CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 An Overview of Translation and Language

Many people get difficulties when they find the foreign language. One of

them is because of they do not master the language. Therefore they try to looking

for help with people who can understand about the language or translation.

Intrinsically translation is act of expressing of a meaning which is

communicated in the source language (SL) into the target language (TL) as

according to meaning contained in source language. Translation generally is a

transferring process of two language (bilingual), neither in writing nor oral. In this

case we also need to distinguish between translating and translation. The word

translating contains the meaning of message switching process, while Translation

is the result of translating.

The term of translation can be means (1) the field of science generally, (2)

the product (the text which has been translated). The experts of translation theory

defines translation with different ways based on how they considered the language

and the translation.

Cartford, (1969: 20) says that translation is the replacement of textual

material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language

(TL). According to Pinchuck (1977: 38), “Translation is a process of finding a TL

equivalent for a SL utterance”.

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 Nida (1969: 12) defines translation consist in reproducing in the receptor

language the natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of

meaning and second in terms of style.

While Newmark (1981: 7) defines translation as a craft consisting in the

attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same

message and/or statement in another language.

Larson (1998:3) gives the meaning of translation that translation is

basically a change form.

Vinay and Darbelnet (in Venuti 2000), “ translation procedures are the

basic technique of translation. According to them the procedures can be devided

into two methods covering seven procedures, they are (i) direct translation, consist

of borrowing, calque and literal translation, and (ii) oblique translation, consist of

transposition, equivalent, modulation and adaptation.

Translation is also a communication act. Therefore the activity does not

apart from language. Language is formed by method, rule, and pattern which may

not be break, in order not to cause the trouble at communication happened. The

methods, rules, and patterns which has formed includes phonetics, morphology,

and syntax. In order that communication done can be going smoothly and well, so

the receiver and sender of language must master their language.

According to Owen in Stiawan (2006:1), that language can be defined as a

socially shared combinations of those symbols and rule governed combinations of

those symbols. While, Walija (1996: 4) in www.wismasastra.wordpress.com,

Bahasa adalah komunikasi yang paling lengkap dan efektif untuk

menyampaikan ide, pesan, maksud, perasaan, dan pendapat kepada orang
lain.

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 (Language is the most complete and effective a means of communication
to conveying the idea, message, purpose, feeling, and opinion to another
people).

Language is also a part of culture, so the translation can not only

understood as a form and meaning shift but also as a culture. Therefore to produce

the effective translation, we also must observe the parable of word that defend the

authenticity of the language.

By using Buhler’s theory (1935) and Jakobson (1960), Newmark (1988 :

39 ff) the function of language is classified to become six types :

1). The Expressive Function

The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer,

the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings

irrespective of any response.

2). The Informative Function

The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the

facts of a topic, reality outside language, including reported ideas or theories. For

the purposes of translation, typical ‘informative’ texts are concerned with any

topic of knowledge, but texts about literary subjects, as they often express value –

judgements, are apt to lean towards ‘expressiveness’.

3). The Vocative Function

The core of the vocative function of language is the readership, the

addressee. Newmark use the term ‘vocative’ in the sense of ‘calling upon’ the

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readership to act, think or feel, in fact to ‘react’ in the way intended by the text

(the vocative is the case used for addressing your reader in some inflected

languages).

4). The Aesthetic Function

This is language designed to please the senses, firstly through its actual or

imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and

contrasts of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. In many cases it is

not possible to ‘translate’ sound – effects unless one transfers the relevant

language units : compensation of some kind is usually possible. In translating

expressive texts – in particular, poetry – there is often a conflict between the

expressive and the aesthetic function (‘truth’ and ‘beauty’) – the poles of ugly

literal translation and beautiful free translation.

5). The Phatic Function

The phatic function of language is used for maintaining friendly contact

with the addressee rather than for imparting foreign information. Apart from tone

of voice, it usually occurs in the form of standard phrases, or ‘phaticisms’.

6). The Metalingual Function

Lastly, the metalingual function of language indicates a language’s ability

to explain, name, and criticize its own features. Newmark has adopted and

adapted the Buhler – Jakobson function of language operationally as the most

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convenient way of looking at a text for translation. It is also useful to divide texts

by topic into three broad categories: (a) literary; (b) institutional; and (c) scientific

– the latter including all fields of science and technology but tending to merge

with institutional texts in the area of the social science.

2.2 Theory of Translation

In the translation, the one important thing must we know is about the

theories of translation. It intends to help the translators in doing translation as the

general concept. The translation theory is not always relevant with the translating

practice and the teaching of translation. The theory of translation is focused at

characteristic and the translation problems as a phenomenon. According Lauven –

Zwart (1985) in Rudolf Nababan 1999, is that producing the better translating and

translation are not the main purpose of translation theory. A better translating and

translation it is just the theory product and method of translating.

The theory of translation is general directive for the translators in doing

translating, not only as a solution for all problems. The comprehension about the

general concept of translation theory is important and useful. It is impossible that

we can producing a good translation, if we are not understanding the definition or

meaning of translating as one of general concept of translation theory.

Instead of speaking theories of translation, we should perhaps speak more

about various approaches to the task of translating, different orientations which

provide helpful insight, and diverse ways of talking about how a message can be

transferred from one language to another. The different ways in which people go

about the task of interlingual communication can perhaps be best described in

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terms of different perspectives : (1) the source text, including its production,

transmission, and history of interpretation, (2) the languages involved in

restructuring the source-language message into the receptor or target language, (3)

the communication events which constitute the setting of the source message and

the translated text, and (4) the variety of codes involved in the respective

communication events.

Some explanations about translation theory based on the writers,

especially at Nida’s theory. The theory expand from her experience work from

1940 and from now on when she translating and organize translation of the

Gospel. That theory was used in two her great work. (1) Toward a Science of

Translating (1960), and (2) Theory and Practice of Translation (Nida and Taber,

1969).

Nida’s translation approach then become more systematic after adopting a

theoretical concept and semantics terminology and pragmatic and Chomsky’s

theory, Generatif Transformation Grammar. The strong influence from Chomsky

in Nida’s theory can be concised as follows:

The rule of structure-phrase put a class or structure inside which is

transformed by using the rule of transformation that connecting the class of

structure to another sclass tructure, for instance active to passive, to producing an

out of structure, which is the subject for phonological principle and morphemes.

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2.3 Process of Translation

Process is connecting structure of activities that made deliberately.

Translation process is a connecting structure of activities that made by a translator

when transferring message from the source language to the target language. The

translation process also can means as an activity system in translating. It means,

when we see the translation as a process, means we follow the way which is

passed by translator to reach the final product. We can see every phases which is

passed by the translator, the procedures, and the method that used to translating,

ect. The translation will contain some mistakes, if we are not carefully in doing

translating, because a mistake in one phase will causing a mistake in another

phase.

Nida and Taber (1969:33) devided the process of translating into three

phases, (1) analysis of message iin the SL ; (2) transferring message, and (3)

reconstruction of the transferred message in the TL. This process is described in

the following figure.

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 Nida and Taber’s Process of Translating

The analysis phase is the process in which grammatical relationship and

the meaning of words or its combination are analyzed. In the transfer phase, the

already analyzed materials in phase 1 are transferred in the translator’s mind from

SL into TL. The reconstruction phase is the phase where the writer rewrites or re-

expresses the materials in such away that the translation product is readable and

acceptable in terms of rules and style in the TL.

Bell (1991:60) models the process of translation as cascaded and

interactive process which contains three major stages –syntactic, semantic, and

pragmatic processing. Each of this has to be involved in both analysis and

synthesis. He adds that it is (a) possible for some stages to be passed through

quickly, and (b) the norm for processing to be a combination of bottom-up and

top-down, i.e. the analysis (and later synthesis) of the clause is approached

simultaneously by both pattern-recognizing procedures and by inferencing based

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on previous experience and expectations. Bell, further explains that the process is

not linear one in which stage follows stage in strict order.

Weick cited in Robinson (1997:102) describes that the process of

translation might be formulated as (1) translate: act; jump into the text feet first;

translate intuitively. (2) Edit: think about what you’ve done; test your intuitive

responses against everything you know; but intuitively too, allowing an intuitive

first translation to challenge (even successfully) a well reasoned principle that you

believe in deeply; let yourself feel the tension between intuitive certainly and

cognitive doubt, and don’t automatically choose one over the other; use the act-

response-adjustment cycle rather than rigid rules. (3) Sublimate: internalize what

you’ve learned through this give-and-take process for later use; make it second

nature; make it part of your intuitive repertoire; but sublimate it flexibly, as a

directionality that can be redirected in conflictual circumstances.

While accordinng to Newmark (1998:19) about the process of transleting,

there are four levels in translating: (1) the SL text level, the level of language

where we begin and which we continually go back to, (2) the referential level, the

level of objects and events, real or imagenery, which we progressively have to

visualise and bulid up, and which is an essential part, (3) the cohesive level, which

is more general, and grammatical, which traces the train of thought the feeling

tone (positive or negative) and the various presuppositionof the Sl text, and (4) the

level of naturalness, of common language appropriate to the writer or the speaker

in a certain situation.

2.3.1 Textual Level

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 Working on the text level, intuitively and automatically make certain

‘conversions’, transpose the SL grammar (clauses and groups) into TL

equivallents and translate the lexical unit into the sense that appears immediately

appropiate in the context of the sentence.

This is the level of the literal translation of the source language into the

target language, the level of the translationes for eliminate, but it also acts as a

corrective of paraphrase and the parer-down of synonyms.

2.3.2 The referential Level

The referential goes hand in hand with the textual level. All languages

have polysemous words and structures which can be finally solved only on the

referential level, beginning with a few multi-purpose overloaded prepositions and

conjunctions, through dangling participles to general word. In the referential level,

the text is built up out of based on the clarification of all linguistics difficulties.

2.3.3 The Cohesive Level

The cohesive level, it follows both the structure and the moods of the text.

The structure through the connective words (conjunctions, enumerations,

reiterations, definite article, general words, referential synonyms, puntuation

marks) linking the sentences, usually proceeding from known information (theme)

to new information (rheme); preposition; opposition, continuation, reiteration,

conclusion-for instance-or thesis, antithesis, synthesis.

While mood, this can be shown as a dialectical factor moving between

positive and negative, emotive and neutral.

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2.3.4 The Level of Naturalness

Naturalness is easily defined, not so easy to be concrete about. Natural

usage comprises a variety of idioms or styles or registers determmined primarily

by the setting of the text, where it is typically published or found, secondarily by

the author, topic and readership, all of whom are usually dependent on the setting.

Natural usage, then, must be distinguished from ‘ordinary language’, the

plain non-technical idiom used by Oxford philosophers for philosophical

explanation, and ‘basic’ language, which is somewhere between formal and

informal, is easily understood, and is constructed from a language’s most

frequently used syntactic structures and words-basic language is the nucleus of a

language produced naturally.

2.4 The Technical Translation

Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the

translation of documents produced by technical writers (owner's manuals, user

guides, etc.), or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas

or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological

information. While the presence of specialized terminology is a feature of

technical texts, specialized terminology alone is not sufficient for classifying a

text as "technical" since numerous disciplines and subjects which are not

"technical" possess what can be regarded as specialized terminology. Technical

translation covers the translation of many kinds of specialized texts and requires a

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high level of subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant terminology and

writing conventions.

Newmark’s (1998:151) views abot technical translation, Technical

translation is one part of specialised translation, institutional translation, the area

of politics, commerce, finance, government,and the other. He take technical

translation as potentially (but far from actually) non-cultural, therefore ‘universal’,

the benefits of technology are not confined to one speech community.

Technical translation is primarily distinguished from other forms of

translation by terminology, although terminology usually only makes up 5-10%

of a text. Its characteristics, its grammatical features (for English, passives,

nominalisations, third persons, empty verbs, present tenses) merge with other

varieties of language.

2..5 Translation Equivalence

There are two types of equivalence. They are formal equivalence and

dynamic equivalence. The latter two expressions are associated with the translator

Eugene Nida and were originally coined to describe ways of translating the Bible,

but the two approaches are applicable to any translation. Formal equivalence

corresponds to "metaphrase", and dynamic equivalence to "paraphrase".

Formal equivalence is an orientation to translation that focuses on the

message itself in both of the form and content.in another word, the messages in

the target language should match as closely as possible the different elements in

the source language. While, dynamic equivalence is a set of procedure by means

of which the messages of the original text will be transported into the receptor

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language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original

receptors.

Catford (1965) distinguishes between formal correspondence and textual

equivalence. A formal correspondence is any category, e.g. unit, class, element off

structure, etc., which can be said to occupy, as nearly as possible, the same place

in the economy of the target language as it is given by source language categories.

A textual equivalence is any target language (TL) form, e.g. text or portion of the

text that is observed to be equinalent of a given Sourse Language (SL) form.

Larson (1998) suggests some alternative ways to find the equivalent when

the text have to be translated. They are include:

1. Using Descriptive Phrase

This is a process of translating a single word with phrases or vice versa.

2. Using Related Word

This is a process of translating using synonymous or antonymous ways.

3. Using Generic Specific Words

This is a process of translating that is used a generic-specific term in the

target language.

4. Using a Figurative Equivalence for Figurative Sense

This is a process of equaling a lexical item of the source language into the

target language or vice versa.

2.6 Translation Procedures

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 Translation procedures are used for sentences and smaller units of

language within that text. Translation procedures are methods applied by

translators when they formulate an equivalence for the purpose of transferring

elements of meaning from the Source Text (ST) to the Target Text (TT). Vinay

and Darbelnet proposed seven methods or procedures. They are borrowing,

calque, literal, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation.

2.6.1 Direct Translation Procedures

Direct translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even

morphological equivalence between two languages. This is only possible when the

two languages are very close to each other.

According Vinay and Darbelnet, direct translation consist of three types.

They are borrowing, calque, and literal translation or word per word.

2.6.1.1 Borrowing

Borrowing is the taking of words directly from one language into another

without translation. Borrowing is also the simplest of all translation methods. It

would not even merit discussion in this context if translator did not occassionaly

need to use it in order to create a stylistic effect.

2.6.1.2 Calque

Calque is a phrase borrowed from another language and translated literally

word for word. Calque by Vinay and Darbelnet is a special kind of borrowing

whereby a language borrows an expression form of another, but then translators

literally each of its elements. The calque iis devided into two parts. They are

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lexical calque and structural calque. Lexical calque happens at the level of

syntactic elements, while structural calque happens at the level of construction of

language.

2.6.1.3 Literal or Word for Word

This is the direct transfer of a SL text into a grammatically and

idiomatically appropriate TL text in which the translator task is limited to

observing the adherence to the linguistic servitudes of the TL. In principle, a

literal translation is a unique solution which is reversible and complete in itself.

2.6.2 Oblique Translation Procedure

Oblique translation occurs when word for word translation is imposible.

Oblique translation procedures by Vinay and Darbelnet, consist of four types. The

first is transposition, the second is modulation, the third is equivalence, and the

last is adaptation.

2.6.2.1 Transposition

The method called transposition involves replacing one word class with

another without changing the meaning of the message. Beside being a special

translation procedure, transposition can also applied within a language.

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Example: advises caution is translated into mengingatkan

2.6.2.2 Modulation

Modulation is a variation of the form of the message, obtained by a change

in the point of view. This change can be justified when, although a literal, or even

transposed, translation results in grammatically correct utterance, it is considered

unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL.

Example:

It is not difficult to study English is translated into mudah untuk belajar bahasa

Inggris.

2.6.2.3 Equivalence

Equivalence is applied when there are two texts, which have a same

situation, but those texts are using completely different stylistic and structural

methods. This procedure means that the process of translating one language into

another language that emphasizes on closet natural meaning.

Example: cock-a-doodle-do is translated into kukuruyuk.

Kill to birds with one stone is translated into sambil menyelam minum air.

2.6.2.4 Adaptation

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 Adaptation is used in those cases where the type of situation being referred

to by the SL message is unknown in the TL culture. In this case, a translator can

create a new situation that can be considered equivalent.

Example:

Your Sincerely (SL) is translated into Dengan Hormat (TL).

Based on the explanation above, now we know about translation, whether

it’s about the meaning, process, functions, tehcnicals, procedures or methods, and

so on. Every kinds of translation has a different meaning, that is based on the

writers. If we know about the meaning kinds of translation, so we know how to

analyze the text by using the procedure.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This thesis deals with four main research items, the first is research design,

the second is data and data source, the third is data collecting method and the

fourth is data analyzing method. Research method can be namely as scientific way

to get the data with purpose and certain use. Research method consists of

qualitative method and quantitative method, which both of them has a different

meaning.

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