Impact of Cargo Loading on Bulk Carriers

John E. Kokarakis1), Gijsbert de Jong2)

1)
Bureau Veritas, Greece, [email protected]
2)
Bureau Veritas, France, [email protected]

Abstract

Harmonization of bulk cargo loading and de-ballasting rates in today’s fast paced terminals is a
prerequisite for a safe and efficient operation. Ship and terminal partnership can achieve safe and high
performance cargo loading and discharge. Incorporation of design criteria to improve loading
efficiency is necessary. The safety record of loading at high rates remains unblemished.

1. Introduction rate is one over two. The problem of high

loading rates has been escalated with the
The insatiable appetite of developing countries increased demand for commodities and the
for iron ore and coal has placed high demands commercial pressure to maximize terminal
for fast loading and discharging of bulk throughput. In recent years ship owners have
carriers. Tough market conditions impose increasingly reported pressure to load vessels
intense operational demands on the bulk at high rates in a compressed time frame. High
carriers which transport 30% of the world’s rates of loading were identified as a risk factor
ocean cargo. In particular, iron ore and coal during the revision of bulk carrier regulations
cargoes present high physical demands on the in the late 1990s leading to the publication of
ship structure. Terminals, ship owners and International Association of Classification
class societies share responsibility to minimize Societies (IACS) and International Maritime
risk in bulk carrier operations. Many bulk Organization (IMO) guidance. The challenge
carriers can lead particularly demanding today is ensuring international regulations and
working lives. Cargo grabs, bulldozers and guidance are adhered to.
hydraulic hammers may cause physical
damage to plating, frames and brackets. In Terminals demand vessels with high ballasting
loading ports where the cargo delivery rate is and de-ballasting capacity. Vessels which do
high, the inability to pump out ballast water not comply are excluded. The design criteria of
sufficiently fast may result in the hull being a modern bulk carrier should include loading
over-stressed. High density cargoes give little flexibility, even at low draughts, in order to
or no internal support to the (inner) sides of the facilitate compliance with increased demands
cargo holds, thereby magnifying the effects of for speed of loading and unloading. Terminals
panting. The scouring effect of abrasive and ask for light ballast, about 60% of the normal
corrosive cargoes may cause hold coatings to ballast in order to accelerate loading as
deteriorate rapidly. depicted in Figures 1 and 2. Light ballast might
be associated with inadequate maneuverability
and stability. Given that light ballast is
associated with aft trim in order to facilitate
de-ballasting; maneuvering becomes more
critical (BMT, 2008).

Fig. 1: Loading in Terminal

Loading rates as high as 16,000 tones per hour

are not uncommon, limited mostly by the de-
ballasting capacity of the vessel. A typical
proportion between de-ballasting and loading Fig. 2: Terminal Uploaders

1
The tools available to the master to monitor the and carbon monoxide. Readings should be
accuracy and adequacy of the loading of his taken at least daily and if possible at the same
ship are the on-board loading instrument, the time. The oxygen level in the hold will fall
loading and unloading sequence manual, and from an initial 21% over a period of days to
possibly a real-time stress monitoring. In stabilize at levels of the order of 6-15% in a
addition, a draught survey towards the end of sealed hold. If the oxygen level does not fall
loading process might be a critical verification below 20% or rapidly increase after an initial
tool. This study looks into the problems fall, it is possible that the hold is inadequately
associated with the cargo loading of bulk sealed and is at risk of spontaneous
carriers from the viewpoint of loading rate, combustion. A rapid increase of carbon
accuracy and number of pours, as well as monoxide by about 1000 ppm per day is
operational aspects. The main particulars of another risk indicator, in particular if it is
bulk cargo loading are analyzed and checklist- accompanied by an increase in methane levels.
type recommendations are presented. The temperature in a brown coal briquette
cargo in a well sealed hold normally remains at
2. Special Precautions for Various Bulk 5-10 degrees C above sea water temperature
Cargoes due to diurnal breathing of small air quantities.
A rapid increase of about 20 degrees over 24
Bulk carriers are transporting a wide variety of hours is evidence of spontaneous combustion.
cargoes. It is necessary to understand the Coal dust also tends to ignite with sparks or
characteristics of each commodity. The bulk heat sources. The remedy is to keep coal
cargo diversity, although commercially highly dampened down. On the other hand excessive
attractive, imposes a wide variety of wetting causes cargo shifting at sea (bulk cargo
operational and equipment requirements on the liquefaction). Coal ventilation should be
vessel. directed at the surface area only. Moreover,
coal with high sulphur content is liable to
Materials like grain have peculiar create sulphuric acid from the reaction with
characteristics and loading requirements. The water carried by sweat. Sweat is formed when
need to control vermin and dust requires the water vapor in the air condenses into water
special consideration. Dust also becomes a droplets following air cooling below its dew
serious hazard as the dust from most grains, point. The acid will corrode the side shell and
particularly hard grains like red sorghum, frames.
when mixed with air in the right proportion
becomes an extremely explosive mixture. Granular materials have void spaces caused by
Grains are liable to heat and/or sweat, irregular shape of the particles. These void
especially if damp, when they may germinate spaces may be filled with air and/or water.
or rot. Grains having angles of repose of less When cargo with moisture is carried at sea,
than the critical 35 degrees are prone to cargo particles compress the void spaces and
shifting at sea (stability issue). pressurize any free water present in the spaces
(pore water pressure). Moisture may also be
released from the mineral structure of some
types of cargo, increasing the amount of free
water in the cargo and therewith the pore water
pressure. If the pore pressure is high, it might
overcome the friction forces which bind the
individual particles of material. Then, the shear
strength of the cargo falls to the point where
liquefaction occurs. The cargo becomes a
viscous fluid with the ability to flow with
detrimental effect on the ship stability.

In this respect it is important to refer to the

International Maritime Safety Bulk Cargo
Fig. 3: Steel Coil Securing Code (IMSBC Code), which was adopted by
IMO in December 2008, (IMO, 2008), through
In case of coal cargo, under no circumstances Resolution MSC. 268(85) and addresses the
should the hatches be opened or the hold special hazards associated with solid cargoes in
ventilated or entered during the voyage. The bulk when they are shipped: structural damage
atmosphere above the coal cargo should be due to improper cargo distribution, liquefaction
monitored for the presence of methane, oxygen of cargo (causing loss of stability during the

2
voyage) and chemical reaction of cargoes. The
IMSBC Code, which serves to facilitate the 3. Loading
safe stowage and shipment of solid bulk
cargoes by giving information on the possible The submitted loading plan should provide the
dangers and instructions on carriage following information before commencement
procedures, will enter into force as a of the loading operation:
mandatory regulation on 1 January 2011, and • Cargo characteristics, amounts and
will effectively replace today’s voluntary BC properties;
Code. • Characteristics of loading/unloading
equipment, number, range of movement and
Steel cargoes can be split into products that are loading/unloading rates;
packed or wrapped, like steel coils, and those • Depth of water alongside the pier;
that are not, like for example steel beams,
• Water density at berth and any air draught
angles and plates. The steel cargoes have to be
restrictions;
well ventilated and kept dry before loading.
• Maximum sailing draught and minimum
Wet cargo in the holds increases humidity in
draught for safe maneuvering;
the air and vapor pressure. It leads therefore to
moisture damage to cargo. Hatch covers and • Conveyor belt delivery amount beyond ship
all other deck openings should be closed to stoppage signal;
stop any rain getting into the holds. Care • Terminal requirements for moving ship;
should also be taken not to load incompatible • Relevant port restrictions on bunkering and
cargoes such as chemicals, fertilizers, sulphur- de-ballasting.
bearing or hygroscopic materials in the same
compartment as steel cargo. The amount and type of cargo will dictate the
stowage plan. Ballasting/de-ballasting should
Steel coil loading assessment involves be enacted simultaneously on symmetrical
longitudinal hull girder strength in intact and port-starboard tanks to prevent undesirable
flooded conditions, as well as inner bottom torsion effects. The plan should provide at each
plating and stiffener local strength. Coil cargo step:
shown on Figure 3, typically results in very • Cargo quantity per hold;
large bending moments following flooding • Amount of water ballast per tank;
according to UR S17, given that a large mass • Draughts at completion of each step;
of water will ingress into the hold. The coil • SWSF and SWBM at each step;
loading conditions are controlling the design • Time for completion of the step
with regard to compliance with the UR S17 • Assumed de-ballasting and loading rates;
requirements. Utilization of dunnages will give • Allowances for any operation stoppages.
rise to a patch load type on the double bottom
structure. As the load is not uniformly The crew need to plan and monitor the rate of
distributed, the coil loading capacity cannot be loading, the weight of cargo to be loaded and
found by simply multiplying the tank top area how it is to be measured, any vessel shifts that
by the allowable inner bottom (tank top) load will be necessary and draught surveys to
(t/m2). The patch loading pattern of the coils is confirm the weight of cargo loaded. Crew must
similar in nature to the loads exerted by wheels also ensure that the vessel is safe at the
on ro-ro ships. Sometimes dunnages are placed intermediate stages of loading. A key issue
on steel billets spanning two adjacent floors with loading rates is the number of passes
and dunnages are placed directly above floors. made during the operation. The number of
That way the load will not be transmitted on passes is reported in the loading plan. A large
the inner bottom plate and stiffeners. It will be number of passes minimizes the potential for
directly carried by the primary grillage overloading at the expense of more time
structure of the double bottom. The design is in needed to complete the operation. Ballast tanks
general dictated by the length and weight of must be sounded to verify content and
the coils, the number of dunnages to be used ballasting/de-ballasting rate. Loading practices,
for each coil as well as the number of tiers of when carried out according to an accurate
coils typically ranging from one to three. It is loading plan, do not seriously affect the ship
noted that the type of dunnages, e.g. steel or safety. On the opposite, unloading with the
wood, is not critical as opposed to their employment of heavy grabs and bull-dozers, is
number supporting a coil. The CSR rules a contributing factor to the ship structural
promulgate that use of more than 5 dunnages is damage. Hatch coamings, bulkheads and the
equivalent to a uniform distributed load (IACS, lower brackets of main frames are prone to
2008). damages. The repeated impact of a 35 ton grab

3
must be inevitably endured. As a considerable ballasting the corresponding ballast tank No 3
amount of cargo is unreachable by the grab, a before loading of cargo hold No 3, the
bulldozer is lowered into the hold to move the corresponding shear force maxima fall down to
bulk cargo from the outer parts of the hold into 95% and 125%, as depicted on Figure 5.
the area which is accessible to the Another study considers the effect of a 5
grab/discharging equipment. This is a time- minute “worth” of cargo overshoot on the
consuming and costly operation. bending moments and shear forces. Figure 6
depicts the shear force increase in the
Cargo should not be loaded high against one condition with the overloaded cargo hold No 3.
hold bulkhead or one side and low against the
other (uneven distribution). In general, each
hold should be loaded using at least two
separate pours per hold, as only few ships have
been designed for single pass loading. An
accurate record of the mass loaded in each
pour into each hold should be maintained by
the terminal. Sudden increases in the loading
rates, potentially causing significant
overloading, should be avoided. Pour means
the quantity of cargo entered into the hold
through one hatch opening within one step of
the loading plan, i.e. from the time the spout is
positioned over a hatch opening until it is Fig. 4: Bending Moments and Shear Forces after a
moved to another hatch opening. Trimming the single pour in Hold No 3
cargo is the partial or total leveling of the
cargo within the holds by means of loading
sprouts or chutes, portable machinery
equipment or manual labor. The trimming to
the boundaries of the cargo space minimizes
the risk of cargo shifting at sea. On the other
hand, trimming the ship is the adding, removal
or shifting of weight in a ship to achieve the
required forward and aft draughts.

Loading steps are the cargo/ballast

configurations in which one or a group of
holds have been loaded or unloaded, with an
adequate ballast pattern to ensure that shear Fig. 5: Effect of De-ballasting Synchronization
forces and bending moments remain within
permissible harbor limits. A loading sequence
is a succession of loading steps. The sequence
is built up step by step from commencement of
cargo loading to reaching full deadweight
capacity. A next step is starting each time the
loading equipment changes position to a new
hold. Each step is to be documented and
submitted to the class society for review. In
addition to the longitudinal strength, the local Fig. 6: Effect of a 5 minute overshoot at 16000 t/h
strength at each hold needs to be considered.
The target is to utilize two pours and two trim The quantity of cargo to be trimmed into the
pours for all cargoes and not only for the high fore and aft holds should be delivered exactly
density ones. Utilization of one pour per hold as required to ensure that the ship will be able
might be detrimental from the standpoint of to depart from the load port and proceed to and
longitudinal strength, as indicated in the arrive at its unloading port safely and with the
example presented on Figure 4. In this case required under keel clearance. During all
loading of hold No 3 of a capesize bulk carrier stages of loading it is crucial to keep the cargo
in a single pour results in exceeding the level to maintain stability. As the hold is filled,
allowable limits for the shear force (124% at machines such as excavators and bulldozers
the forward bulkhead and 145% at the aft are often used to keep the cargo in check.
bulkhead, respectively). In case of de- Leveling is particularly important when the

4
hold only is partially filled, due to increased berths, limitations on draught, air draught and
risk of cargo shifting. trim can result in increased stress conditions
during loading and discharging (e.g. due to
In order to safely load the ship, the loading loading aground). The inability to adequately
sequence pour by pour must be such as to trim cargo may result in uneven cargo
ensure that strength and stability requirements distribution or list which requires additional
are met at all times during the process. To this ballast to correct. The accuracy of the draught
end the (approved) loading instrument can be survey depends on the accuracy of the data.
used in addition to the (approved) loading The draught marks should be read with an
manual to check draught & trim, still water accuracy of no less than 1 cm. The density of
bending moment & shear force and cargo the sea water is to be measured as accurately as
weight in each hold during intermediate possible. The quantity of ballast water is to be
loading stages. Key points to be taken into checked by sounding all ballast tanks and void
account are the cargo loading rate and de- spaces. The density of ballast water needs to be
ballasting flow rate. In order to prevent measured as well. The full set of fuel
exceedance of strength and stability soundings is also necessary. At least two
requirements as a result of the occurrence of draught surveys are made before beginning the
deviations during the loading process, it is loading sequence, as well as after finishing it.
recommended to keep a safe margin to the Several intermediate draught surveys are also
allowable limits when planning the loading to be performed. The second survey is
sequence pour by pour. In addition it is generally placed at the end of a pour
recommended, that the vessel condition is not simultaneously with the complete end of the
assessed only at the start and the end of a step ballast sequence and after completing the
but also at intermediate times during the step to stripping. It can be used to check the accuracy
ensure that the limits are not exceeded. In of the weighing equipment ashore. The ship is
principle, the above remarks are also valid for to have trim by the stern to facilitate stripping.
unloading, although the duration of unloading The displacement is computed on the basis of
is usually much larger than for loading, which certain corrections, due to the location of the
provides additional reaction time to draught marks, the deflection of the ship (as a
unexpected events. beam), the trim of the vessel and the density of
the seawater. It is advisable that the
In order to ensure safe and efficient loading displacement computation from the draught
with the minimum number of hatch changes, measurements is computerized.
there are details relating to the operation of the
ship that need to be taken into consideration. The loading efficiency of the ship is a complex
These include the vessel’s buoyancy at the function of loading rate, number of pours,
wharf (depends on the density and temperature vessel strength and de-ballasting capacity
of the ocean at that location), whether the ship (main and stripping). The average loading rate
is part-loaded, in ballast or lightship condition, is defined as the total cargo loaded divided by
the ship’s loading plan, the loading rate versus the elapsed time from start to finish. The
ballast discharge rate, as well as the number nominal loading rate indicates the capacity of
and position of holds to be loaded. An the individual ship loader. Number of pours
important factor is the order in which the holds indicates how often a hold is touched in the
are loaded. The shear force imposed on the process. Synchronization means that de-
hull must be correctly managed to avoid ballasting should finish before the end of the
failure. It is necessary to stage loading to loading.
distribute the stresses as evenly as possible.
The recommendation by IMO to fit Hull 4. Terminal and Ship Interaction
Strength Monitoring devices can improve the
loading operation. Monitoring utilizes sensors Bulk terminals and bulk carriers are
and processors to display real-time information interdependent. They share mutual concerns
to the officer-in-charge of the loads the ship regarding safety and efficiency. The ship/shore
experiences during loading and unloading. interface should be governed by a partnership
spirit and not an adversarial one.
In some ports the quantity of cargo loaded is Understanding bulk carrier design and
determined by draught survey. This method is operating limits – and working closely together
subject to significant errors and may result in – ship and shore personnel become partners for
overloading. Many terminals now handle safer shipping. Terminal and ship need to agree
vessels substantially larger than the original and follow procedures prior to the ship’s
design of the berth and its equipment. At such arrival. Information needs to be exchanged

5
between the ship and the terminal. Procedures requirement for the terminal to check the
regulate the communication and information suitability of a vessel to its facilities before it
exchange between the ship and the terminal arrives. Such requirement is indirectly
also after arrival and prior to commencement connected with terminal liability and has
of the cargo loading/unloading. pushed terminals towards vetting inspections,
similar to the ones of Rightship, prior to
Optimized loading modes by terminals result accepting a candidate ship.
in increased loading rates. As a consequence of
the high loading rates the de-ballasting flow The ship officer-in-charge should submit the
rate needs to be high as well. Therefore, both proposed loading/unloading plan to the cargo
the cargo loading as well as the de-ballasting terminal representative at the earliest
operations need to be closely monitored and opportunity. The loading plan should include
any deviations need to be readily recognized in considerations of the loading sequence to
order to enable timely mitigation of the manage hull girder strength and stability,
potential consequences. If a slower rate of de- ballast operations (again for strength and
ballasting decelerates or even stops the loading stability reasons) and any inspections to be
operation, the time lost does not count as lay- completed and the loading rates and levels.
time. Vessels are typically permitted only one SOLAS Ch VI, Part B, Regulation 7 dictates
de-ballasting stop. If they exceed their de- that the loading plan is lodged with the Port
ballasting time by more than four hours, they State Control authorities. The terminal must
may not be accepted by the terminal in the provide the officer-in-charge with the loaded
future. cargo mass at frequent intervals and at the end
of each pour. The draught checking must be
It is clear that the human element is critical in implemented through an agreed procedure. The
this process. Well trained staff, effective use of operation can commence after the Master
the loading instrument, careful control of the receives from the local maritime authorities a
cargo loading equipment process and good Certificate of Readiness. He always has the
communication between ship and shore are right to stop the operation if he has reasons not
essential. There are several key junctures in the to be satisfied.
process where the human element may be
addressed. The crew and shore personnel need If there is a deviation from the loading plan the
to understand the properties of the cargo being officer-in-charge should take corrective actions
loaded for example. The cargo will dictate the to restore the original plan. Cargo operations
extra precautions, structural capacity and should not be resumed until the modified plan
stowage and trimming requirements. Loading is agreed between the officer-in-charge and the
operations contribute to damage and terminal representative. Sometimes terminal
overloading when they are accompanied by may alter the submitted loading plans to
poor communications between the ship’s crew accommodate their own operational
and terminal staff. requirements. In June 2000, the
“ALGOWOOD” buckled, while loading sand
Recognizing that a number of accidents had and aggregates at Bruce Mines, Ontario in
occurred as a result of improper loading and Canada. The operation followed a
unloading of bulk carriers the IMO adopted the predetermined sequence, which was modified
Code of Practice for the Safe Loading and in the field, when the vessel was unable to shift
Unloading of Bulk Carriers (the BLU Code) as far aft in the berth as called for. Later
with Resolution A.862 (20) in 1997 (IMO, studies confirmed that the bending moment at
1997); this was followed by MSC/Circ.1160 the time of failure was 2.3 times the allowable
Manual on Loading and Unloading of Solid SWBM (TSBC, 2000).
Bulk Cargoes for Terminal Representatives in
2005 (IMO, 2005). The purpose of the BLU In order to meet the terminal instructions a ship
Code is to assist persons responsible for the must come alongside with ‘bare minimum’
safe loading or unloading of bulk carriers to ballast. Typically, this results in a condition
carry out their functions and to promote the representing approximately 60% of the normal
safety of bulk carriers. It applies to the loading ballast condition in the loading manual, with a
and unloading of solid bulk cargoes to or from corresponding large trim, less than 100%
bulk carriers of more than 500 gross tonnage. propeller immersion and high windage area.
It does not apply to ships which are not bulk Under these conditions, there is increased
carriers by definition, ships carrying grain and difficulty in swinging the vessel at low speeds
ships which are being loaded using shipboard due to the increased windage area and a
equipment only. The BLU Code contains a worsened turning performance due to the

6
reduced turning levers from the large stern trim drafts, lack of tugs and main engine
as shown comparatively on Figure 7, (BMT, immobilization are factors which may prevent
2008). With large stern trim the hydrodynamic a vessel to leave at short notice. Nevertheless
pivot point moves aft and the turning lever is the method of emergency un-berthing should
reduced. The reduction in rudder area be agreed in advance. If emergency lines are
combined with the reduced capability of the needed, the terminal should be aware of their
propeller also reduces the steering forces that position and method of securing.
the rudder can apply. The efficiency of the 4) Is there safe access between the ship and
emergency fire pump is also severely tested the wharf?
under light ballast conditions. All of these The means of access between ship and wharf
factors serve to reduce the maneuverability, must be safe and readily available. They
and hence safety, of the ship. should consist of a gangway or
accommodation ladder with a safety net
underneath it. Access equipment must be
supervised due to changing drafts during the
operation. The gangway/ladder should not be
under the path of cargo being transferred. It
should also be well illuminated and equipped
with a lifebuoy with a heaving line nearby.
5) Is the agreed communications system
between ship and terminal operative?
Communication must be maintained between
the responsible officer on board and the
terminal representative ashore. The selected
system of communication, as well as the
language to be used, phone numbers and/or
Fig. 7: Comparison of Turning Performance radio channels have to be recorded in the
checklist.
5. Checklist for Loading Process 6) Are the liaison contact persons during
operations clearly identified?
1) Is the depth of water at the berth and the Effective communication between ship and
air draught adequate for the cargo operations terminal is absolutely necessary. The names of
to be completed? the persons of authority and their mode of
The depth of water should be well established contact need to be recorded in the checklist.
over the whole area the ship will reside. The 7) Are adequate crew on board and adequate
terminal must be well aware of the vessel’s air staff in the terminal for emergency?
draught requirements. If the loaded draught Sufficient crew is needed in order to deal
presents a marginal under-keel clearance, the adequately with a potential emergency. The
Master needs to confirm the safety of his signals to be used in such an event, either
vessel. The terminal usually provides ashore or on board, should be clear to all
information on the density of the water at the parties involved.
berth site. Air draught is the distance between 8) Have any bunkering operations been
the water surface and the upper extremity of advised and agreed?
the ship (for example, the tip of an antenna). It Bunkering should be coordinated with the
is critical to determine if the ship can pass cargo operations and terminal agreement needs
under a bridge or to assess the height required to be confirmed.
under the loaders or unloaders. 9) Have any intended repairs to wharf or ship
2) Are mooring arrangements adequate for while alongside been advised and agreed?
all local effects of tide, current, weather, Hot work from welding, burning or flame
traffic and craft alongside? operations may require a hot work permit and
Adequate fendering arrangements should be possibly a gas free certificate in the case of
provided. The ship has to be well secured in OBO carriers. Even if hot work is not planned,
her moorings. Mooring lines must be kept taut. work on deck might impede the operation.
Attention should be given to the movement of 10) Has a procedure for reporting and
ship caused by tides, currents, passing ships or recording damage from cargo operations
by the operation in progress. been agreed?
3) In an emergency is the ship able to leave Accumulation of damages on the steel work of
the berth at any time? the vessel leads to loss of strength and needs to
The ship should be able to move on its own at be documented for prompt repair.
short notice. Low tides, excessive trim or

7
11) Has the ship been provided with copies of and mass of cargo to be transferred each time
port and terminal regulations including safety the hold is worked?
and pollution requirements and details of This information needs to be communicated in
emergency services? a clear methodical and orderly manner.
A fact sheet containing this information should 17) Has the need for trimming of cargo in the
be passed to the ship on arrival and should holds been discussed and the method and
include any local regulations controlling the extend been agreed?
discharge of ballast water, if any. Usually spout trimming is employed with
12) Has the shipper provided the Master with satisfactory results. Bulldozers, front-end
the properties of the cargo in accordance with loaders, deflector blades, trimming machines
the requirements of Chapter VI of SOLAS? or even manual trimming can be also utilized.
The ship needs to know the grade of cargo, The extend of trimming depends on the nature
particle size, quantity to be loaded, stowage of the cargo.
factor and moisture content of the cargo. The 18) Do both ship and terminal understand
BC Code and its mandatory continuator the and accept that if the ballast/de-ballast
IMSBC Code provide guidance on these operation is not synchronized with the cargo
aspects. The ship should be also appraised of operation, it will be necessary to suspend
any material which may contaminate or react cargo operations to remedy the situation?
with the cargo and ensure that the holds are The target is to load or discharge the cargo
free of such material. possibly without any stops. This is, however, a
13) Is the atmosphere safe in holds and case of potential overstressing of the hull if the
enclosed spaces to which access may be ballast/de-ballast operation is out of step. If the
required, have fumigated cargoes been maximum permissible loading rate of the ship
identified and has the need for monitoring of is lower than the capacity of the terminal, it
atmosphere been agreed by ship and may be necessary to include pauses in the
terminal? cargo operation or to ask the terminal to
Steel rusting, potential spontaneous ignition in operate their equipment at less than the
coal cargoes and other phenomena may cause a maximum capacity. In case of very cold
hazardous atmosphere in the hold. Oxygen weather the possibility of frozen ballast lines
depletion in the holds, fumigation gas needs to be factored in.
transferred with the cargo and leaking out of 19) Have the intended procedures for
the hold can generate explosive atmospheres or removing cargo residue, lodged in the holds
have toxic effects on the crew. while unloading been explained to the ship
14) Have the cargo handling capacity and and accepted?
any limits of travel for each loader/unloader Bulldozers, front-end loaders or pneumatic/
been passed to the ship? hydraulic hammers should be used with care
The number of loaders/unloaders to be utilized since they can cause structural damage. Prior
needs to be agreed upon in advance and their agreement regarding the method and the
capabilities need to be understood by all supervision of the operation is necessary.
parties involved. The agreed maximum cargo 20) Have the procedures to adjust the final
transfer rate must be recorded in the checklist. trim of the loaded ship been decided and
Furthermore, limits of travel of loading agreed?
equipment should be indicated, especially if The actual quantities and positions to be
the ship needs to be shifted to another position utilized to achieve the final ship’s trim will
during the operation. The accuracy of depend upon the draught readings taken before
weighing devices is critical and needs to be the conclusion of loading.
checked frequently. 21) Has the terminal been advised of the time
15) Has a cargo operations plan been required for the ship to prepare for sea after
calculated for all stages of loading/de- completion of cargo work?
ballasting or unloading/ballasting? The time to secure hatches on completion of
The plan should be prepared before arrival the loading operation may vary depending on
with all necessary information provided by the the time of the day or night and the weather
terminal. A necessary step in the manual is conditions.
compliance of the bending moments and shear
forces at each step with the (approved) 6. Hazard Identification During
permissible values. Loading
16) Have the holds to be worked been clearly
identified in the loading/unloading plan, Hazards are introduced due to high shear
showing the sequence of work and the grade forces and bending moments caused by
alternate hold loading. High density cargoes

8
cause high local stresses, particularly in shear
under alternate hold or block loading pattern.
They also lead to loss of buoyancy or structural
failure if the holds are flooded. Grain and
sugar cargoes can produce explosive dusts.
High loading rates lead to possible loss of
control of loading condition with consequent
high stresses. Continued overstressing has a
cumulative effect on fatigue. Vulnerability to
internal damage during cargo loading and
discharging operations also leads to protective
coating damage, accelerated corrosion and
local structural failure.

Terminal staff needs to share with the ship

crew an awareness of the following
risks/hazards during the cargo operations.

Deviations from the Loading Manual

Exceeding permissible limits may lead to
catastrophic hull failure. It is noted that local Fig. 8: Longitudinal and Transverse Asymmetry.
over-stressing can occur even if global
longitudinal strength criteria are satisfied. Lack of effective ship/shore communications
The ship-to-terminal communications link
Shallow draught loading should be maintained throughout the cargo
The largest number of non-successive cargo operation.
pours should be employed for each hold.
Exceedance of load line marks
High loading rates End-hold trimming to maximize cargo carrying
The terminal must be prepared to stop capacity and bring the ship down to her marks
operations if the officer-in-charge of the ship is is to be avoided since it may result in
concerned about deviations from the agreed overloading of end holds.
plan. Risk associated with high loading rates
can be assessed by studying the sensitivity of Partially filled ballast tanks
the hull girder to overshooting/overload. Sailing with partially filled ballast tanks is to
be prohibited unless the approved Loading
Asymmetric cargo and ballast distribution Manual permits such loading conditions.
as depicted on Figure 8, (IACS, 1997) Partially filled ballast tanks are subject to
Heavy cargo poured into a cargo space at one sloshing loads due to the ship moving in a
end of the hold piles up. The lateral pressure seaway. Sloshing magnifies dynamic internal
acting on the transverse bulkhead increases, pressures and may damage the internal tank
since it will not be cancelled out. Stowing structure.
cargo asymmetrically about the centerline
causes twisting and warping of the hull girder. Inadequate cargo mass measurement during
Asymmetric distribution of ballast causes loading
torsional loads which may lead to cracking at It is important to accurately determine the
the hatch corners or at the hatch end beams and cargo mass loaded into each hold. At high
upper ballast tanks. Sometimes the additional loading rates terminals without suitably
torsional loads may also cause buckling of the positioned cargo weighing equipment need to
cross deck. High density cargo is stop the operation to allow draught surveys and
recommended to be stowed uniformly over the displacement calculations to be carried out to
cargo space and trimmed to level the cargo and verify compliance with the agreed loading
minimize the risk of damage to the hull plan. The terminal has to inform the ship of the
structure and cargo shift in heavy weather remaining amount of cargo on the conveyor
(stability). Symmetric ballasting/de-ballasting belt that must be loaded after a STOP from the
is recommended (in PS/SB pairs). vessel.

9
 Table 2: Load Variation due to LCG Error

A study carried out by Bureau Veritas showed

that a 5% overload placed in various holds
could increase the SWBM significantly, (BV,
1995). A 10% overload can increase the
SWBM by up to 80% and shear force by up to
26% as indicated in Table 1 for various sizes
of bulk carriers. This 10% overload can be
Fig. 9: Discharge Equipment and Critical Areas.
caused by a five to eight minute delay in
stopping a conveyor belt with a capacity of
Structural damage 16000 tons per hour. These percentages
Cargo handling equipment, like the one shown skyrocket if the load overshoot is combined
in Figure 9, can damage the hull structure with an error in the longitudinal center of
through impact loads (grabs, hydraulic gravity of 5% of the hold length for two holds.
hammers, etc.) and by damaging protective The resulting percentages are depicted in Table
coatings. Structural damage and coating 2. It is also observed that the impact of errors
breakdown will weaken the structure and in loading and load distribution is amplified as
ultimately pose a threat to the structural and the vessel size increases.
watertight integrity.

7. Effects of Overload

Loading control issues are the potential

deviation from the loading plan due to
overshooting or de-ballasting out of synch with
the time allowed to catch up with the cargo
loading. Control of loading is essential in order
to remain within the limits of the plan. It is
noted that a five minute over-pour might result
in a 1300 t overshooting of cargo. There is also
limited time to stop and take draught readings, Fig. 10: Cargo Impact on Inner Bottom
exacerbated by potential bad weather.
Calculations typically are performed under In addition to the increased risk, there is the
static conditions and assuming symmetric issue of the local strength of the inner bottom
loading, which might not be the case. plating and stiffeners, which are experiencing
Furthermore, the possibility of reduced section significant impact loads during cargo loading
modulus due to corrosion to a percentage as at high loading rates. Dry bulk cargoes are
high as 10% needs to be addressed in the typically loaded by conveyors and may be
calculations as dictated by the CSR for bulk dropped from height levels above the main
carriers. deck with consequent high impact loads on the
inner bottom (tank top), in particular at the
Table 1: Load Variation due to 5% Cargo start of loading with high density cargoes. To
Overshoot Error this end Bureau Veritas has performed an
internal study into the effects of iron ore
loading of a typical capesize bulk carrier with a
loading rate of 16,000 tones per hour, free
falling onto the inner bottom from a
representative drop height of 26 m as depicted
on Figure 10. In order to compute the impact
load the falling cargo can be considered as an
incompressible liquid jet diverted on a

10
perpendicular surface (the inner bottom). As with a reduction in the mean draught.
the load is applied suddenly (when the first Allowable loads for each individual cargo hold
cargo hits the inner bottom), dynamic or combined allowable loads for two adjacent
amplification has been taken into account as cargo holds are provided as function of the
well. Assessment of the scantlings of the inner local draught. These loads are applicable in
bottom plating and longitudinal stiffeners of seagoing condition and during
the bulk carrier shows that typically the inner loading/unloading in harbor.
bottom plating thickness has significant margin
compared to the class required value, while the As a general rule, when contracting a new
stress levels in the stiffeners also remain well vessel, the envisaged operating patterns should
within permissible limits. be fixed as early in the initial design stage as
possible in order to incorporate possible multi-
8. Design Issues related to Bulk Carrier port conditions in the specification. Critical
Loading structural design aspects to be considered are:

The main design issue is related to increased • The deck and bottom transverses should be
loading flexibility. The combination of in line forming a stiff ring, while hatch-end
improved loading flexibility with a high safety beams should not be eliminated;
level is governed by how much you can fill a • Hatch openings are longer and wider to
given cargo hold relative to what you have in facilitate loading, reducing the size of the
the neighboring holds at the current draught. cross deck strips leading to torsion-induced
The shear force in way of a transverse stresses at the hatch corners;
bulkhead is ruled by the difference in • Use of higher tensile strength steel at the
downward acting forces from the cargo hold deck and bottom, catalyzes buckling and
forward of the bulkhead relative to the upward fatigue damage. The reduced thickness in
acting force from the cargo hold aft of the the design also amplifies the impact of
bulkhead. The loading flexibility was increased corrosion.
by the introduction of IACS Unified
Requirement UR S25 ‘Harmonized class Another design criterion can be the
notation and standard loading conditions’ in minimization of the impact of loading accuracy
2003. UR S25 imposes the computation of the or inaccuracy on the strength. Loading
following important loading parameters: volumes are not estimated precisely. Ship
• Allowable cargo intake in each individual capabilities lag far behind the capability of
cargo hold as a function of the actual terminals to meet commercially agreed loading
draught; rates. Questions have been posed whether to
• Allowable cargo intake for two adjacent include a minimum ballasting performance as a
cargo hold as a function of the actual design criterion in bulk carriers. Requirements
draught. should be considered for redundancy,
• accessibility, remote monitoring and
operability of all parts of the ballast system in
order to ensure that full de-ballasting capability
is available during the loading process.
Increased ballast line friction in older vessels
does not allow the utilization of the rated pump
capacity. Reduced size of the ballast piping
Fig. 11: Shear Force in Alternate Load Pattern contributes to the increase of pressure losses.
The pump operating point (head-flow rate) is
The structure is sensitive to net vertical load determined by the intersection of the pump
acting on the double bottom as shown on curve and the system curve as shown in Figure
Figure 11 for the alternate loading pattern. The 12. The maximum fluid velocity in the ballast
net vertical load is the difference between the pipes should be 3 m/s. One pump has to serve
downward weight of cargo mass in the hold, two tanks simultaneously to reduce the water
ballast water in double bottom tanks in way of velocity in the branch line and keep it within
the cargo hold and the upward buoyancy force limits. Branch lines with the same diameter
which is dependent on the draught. like the main line increase the efficiency of the
Overloading of the cargo hold combined with system. A practical solution is to use one pump
insufficient draught causes excessive net to de-ballast a pair of port/starboard tanks. Due
vertical loads on the double bottom which can to the aft trim the forward tanks are the most
distort the structure in way of the hold. The critical. The loading-unloading manuals should
cargo carrying capacity of a hold is reduced include pressure losses and stripping time.

11
Electric power availability and ballast water pours and trims, the vessel strength and the de-
treatment systems might also affect de- ballasting capacity including stripping.
ballasting efficiency. Loading flexibility is enhanced with the
increase of ballasting/de-ballasting capacity
and the synchronization with the cargo
loading. Hydraulic marriage of the ballast
pumps with the on-board piping arrangement
should be employed in order to determine with
accuracy the operating pump pressure and flow
rate.
Cargo monitoring, communication and
exchange of information between ship and
terminal, crew training and familiarization with
Fig. 12: Pump Operating Point. the loading procedure and incorporation in the
design of all extra criteria for flexibility and
Conditions on-board are frequently slippery safety are “sine qua non” to obtain the most
due to spillage of cargo. It is thus advisable attractive bulk carrier.
from the operational standpoint to strategically
place guard rails and stanchions on hatch 10. References
covers and around hatch openings. Ships
should be suited to their operational Bureau Veritas, 1995, ‘Recommendations to
environment and the design has to satisfy Avoid Overloading of Bulk Carrier Structures’,
ship/cargo compatibility. Guidance Note NI 402

9. Conclusions IACS, 1997, ‘Guidance and Information on

Bulk Cargo Loading and Discharging to
The variety of cargoes that are carried by the Reduce the Likelihood of Over-stressing the
bulk carriers impose a variety of requirements Hull Structure’, Recommendation 46
related to the safety of the ship and the well-
being of the cargo. Special ventilation and IMO, 1997, ‘Code of Practice for the Safe
stowage rules of thumb need to be employed Loading and Unloading of Bulk Carriers’
depending on the type of cargo. This fact (BLU Code), with IMO Resolution A.862 (20)
makes the bulk carriers the most diverse
vessels today, but at the same time the most TSBC, 2000, Transportation Safety Board of
difficult to design. Canada, ‘Structural Failure Bulk Carrier
In addition to these complications, increased ALGOWOOD’, Report No M00C0026, June
operational demands by modern terminal 2000, Bruce Mines, Ontario
practices impose a heavy toll on the capacity of
bulk carriers and stretch their limits to the IMO MSC/Circ.116, 2005, ‘Manual on
maximum. A vessel needs to have a clear Loading and Unloading of Solid Bulk Cargoes
loading plan beforehand and work in harmony for Terminal Representatives’
with the terminal personnel. The design needs
to accommodate various critical features in BMT, 2008, ‘Effect of the Minimum Ballast
order to enhance the loading efficiency. The Condition on Bulk carrier Maneuverability’,
vessel has to be compatible with the intended Report No C12145.1R
cargo. A risk and hazard identification can
provide valuable conclusions on the tolerance IMO, 2008, ‘International Maritime Solid Bulk
of the ship to errors or mishaps. It is a design Cargoes Code’, Resolution MSC. 268(85).
target to achieve a relative insensitivity to
overshoots and or asymmetric load IACS, 2008, ‘Common Structural Rules for
distributions. The impact of loading errors is Bulk Carriers’, Consolidated Edition
amplified as the size of the vessel increases.
A vessel is optimized if a cargo hold can be Chatzitolios K, de Jong G, Kokarakis J.E.,
filled with one pour, maybe two. The design 2009, ‘A Practical Assessment of Existing
problem is further entangled due to the Bulk Carrier Local Structural Strength in
dynamic nature of cargo loading. Nevertheless, Relation to the Allowable Hold Mass Curves’,
the design criterion should be the increase of RINA Conference on Design and Operation of
the loading flexibility, which is a complex Bulk Carriers, Athens
function of the loading rate, the number of

12