councils.
 The local bodies, trade unions and universities were allowed to elect their members.
 Lt. Governors were appointed in Bengal, Bombay and Madras. These provinces were given right to form their
own Councils.
Defects of Minto-Morley Reforms

There were some inherent defects in Minto-Morley Reforms due to which the Minto-Morley Scheme could not last very
long. These reforms had following defects:
 The Minto-Morley Reforms did not provide for mode of electing the representatives.
 The system failed to develop a sense of accountability among the representatives.
 The voting rights were squeezed which made the electorate too narrow and restricted.
 The authority given to the elected members of raising questions and criticizing the policies proved useless as the real
legislative authority rested with the Government and its nominated persons.
 The legislative bodies lacked effective control on the Government agencies.
 The Central Government exercised vast authority in the financial sphere. Provincial expenditures were controlled by
the Central Government which could cut the provincial expenditures at will.
Significance of Minto-Morley Reforms

Following is the importance of Minto-Morley Reforms:
 The Minto-Morley Reforms gave impetus to the constitutional development in India.
 These reforms introduced the system of elections for the first time which created a great deal of political awareness
among the Indian people.
 The acceptance of separate electorate for the Muslims enhanced their political importance and significance.
The Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British India for the retention of

the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of Muslim holy places to non-Muslims.
Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to lose the war, concerns were expressed in India about the
future of Turkey. It was a peak period from 1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the
two major communities, the Hindus and the Muslims. Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their religious duty to
help the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on Islam. Another factor same to the first was
that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of unity of the Muslim world as Ummah.
Goals:
 Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact.
 To preserved the Territorial solidarity.
 Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims.
Dimensions:
The writings of the Muslim intellectuals provoked the sentiments for the preservation of Khilafat and retention of the
Muslims control of the holy places. The Muslims journalism played a vital role to steer the direction of the struggle.
Zamindars of Zafar Ali Khan, Comrade and Hamdard of Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, and Al-Hilal of Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad etc. were the prominent newspapers and magazines which performed their duties to express their
resentment. The Allies imposed humiliating terms on vanquished Turkey.
Protests in India:
All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919. The first Khilafat Conference at Delhi in November
1919 was arranged in which the Congress leaders like Gandhi and Nehru participated. In this way, the major political
parties joined hands to assault the injustice with the Muslim community. These steps were announced:
 No participation in victory celebrations.
 Boycott of British goods
 Non Cooperation with the Government
The second Khilafat Conference (Amritsar) was held in Dec. 1919. Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali joined the
session after being released from prison. In Jan. 1920, M. A. Ansari led a delegation to Viceroy while Maulana M. A.
Jauhar to Europe. The Khilafat Committee decided to start non-cooperation in collaboration with the Congress in May
1920.
Rowlett Act, 1919
Rowlett Act was a black law introduced in India. To the law, the government got authority to persecute any Indian and
the arrested had no facility of legal assistance and right to appeal just as the ‘Lettres de Cachet’ in France before the
French Revolution. Jinnah resigned from the central legislature as a protest.
Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April 1919
The people gathered in Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar but General Dyer opened fire to disperse the throng that cast huge
human casualties (379). It is considered one of the great tragedies in India. In 1940, by killing Governor Punjab, Sir
Michaal O’ Dayer, ‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ got revenge of the Indian massacre.
Non-Cooperation:
The Nagpur Session of the Congress (Dec. 1920) approved non cooperation with Government but Jinnah opposed and
left the Congress on 13th April 1923, because he was against the use of extra-constitutional means of protests.
The country was passing through a critical period and both the Congress and the Muslim League fully felt the necessity
of mutual co-operation to the Khilafat Movement. The leaders of the two movements met at Amritsar and resolved to
launch a country-wide agitation under the leadership of Mr. Gandhi. So the two movements, one led by Maulana
Muhammad Ali and the other by Mr. Gandhi merged into one and it was directed against the British Government.
The policy of ‘progressive, non-violent, non-cooperation’ was to be given effect to in the following manner:
 Renunciation of all Government titles.  Later resign from police and military jobs.
 Boycott of courts and educational institutions.  Refusal to pay taxes.
 Resign from jobs.  Boycott of foreign goods.
Khilafat Conference, Karachi, July 1921

In the session the participants expressed their loyalty to Turkish Sultan. They decided to continue the agitation and
supported Attaturk to expel foreign forces from Turkey.

Hijrat Movement 1920-21
The Indian ulama (religious leaders) declared India ‘Darul Harab.’ Darul Harab means the place (country) where Muslims
are not allowed to perform their religious practices. In the said situation, the Muslims should migrate to the nearest safe
place. The ulama issued verdicts to go to Darul Islam, Afghanistan. There was an impression that King of Afghanistan
would welcome them. So the migration took place at large scale. Initially Afghans welcomed them. Later, they closed the
border and pushed the migrants back to the Indian territories. It resulted in loss of lives and money. Many died during
this mission. Some went to Soviet Union from Afghanistan because they had nothing in India now.
End of the Movement

Moplah Revolt Malabar Coast, near Kalicut
Moplahs were the descendants of the Arab Muslims settled in the Sub Continent even before the arrival of Muhammad
Bin Qasim. In August 1921, they revolted against Hindu landlords whose treatment was very brutal with them. Later this
clash changed as Moplahs versus the Police and Hindu. This embittered the Hindu-Muslim relations. There was an
increase in violence day by day and the Chorachori Incident (UP) in February 1922 worsened the situation. The Congress
volunteers set a police station on fire and 21 policemen were killed. Gandhi suddenly called off the movement without
consulting other leaders.
Developments in Turkey
In 1922 Ataturk emerged as a national leader and restricted powers of Sultan. Next he was appointed Chief of the state
by Grand National Assembly. In March 1924, Khilafat was abolished. This caused a widespread resentment among the
Indian Muslims. They sent delegations to Turkey but failed to achieve their objectives.
Results of the Khilafat Movement
 The Khilafat Movement was a great Muslim struggle which provided dynamic leadership to the Muslims and
established foundations to launch further Muslim Freedom movement on stable and firm basis.
 It confirmed to the Muslims that the Hindu mind can never be sincere to the Muslims.
 The Khilafat Movement effectively demonstrated the religious enthusiasm of the Muslims to the British. The British
now seriously felt of giving independence to India.
 The Khilafat Movement also cultivated a new outlook amongst the Muslims not to rely on others support and to
wholly depend on self-determination for the achievement of national cause.
 The Khilafat Movement developed a sense of concern amongst the Muslims about their national matters and
inculcated among them the awareness about their future.
 The Khilafat Movement immensely strengthened the Two-Nation Theory which became the basis of establishment
of Pakistan.
 The Khilafat Movement added much to the economic miseries of the Muslims who resigned their jobs.
Reasons for the Failure of the Khilafat Movement

 Gandhi’s action of calling off the Non-Cooperation movement at a moment when the Government was about to
make major concessions, was a severe set-back to the movement.
 The Government arrested all important leaders of the movement which left the Muslims leaderless who drifted
aimlessly from one side to the other. The Government after arresting leaders, adopted repressive measures on the
masses to quell their agitation.
 The Grand National Assembly of Turkey elected Mustafa Kamal as their leader who abolished the institution of
Caliphate and the last Caliph Sultan Abdul Majeed was banished from Turkey.
 The Hindu-Muslim unity, achieved at Lucknow, disappeared in the beginning of the movement and could not be
recaptured.
 The extremist Hindu movements, Shuddi and Sanghtan, began converting the Muslims to Hinduism which provided
a new cause of bitterness between Hindus and Muslims.
 The communal clashes and riots erupted in the country which adversely affected the political conditions of India.
Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)

Background
The reforms introduced by the Act of 1909 failed to satisfy the people of India. Some significant developments in 1909-
1919 like World War I- 1914- 1918, change in Muslim League objectives, Lucknow Pact 1916 were happened. The
Rowlett Committee presented its report to the Government in 1918 which contained very strict measures to be adopted
against those who were found involved in the political activities against the Government. These incidents contributed a
great deal towards a widespread sense of hatred towards the Government received an immeasurable fillip giving rise to
large scale anti-British propaganda.
Montague-Chelmsford Reforms
The country was passing through the most critical and unstable period of its history. The British Government realized
that something should be done for the Indians. The British government announced that gradual induction of Indians in
all branches of government would be done. Gradual introduction of responsible government would be done.
Commissioned ranks of Army would be given to the Indians. Mr. Montague, Secretary of State visited India from
November 1917 to April 1918 and discussed the constitutional matters with Viceroy Lord Chelmsford and the Indian
political leaders. The outcome was the government of India Act 1919.
Salient Features, Government of India Act, 1919
The Government of India Act, 1919 was based to a great extent on the Montague-Chelmsford Report.
 Bicameral legislature was established in the Centre. The Upper House was known as the Council of State and the
Lower House was named as Central Legislative Assembly. The membership of the Upper House was fixed at 60
members while the Lower House consisted of 146 members.
 The Upper House was elected for 5 years and the Lower House for 3 years.
 Separate electorate was retained for minorities.
 Self-Government would be established gradually in India.
 The system of Dyarchy was introduced in the provinces. The provincial subjects were divided into Reserved and
Transferred ones.
 The subjects were divided between the Centre and Provinces. The central subjects were Defence, Foreign Affairs,
Currency, Railway and Telecommunication. The Provincial subjects included Education, Health, Irrigation and Local
Government.
 The Governor-General’s Executive Council was responsible to the Secretary of State for India who was sitting
in London.
 The Governor-General retained the right to certify any legislation which he considered essential.
An Appraisal of the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 conceded far less than the Lucknow Pact had demanded. The Act did not
make important changes at the Centre. The bicameral system of legislature was introduced at the Centre but there was
not appreciable increase in the powers of the legislature. In the domain of provinces, Dyarchy was introduced but it was
unsound in principle and unworkable in practice. Such concessions were not acceptable to the Congress and the Muslim
League. The Indians felt that the Reforms of 1919 had not given them enough powers and they were dissatisfied with
them. The Rowlett Act, the Jullianwala Bagh Tragedy, Martial Law and other sad happenings added to the resentment
and bitterness of the people.
The political circles declared these reforms as inadequate and unsatisfactory. Congress split into two factions over the
question of accepting the Reforms, one group was in favour of accepting the Reforms while the other was for rejecting
them. Muslim League too, was not very optimistic about the proposals as they did not contain any concrete suggestions
about the introduction of self-rule in India. Thus the reforms introduced by the Act of 1919 failed to satisfy the people
of India and the people did not think the 1919 Reforms worth for any consideration of attention.

Nehru Report
Background
The Nehru Report was an answer to the challenge thrown to Indians by Lord Brikenhead that the composition of the
Simon Commission had to be purely British because Indians were incapable of arriving at an agreed solution as regards
the constitutional problem of India. The main objective was to constitute proposals for the Indian Constitution. The
Congress called All Parties Conference that appointed a 10-member committee in May 1928 under the Chairmanship of
Motilal Nehru and Secretary ship of Jawaharlal Nehru. It included spokesmen of the various communal points of view
like those of the Muslims, the Hind Mahasabha, non- Brahmins, Sikhs and also those representing the Liberal viewpoint
and the interests of labour.
The Report referred to what it considered the illogical fear of Muslims of being dominated by the Hindu majority. But
what was significant was the way Muslims were thinking of tackling this problem. They had made a novel suggestion
that ‘they should at least dominate in some parts of India. Hindus on the other hand, in spite of enjoying all-India
majority, were fearful of Muslim majorities in Bengal, Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan and North-West Frontier Province. But
the Report ended on an optimistic note saying that once alien authority and intervention were withdrawn from India,
people would start thinking in terms of the larger economic and political problems. In such a climate, political parties
based mainly on economic grounds were a natural outcome.
Features
 India should be given the status of a Dominion on unity basis with a parliamentary form of Government.
 Residuary powers should be vested in the centre.
 There should be no separate electorates or weightage for minorities. It should be substituted by adult and
universal franchise.
 The reservation of seats for Punjab and Bengal as suggested by Quaid-e-Azam under Delhi proposals was ruled
out. However, reservation of Muslim seats could be possible in the provinces where Muslim population was at
least ten percent, but it was to be in strict proportion to the size of the community. The report contained: “A
minority must remain minority whether any seats are reserved for it or not.:
 Muslims could enjoy one-fourth representation in the Central Legislature.
 It agreed to the Muslim demands for the separation of Sindh from Bombay and the raising of the North-West
Frontier Province to the status of other provinces.
 It suggested the creation of a new Canarese-speaking Province in South India.
 It tried to show by detailed examination of the distribution of the Muslim population in the various districts
of Punjab and Bengal that Muslims without reservation of seats could certainly expect to have elected majorities
at least in proportion to their numbers in their provinces.
 Hindi should be the official language of India.
 The Central Government would comprise a Prime Minister along with other six Ministers appointed by the
Governor General.
The Nehru Report, published in August 1928, made the Hindu-Muslim rift final and irrevocable. It recommended a fully
responsible system of Government in which the majority would be sovereign. Muslim electorates were to be
immediately abolished.
As the Report was totally against the Muslim interests, it became the charter of the Hindu intelligentsia and was
supported by Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose and all other Hindu leaders. Gandhi took it as a great achievement
accomplished by the All-Parties Committee and warmly congratulated Motilal Nehru.
A Convention of all parties known as the All Parties National Convention met in Calcutta in the last week of December
1928, to consider the Nehru Report. Jinnah proposed three amendments to the Nehru Report and put forward before
the open session of the Convention on 28 December 1928. Those amendments were:
1. One-third of the elected representatives of both the houses of the Central Legislature should be Muslims.
2. That the residuary powers should be vested in the provinces and not in the Centre.
3. That Muslims in Punjab and Bengal should be represented on the basis of population for ten years subject to
subsequent revision of this principle.

All these amendments, proposed by the Quaid-e-Azam when put to vote, were rejected by the Hindu majority. The
result was that the refusal to accept any amendments to the Nehru Report on the part of the Congress and Hindu
leaders at the All Parties National Convention united the different factions of Muslims in the All-India Muslim
Conference held in Delhi under the Chairmanship of Sir Aga Khan on 1 January 1929. Some of the noteworthy features
of the Resolution passed in this Conference were:
1. The only form of Government suitable to Indian conditions was a federal system with complete autonomy and
residuary powers vested in the provinces.
2. Muslims should not be deprived of the right to elect their representatives through separate electorate without their
consent.
3. Muslims should continue to have weightage in the Hindu majority Provinces and they were willing to accord the
same privilege to non-Muslim minorities in Sindh, the N.W.F.P. and the Balochistan.
4. Muslims should have their due share in the Central and Provincial cabinets.
5. One-third seats should be given to the Muslims in the Central Legislature.
6. There must be safeguards for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws
and Muslim charitable institutions.
Conclusion
The Quaid-e-Azam declared:
“The Nehru Committee has adopted a narrow-minded policy to ruin the political future of the Muslims. I regret to
declare that the report is extremely ambiguous and does not deserve to be implemented.”
Muslims were shocked into unity. Members of the Central and Provincial Assemblies found it impossible to agree with
the report. The Aga Khan doubted if any serious minded person could imagine the Muslims accepting such degrading
proposals. The united provinces, all Parties Muslim Conference repudiated the Muslim members of the committee. In
March 1929 the two groups into which the Muslim League had been split came together in opposition to the Report.
When on March 12, 1929 the Report was debated in the Indian Legislative Assembly all the Muslim members, including
Jinnah, who had sided with the Congress in boycotting the Simon Commission, rejected it.
On the other side the Congress made the rift irrevocable by not only adopting the Report in the entirely and
congratulating the committee on “their patriotism and their far-sightedness” but also by giving notice that if the British
Government did not accept it by December 1929, the Congress would launch a non-cooperation movement.
There is a little doubt that the Nehru Report conferred the real power upon the Hindu majority and envisaged a Hindu
Raj. At least that was the impression if conveyed to the Muslim mind. The Lucknow Pact had been forgotten. The good
old days of the Khilafat were fled, never to return. The unity of the Congress-League Scheme was buried deep under the
debris of communal riots. Gandhi’s emphasis on Hindu-Muslim unity sounded unreal in juxtaposition to his ultimatum
to Britain that the non-implementation of the report would lead to chaos. The fundamental Muslim demand for
separate representation conceded in 1909 by the British and in 1916 by the Hindus was rejected by the Report and by
the Congress in unqualified terms. The Muslims were completely disillusioned and from 1928 onwards the Congress
became fall but in name a Hindu body. The Muslims would henceforth look upon it as the arch-enemy of their claims
and interests.
Prof. Dr. Shafique Ali Khan writes in his famous book ‘Two Nation Theory’:
“Thus the Nehru Report, instead of bridging the gulf further widened it, which rather increased with the passage of
time. The obvious reasons of the failure of Report lie in the uncompromising attitude of the Congress and the threats
of the Mahasabha leaders.”
In retrospect it is now apparent that the Nehru Report was a blessing in disguise to Muslim nationalism. It united the
Muslims as nothing else could have done at that time. All political differences and personal rivalries were hushed from
this moment onwards there was nothing that could be called “Indian Nationalism” a separate Muslim National feeling
had by now grown almost to maturity, though it was not given a name for another ten years.

ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE:
The Indian political community received the Simon Commission Report issued in June 1930 with great resentment.
Different political parties gave vent to their feelings in different ways.
The Congress started a Civil Disobedience Movement under Gandhi’s command. The Muslims reserved their opinion on
the Simon Report declaring that the report was not final and the matters should decided after consultations with the
leaders representing all communities in India.
The Indian political situation seemed deadlocked. The British government refused to contemplate any form of self-
government for the people of India. This caused frustration amongst the masses, who often expressed their anger in
violent clashes.
The Labor Government returned to power in Britain in 1931, and a glimmer of hope ran through Indian hearts. Labor
leaders had always been sympathetic to the Indian cause. The government decided to hold a Round Table Conference in
London to consider new constitutional reforms. All Indian politicians; Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians were
summoned to London for the conference.
Gandhi immediately insisted at the conference that he alone spoke for all Indians, and that the Congress was the party
of the people of India. He argued that the other parties only represented sectarian viewpoints, with little or no
significant following.
First Round Table Conference

The first session of the conference opened in London on November 12, 1930. All parties were present except for the
Congress, whose leaders were in jail due to the Civil Disobedience Movement. Congress leaders stated that they would
have nothing to do with further constitutional discussion unless the Nehru Report was enforced in its entirety as the
constitution of India.
Almost 89 members attended the conference, out of which 58 were chosen from various communities and interests in
British India, and the rest from princely states and other political parties. The prominent among the Muslim delegates
invited by the British government were Sir Aga Khan, Quaid-i-Azam, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jouhar, Sir Muhammad
Shafi & Maulvi Fazl-i-Haq. Sir Taj Bahadur Sapru, Mr. Jaikar & Dr. Moonje were outstanding amongst the Hindu leaders.
The Muslim-Hindu differences overcastted the conference as the Hindus were pushing for a powerful central
government while the Muslims stood for a loose federation of completely autonomous provinces. The Muslims
demanded maintenance of weightage and separate electorates, the Hindus their abolition. The Muslims claimed
statutory majority in Punjab and Bengal, while Hindus resisted their imposition. In Punjab, the situation was complicated
by inflated Sikh claims.
Eight subcommittees were set up to deal with the details. These committees dealt with the federal structure, provincial
constitution, franchise, Sindh, the North West Frontier Province, defense services and minorities.
The conference broke up on January 19, 1931, and what emerged from it was a general agreement to write safeguards
for minorities into the constitution and a vague desire to devise a federal system for the country.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact
After the conclusion of the First Round Table Conference, the British government realized that the cooperation of the
Indian National Congress was necessary for further advancement in the making of the Indian constitution. Thus, Lord
Irwin, the Viceroy, extended an invitation to Gandhi for talks. Gandhi agreed to end the Civil Disobedience Movement
without laying down any preconditions.
The agreement between Gandhi and Irwin was signed on March 5, 1931. Following are the salient points of this
agreement:
 The Congress would discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement.
 The Congress would participate in the Round Table Conference.
 The Government would withdraw all ordinances issued to curb the Congress.
 The Government would withdraw all prosecutions relating to offenses not involving violence.
 The Government would release all persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment for their activities in the civil
disobedience movement.
The pact shows that the British Government was anxious to bring the Congress to the conference table.

Second Round Table Conference
The second session of the conference opened in London on September 7, 1931. The main task of the conference was
done through the two committees on federal structure and minorities. Gandhi was a member of both but he adopted a
very unreasonable attitude. He claimed that he represented all India and dismissed all other Indian delegates as non-
representative because they did not belong to the Congress.
The communal problem represented the most difficult issue for the delegates. Gandhi again tabled the Congress scheme
for a settlement, a mere reproduction of the Nehru Report, but all the minorities rejected it.
As a counter to the Congress scheme, the Muslims, the depressed classes, the Indian Christians, the Anglo-Indians, and
the Europeans presented a joint statement of claims which they said must stand as an interdependent whole. As their
main demands were not acceptable to Gandhi, the communal issue was postponed for future discussion.
Three important committees drafted their reports; the Franchise Committee, the Federal Finance Committee and States
Inquiry Committee.
On the concluding day, the British Prime Minister, Ramsay MacDonald appealed to the Indian leaders to reach a
communal settlement. Failing to do so, he said, would force the British government would take a unilateral decision.
Quaid-i-Azam did not participate in the session of the Second Round Table Conference as he had decided to keep
himself aloof from the Indian politics and to practice as a professional lawyer in England.
On his return to India, Gandhi once again started Civil Disobedience Movement and was duly arrested.
THE COMMUNAL AWARD:
Under the Act of 1919, after every 10 years new reforms were to be introduced in India by the Indian British
Government and for this purpose a commission was formed. The commission was called the Simon Commission that
was headed by Sir John Simon. This commission was failed in its objective. After this Nehru report was formed in 1928
but this report was rejected by Muslim leaders and Muhammad Ali Jinnah presented 14 points against this report but
these points were not accepted by Hindus. Under these conditions the constitutional crisis took a serious shape and to
overcome the crisis 3 round table conferences were held in London from 1930 to 1932. The first and second round table
conferences were failed and it was seemed that it is impossible to resolve the communal problems so in 1932 the British
Government announced its own formula known as Communal Award. This award retained separate electorate for
Muslims and all other minorities. On the basis of weighage Muslim received more representation in Muslim minority
provinces. The European settlers got this privilege in Bengal and Assam while Sikhs in Punjab and Hindus in Sind and in
N.W.F.P also enjoyed this privilege. The right of separate electorate was also given to the Untouchables. The right of
separate electorate of the untouchables under this award was highly criticized by Gandi and he said that if this right was
not taken back then he will die by observing the fast. The result of this threat was that the Hindu leader D.R Ambedkar
renounced the award for the untouchables.
Third Round Table Conference

The third session began on November 17, 1932. It was short and unimportant. The Congress was once again absent, so
was the Labor opposition in the British Parliament. Reports of the various committees were scrutinized. The conference
ended on December 25, 1932.
The recommendations of the Round Table Conferences were embodied in a White Paper. It was published in March
1933, and debated in parliament directly afterwards, analyzed by the Joint Select Committee and after the final reading
and loyal assent, the bill reached the Statute Book on July 24, 1935.

The Government of India Act, 1935
Background
The Act of 1919 did not make important changes at the Centre. The Indians felt that that the Reforms of 1919 had not
given them enough powers and they were dissatisfied with them. The Rowlett Act, the Jullianwala Bagh Tragedy, Martial
Law and other sad happenings added to the resentment and bitterness of the people. The major Indian parties and
influential sections of people in the country boycotted the Simon Commission. The recommendations of the Round
Table Conferences were contained in a white paper which was published in 1933 and discussed in the parliament.
The Government of India Act, 1935

A committee was set up under the chairmanship of Lord Linlithgow, the Viceroy of India, to consider the
recommendations of the white paper. The report of the committee was published in 1934 which was contained in a Bill
of Law. The report along with the Bill was presented in the British Parliament for approval. The Parliament passed the
Bill which after the Royal assent on 24th July 1935 was enforced in the country as Government of India Act, 1935.
Salient Features of Act of 1935

It was the most important and most comprehensive legislation introduced by the British Government in India. The Act
contained 14 parts and 10 schedules and consisted of two parts. Part I pertained to provincial subjects while Part II
contained federal list of subjects. The Act came into operation on 1st April, 1937 except part II which could not be
enforced until a specific number of Princely States acceded to the Indian Federation.
a) Provincial Reforms

 The provinces were given more authority and powers and for the first time the provinces were made the separate
entities.
 The system of Diarchy was scrapped in the provinces and introduced in the centre
 Three lists of subjects were drawn up which were the federal list, the provincial list and the concurrent list.
 The provincial legislatures were given powers of legislation on provincial and concurrent subjects.
 The provincial executive was handed over to the representatives of the people who were accountable before the
provincial legislatures.
 The country was divided into 11 provinces.
 Responsible parliamentary system was introduced in the provinces. The provinces were given complete autonomy.
The Ministers were to be chosen from the representatives of the people.
 Every province was given a council of ministers whose advice was binding on the Governor. However, in the
discharge of his responsibilities the Governor was to act under the general control of the Governor-General.
 Special powers were given to the governors for the protection of the rights of the minorities.
b) Federal Part of the Act

 The Act proposed to give a federal form to the Indian Constitution.
 The proposed Federal Legislature was a bicameral body consisting of the Council of States (Upper House) and the
Federal Assembly (Lower House).
 The Council of State was to consist of 260 members, out of these 104 nominated by the rulers were to represent the
Indian States, 6 were to be nominated by the Governor-General and 150 were to be elected. The Council of State
was a permanent body and its members were to be chosen for nine years, one-third retiring every three years.
 The Federal Assembly was to consist of 375 members, out of these, 250 members were to be representatives
of British India and 125 of the Indian States. Its life was fixed at five years, unless dissolved earlier by the Governor-
General.
 Dyarchy was to be introduced at the Centre. The Federal subjects were to be divided into two parts--- Reserved
(Governed by the Governor-General) and Transferred (Controlled by ministers responsible to the Legislature.
 The division of legislative power is essential in a Federation.
 A Federal Court of India was to be established.

An Appraisal of the Act of 1935
The Act of 1935 failed to satisfy various political sections of the country. The political leaders of India rejected it for it did
not meet the demands of the different political factions. Quaid-e-Azam described it as “thoroughly rotten,
fundamentally bad and totally unacceptable”. Rajgopalacharia, too, declared it as worse than the system of Dyarchy.
Nehru condemned it as “a new chapter of slavery”.
The Federal System introduced by the Act of 1935 was defective in many ways. There was no guarantee of individual
liberties neither it could give a workable dominion status. The people were not given their rights. All authority was
vested in the Parliament which was under British influence. The system of Dyarchy which had failed in the provinces was
introduced in the Centre without any prospective results. Vast authority was given to the Governors in the provinces and
to the Viceroy in the Centre which was against the principle of democracy and provincial autonomy. The Minister of
State could interfere in the Government services without any reason.
The Central part of the Act could not be enforced and was suspended for some time. However, the provincial part of the
Act was enforced on 1st April 1937, under which the elections were to be held in the country.

The Lahore Resolution, 1940
The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate homeland. The Hindus
made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim rule in India. The Muslims’ disappointment from
the Congress leadership decided to open a new phase of history. Quaid-e-Azam’s article in Time and Tide concluded that
Muslims are a nation. No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940 are
remarkable:
“If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India, the Muslim will have to demand for
division of the country.”
The Lahore Resolution

The Muslim League held its annual session at Lahore on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore Resolution was moved by Maulvi
Fazlul Haq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his
valuable remarks about the political circumstances of India and the Muslims stand.
He said:
“Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without recognizing this reality.
Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus
and Muslims are placed under one democratic system, this would mean Hindu Raj.”
Text of the Resolution:

 They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable for the Muslims.
 No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their approval and consent.
 Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be constituted as Independent
States where the constituent units will be autonomous and sovereign.
 Protection of minorities would be given priority.
Reaction of Muslims to the Pakistan Resolution

The Muslims responded to the Resolution with amazement and hope for better future. They gathered under the
dynamic leadership of Quaid-e-Azam who gave meaning and shape to their quest for independence. With the passage of
Pakistan Resolution the Muslims began to acquire new hope and confidence in their destiny. The Resolution infused high
spirits among the Muslims who were now determined to fight to the last end for the accomplishment of Pakistan. The
Muslims were convinced that there was no other solution of the Indian problems except the creation of two separate
and sovereign states of Hindustan and Pakistan. They demanded Pakistan because they were not accepted by the
Hindus to live with them in peace in spite of their efforts and wishes. The Muslims were tormented by the fear that
being Muslims they would not be acceptable to Hindu majority in the united India. Pakistan, therefore, was not
demanded on the basis of hatred for the Hindus but for the safeguard of the Muslim civilization and culture.
Hindu Reaction to the Pakistan Resolution

The Hindu reaction to the Pakistan Resolution was hostile. The Hindu leaders condemned it and referred to the partition
as vivisection of mother India. The Hindu leaders tried to build up agitation against the partition. Gandhi called it a moral
wrong and a sin to which he would never be a party. The Hindu Press came out with the most aggressive propaganda
against the resolution and declared it as a conspiracy against the unity of country.
Significance:
The Pakistan Resolution is a landmark in the history of the Muslim India as it eventually decided the future of the sub-
continent. The attitude of the Hindus and Congress had intensified Muslim’s apprehensions, who feared Hindu
subjugation. They were convinced that their future as a Nation was not secure in the united India and, therefore,
decided to demand a separate homeland.
This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of struggle for the
establishment of the Muslims states (later the word ‘states’ was replaced by ‘state’ in 1946) in the Northwestern and
Eastern areas where the Muslims were in overwhelming majority. It also intended to give importance to the autonomy
of the states. There was no use of the word Pakistan but Pakistan was kernel of the Resolution.

Cripps Mission Plan
Background
Japan joined the war against the Allies in 1941, and her success in conquering one country after another disturbed the
pleasure of the British statesmen. The armies of Japan occupied Burma and threatened India. Both England and the
U.S.A began to feel the necessity of changing their policy towards India.
Cripps Mission
The Britain Government appointed a delegation under the chairmanship of Sir Stafford Cripps, a prominent member of
the War Cabinet of England. The Cripps Mission reached New Delhi on March 23, 1942 to hold discussions with the
Indian leaders. The Cripps Mission could not hold talks with the Indian leaders and left after a fortnight. The Cripps
Mission, however, submitted its own suggestions to the Government in April 1942 for constitutional reforms.
Important terms of the Proposal

1. A Constitution-making Body would be set up immediately after the war.
2. There would be provisions for the participation of Indian States in the Constitution-making Body.
3. If any province did not like to accept the new constitution, it could later retain its existing constitutional position.
4. There would be provision in the constitution for the protection of racial and religious minorities.
5. The members of the Constitution-making Body were to be elected by an electoral college consisting of the entire
membership of the Provincial Legislative Assemblies.
6. His majesty’s Government would retain control of Defence during the critical period of the war.
7. The suggestions are to be accepted or rejected as a whole and there shall be no amendments.
8. The recommendations would be implemented only if both Muslim League and Congress accept them unanimously.
Reaction of Muslim League

The scheme was opposed by the Muslim League because the proposals held out the prospects of a single Union of India.
Reaction of Congress
The Congress rejected the Cripps’s proposals because he did not give assurance that the Governor-General would act as
a constitutional head in case of all the departments except Defence. Moreover, the Congress was opposed to the
principle of non-accession of the provinces, because it virtually meant acceptance of the idea of Pakistan.
Quit India Movement

The Congress, in order to put more pressure on the Government, launched Quit India Movement against the British
Government. The Congress had decided on 8th August 1942, to get independence from the British and to capture
political power in India at all cost with a view of stopping the creation of Pakistan. Violent agitation was launched to
press the British to quit India.
The Quaid-e-Azam considered Quit India Movement as anti-Muslim action of the Congress and declared it as political
Blackmailing. The Muslim League, in reply to ‘Quit India’ slogans by the Congress, demanded ‘Divide India and go’.
Quaid-e-Azam said,
“The Quit India Movement, in fact is a conspiracy to establish Hindu Raj and to finish Muslim demands.”
The Government took stern action against Quit India Movement. The prominent leaders of this movement including
Gandhi, were arrested and put in jails. The movement lost its momentum and very soon failed.

The Cabinet Mission Plan
The Labour Party came to power in the 1945 and C.R. Attlee became the Prime Minister. He sent a mission of three
Cabinet members of India to solve the constitutional problems. It came to be called Cabinet Mission.
The Cabinet Mission consisted of Lord Pathick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. It met the leaders of
different parties in India but the Indian leaders could not agree among themselves.Maulana Azad as the president of the
Congress stressed to establish federal government and Jinnah repeated the Two Nation Theory as a universal reality.
On May 1946, the Cabinet Mission and the Viceroy published a statement containing their own solution of the
constitutional problem which is known as Cabinet Mission Plan.
Main Recommendations
1. Centre to deal with foreign affairs, defence, communication, taxation.
2. Rest of the subjects with provinces.
3. There will be a legislature and executive comprising representatives of provinces and states.
4. No legislation on communal affairs if the majority of the two communities are not present and voting in favour.
5. Provinces will be divided into three groups:
5.1.Hindu majority provinces e.g. UP, CP, Madras, Bombay, Bihar, Orissa.
5.2.Muslim majority provinces in NW e.g. Punjab, NWFP, Balochistan and Sindh.
5.3.Bengal and Assam.
6. Each group could decide what to be managed jointly and what should be managed by provinces themselves. They
could decide if the group desired to frame constitution.
7. After ten years, a province by a vote of its legislature could ask for review of relationship with the Union. It implied
that a group or province could quit the Indian Union.
8. CA to be elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. Seats to be divided into three categories:
General, Muslim, and Sikh on the basis of population in provinces. Separate Electorate.
9. Interim Government to be set up.
Muslim League Reaction

The Muslim League reiterated its demand for Pakistan. It accepted the plan for two reasons: Basis and foundation
of Pakistan was in the compulsory grouping and the right to ask for review.
Congress Reaction
The Congress was critical of groupings and right to ask for review of constitutional relationship. It agreed to contest
elections for the CA but declined to be bound by the proposals of the Cabinet Plan. The nonsensical stand of the
Congress was that they were ‘free to make any change in the proposal.’ Definitely the ML was alarmed by the Congress’
intentions.

rd
3 JUNE PLAN:
Mountbatten as Viceroy
Mountbatten arrived in Delhi on March 22, 1947. The basic objective of his appointment was to wind up British rule. He
arranged dialogue with the Indian leaders. Then he visited England for deliberations for new plan.
3rd June Plan
The Plan was issued on June 3, 1947 and is known as 3rd June Plan. The main characteristics of the plan are as follows:
1. The British will not impose a constitution but the Constituent Assembly will frame a constitution.
2. The constitution will not be imposed on the areas that do not accept it. Opinion will be sought from them if they
want to set up a separate CA (Constituent Assembly).
3. Punjab & Bengal Assemblies will meet in two parts, members from Muslim majority areas and other districts
separately to decide if the province be partitioned.
4. If any part decides for partition, each group will decide which CA they wish to join.
5. Sindh Assembly will decide about joining either side.
6. Referendum in NWFP
7. Baluchistan: appropriate method
8. Boundary Commission for Punjab and Bengal
9. Princely states to decide for themselves keeping in view their geographical contiguity.
Indian Independence Act July 1947

To give legal shape to the June 3 Plan, the Indian Independence Act was promulgated (July 1947).
 Two independent dominion states on August 15, 1947
 Their legislatures will have all powers to make laws for the respective states.
 Government of India Act, 1935, to be interim constitution subject to changes due to Indian Independence Act 1947.
 Governor Generals can amend the Interim Constitution until March 31, 1948.
 All arrangements between the British and the Princely states to come to an end and they will have new
arrangements with the new states.
 British King will no longer use the title of the King of India
Implementation of Plan June 3rd, 1947

Punjab
The Muslim members favoured joining new Constituent Assembly. the non-Muslims voted for partition and joining India.
Bengal
Muslims favoured joining new Constituent Assembly while non-Muslims favoured partitioning and joining India.
Sindh
The Assembly voted to join Pakistan.
NWFP
Referendum decided in favour of Pakistan while Dr. Khan’s govt. boycotted it after it became clear that it would lose.
Balochistan
Shahi Jirga and the non-official members of Quetta Municipal Committee opted for Pakistan.
Sylhet
Referendum was held to join East Bengal for joining Pakistan.
Governor General’s Issue

Mountbatten wanted to be joint GG (Governor General) of India and Pakistan while ML decided to appoint Jinnah as the
first Governor General of Pakistan in July.
Transfer of Power
1st meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on August 11, 1947 and the ceremonies on August 14. Radio
announcement was made at midnight 14-15 Aug. Oath taking ceremony for GG (Governor General) and PM (Prime
Minister) was held on August 15 1947.

Radcliffe Award
The Indian Independence Act, 1947, provided among the other provisions the appointment of two Boundary
Commissions for the division of Punjab and Bengal between Pakistan and India. Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a prominent British
lawyer, was appointed as the chairman of both the boundary commissions who would have the power to make the
Award which may be called as the perfidious Radcliffe Award.
Members of the Punjab Boundary Commission

The members of the Punjab Boundary Commission were Mr. Justice Din Muhammad and Mr. Justice Muhammad Munir
on behalf of Pakistan, and Mr. Justice Mehar Chand Mahajan and Mr. Justice Teja Singh on behalf of India.
Members of the Bengal Boundary Commission

The members of the Bengal Boundary Commission were Mr. Justice Abu Saleh Muhammad Akram and Mr. Justice S.A.
Rehman on behalf of Pakistan and Mr. Justice C.C. Biswas and Mr. Justice B.K. Mukherjee on behalf of India.
The Commissions were set up by the end of June, 1947. Redcliffe arrived in India on July,8 1947. The two Commissions
were assigned the responsibility of demarcating the boundaries of the two parts of the Punjab and Bengal on the basis
of the contiguous majority areas of Muslims and non-Muslims.
Unjust Demarcation of Boundaries

India and Pakistan agreed to accept the award of the Boundary Commission and to take proper measures to enforce it.
Radcliffe did not take part in the public sittings of the Commissions, in which arguments were presented by the Muslim
League, the Congress, the Sikhs and other interested parties. He studied the record and proceedings of the meetings and
held discussions with other members of the Commission. As expected the members of the Boundary Commissions were
unable to reach agreement on the boundaries. Lord Radcliffe, as the Chairman, gave his award.
Division of Bengal and Calcutta Problem

The Radcliffe award was unfair to Pakistan because it awarded many Muslim majority areas in
the Punjab and Bengal to India. In Bengal, the great city of Calcutta carried immense importance. It was the capital of
the province. It’s only major port and the biggest industrial, commerce and educational centre. Being the centre of all
activities, Calcutta was the most developed area of the province. The entire development of Calcutta was mostly based
on the toil of Muslim peasantry of Bengal. East Bengal produced most of the raw material which had to be sent
to Calcutta because all the factories and mills were in or around Calcutta. Without Calcutta Eastern Bengal would prove
to be a rural slum. For Pakistan, separated by one thousand miles of Indian Territory, the importance of sea
communications and hence of Calcutta could not be ignored. For those very reasons the Congress leaders were
determined to deny Calcutta to Pakistan and insisted on retaining it India. Mountbatten was in favour of
giving Calcutta to India. Radcliffe, in accordance with the desires of Mountbatten, awarded Calcutta to India in spite of
the Muslim claim to it.
Although the Muslims formed only a quarter of the population of Calcutta, but the hinterland on which the life
of Calcutta depended was a Muslim majority area. Calcutta had been built mainly on the resources of East
Bengal. Pakistan, therefore, had a strong claim upon Calcutta and its environs. Mountbatten had entered into a secret
agreement with the Congress leaders to get Calcutta for India.
Division of Punjab

In case of Punjab the award was again partial and against Pakistan. The award that Redcliffe gave in the Punjab chopped
off a number of contiguous Muslim majority areas from Pakistan. In case of Indianot a single non-Muslim area was taken
away from her. In Gurdaspur district two contiguous Muslim majority tehsils of Gurdaspur and Batala were given
to India along with Pathankot tehsil to provide a link between India and the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The Muslim
majority tehsil Ajnala, in the Amritsar district was also handed over to India. In Jullundur district the Muslim majority
areas of Zira and Ferozpur in the Ferozepur district, were also given to India. All of these areas were contiguous to the
western Punjab.

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MA HISTORY

CAUSES OF WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

3) Educational Aspect of Aligarh Movement

4) Political Aspects of Aligarh Movement

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

2) Political Services of Deoband

PARTITION OF BENGAL 1905:

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

 Stimulus to native industry  Formation of All Muslim League and Hindu

SIMLA DEPUTATION 1906:

FORMATION OF ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

The Indian Council Act, 1909 (Minto-Morley Reforms)

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Defects of Minto-Morley Reforms

Significance of Minto-Morley Reforms

The Khilafat Movement

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Khilafat Conference, Karachi, July 1921

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

End of the Movement

Reasons for the Failure of the Khilafat Movement

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

An Appraisal of the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

First Round Table Conference

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Third Round Table Conference

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

The Government of India Act, 1935

Salient Features of Act of 1935

a) Provincial Reforms

b) Federal Part of the Act

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

The Lahore Resolution

Text of the Resolution:

Reaction of Muslims to the Pakistan Resolution

Hindu Reaction to the Pakistan Resolution

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Important terms of the Proposal

Reaction of Muslim League

Quit India Movement

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Muslim League Reaction

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan

Indian Independence Act July 1947

Implementation of Plan June 3rd, 1947

Governor General’s Issue

Compiled by M. Hasnain Khan