# Tay HANUMAA M1. Gopi Kitshre sais Engineering Academy sivos ‘Hyderabad | New Delhi | Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai # M. Gopi Kvishna * EA: Gopi: Kyishna + BORE 40187 condast Irrigation Engineering - I (Theory with worked out Examples, Conventional & Objective Practice Questions) IES - Civil Engineering ACE is the leading institute for coaching in IES, GATE & PSUs HO: 204, 11 Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Abids, Hyderabad-500001, eee Ph: 040-24750242, 24750263, 24750437, 24752469. CONSISTENTLY TOP RANKS IN IES _——-AILINDIA 15" RANK 26 TIMES IN.GATE| Volume -I Bie Chapter Water Requirements of Crops Methods of Irrigation Gravity Dams Spill Ways Diversion Head Works Design of Unlined Alluvial Canals by Silt Theories Water Logging and Drainage Quality of Irrigation Water and Sodic Soils~p-—- Readily-available- moisture:Itis-tha portion} | | 1. The loams are ideal soils for irrigation, which posses good. water. holding capacity, good drainage and aeration characteristics. 2. Saturation capacity: It is the total water content of a soil when all the pores ofthe soil “|. are filled with water. ee 3. Field capacity (FC): It is: the: ‘tiaximum amount of water content soil against gravity. It is ‘the upper limit of capillary water or the waigi content available to the plant roots, 4, Permanent wilting. Point(PWP): It is the water content in a soil when plants ‘become permanently wilted. This value‘s.2% for sand soil, and 30% for clayey soils. 5. Ultimate wilting Point(JWP): It occurs when plants are completely, wilted ie., ‘die | away. It is similar to hygroscopic. coefficient. 6. Available moisture: It is’ the-difference in“ water content of the soilsbetween the field capacity and the permanent wilting point, of the available moisture, which is most easily extracted by plant roots. About 75%. of the available moisture is usually readily available x > Samson cm crv ne t Pett oony vai er on ae * | —> Pwr Urner War owe ich:can be held by} =~ 8. Equivalent Depth of water held by soil at field capacity = S x dx FC Equivalent Depth of water held by soil at PWP =SxdxPWP Available water or moisture depth, y = Sxd(FC—PWP) ~\ Itis also‘called as storage capacity of the soil. /) Readily available moisture depth, (dy) dy = S x d (Field capacity Water content at Tower limit of readily available moisture) (or) a dy =S x d Field capacity-Optimum moisture) Where S= Specific gravity yaya, “de depth of root zone If Cy“ is evapotranspiration toss or consumptive use (depth time) ‘Then frequency of ittigation, f= da/Cy LlvCrop Period’: Total time elapses between the sowing of the crop and its harvesting. 12, Base:period : Total time between the first ‘watering done for the preparation of the land for sowing of a crop and the last watering done before its harvesting. Thus crop period is, slightly more than the base period for any crop. 13, Duty (D): It is defined as the area of land in hectares which can be inrigated for growing any crop. If one cumec of water is supplied continuously to the land for the entire base period of crop.|. (): It is the total depth of water over the irrigated land required bY a crop grown on itt during the entire base period of the crop. ‘Crop ‘Average delta(em) Rice 120 ‘Wheat 37.5 Cotton [45 Tobacco | 60 Sugarcane [90 15. Relation between Duty and Delta: D=8.64B/A the placé-at which must be specified. In prior tothe sowing of a crop, 18. Kor watering: ‘The firs, watering afterthe plants have grown a few cm high: 9. Outlet: factor: Duty of water: at: the outlet: 20;-One‘cumee day: 8.64 hectare:meters, it is a volumetric unit. It is the total volume of water Supplied at 1 cumec in a day. 21, Consumptive.. use or Evapotranspiration 1 (Cq).+ Itis the total loss of water due to plants, transpiration and evaporation from the land. Lysimeter is used to measure ¢y Irrigation -I 22. Irrigation efficiencies : a) Water conveyance efficiency (n.) :It is the ratio of quantity of water delivered to the field to the quantity of water diverted {nto the canal system from reservoir. b) Water application efficiency (na): It is the ratio of quantity of water stored in the root zone of the plants to the quantity of ‘water delivered to the field. ©) Water use efficiency(ns): It is ratio of the quantity of water used beneficially cluding the water required for leaching 1e quantity of water delivered Water storage efficiency(n.):. Ratio of ‘quantity of water stored in the root zone during itigation to the quantity of water sneeded to bring water content of the soil to field capacity . Consumptive use efficiency: Ratio of normal consumptive use of water to the net amount of water depleted from the root zone. 4 ). Water:distribution efficiency: jD-4 n, [254 oo ld D = Mean depth of water stored during “ irrigation.” d= averageof the absolute values of deviations form the mean »°fyg represents the extent to which the water “has pefietratéd’to a uniform depth through utthie field, '~23-Irrigation Requirements of crops: a) Consumptive irrigation requirement (CAR): It is the amount of water required to mect the evapotranspiration needs of a crop. CIR=Cy-Re Where, Re= Effective Rainfall b) Net irrigation requirement (NIR): ‘Amount of irrigation water required to be delivered™at~ the field” to meet evapottanspiration and other needs such as Se Nr Ba [eee | neo | Views | ‘Visthapatiame | Tirpat | Pune | Chennal leachingACE Water Requirements of Crops NIR = Cy-Re +Le Where, Le = Leaching ©) Field irrigation requirement (FIR) = NIR/n, ) Gross irrigation requirement (GIR) = FIR Me offcleney is 80% and the water’ conveyance: efficiency is 70 %. What is the gross inigation’ requirement ? Sok: 1,=0.8, = 0.7 Net irrigation requirement, NIR = 14.9 FIR=NR 142 08 | 24. Gross Command Aréa(GCA) : Total area which can be ittigated by a canal system if unlimited quantity of water i available. Culturable Command Area(CCA): ‘That portion of the GCA which is culturable or cultivable. CCA = GCA = Unteultivable area | ____Culturable. cultivated. Area : That portion aif/ CCA which is actually cultivated during a crop season. 25, Intensity of irrigation: The percentage of the CCA proposed to be itrigated annually. 26. Capacity factor: Ratio of mean supply discharge of canal for a certain duration to its maximum discharge capacity. 27. Time factor: Ratio of number_of days the - canal has actually run during a watering period to the total. number of days of the watering period. 28, Crop Seasons: (1) Kharif season (i Rabi season Kharif crops (also known as monsoon crops): ‘Sown in the month of April and harvested in September. Examples: Rice, Maize. Rabi erop (also called winter crops): Sown in ‘October and harvested in March. Example: Wheat, Tobacco 29, Perennial crop: Sugar cane (water is to be supplied throughout the year) “30. Hot weather crops: February to June (Crops ‘grown between Khatif season and Rabi season) 31. Summer crops: Hot weather crops and Kharif ‘crops are combinedly called summer crops. 32, Dry erops: Crops-grown without irrigation. Depend on the rainfall, for survival 33, Wet crops: Crops which require irrigation. ‘Example:1.2 ||) The GCA of an irrigation canal is 50000 ha out of | which 80 % is CCA. The intensity of irrigation for | Rabi seagon is 60.% and for Kharif is 20 %. What ‘is the crop ratio? Example:t.3 ‘Wheat is to be grown in a field having a field capacity of 27% and the permanent wilting point is 13%, Find storage capacity per m depth of soil ‘if the unit weight of soil is 1.5 g/cc. Readily available moisture may be taken as 80% of the available moisture. Find the water depth required to be supplied to the field if the field application Fiydcsbad | New Delt | Bengatuns| Bhubaneswar | Viayaweda | Viakapatmam | Tiupad | Pune | Cheam@ SCE, ateny efficiency is 80%, What is the amount of water a 30 needed at the outlet if water lost in water course is = 8.64 x75 = 1524.78 | 15% of outlet discharge. Sol: FC =27% PWP= 13% ya= 1 Selec ‘Apparent Sp. Gravity, $= 2¢.= ‘Available depth of water; Example:1:3 \ y= S.d(FC- PWP) The gross commanded area for a distributary is 51x (0.27 -0.13)= 0.21 m 6000 hectares, 80% of which is culturable ' m itrigable, The intensity of irrigation for Kharif | 80% of y = 0.168 m ae season-is 25% and that for Rabi season is 50%. If the average duty-at the head of distributary is 700 ‘ |" hectares/cumec. for. Kharif season and 1700 ‘hectares/cumeo for Rabi season, find the discharge | required for design at the head of distributary. Sol: GCA = 6000 Ha \<5GCA = 6000x0.8= 4800 ha ‘Aveaunder Kharif, A = 25% of CCA, ‘Area under Rabi = 50% of CCA 5 2o 4800/5 2400 ha i 100 Discharge seguied for Kharit, Q= A +. water to be released at outlet... Safe 1300, a Water tobedeliveredtothefield— Sigg 1-H antec Ne 7 021 a4 en ; 0.85 7 Design discharge ~ higher discharge value 1 Beaniplesia required. What is the discharge capacity required at the = 1.714 m’/sec outlet to irrigate 2600 ha of sugar cane having a kor depth of 17 cm and a kor period of 30 days ? : a Examplest6 ‘The gross command area for an irrigation canal is 20,000 hectares out of which 75% is culturable command area, The intensity of irrigation is 40% for Rabi and 10% for rice. If kor period is 4 weeks for Rabi and 2.5 weeks for rice, determine the Bhabanemar | Viayavada f Viekbapainam | Tiopail | Pune | hennaACE ® rob Frcccon ‘Water Requirements of Crops outlet discharge. Outlet factors for Rabi and rice | 04. An irrigation channel is carrying 2.0 m*/s to a i may be assumed as 1800 hec/cumec and 775 culturable command of 1500 ha with an hect/cumec. Also calculate delta for each case. intensity of irrigation of 50%. If the base period 1 of crop is 140 days, the duty of channel 10,000 hectares water is ha/m’/s. 7520000 = 15,000 fia (@) 603 (375) 1500 (4) 1210 +. Area of Rabi = 15000x0.40 = 6000 ha ‘Area of rice = 15000x0.10 = 1500 ha 05. If Duty (D) is 1428 hectares/eumec and base Discharge Required for Rabi period (B) is 120 days for an irrigated crop, then delta (A) in meters is given by (@) 102.8 (6) 0.73 ©) 138 @)0.01 ¢ field capacity of a soil depends upon a ee (9 capillary tension in soil 4 = =1.93m" /sec 9 porosity of soil | 775 iy | For Rabi, (@) neithe . For a standing ‘cfop,:the consumptive use of water is equal fo the depth of water (a) transpired by thetrop ® evaporated by the (6) transpired and evaporated by the crop (@ Used. by, the: in transpiration, evapotition the quantity of water evapo rated Soh the adjacent soil For Rice, A =8.64: = 0,195 m) . ftetive preci O1. In a well ~ drained soil, the plant growth essentially comes from ~ (@) gravity water (bycapillaty water © hydroscopic water (d) Watéiof adhesion, | water stored in the soil with in Foot ZO OF the crop (@) crop only soil, crop and climate : (soil cop slinate and fetizer 0; Tp ia cabeete Oke Si oon a8) Zee ae @ soil and climate permanent wilting point is 15% and specific dry unity weight 1.5. If the depth of root zone 03. The outlet discharge factor is of crop, i 80 om, he storage capacity ofthe (a) the ratio of the actual discharge of an outlet soil, is tO geceecaaue (a) 8.cm (b) 100m (6) the ratio of the discharge out of an outlet to (©) 12cm (@) Idem the discharge in the parent channel "© ithe duty based on the discharge passing through the outlet. @ The flow loss at the outlet. (SSSR Rin Le [hanes [Vinee | Vintage [Towra | Pine | Gemal_]et ee Saree eee eee @..22. ‘Engineering Academy Irrigation I 10, The intensity of irrige means 16. The duty for a crop at the field is 800 (@ percentage of culturable commanded area ha/cumec. If the conveyance loss is 20 % then to be irrigated annually the duty at the head of the canal is (b) percentage of the gross commanded area (@900ha/cumec ——_(b) 666.66 ha / cumec to be irrigated annually (©)640ha/cumec (4) 960 ha/ cumec (©) percentage of the mean of culturable ‘commanded area and the gross | 17. A tank has a available storage of 10 Mm’, If ‘commanded area to be irrigated annually the overall losses are 10 % this storage can (@) total depth of water supplied by the irrigate a wheat crop of base period 120 days number of waterings and delta 40 cm, planted area of I (a) 2600 ha () 2500 ha 11. If the optimum depth of kor, watering for crop (©) 2250 ha @ 2592 ha is 15.12 om the outlet factor for the oropsfor*| 2s, four week period in hectares per cum’ (a) 1000 (b) 1200 (©) 1400 @ 1600 12. The outlet discharged factor: * 1.) 05. (b) Ceeeta canal cfd canal 06.(¢) 07. (4) 08.@) 09.() 10.@) (©) water course (@) distribu PL AL@ 12.6)5 13.) 14.@ 15.) 13. The ratio of quantity ©) 7-0) root zone of the crops,to;the quantityof water | inthe field is known as i = actually delivered in'th (a) Water conveyance effic (b) water application effi (©) water use efficiency (d) none, 14, With the increase in. the supplied the yield of most tops“, (a) increase continuously (b) decrease continuously 1. Acanal flowing at‘a rate of 120 lit/sec delivers 100 lit/sec to.the field. An area of 1.62 ha was irrigated in’ hrs. The effective depth of root zone‘is 1.70 m.,The nan off loss in the field is 425:mv°., The depth of water penetration varied linearly from: 1-78m at head end of the field to ey 112m" at the tail end. Available moisture (6) trcrenseupro™ a certain -timit—andthen ling capacity of the soil is 20 cm per metre + becomes constant (@ increase upto a certain, limit and_ then decrease depths of soil. Irrigation its started at a moisture extraction level of 50% of the available moisture. Determine Mes Ns Nt 15. For supplying water to Rabi crop, Khatif crop ; : ‘ and sugar cane, the channel is designed for a 02. A loamy soil has field capacity of 25% and 4 permanent wilting percentage 10%. The dry oe are to. .the, greater of the water Lunit weight of soil is 1.Sgm/cc. If the depth of a i root zone is 0.75m, determine the storage (a) Rabi or Kharif capacity of the soil. Irrigation water is applied ‘when moisture content drops to 14 %. If-the ‘water application efficiency is 75% determine the water depth required to be applied in the field. () Rabi.and Kharif or sugarcane (c) Rabi & sugarcane or Kharif & sugarcane (@ Rabi or Kharif or sugarcane® writ Ficstem 03. After how many days will you order irrigation in order to ensure healthy growth of crops, if (® Field capacity = 29% (ii) Permanent wilting percentage = 11% (ii) Density of soil = 1.3 gm/ce (iv) Effective depth of root zone = 70cm, (v) Daily consumptive use of water for the given crop = 12mm, For healthy growth, moisture content must not fall below 25% of the water holding capacity between the field capacity and permanent witling point ES 92) 04. In a. farm land irrigated by system from wells, the area irrigated penne hours/day. Available. moisture holding capacity of the soil is 20exn, ‘per meter depth and average root 701 application efficiene: 1.4, the effective depth of root zone = 0.8m, Cu = 1.68 cm/day. For “htalthy “growth, moisture content should not fall below: the water storage capacity. Find 1. Frequency of irigation 2. Water discharge in m’ / sec required to irrigate the crop if the irrigation efficiency is 20%. 06, Certain area the transplantation of rice crop takes 15 days and the total depth of Irrigation water required by the crop-is 60 cm on the ___field. During this transplantation_period, the ‘useful rain falling on the field is 8 cm. Find the duty of Irrigation water for this crop on the (SARMTERTRRTERT oer New Dans | Beagtans | Dinbanesvac | Viera | Vinhapatam | Taupe | Pine | Cheanal_] Water Requirements of Crops field during transplantation period. Assuming 25% losses of water in the water course, find the duty at the head of water course. 07. The base period, intensity of itrigation and duty of water for various crops under a canal system are given in the table below. Determine the reservoir capacity if the C.C.A is 40,000 sha, canal losses are 20% and reservoir losses point = 5%. The epparent t specifi” ity I are 10%, (IES 94 & GATE 92model ) Base) Duty of | Intensity period(days) | water of _|phha/oumec) |. atthe | Irrigation slys field Cy | Wheat. 1800. 20 “Sugar Cane 1700 20 Cotton 1400 10 Rice 300 15 ‘Vegetables 700 15 8." A pump is installed ‘on @ well to lift water and for rise is 860 ha/eumee on the filed and pump éfficiently.is.50%. If the lowest water level in the well is at R.L 100 and the level of the highest portion of the field is at R. L 107.5, find, the minimum input HLP of the pump. Neglect loss in field channel . Determine.the head ‘discharge of a canal from the following data. The value of time factor maybe assumed ‘as 0.75. Conveyance loss in the entire canal system is 20%. ‘Area in| Dutyin €rop—-|~-period:-|. hectare | hectares/eumec in days at the field Rice 120 [4000 1500 Wheat | 120 [3500 2000 ‘Sugarcane | 310 | 3000 1200Methods of Irrigation 1, Broadly, élassified into 3 groups (j) surface irrigation methods. Gi) Sub-surface irrigation methods Gii) sprinkler irrigation methods i 2. Surface irrigation methods + From field channels. 3. Flooding method: ‘© Uncontrolled 0 Borders or leaves Steer eeeae eee Se Border strip method xy LeMethods of Irrigation 5. Border strip method: land to be irrigated is divided in to a series of long narrow strips about 10 to 20 m wide and 100 to 300 m long separated from each other by low levels or bunds and each strip is supplied water by the field channel. The strips will have slope along the direction of flow. Water flows in the form ‘ofa sheet to the lower end of the field. Time required for water to cover a area, 1k 4 vs (7 5] y = average depth of sheet of Aawing water + | 4 discharge of irigation Stream Max area that can be irrigated with a stream.of * Most common method * Also called method of irtigation by plots + * Land is divided into small plots surrounded | by cheeks or levees. Bach’plot has nearly * Level surface, Area of-each plot is between’ 7. Basin method: Suitable for fruit trees a basin is created surrounding each tree and field channel supplies water to the basin. Used for irrigation of orchards. O-=s OZ? RING BASIN METHOD 8. Furrow method: ‘* Water is applied to the land to be irrigated by a series of long, narrow field channel called furrows: "It reduces evaporation losses. *+ Suitable for row crops such as maize ete. ee vom not spread over the land. Water flowing in the furrows infiltrates into the soil and spreads laterally to the roots of plants. Has high water application efficiency 9. Contour farming: ‘+ Practiced in hilly regions where the Jand will be having steep slopes ‘¢ Also controls erosion due to rainContour Farming 10. Sprinkler irrigation method: ‘© Water is applied in the form of spray:bi pipes and nozzle system Erosion of soil is eliminated Wind may distort the Cee of water eeeee 1. Sub surface irrigation atethod: Pe © Water is oon below the ground’ Surface | directly to the 12. Drip or Trickle i ot \. + Latest method of irrigation; getting popular | © Water is applied to the'land surface near by. a network of the base of the plant emitters. ‘* Has highest water application efficiency (as high as 90% ) ‘© Suitable for areas where there is water and salt problems (saline lands) © Evaporation loss is reduced and deep percolation is avoided. © Quite suitable for sniall trees and widely spaced plants, for fruit plants. need not be level. © Not suitable for closely planted crops such as wheat, rice ete. Power requirement is\ore for ‘constant | Can_be_used for any topography. Land 01. The system of itrigation practiced on hill slopes is (a) contour farming (b) checks irrigation (©) border method of irrigation @ sprinkler irrigation 02. In an irrigation system, the land was divided into large number of smaller size unit areas having fairly level surface, by bunds and cross © ridges: The basins thus created were filled “with water to the desired depth and the water ined for some time, this method of irrigation is khown as (a) border method” (b) checks method (©) sub irrigation ‘paddy, the ideal water (©) Border method of irrigation (@) sprinkler ition Rise -For.trigation ‘of orchards the best method is “(a) free flowirig method «(by basin niethod, (© furrow: method |” 05: For ‘cereal crops the midst commonly adopted method of irrigation, is (@) free flowing method (b) checks method (©) furrow method @sprinkling method 06. For standing crops in undulating sandy fields, the best method of irrigation, is (a) sprinkler irrigation (0) free flooding (©) check method (@) furrow method Seat [New Da [Beata | Blabancovar | Vitara | Vikapanarn | Tropa | Rane | Canal® i hoe W 07. Mixed cropping is defined as ‘@) two or more crops grown during any year (b) two or more corps. grown during the same ‘crop, season in different fields (©) two or more crop seasons of the year O1.(a) 02.6) 03. (b) 04. (b) 05. (b) (@) growing of two or more crops together in 06. (a) 07.(@) 08.(4) the same field during the same crop season 08. A border strip is to be irrigated by a stream with a discharge of 0.04 cumecs. If the average infiltration rate is 4 cm/hr, then the | 01. Determine the time required to irrigate a strip max area of the strip that can be irrigated is of area of the size 100 m x 10 m by a stream (a) 0.15 ha (b) 0.23 ha’ ‘of-discharge of 0.03 m* / sec: Assume average (0) 0.52 ha (@)0.36 ha. ‘depth Water of 7.5 cm and average rate of " “infiltration of 5 cm / hr. Also find max area of , the strip that can be irrigated by that stream?Gravity Dams 1 Gravity dam: A dam, which resists. the extemal forces acting on it by its self weight. © Generally made of masonry or concrete 2, Axis of dam or Base Line of dam : In plan, itis the horizontal trace of upstream edge of the top of the dam. In the cross section of the dam,the® lime passing through the upstreain the top of the dam 3. Forces Acting On a, ex pressure, weight of earthquake forces, silt pressure ete. (b) Sliding: At any h dam, the factor of s sliding, HLA FS= DPy = Algebraic sum of vertical forces= (Total weight-Uplift Force) ‘Pq = Sum of horizontal forces causing sliding Py Stiding factor, tan = Lh # Factor of safety against sliding FS = —*— ees ‘and HDPE + Bq =P ‘Shear friction factor = where B =width of joint or section area = B x 1 shear strength of joint (generally taken 14 ke cm? for rock foundation) (© overstressing in the dam material : The ‘tresses in the dam material should be the allow limits. wression (or) Crushing at base: The ‘maximum pressure on the foundation soil ; construction shall be less capacity of (6) Tensi Typo ot id dam + For no tension to develop, the eccentricity should be less than (B/ 6). In other words the resultant should always lie within ‘middle third of the base Silt pressure: It is assumed that mixture of silt and water behaves as a liquid with the following unit weight. (SER Nea [Ben ances | Vpn | Weapon [Trt Re [Goma] t \QO cb Pinter 118: Gravity Dams * For horizontal force component, the specific weight of silt liquid is taken as 1360 kg/m’, © For Asia component it is taken as 1925 kg/m? | 6, Elementary Profile of Gravity Dam: ttt A right angled | base width B= For no sliding base width, IFuplif is not consid Pees. ‘© Principal stress at the toe will be, O; = yw H(G-c +1) if £ = allowable crushing stress of dam [New Delhi | Bengals | Bkubancowar | Vigetads | Viathapatram | Tirpad | Pune | Chena Let Ho be the maximum height which may be provided for a dam having elementary profile without exceeding allowable stress for the dam material To be on safer side, the lower value of He is obtained when'c = 0 in the above equation Limiting height or critical height of dam having elementary profile jéight of a dam is less than or equal to dam is called ‘ Low gravity 1 IS, ftee board shail be the height of wave or a 9. Drainage Gallery: *. An opening left in the dam To provide drainage of the dam (ie, to drain off water which seeps through the upstream face of dam), for drilling and grouting of foundation, for post cooling of concrete, to lay mechanical equipment for ‘operation of outlet gates and spill way gateeight of dam: = uplift coefficient ( varies from 0 to-1) z= Distance of resultant from heel ' L © 1. Becentricity,¢ = (B/2) - 4 For no tension condition, thee < (B/6) Algebraic sainof moments aboutheet net weight of dam «. Eccentricity, e = z~(B/2) 2," To find resultant distance from toe (e., to find 4) ze 3. For safety against foundation failure, the Prax’ P, AH/3)+P, 0 - W(B-x) ‘safe bearing capacity of soil (w-P,) ___ Algebraicsum of momentsabout toe ‘net weight of dam 4: FS against overturningSu 15 Principal stresses inthe dam material near the (a) H/ (Gl), toe Max. principal stress ( Compressive) in the () H/(G-1) dam material at the toe as shown (01 ) (c) larger of H/ VG and H /uG =p. sec” B- p. tan’ B. (d) smaller of H /uNG and H/G 6. Shear stress (1) at the toe t=(pa—p) tan | /04, In gravity dam design, the horizontal sift and t= Max, sess onthe silat the toe water pressure is assumed as equivalent to p= Water pressure at the tog= yw h that of a fluid with a mass density, in kg/m’, of B= slope of D/s face of dam with vertical (a) 1925 (b) 360 For no tail water, p= O.and oy = Pa sec” B © 1000 (d) 1360 For safety ,0; shall be less than allowable_| 05. The axis of a dam is the compressive stress in concrete {2),Line joining the mid ~ point of the base 01. For no tension at the criterion to be pass through thi (6) The resultant /f always pass pass through therupatre middle third of thet @ The resultant of ail’the minimum base width required with. usual Presa aot eight and pip i Es (=I) H @on ) H H (c) = @) ——— OG @ Tei 03. If the uplift pressure is neglected, the base width of an elementary profile of a gravity dam of height H,, having relative density of the dam material = G, and coefficient of friction = his EEE i DT erga Bikaner | Viawadh [Vaeapanam | Tiapa | Pane | Chena i (@ line of the ‘crown of the dam on the upstreata side 5. For ho tension to’ develop in the gravity dam the eccentricity ‘e’ of the resultant force ould be : (@)dess than b/3. kes than. b /. ae (b) less than b / 6 (@ less than b / 1201. A Gravity dam’ is shown below. The, unit weight of the dam material is 2.4 vm’, the coefficient of friction at the base (Hi).is 0.75 and shear strength at the base is 140 t/m*, “Calculate the following consideting full uplift condition. (a) Factor of safety’ (b) Factor of safety (©) Shear friction (@) Pressures on the fo (©) The maximum cor in the dam material 02, Following’ data ‘were Gained “from.” stability analysis of a concrete Total overturning moment about toe Total resisting moment about tor=4x10°ton—m Total downward weight of the dam= 6000 tons Total uplift force ~ 1000 tons Base width of dam = 50 m_ 116: Intigation -1 Calculate maximum and minimum pressure on the soil. 03. Ina gravity dam, the’ friction coefficient is 0.75 EPy = 6000 t and ZPh width is 70 m and shear strength (a) what is factor of safety against sliding ? (b) what is shear friction factor at base ? zs 04. Find the factor of safety against overturning, for dam section shown. Ignore uplift forces are.180 MN and 120 MN, re pifay. The deff ient'of friction is 0.70 i of concrete is 3.2 MPa. concrete, Se cake density = 2.4, on a of safe allowable stress =—|—___—»Widely. asednth gilyparch. dome Spill Ways Necessity of Spill Ways: The spill ways’ are openings provided at the body of the dam to discharge safely the excess water or flood water when the water level rises above the normal pool level. ‘A spillway is provided to discharge the ‘excess flow entered a reservoir. ‘Types of Spill Ways: (i) Free overfall or straight drop its down stream“ vertical pressure. Straight drop Spill way (ti Ogee Spill way or overflow spill w: © The over flowing water is guided smoothly ‘over the spillway and is made to glide over the down stream face of the spill way. ‘© The nappe shaped profile for the crest of ogee spillway is an ideal profile. Ogee spillway + For an ideal profile of a ogee spillway, if discharge is occurring at the design head, the pressure on the spillway will be atmospheric only. (ie., no hydrostatic pressure on the spillway) © For discharges at a head less than the © design head, positive hydrostatic pressure exerted on the spillway by the “ata head greater than the design head, there will be separation of flowing water fromthe spillway and thus negative pressure (suction) will be created. The negative pressure will increase the ‘effective head and there by the discharge willbe increased. ‘The downstream curve-of the ogee shape has the following equati voy Ly ate the co-ordinates of the crest, profile‘measured from the apex of the Grest, and H is the design head. ischarge equation for Spillways: (i) Ogee shaped spillway is given by Q=CL H?? Where, Q = discharge. C = a variable coefficient of discharge, its value varies from 2.1 to 2.5 L.= effective length of crest H, = total head on the crest, including velocity of approach head. =Hth, 28 ‘Where, h,= head due to velocity of approach ‘a= velocity of approach (SRR es No Dane | ataevar | Vana |Vistapaa | inna | Pe | ChenaSiphon Spillway:The spill way which acts on the principle of siphon is known as siphon ~ spill way. Q=CA.(28H Where, A= Area of the cross ~ section at crown Lxd, where L is the length and d is the height of throat. H = Operating head. = Reservoir level — Centre of outlet, if outlet is discharging freely. = Reservoir level — level ifthe outlet is submer C = Coefficient of di value of which mayebe fakes 0.65. Volute Siphon Spill Way: shaft having a funnel at d and the bottom end is connected to a When the water | rises: above the full a if level, it spi the circumference of thi spiral motion through ‘. Chute or Trough Spill simply a rectangular ‘G (mown as chute) discharge the suiplus wat the same river on the ‘do ‘way may be provided along th the Fineeiae dam or along the edge:of the‘reservoir atthe falls supply level. -—-Channel_Spillway:_It_is_completely_s from the main body of the dam. The spillway is constructed at right angles to the dam and at any side. Wave Height: Molitor’s formula Height of wave, hy = 0.0322 VEV for F > 32km hyn meters___ ind velocity in km/hr. F = the fetch of reservoir in km 18 Inigation -1 Fetet t is the straight length of water expanse measured normal to the axis of dam. ‘Wave Force, Pw dam. P,, acts at a height of 0.375 hy above the still water level =2. yw. hy? per metre length of 01, The freeboard in a dam depends on the height of the wave which in turn depends on (a) wind velocity (b) fetch © (©) depth of water in the reservoir (@) both wind velocity and fetch 02, According to Creager for a gravity dam the crest width is most economical if it is about (@) 14% of the height of the dam sob) 20 ‘% of the height of the dam (6) 28 % of the height of the dam (@ 301% of the height of the dam 03. Which one. of the —_. following ‘equations represents the downstream profile of Ogee spillway, with vertical upstream face? Gs ¥) are the coordinates of the point on the downstream profile with origin at the crest of the spillway and Hi is the design head. 7 (GATE-2005) 01.(4) 02.(@) 3.@) Fipdebed | Nev Delis Bengaare| Bhabneswar | Viajes | Vikas [Tropa | Poe | Chana01. Compute the discharge over an ogee weit with coefficient of discharge equal to 2.4 at'a head of 2 m, The length of the spillway is 100 m The weir crest is 8 m above the bottom of the approach channel having the same width as that of the spillway. 02. A dam has spillway whose cross — section is 1 m high and 4 m wide. The tail water elevation: at design flow is 6 m blow the summit of th siphon and the head water elevation. is above the summit, Assuming:a coefficient of\\|"/)) ) discharge Of 0.6, what is the. siphon?@ Diversion Head Works 1) Diversion Head Works : Works constructed across the river to raise water level and to divert into the canal and also for other purposes Guide bund oe A marginal 2. Weir: Structure construcied across river to raise its water level and Usually shutters are povided to increase the storage : ponding) is accomplished mainly by mi gates. A barage provides biter conto on the water level. 4. Under Slices : ¢ weir wall, located on the same side of the off faking canal, The discharge capacity of the under sluices is greater of i) 2 times maximum discharge of off taking canal ii) Maximum winter discharge iii) 10 to 15 % of maximum flood discharge. Ifno special device to conitol slit entering into the canal is provided, the crest of the under sluices should be at least 1.20 m lower than the crest of the head regulator, If the excluder = Head regulator Under sluices wo is provided" to reduce entry of, slit into the canal, thé crest of under sluices should be about 1.80.to 2.0 mbelow the crest of the head regulator. Divide, Wall‘: Constructed at right angles to ‘the axis: of the weir to separate under sluices from: the rest ofthe weir, to provide clear ‘water to the canal: ilt-Excluder-:-—It- excludes (prevents) silt from entering the canal, It is provided on the river bed in front of head regulator . Silt Extractors or Silt Ejectors : They remove the silt which has already entered the canal from the head. It is provided in the canal. Fish Ladder : To allow migration of fish from Uisto Disside © Guide bund and Marginal bund are river protection works Tisch | VE [Tipat| Pane | ChennaiOvid Gicsie 221: Diversion Head Works 09. Causes of failures of Weirs : (a)Piping or under mining: Progressive erosion in the backward direction (i., towards w/s ) ‘Measures to prevent piping : Providing sufficient length of impervious floor so that path of percolation is increased and exit gradient reduced. Also by providing sheet piles at U/s and D/s ends of impervious floor (©) Uplift pressure ‘Uplift pressure is resisted by: 1. Providing sufficient thickness of floor (© Rupture of Floor due to suction caused by hhydraulic jump Remedies: Providing additional thickness of floor (d@) Scour on Uys and D/s of weir due to heavy velocity of river flow Remedies: Providing sheet piles on U/s and Dis sides much below the calculated scour level. By providing launching aprons on’ U/s and Djs sides so that stones of aprons may settle into the scour holes, © Small ‘thickness and more Toe Ue ale ‘* More thickness on D/s side 12. Cutoff: To increase creep length and there by reducing the hydraulic gradient 13. Inverted filter: Consists of layers of materials of increasing permeability from bottom to top. Itis provided on dis, after the impervious floor to-relieve uplift pressure i.., it allows seepage ‘water to escape without dislocating the soil particles.” | 14° Launching apron or pervious Apron : Itis Joosely “packed stones, to protect the imperyious:floor-and sheet piles from scour iping) progressing towards the ‘impervious floor and piles. Provided on U/s and Dis side. 15. Block Protection : Provided on U/s side, immediately at the upstream end of impervious floor, to protect impervious floor from the effect of scouring. This is made of concrete blocks or stone blocks over a bed of loose stone packing. The joints are finished with cement mortarO usb Gicsey 16. Design of weirs on Permeable Foundation : Bligh’s Creep Theory + ol © Bligh assumed that, 3 creeps along the® base “profile of the structure which is/in Gontact with the soil length of path | traversed by percolating water | © Total creep length, Bligh’s creep. coefficier reciprocal of hydraulic gradient Vo As per Bligh, to avoid piping the minimum length of creep, L= CH or the hydraulic gradient, “4s G0) «© H= seepage Head ( the difference between water levels on U/s and Dis ) ‘© Worst: condition is that when the water evel on U/s side is maximum and no water on Dis side. 2 The vale of C varies fomS to 18 depending upon the type of soil. RRR 9 No Das | Benet | chen | Vion] Vinitapanon [Tepes Pune [ Cheam] 18, Safety against uplift Pressure : As per Bligh’s theory, thickness to be provided by taking a factor of safety of 4/ 3 is, ~ 4h G.-) ‘h = ordinate of Hydraulic Gradient line from top of floor specific gravity 6f floor material (concrete) Ge AL.would be more economical to provide more ‘ereep length on’U/s side instead of Dis side. _-According'to Bligh a vertical cut off at U/s end ofthe floor is more useful than the one at “Disend of the floor. jons of Bligh’s Creep Theory : No.distinction horizontal creep ‘+ No distinction between effectiveness of outer and inner faces of sheet pile ‘+ Significance of exit gradient is not considered between vertical and 20, Lanes Weighed Creep Theory : Lane proposed that horizontal creep is less effective in reducing uplift or causing loss of head; thanthe-vertical creep. A weightage factor of 1/3 is proposed for horizontal creep and 1,0 for vertical creep. |i 24. @ xsd Fhtean on creep length , = (18) B+V B= 6um of horizontal contacts and sloping contacts less than 45° to the horizontal V = sum of vertical contacts and sloping, contacts greater than 45° to the horizontal rorstay aint ping, He Cy = Lanes coefficient of creep Khosla’s Theory : effective than inner a b) Intermediate sheets than outer ones, ate 4 ¢) Undermining of flo 4) A vertical essential to prev The floor length 4 end the ‘exit eters less than’ | permissible gradient. 293: Diversion Head Works 22, Uplift pressure heads at points D, E and C are as follows for Sheet pile at D/s end: A af 4-2 Hoos x eat = Hogg Axl) = x A J 180 he=0 23, Uplift pressure heads at points D’, E” and © for Sheet pile at U/s end as shown bel UpliRpressure’at points E.and D (Figure A) of a traight horizontal ‘floor of negligible thickness pile at-downstream end are 28.% and If the sheet pile is at upstream if (Figure B), the uplift pressure at ‘The allowable exit sradient should be within -| oe dna teviro? 2 exit gradient, Where; A = a= (b/d) 1/5 to 1/6. (GATE 2000) |___Screen een phatanevar [Viger [ Viniapaar | That [Pe | Chem aFigure .B (2) 68 % and 60% respectively (b) 80% and 72% respectively (c) 88 % and 70 % respectively, (@ 100 % and zero pete Sol: At point Di 1 Atpoint Ci she “2 A horizontal cat ‘of length 20 m is 'm depth at its Dis 1}. provided with a cutoff ofa end (Fig. 2). Find thie 6xit/ gradient if thestiead) | * causing flow is 2m factor of safety against piping if for the soil ¢ _¥6id ratio is) | l¥e FOS against piping = Boo (Sis 180 = 2 xc08"( 295-1), ® 0.7m ® 3.05 180 Details of weir foundation: 0.091 2 4xaV3.05 O1. If R is the normal depth of scour by Lacey equation, the depths below HFL up to the which the upstream and downstream sheet piles in a weir are usually provided to protect again the effect of scour are, respectively @SRand20R (b)2.0 Rand 15R ©25Rand125R (A) 1.0 Rand 1.25R RMR |e | eto sence | Vinvoroa | Viekinpanam | Tira | Fane | ChemO ist Piorten 02. As a result of the construction of a diversion structure across a river, there will be a rise in the flood level on the upstream side of the structure and it is called as (a) free board (b) uplift (©) aggradation (@) afflux 03. For a specified weir foundation geometry and applied head, the pressure distribution on the base of the impervious floor of a weir is (a) dependant on the soil particle size (b) dependent on the porosity of the soil (©) independent of the soil properties (@) depends on the coefficient of perineabilit of the soil. The term piping, used in. connection wi weirs on alluvial rivers, means (@) the system of pipes provided for drainage of the seepage flow. (b) vertical pressure exerted by the seepage “7 flow at various poinis on the impergiome floor 4 (©) the progressive bnsolidaiog ot the | foundation dus fo the removal of pore water pressure (@ the progressive ‘indermining Nof the, foundation due to dislodging of the soi particles by the seepage water at its point of emergence. structure, consists of (@) graded sand with coarse’ pait’in_contact With the foundation and finest part onthe {top ) ade sand with fine part in contact with the foundation material and coarsest part on the top (©) a blanket of uniform size sand set inclined to the direction of seepage and loaded by masonry blocks (@ a sand blanket covered by graded heavy stones on top. 06. A.weir_has.a horizontal. floor of length 36 m. with two sheet piles of depth 6 m and 10m at its upstream and downstream —_ ends, respectively. Under an impounded depth of 05. A graded inverted filter, used-in. a diversion~.}° 25 Diversion Head Works 4m above the floor and with no tail water, the uplift pressure head at the mid-point of the floor by Lane’s weighted creep theory is (a) 2.00 m (b) 2.36 m (©) 1.88 m (@ 164m 07. A weit on permeable foundations has the following elements: 1. Impervious floor 2. Block protection 3. Block protection over inverted filter 4, Launching apron ing from the upstream end the correct “sequeiice of these elements are: @y (b)4-3-1-2-4 @3-1-2-4 "08. According fo‘Khosla’s theory for a hydraulic structure built on previous foundation a cutoff is quite essential at (@) the upstream end () the mid-section. (© some intermediate section (@) the downstream end 09. The updersiuices in a diversion head works ar provided with a crest level (a) same as the crest of the weir Ab) lower than the erest of the weir (c) higher than the rest of the water (@)same as the crest of the head regulator 10, According. to, Khosla’s theory exit gradient is given.by a ‘usual notation) H (@) Ge= ine ink 11. The capacity of under sluices in a river barrage is usually equal to (2) two times the maximum discharge of the offtaking canal (b) maximum winter discharge (©)10 to 15% of the maximum flood discharge (@) maximum of (a), (b) and (¢) ©) Ge= (SE seats [Noy Date | engtra | Bhitaneovar | Vegeta | Viekbapamae | Teva Cheam12, Silt excludet is provided () in the canal oni the downstream of the head re (b) in the river on the downstream of the weir (©) im the river adjacent to the head regulator (@ in the river far off form the weir on the upstream side : 13. The intermediate sheet pile is ineffective if it (a) is larger in length than the outer ones (b) is. smaller in length than the outer ones (©) is equal in length to the outer ones @ is far off from the outer ones 14, Assertion (A): “As a’ meati against piping, block protection the downstream of « hydraiil 06. (0) 1.@ 07. (©) 08.4) 09. 12.(¢) 13.6) 14.(4) 26 Irrigation 01. The fig.1 shows section of a hydraulic structure on a permeable foundation. Assuming G.=24, Determine (@ Average hydraulic gradient according to Bligh’s creep theory Gi) Bligh’s creep coefficient (iii) Residual seepage head at A (iv) Uplift pressure at A (v)-Floor thickness required at point A . Whilé designing “a hydraulic structure, the piezometric. head: at ‘bottom of the floor is computed as,10m. The datum is 3m below floor bottom. ‘The assured standing water depth above the floor is 2m, The specific gravity of the floor material is 2.5: Determine the minimum thickness of floor required. 035 hing apron is to be designed at “downstream of a weir for discharge intensity of 6.5m°/sim. For the design of launching aprons the scour depths is taken two times of ‘Lacey scour depth. The silt factor of the bed material is unity. If the tail water depth is 4.4m, determine the length of launching apron.Design of Unlined Alluvial Canals by Silt Theories Kennedy’s Theory: 1 Gi Vx = 0.55m_D Silt is kept in Suspension by the eddies formed over the widta of the channel. Critical velocity (Vo): Velocity which will keep the channel free from silting or scourin Vo = 0.55 D™* applicable for Punjab region’ Vo = critical velocityn m/sec = depth of flow, © bed width has no effect on the Critical Velocity. ai i Critical Velocity Ratio, m= Va/Vo 2 For other regions, velocity ofzflow-to avoid silting and scouring:is, Vx = 0.55 mD! yt For determining “meén’ yelocity of flow, | soak s® N nu [> 0.00155 V = Mean velocity of flow in nvsec. R= Hydraulic radius, m S=bed slope, N= Rugosity coefficient Design of Channel by Kennedy: Equations required @ Q=AVv (Gi) Kutter’s Equation, for V Data required: Q,N, m and § or B/D ratio . Regime Channel : 6. Procedure (1) Given Q, N, m and $ Steps: () Assume a trial value of D in meters (ii) Calculate velocity V_ from equation, Vx=0.55m pe. (él) Calculate cross sectional area, A= Q/Y (iv) Assuming side slope of channel as ( 4 Horizontal) to (1 Vertieal)and find the ~ bed.width, - (¥) Caleulate, the actual mean velocity (V) of “flow from Kutter,s Equation (wi)IF the velocity: (V) calculated by Kutter’s equation. is nearly -equal to velocity calculated in step no. 2, the assumed depth is correct. If not, assume another trial value D and repeat the above procedure. “The above design procedure can be carried out with the help of Garret’s diagram. Drawbacks in Kennedy’s Theory: + Limitations (of Kutter’s Equation are _, ‘inconporated in Kennedy's theory. No equation for bed slope (S) by Kennedy of silt ion is incorporated in a single “Factor called ‘in? s clivolves trial and error. 7. Lacey’s Theory: Lacey developed the regime theory (But the regime theory concept was initially put forwarded by Lindley) A stable channel whose width, depth and bed slope have undergone modification by silting and scouring and are so adjusted that they have attained equilibrium. 1. Silt is Kept iny suspension by eddies generated from wetted perimeter. Hiplestad | New Delhi | Bengalora | Bhbancrvar | Viavavada | Viakbapatam [‘Tewpat | Pane | Chennai® pie hede 8 i Irrigation -1 10. For a channel to be in regime, conditions to be ey” established are: (viyScour depth, R, =1. 4%) Regime conditions (true regime conditions) f i) Channel should be flowing uniformly in ‘unlimited incoherent alluvium of the same character as that transported by channel. = discharge per m width= Q/ B Ry = isin ‘m’ measured from H.F.L (vii) Assuming side slopes as (1/2) horizontal: i) Silt grade and silt charge should be 1 vertical i constant, iii) ‘Discharge should be constant. 17. Drawbacks in Lacey’s Theory : ‘* Regime conditions are only theoretical, may not be achieved in practice. ‘Equations are derived based on single factor‘ f" 11; To tneasure ‘silt grade, Lacey introduced si factor (f) 12. Incoherent. Alluvium: A. ‘¢ Silt chargevand silt grade have not been properly defined ‘* Lacey’s equiations are empirical. “can be deposited, 13. An artificial channel, of regime. | Example:6.1 (1) initial regime : © Initial Regime: Design’-an irrigation’ channel in alluvial soil depth attain eq © Final Regime and "width ~ of equilibrium. | according to Lacey's silt theory with the following data, discharge'is 50 m* //see. Lacey’s silt factor = 1, side slope 0.5 H: 1 V. y (GATE-94) ‘ff Sol:Q = 50 m’iscos £1: x=05 R ae ys \ v-(95) ar] = 0.842 mis 140 15. Cross section of a regiqie. chanel: Semi — oan. elliptical section. 14, Lacey's equations are appl which has attained final or tr 9. Lacey’: tions: 16, Lacey’s regime equations: Spe (@ silt factor, £= 1.76 V4 7 (Bt0.SD)D = 59.38 Eqn..(1) ‘d= mean soil particle size in ‘mm’ (dso) 2 7S Q= 4.75x150 = 33.58 m (i) velocity, =~ 140 P=B+2Dv1+0.5* =33.58 ii) wetted perimeter, P= 4.75 (Q Liskediaieiesiant B=33.58-2.23D_.... Eqn.(2) : oH Pin m,:Q—in m/sec, substituting ‘B’ into eqn —(1), : es iv) Longitudinal slope, $ =—* > iiddmiass oP 2 33409 (@3.58-2.23D+0.5D) D = 59.38 (W) Velocity, V= @/5)ER : Hydraulic mean depth. 1.115D*-33.58D+59.38 = 0 Solving, D = 88m, (ACR eee | Wen | ance | Wipe Vaataptn | Tope ine | Chena | | = arags ASE, 129: Design of Unlined Alluvial Canals by Silt Theories ———————_ ~ B= 33.58-2,23x1.88 = 29.38 m The B and D should be taken such that the =~ shape-of-channel-is semi elliptical rn “33400 pete Mes 334050" Ss 01. In connection with the identify the correct matching. design (A), (B), (Cy for the items of design (i), (ii), Gil), @ Items of Desigi @ Width of waterwa} (ii) Level and length 6f down steait floor Gil) Depth of downsttéani-sheet piles and total | length of floor \ i floor Criteria of Design (A) Hydraulic jump consi (B) Lacey’s wetted perimeter and apacity_of. the. barrage. ‘appropriate weir formulae (© Uplift pressure distribution as determined by Khosla’s theory (@) Lavey’s scour depth and. exit hydraulic gradient as given by Khosla’s theory @ ABCD (©) BA.D,C (b) A,B,D,C @BACD 02. Lacey's equations can be used for the design of (@) unlined channels only (b) lined channels only (©) both lined & unlined channels (@) neither lined nor unlined channels 03. For 1 m depth of flow in a canal with CVR, equal to 0.90, according to Kennedy’s theory the velocity of flow will be (a) 0.395 m/sec {b) 0.495 m/sec (©) 0.595 misee ©) 0.695 m/sec ‘is to carry a discharge of 5 cumiecs. Assume’ Rugosity coeff. N = 0.0225, critical velocity ratio m = 1, B/D = 3.24, design the width and depth for the channel usiiig Kennedy’s silt theory. 02,.The slope" channel in alluvium is 1 / 4000, Lacey's silt factor is 0.9 and side slopes are ((/2)H:IV..Find® the ‘channel section and ‘maximua’ discharge which can be allowed to 03. An irrigation canal is to be provided in alluvial soil of average soil particle size of 0.39 mm, with side slope as 0.5H:1V. The canal supplies Water to field of total area of 40,000 ha where a certain crop is to be grown. The duty of the -.orop is 800 ha/cumec. Design the canal by Lacey’s silt theory. iyderbad | New Dell | Benga | Bhibaneswar | Viajavada | Viakhapazam | Tip | Pune | Chennai@ Water Logging and Drainage | ‘© It makes cultivation difficult as the water “Jogged areas cannot be easily cultivated. | 1. Water logging: Water logging is a condition © It causes growth of wild aquatic plants | in which there is excessive moisture in the soil © Tt causes salinity of soil | oa ~ making the land less productive. th © It lowers soil temperature which affects, The water logging affects the fertility of the the activities of the bacteria, re fand and thus leads to a reduction i yield. Water logging is usuallyeé — : rise of sub soil water table: ‘Logging Control: . AG By providing adequate surface drainage oa The depth of water tabl it ‘to: with ey make the land water could be gutek : (eight of cai By providing efficient under drainage « 1 : eee By controlling seepage of water fiom 7 ‘The crop yield is a _ canals, (By Lining the canals, Lowering e capillary meniscus gut using irrigation water of ground surface. : water logged. whe 1.50m to 2.1m bel © By preventing seepage from reservoirs. Pumping surplus’ground water from wells 2. Causes of Water i water logging ate: © Excessive rainfall in thearca «Flat ground profile 7 © “Seepage of water adjoining lands. Improper drainage of surface runof © Excessive irrigation By introducing crop rotation ‘By improving: the natural drainage of the g lift irigation |~A~properlydesigned drainage system is an effective means to prevent land from getting water 4. Rifects of Water Logging: Water logging has | logged as well as to relieve the land already water the following effects: logged: Open drains or closed drains can be used. #° It causes’ dnacrobie*conditions: near’ the | roots of plants. Excess water prevents circulation of air and hence destroys , 2 bacteria which require aerobic conditions ____and_other chemicals to live_and produce nitrates required by plants. This reduces the yield of erops.. (err Nea Len THe | Viren | Vantaa [Tr | Pe [Chena ty—_—- ESP). Quality of Irrigation Water and Sodic soils OPSIS a The quality of irrigation water is determined by the concentration of salts in water. Salt is a natural element of soils and water. The main ions responsible for salination are: Na‘, K*, Ca’, Mg”. As the Na’ (sodium) predominates, a ‘can become sodie. If sodium ions predominate in inrigation water, they will tend to replace calcium '& magnesium ions from the clay. As a result, the soil clods ‘rumble and fine silica grains are teleased which clog the soil resulting in the reduction of its permeability and destruction of the: stricture ‘of soil. 1. Exchangeable Sodium ratio (ESR): It is defined as the concentration of exchangeable sodium ions divided “by the sum of concentrations of exchangeable calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium ions, Exchangeable Sodium Ratio = The ESR is often expressed in % which is then termed as Exchangeable Sodium Percentage The concentration of all the elements are expressed in milliequivalents per litre (ieq/l) which is equal to the concentrations in ppm divided by the equivalent weight of the element. 2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR): The concentration of exchangeable sodium ions in water_may_also_be determined by_a_rational parameter termed as SAR. Na Sodium Adsorption Ratio [Ca +Mg 2 SAR Type of water 0-10 low-sodium water (S1) 10-18 medium-sodium water (S2) 18:26 high-sodium water (S:) >26 very high-sodium water (S:) 3. Salt efflorescence : When the ground W.T is close to the'GL, the water from the W.T rises up by capillary action and brings with it the alkali salts in solution. Water evaporates from the surface of land, leaving behind an accumulation of these salts, in patches, on the surface of land. This phenomenon of the salts coming in solution and forming a thin crust (5 to 7.5 cm) on the surface after evaporating of water is called “Salt efflorescence”. The salts present in saline soil usually appear in the form of a white efflorescent crust om the surface of soil and’ hence the saline soils are also commonly termed as “white alkali” soils. 4,. Saline Soil: The excess concentration of salts, ‘when present in the root zone of any plant, has corroding effect on the roots and the growth of the plant gets checked and the plant ultimately dies. ‘Such salt affected soit is known as | Saline soil” and is tinproductive. The electrical conductivity of saline soils is greater than 4 millimhos/cm (at 25%) and the ESP is less than 15. The pH value is < 8.5. The saline’ soils can be reclaimed by leaching process, 6. Sodic soil: These are characterized by the presence of high concentration of sodium (Na). They contain an exchangeable sodium percentage greater than’ 15%. These soils tend to occur within (SSR esate ena | atv | Vor FVsatbapaman | Tra | Pe | Chena]32 Inigation -1 arid to semiarid regions. Because of, sodiumization, the soil becomes impermeable, ill- aerated and highly unproductive. Sodic soil is also called ‘sodiumized soil’ is ‘Alkaline soil’. Reclamation of alkaline soil is more difficult than a saline soil. These soils can be reclaimed by adding gypsum’ end sulphur before. leaching process. For Alkali soil electrical conductivity is less than 4 millimhos/em and pH value > 8.5 and ESP > 15%, These soils are also termed. as “black alkali” soils ~ because a black: crust forms, surface of these soils. Saline soil: Its a soil with excessive NaCl. Alkaline soll: Itis a soil with excessive Na,COs. It is more harmfuall.: (b) the soil in the ro (c) the-soil pores in th with water land. 02. The following is not a factor logging of a land, a) seepage from-unlined-canals————| (®) excessive pumping fromr tigation tube wells, (©) inadequate drainage (@ frequent flooding 03. which of the following is Wot a remedial measure for water-logging? (a) Lining of canals (b) Conjunctive use of water (6) Good drainage (@) Contour bunding. “bo7. 04. Alkali soils are reclaimed by (a) leaching only (b) addition of gypsuin and leaching (©) addition of gypsum only (d) provision of drainage. ty, oF both, have ‘The soil salinity, or alkali the following adverse effect (@). causing low yields of crops (b) limiting of the type of crops (©). rendering the quality of fodder poor 2e@.,causing high infiltration, resulting in damage to crops. \}°06, Pick: out the ‘measure that is adopted for preventing water loggings (@) Contour bunding (b) Application of super phosphate (c) Planting trees. (d) Providing efficient under drainage ick out the effect that is likely to develop if the soil is water logged (@) increases the maturity period of crop (b) Reduces the crop yield (©) Incteases the soil temperature (@ Makes it easy to cultivate the land 08. The common chemical used for reclaiming saline soil is (a) Caleitum Carbonate (b) Sodium Chloride © ‘Gypsum. otassium Nitrate 01. (e) 02.(b) 03. (a) 04. (b) 05. (d) 06.(d) 07. (b) 08.(c)wim Engineering Academy Hyderabad | Delhi | Bhopal [Pune | Bhubaneswar | Bengaluru | Chennai | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati 60. Gopi Keithow Phot. ule’ 4x03 54017 Irrigation - II (Theory with Classroom Practice Questions) IES - Civil Engineering ACE is the leading institute for coaching in IES, GATE & PSUs HO: 204, II Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Abids, Hyderabad-500001, Ph: 040-24750242, 24750263, 24750437, 24752469. CONSISTENTLY TOP RANKS IN IES AIL INDIA 15° RANK 29 TIMES IN GATEWater Resources Engineering: Water resources of the globe: Multipurpose uses of Water: Soil-Plant-Water relationships, irrigation systems, water demand assessment; Storages and their yields, ground water yield and well hydraulics; Waterlogging, drainage design; Irrigation revenue; Design of rigid boundary canals, Lacey's and Tractive force concepts in canal design, lining of canals; Sediment transport in canals; Non-Overflow and overflow sections of gravity dams and their design, Energy dissipators and tailwater rating; Design of headworks, distribution works, falls, cross-drainage works, outlets; CONTENTS Dams (General) 02 Reservoirs (Storage Capacity & Yield) 03 Canals 04 | Water Logging 0s River Training Works.DAMS (GENERAL) Dam: It is a barrier constructed across a river to create a reservoir for impounding water 1. Classification of dams based on functio a) Storage dam or impounding dam: To store the excess water during the rainy season 50 as to utilize later on during the dry seasons, Detention dam: To detain flood water temporarily and to gradually release, stored water at controlled rates’so as’ to. safe guard the down stream areas from: possible damage due” to floods. A detention dam may also be used as a storage dam or vice-versa, Diversion dam: For diverting part or‘all the water from a river inte: an ‘nrigation channel Ss Ex: Diversion weir, | Coffer dam: A temporary, dam | constructed to exclude water from a specific area, 10 take up construction in dry area, Debris dam: Constructed to. caiéh-and retain debris such as” sand,” silt,- wood, flowing along with the Water inthe river, b) 4a) Classification based on Hydraulic design: a) Over flow dam: Constructed with a crest to permit overflow of surplus water which cannot be stored in the reservoir. b) Non-overflow dam: Dam on which water is not allowed to flow overits crest 3. Classification based on material of construction a) Rigid dam: Constructed with rigid ~“qiaterial sch as MiasonFY, concrete, steel, timber. b) Non- rigid dam: Constructed with non rigid material such as earth, tailings, rockfill etc. Ex: Barth dam, tailings dam, rockfill dam ete. * Composite dam: It is an earthen dam provided with a concrete or stone masonry spillway section ‘Masonry-cum-earth dam: Some length of the dam is earthen dam and. remaining length of dam (excluding, spillway) is constructed ‘as stone masonry or concrete Ex: Nagarjuna sagar dam (Max: height = 125 m) 4, Classification based on structural behavi a) Gravity dam: A dam’ which resists the forces acting on it by its own weight. Ex: Masonry or concrete dams b) Arch dam: It is a curved masonry or concrete dam, convex upstream, which resists forces mainly by arch action. Ex: Idukki'dam in kerala -Buttress-dam: It has a water retaining sloping membrane or deck (usually RCC slab).on upstream which is supported by a series of buttress or counter forts, Behavior is similar to that of a gravity dam, Embankment dam: It is a dam which resists the forces acting on it by its shear strength. Ex: earthen dam. Factors governing selection of type of dam: a) + Foranarrow V-shaped valley with sound rock in abutments, arch dam is, Ex: Bhakra dam, Srisailam dam ete. the best choice. PEGE oes | De oa He 5 ‘Bhahanesrar | Bengaary | Obi’ | Vrpevada | Viekapetnam | TopeO srsb Ginn Irrigation - II ‘© For U-shaped valley with sound rock ae in foundation, gravity dam is suitable © Fora wide valley with soil foundation, earthen dam is suitable b) Geology and foundation conditions: {For rocky | any type of dam is suitable | | [foundation | [Gravel or sand | earth fill, rock fill and low foundation conerete gravity dams up. to 15 mheight : Silt and fine | Earthen dams. sand foundation ‘Clay foundation ee foundation treatment Hf large spillway is required Tf small spillway is required 4) Environmental considerations: E ‘#, For less impact on environment Low dam is selected ¢) Earthquake zone: Earth fil aiid: ‘concrete gravity dams are best choice 6.- Selection of site for a dam: The site should have suitable foundation’ © Atnarrow width of river (to minimize tength of dam) Suitable site for spillway available Availability of material nearby. TYPES OF ARCH DAMS ‘The arch dams may be divided into the following three classes. 1. Constant radius dam or constant centre dam 2, Variable radius dam, and 3. Constant angle dam Stverafad | Debi] Bhopal Pane | hbaneswar| Bens | Chef | Viarada | Viakhpatsam | Tina 1, Constant radius arch dam or constant centre arch dam: Itis an arch dam in which the radius to some prominent feature (such as upstream face, or the downstream face, or the arch axis) is constant. In most cases, the constant radius is with reference to the upstream side. In a constant radius arch dam, the arch centres for upstream face, downstream face and the centre line of the horizontal arch rings at various elevations lie on a straight vertical fine that passes through the centre of the horizontal arch ring of the upstream face at the crest, Hence this type of dam is also sometimes known as the constant centre arch dam. In most. of the simple types, the upstream face is vertical (ie., its radius is constant at all elevations), and the thickness is proportional to the height. This makes the central angles of the arch rings of the introdos vary at various elevations, As shown in Fig. | Fig. Constant Radius Arch dam A constant radius arch dam is particularly adopted to U-shaped canyons as cantilever action will carry a large proportion of the load at lower levels. The constant radius arch dam is less ‘economicai~compared~to—other arch dams. However, the form work for the constant radius arch dam is much simpler to construct.srscb Tras Dams (General) 2. Variable radius arch dam: It is an arch dam in which the radii of the extrodos curves (ie, arch rings corresponding to upstream face) and introdos curves (je., arch rings corresponding to downstream’ face) vary at various: elevations being maximum at the top and cerfain minimum at its bottom, This makes the central angle as large as possible so that maximum arch efficiency may be obtained at all elevations. The centres of the horizontal arch rings at various elevation do not lie on the single vertical line. Hen known as variable centre arch. adapted to narrow V-shaped action can be depended upon t A variable radius arch dam: efficiency, resulting in saving Fig, Variable Radius Arch dam: Ne SNS ARTETA NETINININMD ced Bets | cpl] Fane | Dhabancovar | Bena | Chana | Vigava | Vikhapatna { Teo 3. Constant angle arch dam: It is a special type of variable radius arch dam in which the central angle of the horizontal arch rings is of the same ‘magnitude at all elevations. It is observed that the volume of concrete is minimum when the central angle is 133°.34". Fig. Constant angle arch dam A variable radius arch requires about 58% of the conerete.required in constant radius arch dam. A constant angle arch dam uses about 42.6% of the concrete required in constant radius arch dam, Hence a‘constant angle arch dam is the ‘most economical are dam.Yield is the amount of water that can be servoir in a specified interval : ierval of time chosen for the ‘design varies from a day for small distribution reservoirs toa year for large conservation reservoirs, oS Safe yield or firm yield: The maximum quantity of water that can be guaranteed during a critical dry period is known as the safe yield, Secondary yield: Secondary yee of water available in exce io period of high flood. z e with time, ‘Demand curve: A | between accumulated Calculation of rere Also prepare the mass’ the same scale. w 7 2, From the apices Ai, AayAse—éte. Of the ‘mass curve, draw tangents“patall ‘the i Dj, Ez, Dz, Es Ds, etc., between the tangent and the mass curve, The vertical intercepts indicate the volume by which the inflow falls short of demand, For example, for a period corresponding to points A and Ci, C, Dy represents the net inflow while C; 1 represents the demand. Hence, the volume Ei Dy has to be provided from the reservoir storage 4. The largest of the vertical ordinates amongst E, Ds; Ez Do, Bs Ds ete. represent the required reservoir capacity. Earns pert | Da ipl | Behe | ee | | Vien | Vasiape [Th Mass curve: A mass inflow curve is a plot between the cumulative: taflow in the reservoir ae na specien eld frm is inflow curve | _1._From_the flood. hy h_of inflow for | several years, prepare th RESERVOIRS (STORAGE CAPACITY AND YIELD) It should be noted that the vertical distance between successive tangents represents water wasted over the spillway. The spillway must have sufficient capacity to discharge this flood volume. Tine, yeas | NP Détermitiation of safe yield from a reservoir of a given capacity 1. Prepare thie mass inflow curve. 2e0Rrom the apices Ay, Az, As etc. of the mass “curve-draw-tangents (Fig. 2) in such a way that their maximum departure from the mass curve does not exceed the specified reservoir capacity. Thus, the ordinates E,D;, E:D2, E;Ds, etc. are all equal to the reservoir capacity. 3. Measure the slopes of each of these tangents. The slopes indicate the yield which can be attained in each year from the reservoir of iv ity. The slope of flattest demand line is the firm yield.Inigation - IL —_———_—— —__— EE Measurement of Sediment load The amount of silt” or the sediment load carried by a stream is determined by taking the samples of water carrying silt, at various depths. The samples are then filtered and the sediment is removed and dried. The sediment load measured. inthe units: of ‘parts. per million parts of water’ (ppm). The bed load is estimated to. be about: 15%of the suspended load, Life of Reservoir To allow for silting, a cer the total storage is usually reduced to 20% of The reservoir sed terms of its efficiency of a inflowing sediment. reservoir. Detailed the trap efficiency is a reservoir capacity to the a the complete filling of a reservoir may take a vary long time, Reservoir sediment cont (2) Control of Sedime (3) Proper Designing: (4) Control of Sediment Deposit (5) Removal of Sediment Deposit (6) Erosion Control in the Catchment Area 01. The following information is available regarding the relationship between trap efficiency and capacity ~ inflow ratio for a feservoir: CAPACI io | Trap efficiency (n%) inflow 01 87 02 93 03 95 0.4 95.5 05 36 06 36.5 0:7 97 £08 972 09) 973 1.0 97.5 Find the probable life of the reservoir with an initial reservoir capacity of 30 million cubic _-mettes, if the annual flood inflow is 60 ‘illion cubic: meters and the average annual sediinent inflow is 360,000 tonnes. Assume a (specific. weight. of sediment equal to 1200 kg/m’. The useful life of the reservoir will terminate when 80% of initial capacity is filled with sediment. 02. Find the probable life of a reservoir with an initial capacity of 4x 10° m? if the annual sediment inflow into reservoir 4x 10* m, The average trap efficiency 0.9 and life of a reservoir is terminated when 90 per cent of initial capacity is occupied by sediment, (IES-2010)CANALS Balancing Depth of Cutting: When the soil from the excavation of canal is equal to that required to form the banks of specified standards, then the canal is said to be in balancing depth of cutting. This is the most economical section as there is no need to bring earth from borrow pits. the following reasons: a) Increased carrying capacit increasing velocity [ESSER a | ea P| tae | Beta heal | Vow | Viera | Thora b) ° ad °) Ensure economical water utilisation Control seepage to minimize transmission losses Prevent erosion of bed and sides Reduce maintenance cost by elimination of frequent clearing of weeds, repairing slopes, removing silt depositions, ete. ings: Cement concrete, Shotcrete rick/tiles, Asphalt, Earth materials, . Shabad stones lining ete. a oWATER LOGGING Closed Drains (Tile drains); Useful for prevention of water logging of land as well as for relieving the land already water logged. These drains are provided at suitable depth below the ground level with open joints and covered with filter‘of coarse sand. The usual diameter of tile drain is 10cm. The drains are usually located about 03m lowe than the desired water table, The closed drains have ther outlets in natural or artificial channels. Closed drains are designed to cary only seepage water and their capacity is determined by the rate of infiltration, Flow of ground water to the i om, ‘a’ height of the drain above the impervious stratum ‘b’ = max height of the drained W.T above the impervious stratum. Assumptions: {iv) Darcy's law is valid () The hydraulic gradient at a distance x from dy 4 the centre of drains & Q -( 2) (ii) Flow lines are parallel and area of flow where Qy is the discharge passing through the section at a distance x from the drain per unit section ata distance ‘x’ from the drain. length of the drain is y x 1. iii) Discharge towards the drain is. inversely Let Qo be the total discharge of each drain proportional to the distance from the drain. per unit length, CARTMAN > sceahed | Debi | Bhopal] Pune | Bisbancwar | Betwalun | Cheial | Vieynada | Viekiapabam | TrupedWhen x = L/2,, the discharge is zero When x = 0, the discharge from each side is 4K(b? - a" Qo 2. It can be derived that, L= ‘The above equation shows that, the spacing of drains is independent of drain size. The Qo will depend upon infiltration into the ground. Commonly the Qn is adopted as 1% of. Ol. In a drainage system closed drains are to be provided with their centers 2 m below the G.L to keep the highest position of W. T 1.7 m below the G. L. The impervious stratum is at a depth of 9.60 m below the G.L. If the average annual rainfall on the area is 85 cm, find the spacing of drains. Assume 1% of the ~seayerage annual rainfall to be drained in 24 ‘hours “and coefficient of permeability as ° 1x10" m/sec. FER ee te [ae Gwe | Wea [To]RIVER TRAINING WORKS A ttver has several stages starting fiom its origin | Components of river training works: to the point of out fall in the sea or ocean. Bank protection Stages of River Flow: The following are the four stages of river flow. 1. Rocky Stage: The portion of the river’ within the steep hilly region is termed as rocky stage. In this stage, the velocity of flow is the cross section is narrow and deg 2. Boulder Stage: when the base of the hilly area, boulder stage. 3. Trough Stage or Alu known as trough 6 Velocity of flow and the width of the river i tiver contains much alluvial dice slope is low. The ‘The water,of the | Marginal embankment (dyke or levee): | The marginal embankment or dyke is an “earthen embankment of trapezoidal section constructed approximately parallel to the bank of (the river to confine the flood water within a _ section between the embankments land. 4, Delta stage: As the ocean, the formation “Guide bank: Guide banks must be constructed on both the approaches to protect the structure from_erosion=It is an earthen embankment with Meandering of river: i In trough stage, the river course take of a serpentile curve du ‘ofte| carved heads on both the ends. shoals in both the banks in a zig-zag manner | As the guide bank was first designed by Bell, itis which is known as meandering of river. sometimes known as Bell’s Bund. The Guide The following are the causes of meandering: bank serves the following purposes. 1. Due to carrying of heavy sediment in the | a) Protects the barrage from the effect of river. scouring and erosion 2. Due to bank erosion unequally b) Provides a straight approach towards the barrage ©) Controls the tendency of changing the course_ ACE Dv AFiate 210 River Training Works TS Spurs: b) Repeling Groyne: A groyne which is ese are temporary structures permeable in aligned towards wpaom at an angle of 60° to nature provided on the curve of a river to protect 5° with the river bank is known as repelling the river bank from erosion. These are projected oe A still water pocket is formed on the - from the river bank towards the bed making upstream where silting takes place ~ angles 60” to 75° with the bank of the river. ©) Deflecting Groyne: Constructed ‘The function of the spurs is to break the velocity ‘perpendicular to the river bank is known as ‘of flow and to form a water pocket on the deflecting groyne. Here the flow of water is upstream side where the sediments get deposited. deflected from the bank by the perpendicular 2 struction i.e. groyne. Groynes: "The function of g groynes is, ifilon spur, But these are’ imp structures constricted on protect the river bank fr from the bank towat angle of 60° to 75° with ., Explain the gauses of meandering and describe the various types of groynes used for river training. | « (IES-2006) by making an’, mw A ies which is | “by making 1gh 75° towards © sate Sattracting 2 ‘The groynes may be desi Dali] Bhopal ane [Batra | Bena | Cha | Wir | Vinten | Tu