Chapter 3 Special Techniques 3.1.2.

Laplace’s Equation in 1D
3.1 Laplace’s Equation: 3.1.1 Introduction
1 Suppose V depends on only one variable, x.
Poisson’s equation: ∇ V =−
2
ρ (r )
ε0 ∂ 2V
=0 ⇒ V ( x) = mx + b
Very often, we are interested in finding the potential in a ∂x 2
region where ρ =0. Two features of this solution:
There may be plenty of charge elsewhere, but we’re
confining our attention to places where there is no charge. 1. Laplace’s equation is a kind of averaging instruction.
1
V ( x) = (V ( x − a) + V ( x + a)) for any a
Laplace’s equation: ∇ V =0
2
2
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 2. Laplace’s equation tolerates no local maxima or minima,
In Cartesian coordinate, + + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 since the second derivative must be zero.
1 2

3.1.3. Laplace’s Equation in 2D Features of Harmonic Function in 2D

Suppose V depends on two variables. 1. The value of V at a point (x, y) is the average of those
∂V ∂V
2 2
a partial differential equation (PDE); around the point.
+ = 0 
∂x 2 ∂y 2 not a ordinary differential equation (ODE). 1
Harmonic functions in two dimensions have the same
V ( x, y ) = ∫ Vd
2πR circle
properties that we noted in one dimension:
2. V has no local maxima or minima. All extrema occur at
the boundaries.

3 4
 3.1.4. Laplace’s Equation in 3D No Local Maxima or Minima in 3D
2. V has no local maxima or minima; the extreme values
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ + = 0 (partial differential equation (PDE)) must occur at the boundaries.
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Ex. For a single point charge q located outside the sphere
In three dimensions we can neither provide you with an of radius R as shown in the figure, find the potential at the
explicit solution nor offer a suggestive physical example to origin.
guide your intuition. Sol: V =
1 q
=
1 q
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
Nevertheless, the same two properties remain true.
1 q R 2 sin θdθdφ
so Vave (r = 0) = ∫
4πR 4πε 0 ( z + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
2 2
1. The value of V at a point r is the average value of V
over a spherical surface of radius R centered at r: 1 q − d cos θ
2 4πε 0 ∫ ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
=

1
V (r ) = ∫ Vda
1 q π
= ( z 2 + R 2 − 2 zR cos θ )1/ 2
2 zR 4πε 0
4πR 2
0

sphere
1 q q
= (( z + R) − ( z − R)) =
5 2 zR 4πε 0 4πε 0 z 6

3.1.5. Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems Boundary Conditions and Uniqueness Theorems

Laplace’s equation does not by itself determine V; a First uniqueness theorem: the solution to Laplace’s
suitable set of boundary conditions must be supplied. equation in some volume is uniquely determined if V is
specified on the boundary surface.
Proof:
What are appropriate boundary conditions, sufficient to Suppose there were two solutions to
determine the answer and yet not so strong as to generate
Laplace's equation : ∇ 2V1 = 0 and ∇ 2V2 = 0
inconsistencies? It is not easy to see.
Their difference is : V3 ≡ V1 − V2 .
This obays Laplace's equation, ∇ 2V3 = 0
For a given set of boundary conditions, is V uniquely Since V3 is zero on all boundaries and
determined? Yes, it is. Î uniqueness theorem Laplace's equation suggests that all extrema
occur on the boundary, so V3 . ⇒ V1 = V2
7 8
 3.1.6. Conductors and the Second Uniqueness
Uniqueness Theorems with Charge Inside
Theorems
ρ ρ
∇ 2V1 = and ∇ 2V2 = . Let V3 ≡ V1 − V2 ⇒ ∇ 2V3 = 0 The simplest way to set the boundary conditions for an
ε0 ε0
electrostatic problem is to specify the value of V on all
Since V3 is zero on all boundaries and Laplace's equation suggests surfaces surrounding the region of interest.
that all extrema occur on the boundary, so V3 = 0. ⇒ V1 = V2
However, in some case we don’t know the potential at the
Corollary: The potential in a volume is uniquely boundaries rather the charges on various conducting
determined if (a) the charge density throughout the region, surfaces. Is the electric field still uniquely determined?
and (b) the value of V on all boundaries, are specified. Î Second uniqueness theorem.

The uniqueness theorem frees your imagination. It doesn’t

matter how you come by your solution; if (a) it satisfies
Laplace’s equation and (b) it has the correct value on the
boundaries, then it is right.
9 10

Second Uniqueness Theorems As before, we examine the difference E3 ≡ E1 − E 2

In a volume surrounded by conductors and containing a which obeys ∇ ⋅ E3 = 0 in the region between the conductors, and
specified charge density, the electric field is uniquely
determined if the total charge on each conductor is given. ∫E 3 ⋅ da = 0 over each boundary surface.
Proof: Although we don' t know how the charge distributes itself over
Suppose there are two solutions :
the conducting surface, we do know that each conductor is an
ρ ρ
∇ ⋅ E1 = and ∇ ⋅ E 2 = equal potential, and hence V3 is a constant.
ε0 ε0
Both obey Gauss' s law in integral form, Invoking product rule, we find that
1 1 ∇ ⋅ (V3E3 ) = V3 (∇ ⋅ E3 ) + E3 ⋅ ∇V3 = -( E3 ) 2
∫ E1 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qi and ∫ E 2 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qi
ith conducting
surface
ith conducting
surface =0
∫ ∇ ⋅ E τ = ∫ 3 3 da = ∫ -( E3 ) dτ = 0
E ⋅ 2
Likewise, for the outer boundary ( (V3 3 )) d (V )
v S v
1 1
∫ E1 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qtot and ∫ E 2 ⋅ da =
ε0
Qtot ∴ E3 = 0 everywhere. Consequently, E1 = E 2 .
outer outer 11 12
boundary boundary
 3.2 The Method of Images: The Image Charge
3.2.1 The Infinite Grounded Conducting Plane
We can easily find a solution which
Suppose a point charge is held a distance d above an infinite satisfies the boundary conditions as in
grounded conducting plane. What is the potential in the the figure.
region above the plane?
The uniqueness theory guarantees that
this case is got to be the right answer.

The potential can then be written down as

1  q q 
V ( x, y , z ) =  − 
4πε 0  x 2 + y 2 + ( z − d ) 2 2
+ 2
+ + 2

The boundary conditions of this case are:  x y ( z d )

1. V = 0 when z = 0 (since the conducting plane is grounded). Can we use this potential to find out the electric field,
2. V → 0 far from the charge. surface charge distribution, and the force? Yes.
13 14

3.2.2 Induced Surface Charge Total Induced Charge

It is straightforward to compute the surface charge σ The total induced charge is (use the polar coordinate)
induced on the conductor.

−1 qd −1 qd
σ= =
∂V ∂V 2π ( x + y + d )
2 2 2 3/ 2
2π (r + d 2 ) 3 / 2
2
σ = −ε 0 = − ε0
∂n ∂z ∞ 2π − 1 qd
Q = ∫ σda = ∫ ∫
z =0
rdrdφ
0 0 2π ( r + d 2 ) 3 / 2
2
−1 −1  2( z − d )q 2( z + d )q 
=  − 2 2 3/ 2 
4π 2  ( x + y + ( z − d ) )
2 2 2 3/ 2
( x + y + ( z + d ) )  z =0
2
∞ − qd qd
∞

=∫ dr 2 = 2 = −q
−1 −1 − 4qd −1 qd 0 2(r + d )
2 2 3/ 2
(r + d 2 )1/ 2
= = 0
4π 2 ( x + y + d )
2 2 2 3/ 2
2π ( x + y 2 + d 2 )3 / 2
2

15 16
 3.2.3 Force and Energy Work and Energy
Consider the work required to bring q in from infinity.
The charge q is attracted toward the plane, because of the
negative induced charge. d d 1q2 1 q2
W = ∫ Fdz = ∫ dz = −
The force and the energy of this system can be analogous ∞ ∞ 4πε 4 z 2 4πε 0 4d
0
to the case of two point charges.
which is half of that of the two point charge system.

1 q2 1 q2 This is because the conducting plane is grounded.

F=− zˆ ; W =−
4πε 0 4d 2 4πε 0 2d If the plane is not grounded, what would happen?

Unlike the two point charges system, there is no field in the

conductor. Handle must be care.

17 18

3.2.4 The Grounded Spherical Conducting Shell Example 3.2 A point charge is situated a distance a from the
center of a grounded conducting sphere of radius R. Find the
Any stationary charge distribution near a grounded conducting potential outside the sphere.
plane can be treated in the same way, by introducing its mirror
image---method of images.

The image charges have opposite sign; this is what

guarantees that the plane will be at potential zero.

Can this method be applied to a curved surface? Yes. Sol : Assume the image charge q′ is placed at a distance b from
the center of the sphere.
Here is an examples. A point charge is situated in front of a It is equipotential on the surface of a grounded sphere.
grounded conducting sphere.
Using two boundary conditions at P1 and P2 .
19 20
 1q′ q  Ex. Two equal conducting spheres with radius R, each
At P1 : (+ ) = 0
4πε 0 R − b a − R  carries a total charge Q and –Q at a distance d from each
1 q′ q  two equations and two unknowns (q′ and b) other. Find the electric field outside the conducting spheres.
At P2 : ( + ) = 0
4πε 0 R + b a + R 
Sol:
R2 R
b= , q′ = − q
a a
The force of attraction between charge and the sphere is
1 qq ′ −1 q 2 Ra
F= =
4πε 0 (a − b) 2 4πε 0 (a 2 − R 2 ) 2

If the sphere is connected to a fixed potential, can this

method still be applied? Yes. Assume the charges are located at the perspective centers.
Using the image charge method, calculate the first level
Just imagine another image charge situated at the center of induced charges. Then, calculated the second level induced
the sphere, which provides a constant potential at the charges, and so on. The series should converges rather fast.
surface. 21 22

3.3 Separation of Variables 3.3.1 Cartesian Coordinates

We shall attack Laplace’s equation directly, using the method
of separation of variables, which is the physicist’s favorite Example 3.3 Two infinite grounded metal plates lies parallel
tool for solving partial differential equations. to the xz plane, one at y=0, and the other at y=a. The left end,
at x=0, is closed off with an infinite strip insulated from the
Applicability: The method is applicable in the circumstances two plates and maintained at a specific potential V0(y). Find
where the potential (V) or the charge density (σ) is specified the potential inside this “slot”.
on the boundaries of some region, and we are asked to the
potential in the interior (where ρ =0).

Laplace’s equation: ∇ 2V = 0
Basic strategy: look for solutions that are products of
functions, each of which depends on only one of the
coordinates.
V ( x, y, z ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
23 24
 Boundary Condition Separation of Variables

The configuration is independent of z, so Laplace’s equation The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
reduces to two dimensions.
V ( x, y ) = X ( x)Y ( y )
∂V ∂V
2 2
+ =0 Substituting into Laplace’s equation, we obtain
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂2 X ∂ 2Y 1 1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
(Y + X = 0) × ⇒ + =0
The potential inside is subject to the boundary conditions. ∂x 2 ∂y 2 XY X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2
The first term depends only on x and the second only on y.
(i) V = 0 when y = 0,
The sum of these two functions is zero, which implies these
(ii) V = 0 when y = a, two functions must both be constant.
(iii) V = V0 ( y ) when x = 0,
1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y
(iv) V → 0 as x → ∞. = C and = −C0
X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2
0

25 26

A Simple Solution A Complete Solution in Fourier Series

Now we have an infinite set of solutions.
Let C0 equal k2, for reasons that will appear in a moment. ∞

1 ∂ X
2 =0 (iv) V ( x, y ) = ∑ Cn e − nπx a sin (nπy a)
= k 2 ⇒ X ( x) = Ae kx + Be − kx n =1
X ∂x 2
Can we use the remaining boundary condition (iii) to
1 ∂ 2Y =0 (i)
= − k 2
⇒ Y ( y ) = C sin ky + D cos ky determine the coefficients Cn? Yes.
Y ∂y 2 ∞

V ( x, y ) = ( Ae + Be
kx − kx
)(C sin ky + D cos ky ) V (0, y ) = ∑ Cn sin (nπy a) = V0 ( y )
n =1

The boundary condition (iv) require A equal zero, and (i) This is a Fourier sine series. Virtually any function V0(y)---
demands that D equal zero. can be expanded in such a series. 這麼神奇!
Meanwhile (ii) yields sin ka = 0, from which it follows that
We can use the so-called “Fourier’s trick” to find out the
nπ coefficients Cn.
k= , n = 1,2,3, … Why not n=0?
a
27 28
 The Fourier Trick A Concrete Example
For a constant potential V0
∞
 0, if n is even
∑C ∫
a a
sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a )dy = ∫ V0 ( y ) sin (n′πy a)dy 2V0 a 2V0
n =1
n
0 0 Cn =
a ∫
0
sin (n′πy a)dy =
nπ
(1 − cos nπ ) =  4V0
 nπ
, if n is odd
The integral on the left is
∞
4V0 1 − nπx a
∫0
a
sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a)dy So V ( x, y ) = ∑
π n =1,3,5,... n
e sin (nπy a )

1 a πy πy 0, if n′ ≠ n
2 ∫0
= (cos(( n − n′) ) − cos(( n + n′) ) dy =  a , if n′ = n
a a  2
2 a
Cn′ = ∫ V0 ( y ) sin (n′πy a)dy
a 0

29 30

Completeness and Orthogonality Rectangular Metal Pipe

The success of this method hinges on two extraordinary
properties, i.e. completeness and orthogonality. Example 3.5 An infinitely long rectangular metal pipe (side a
and b) is grounded, but one end, at z=0, is maintained at a
specified potential V0(y,z), as shown in the figure. Find the
Completeness: If any other function f(y) can be expressed potential inside the pipe.
as a linear combination of a complete function set fn(y):
∞
f ( y ) = ∑ Cn f n ( y )
n =1

Orthogonality: If the integral of the product of any two

different members of the set is zero:
a
∫0
f n ( y ) f n′ ( y )dy = 0 for n′ ≠ n

31 32
 Boundary Condition Separation of Variables
This is a genuinely three-dimensional problem,
The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
∂ 2V ∂ 2V ∂ 2V
+ + =0 V ( x, y, z ) = X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Substituting into Laplace’s equation, we obtain
The potential inside is subject to the boundary conditions. 1 ∂ 2 X 1 ∂ 2Y 1 ∂ 2 Z
+ + =0
(i) V = 0 when y = 0, X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂z 2
(ii) V = 0 when y = a,
It follows that
(iii) V = 0 when z = 0, 1 ∂2 X 1 ∂ 2Y 2 1 ∂ Z
2

(iv) V = 0 when z = b, = (k 2 + 2
), = −k , =− 2

X ∂x 2 Y ∂y 2 Z ∂y 2
(v) V = V0 ( y, z ) when x = 0,
How do we know? Any other possibility?
(vi) V → 0 as x → ∞.
33 34

A Simple Solution A Complete Solution in Fourier Series

=0 (vi)
1 ∂2 X The solution is
= (k 2 + 2 ) ⇒ X ( x) = Ae k + x + Be − k +
2 2 2 2
x

X ∂x 2
−π ( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
V ( x, y, z ) = BCEe sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b),
1 ∂ 2Y =0 (i)
= − k 2 ⇒ Y ( y ) = C sin ky + D cos ky where n and m are unspecified integers.
Y ∂y 2

1 ∂2Z =0 (iii) Completeness: the solution can be written as

=− 2
⇒ Z( z ) = E sin z + F cos z
Z ∂y 2 ∞ ∞
V ( x, y, z ) = ∑∑ Cn ,m e
−π ( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)
Meanwhile (ii) and (iv) yields sin ka = 0 and sin b = 0, n =1 m =1

from which it follows that

Use the boundary condition (v) and the orthogonality to find
nπ mπ out the coefficients Cn,m.
k= , n = 1,2,3, … = , m = 1,2,3, …
a b ∞ ∞
V (0, y, z ) = ∑∑ Cn ,m sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b) =V0 ( y, z )
n =1 m =1
35 36
 The Fourier Trick & Constant Voltage Solution
∞ ∞ Homework #5
∑∑ Cn,m ∫ sin (nπy a) sin (n′πy a)dy ∫ sin (mπz b) sin (m′πz b)dz
a b

0 0
n =1 m =1
a b
=∫ ∫ V ( y, z ) sin (n′πy
0 a ) sin (m′πz a)dydz
0 0

4 a b
ab ∫0 ∫0
Cn ,m = V0 ( y, z ) sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)dydz Problems: 10, 12, 15, 47

If the end of the tube is a conductor at constant potential V0

4V0 2a 2b 16V0
Cn ,m = = if n and m are odd.
ab nπ mπ nmπ 2
=0 if n or m are even.
∞
16V0 1 −π
∑
( an ) 2 + ( mb ) 2 x
V ( x, y , z ) = e sin (nπy a) sin (mπz b)
π 2
n , m =1, 3, 5,… nm
37 38

3.3.2 Spherical Coordinates Separation of Variables

The first step is to look for solutions in the form of products:
For round objects spherical coordinates are more suitable.
In the spherical system, Laplace’s equation reads V (r , θ ) = R(r )Θ(θ )
1 ∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V 1 ∂ 2V Substituting into spherical Laplace’s equation, we obtain
(r )+ 2 (sin θ )+ 2 2 =0
r 2 ∂r ∂r r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r sin θ ∂φ 2 1 ∂ 2 ∂R 1 ∂ ∂Θ
(r )+ (sin θ )=0
R ∂r ∂r Θ sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
We will first treat the problem with azimuthal symmetry,
so that the potential is independent of φ. The first term depends only on r and the second only on θ.
The sum of these two functions is zero, which implies these
∂ 2 ∂V 1 ∂ ∂V
(r )+ (sin θ )=0 two functions must both be constant.
∂r ∂r sin θ ∂θ ∂θ 1 ∂ 2 ∂R 1 ∂ ∂Θ
(r ) = ( + 1), (sin θ ) = − ( + 1)
R ∂r ∂r Θ sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
39 Again, how do we know? Any other possibility? 40
 Simplest Case: A Metal Sphere A Simple Solution & Legendre Polynomials
Example: A metal sphere of radius R, maintains a specified The general solutions for R and Θ are
potential V0. Find the potential outside the sphere.
∂ 2 ∂R 1
Sol: The potential is independent of θ and φ. (r ) = ( + 1) R ⇒ R = Ar + B +1
∂r ∂r r
The Laplace’s equation is: 1 ∂ (r 2 ∂R ) = 0 1 ∂ ∂Θ
R ∂r ∂r (sin θ ) = − ( + 1)Θ The solutions are not simple.
A ∂R A sin θ ∂θ ∂θ
R= +B ⇒ =− 2
r ∂r r The solutions are Legendre polynomials in the variable cosθ.
2 ∂R ∂ 2 ∂R
r = −A ⇒ (r )=0 Θ(θ ) = P (cosθ )
∂r ∂r ∂r
1 The polynomials is most conveniently defined by the
R(r = R0 ) = A + B = V0 ∴ B = 0 ( lim V = 0)
R0 r →∞ Rodrigues formula (generating function):
R 1 d
V (r ) = V0 0 P ( x) = ( ) ( x 2 − 1)
r 2 ! dx
41 42

Rodrigues Formula
d 1 d ( x 2 − 1)
Prove: P ( x) = ) ( x 2 − 1) , x =cosθ
( Let k = and u = v ( ) = = P (cos θ )(2 !)
2 ! dx dx
1 ∂ ∂P (cos θ ) ∴ (1 − x 2 )u ′′ − 2 xu ′ + ( + 1)u = 0
where (sin θ ) = − ( + 1) P (cos θ )
sin θ ∂θ ∂θ d 2 P (cos θ ) dP (cos θ )
Sol: ⇒ (1 − cos θ )
2
2
− 2x + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) = 0
dx dx
Let v = ( x 2 − 1)
v′ = 2 x( x 2 − 1) −1 × ( x 2 -1) dP (cos θ ) dP (cos θ ) dθ 1 dP (cos θ )
⇒ (1 − x 2 )v′ + 2 xv = 0 = =−
dx dθ dx sin θ dθ
d 2 P (cos θ ) d 1 dP (cos θ ) 1
= (− )(− )
(1 − x 2 )v′′ − 2 xv′ + 2 xv′ + 2 v = 0 dx 2
dθ sin θ dθ sin θ
(1 − x 2 )v′′ + 2( − 1) xv′ + 2 v = 0 1 d 2 P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
= − 3
(1 − x 2 )v′′′ + 2( − 2) xv′′ + 2(2 − 1)v′ = 0 sin 2 θ dθ 2 sin θ dθ
(1 − x 2 )v ( k + 2) + 2( − k − 1) xv ( k +1) + (k + 1)(2 − k )v ( k ) = 0
43 44
 Properties of Legendre Polynomials
1 d P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
2
(1 − cos 2 θ )[ − 3 ] The first few Legendre polynomials are listed
sin 2 θ dθ 2 sin θ dθ
1 dP (cos θ )
− 2 cos θ [− ] + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) P ( x) : an th - order polynomial in x
sin θ dθ
d 2 P (cos θ ) cos θ dP (cos θ )
= + + ( + 1) P (cos θ )
dθ 2 sin θ dθ
1 d dP (cos θ )
= (sin θ ) + ( + 1) P (cos θ ) = 0
sin θ dθ dθ Completeness: The Legendre polynomials constitute a
complete set of function, on the interval -1<x<1.
Orthogonality: The polynomials are orthogonal functions:
1 d (cos 2 θ − 1) 1 π
∴ P (cos θ ) =
2 ! dx
∫ −1
P ( x) P ′ ( x)dx = ∫ P (cos θ ) P ′ (cos θ ) sin θdθ
0

 0 if ′ ≠
= 2
, if ′ =
45  2 + 1 46

A Complete Solution in Legendre Polynomials Example 3.6 The potential V0(θ)=V0sin2(θ/2) is specified on
the surface of a hollow sphere, of radius R. Find the potential
The Rodrigues formula generates only one solution. What inside the sphere.
and where are other solutions?
Sol: In this case Bι=0 for all ι---otherwise the potential would
These ”other solutions” blow up at θ=0 and/or θ=π, are
blow up at the origin. Thus,
therefore unacceptable on physical grounds.
∞ ∞
V (r ,θ ) = ∑ A r P (cosθ ) → V ( R,θ ) = ∑ A R P (cosθ )
=0 =0
1
V (r , θ ) = ( Ar + B ) P (cosθ ) 2 +1 1 π
r +1 A =
2 R ∫0
V ( R, θ ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
The general solutions is the linear combination of separable 2 +1 1 π θ
solutions.
∞
=
2 R ∫ V sin 2 ( ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
0 0 2
1
V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( Ar + B ) P (cosθ ) 2 +1 1 πV

=0 r +1 =
2 R ∫0 20 (1 − cos θ ) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ
2 +1 1 πV
47
=
2 R ∫0 20 ( P0 (cos θ ) − P1 (cos θ )) P (cosθ ) sin θ dθ 48
 Example 3.8 An uncharged metal
2 +1 1 π V0 sphere of radius R is placed in an
A =
2 R ∫
0 2
( P0 (cos θ ) − P1 (cos θ )) P (cos θ ) sin θ dθ otherwise uniform electric field E = E0 zˆ
Find the potential in the region outside
1  0 if ′ ≠ the sphere.
∫−1 P ( x ) P ′ ( x ) dx =  2
 2 + 1
, if ′ =
Sol: The sphere is an equipotential---we may as well set it to
zero.
The potential is azimuthal symmetric and by symmetry the
entire xy plane is at potential zero.
V0
A0 = In addition, the potential is not zero at large z.
V0  r 
2 ⇒ V (r ,θ ) = 1 − R cos θ  Boundary conditions are:
V 2
A1 = − 0
2R (i) V = 0 when r = R,
(ii) V → − E0 r cos θ for r >> R.
49 50

∞ 3.4 Multiple Expansion

V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( A r + B r − ( +1)
) P (cos θ ) 3.4.1 Approximate Potential at Large Distance
=0
∞ If you are very far from a localized charge distribution, it
B.C. (i): V ( R,θ ) = ∑ ( A R + B R − ( +1)
) P (cos θ ) = 0 “looks” like a point charge, and the potential is---to good
=0
+1 approximation—(1/4πε0)Q/r, where Q is the total charge.
⇒ B = A R2
∞
But what if Q is zero?
B.C. (ii): V (r ,θ ) = ∑ ( A r ) P (cos θ ) = − E0 r cos θ Develop a systematic expansion for the potential of an
=0
arbitrary localized charge distribution, in powers of 1/r.
⇒ A1 = − E0 , all other A are zero.
1 1
R 3 V (r ) =
4πε 0 ∫ r − r′ ρ (r′)dτ ′
V (r , θ ) = − E0 (r − ) cos θ
r2 Using the law of cosines,
R3
E r = R = −∇V = E0 (1 + 2 3 ) cos θrˆ = 3E0 cos θrˆ 1 1 Note, for simplicity,
R =
r − r′ (r + (r ′) − 2rr ′ cos θ ′)
2 2 r =rzˆ
σ (θ ) = ε 0 (3E0 cos θrˆ )rˆ = 3ε 0 E0 cos θ
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 Large Distance Approximation Legendre Polynomials & Multiple Expansion
1 1 r′ r′
1 1 1 = (1 + ( ) cos θ ′ + ( ) 2 ((3 cos 2 θ ′ − 1) / 2) + …)
= = (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 r − r′ r r r
r − r′ (r + (r ′) − 2rr ′ cos θ ′ r
2 2

1 ∞ r′
r′ r′
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′)
= ∑ ( ) P (cosθ ′)
r =0 r
Taylor’s expansion
r r 1 ∞
r′
1 1 1 3 5 V (r ) = ∫
4πε r
∑ ( r ) P (cosθ ′) ρ (r′)dτ ′ This is the desired result.
(1 + ε ) −1/ 2 = (1 − ε + ε 2 − ε 3 + …), if ε << 1 0 =0
r r 2 8 16 1 ∞
1
So
1 1
= (1 −
1 r′ r′ 3 r′ r′
( − 2 cos θ ′) + ( ( − 2 cos θ ′)) 2
=
4πε r
∑ r ∫ (r ′)
=0
P (cos θ ′) ρ (r′)dτ ′
r − r′ r
0
2r r 8 r r
1 1 
5 r′ r′ 1 r  ∫ ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 2 ∫ r ′ cos θ ′ρ (r′)dτ ′ 
− ( ( − 2 cos θ ′))3 + …) or more exolicity,V (r ) = 
r

16 r r 4πε 0  1
(r ′) ( cos θ ′ − 1) ρ (r′)dτ ′ + …
3
 r 3 ∫
+ 2 2
1 r′ r′ 2 
= (1 + ( ) cos θ ′ + ( ) 2 ((3 cos 2 θ ′ − 1) / 2) + …)
r r r
53
The multiple expansion of V in power of 1/r. 54

Legendre Polynomials & Multiple Expansion

Dipoles
V (r ) What is dipole? The arrangement of a pair of
1 1 1 1 3 equal and opposite charges separated by
= ( ∫ ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 2 ∫ r ′ cos θ ′ρ (r′)dτ ′ + 3 ∫ (r ′) 2 ( cos 2 θ ′ − 1) ρ (r′)dτ ′ + …)
4πε 0 r r r 2 some distance is called an electric dipole.

Permanent dipole: such as molecules of HCl, CO, and H2O.

Induced dipole: An electric field may also induce a charge

separation in an atom or a nonpolar molecule.

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Example 3.10 A electric dipole consists of
The Electric Field of a Dipole
two equal and opposite charges separated
1 qd cos θ 1 rˆ ⋅ p p cos θ Why?
by a distance d. Find the approximate V (r ) = = =
potential at points far from the dipole. 4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2 Just a convention.
where P = qd ↑ pointing form negative charge to the positive charge.
Sol:
q 1 1 q p 2 cos θ sin θ
V (r ) = ( − )= ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) E = −∇V (r ) = (− rˆ + 2 θˆ + 0φˆ )
4πε 0 r− 2 z r+ 2 z
d ˆ d ˆ
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r 3
r
r′ r′ d r′ =
p
(−2 cos θrˆ + r sin θθˆ )
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′) ≅ cos θ (if << 1, so θ ′ ≅ θ ) 4πε 0 r 3
r r r r
q
V (r ) = ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 )
4πε 0 r
q d 1 qd cos θ
= ( cos θ ) =
4πε 0 r r 4πε 0 r2

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Some Important Properties of Dipole

Field due to a dipole:

Homework #6
p = Qd (- → + )
Problems: 19, 26, 37, 49

Torque in a uniform field:

τ = p×E

Potential energy:

U = −p ⋅ E
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