Principle of Equivalence,

Series And Parallel Connections,

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
EEE 3 Lecture 04
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Objectives
• State the principle of equivalence

• Use equivalence to simplify resistors in series and resistors

in parallel.

• Apply current and voltage division.

• Use Thevenin’s Theorem to simplify a general linear circuit

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How are we going to solve for the power consumed by each house?
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IHouse
+ XTH2
+ RTH1 XTH1 RTH2 +
VTH1 VHouse VTH2
- -
-
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The Principle of Equivalence

• Two electric circuits are said to be equivalent with
respect to a pair of terminals if:
• the voltages across the terminals AND
• the currents through the terminals
are identical for both circuits.

a x
+ I1 + I2
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
V1 V2
- -
b y

• If V1 = V2 and I1 = I2, then with respect terminals ab and

xy, circuit 1 and circuit 2 are equivalent.
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The Principle of Equivalence

• A network of elements may be replaced by a simpler

equivalent circuit thereby simplifying the analysis.

a x
+ I1 + I2
Circuit 1 Circuit 2
V1 V2
- -
b y

• May be used if we are not interested in the values of

voltage, current, and power for each individual element.
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Example Application
• Find the power supplied by the voltage source and the
current i2:

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω
12 V +
– + i2

V2 R R5
2 3Ω R3 6Ω 5Ω
–
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Example Application
• Find the power supplied by the voltage source:

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω a
+ is
12 V +
– + i2 12V
V2 R -
2 3Ω R3 6Ω R5 5Ω b
–

Simplify the shaded network to easily solve for iS

and solve for the power the source supplies.
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Example Application a
+ i2
V2
• Find the value of the current i2: -
b

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω
12 V +
– + i2

V2 R R5
2 3Ω R3 6Ω 5Ω
–

Simplify the shaded network to easily solve for i2.

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HOW DO WE SIMPLIFY THE

NETWORK?
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Series and Parallel Connection

Series – two or more connected elements are said to
be connected in series if the currents passing
through each of them are the same.

i i

i
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Series and Parallel Connection

Parallel – two or more connected elements are said
to be connected in parallel if the voltage across each
of them are the same.

+ + +
v v v

- - -
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Series and Parallel Connection

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Resistors in Series
i + V1 – + V2 – + VN – i

R1 R2 RN Req
VS + VS +
– –

By KVL: v S = v1 + v2 + ... + vN
Ohm’s Law: v S = iR1 + iR2 + ... + iRN = iåRn
v S = iReq
Req = åRn for resistors in series.
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Resistors in Parallel
+ i1 i2 iN +

iS V iS V Geq
G1 G2 GN

– –

Note: Conductance (symbol: G; unit: siemens) is the reciprocal of resistance, G=1/R.

By KCL: iS = i1 + i2 + ... + iN
Ohm’s Law: iS = vG1 + vG2 + ... + vGN = vå Gn
iS = vGeq
Geq = å Gn for resistors in parallel.
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Resistors in Parallel
• For resistors in parallel

Geq = G1 + G2 +... + GN
1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
Req R1 R2 RN
• For only two resistors in parallel

1 R1R2
Req = =
æ1 1ö R1 + R2
ç + ÷
çR R ÷
è 1 2ø

Using the calculator, you may input [(R1)–1 + (R2)–1]–1 to get REQ for parallel resistors.
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Example
• Determine the power supplied by the 12-V source.

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω
12 V +
– + i2

V2 R R5
2 3Ω R3 6Ω 5Ω
–

Answer: 42 W
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Source Transformation
R
a a
+ + +
I I
Vs V Is R V
- - -
b b
From KVL: From KCL:
VS = RI + V IS = (V/R) + I or RIS = RI + V

If the two networks are equivalent with respect to terminals ab,

then V and I must be identical for both networks, which means:
VS = RIS

Implication: Any voltage source in series with a resistance may be

replaced by a current source in parallel with the same resistance.
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Example
Find the value of IS such that the two circuits below are equivalent.

R
a a
+ + +
I I
Vs V Is R V
- - -
b b
VS = 5V IS = ?
R = 10Ω

Ans: IS = 0.5A
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Example
Simplify the circuit so that it contains only one resistor.

10Ω
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Voltage Division

(
v = i R1 + R2 )
v1 = iR1 v2 = iR2
R1 R2
v1 = v v2 = v
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

For n resistors, the voltage Rm

vm = v
across the mth resistor: åR n
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Current Division
(
i = v G1 + G2 )
i1 = vG1 i2 = vG2
G1 G2
i1 = i i2 = i
G1 + G2 G1 + G2
R2 R1
i1 = i i2 = i
R1 + R2 R1 + R2

Gm
For n resistors, the current im = i
through the mth resistor: åG n
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Example
• Find Vo in the speaker circuit below.

500 Ω + +
+
2mV
- 2k Ω Vx gmVx 75k Ω 10k Ω Vo
- -

transistor amplifier circuit model

Given: gm = 1.60 Amperes per Volt

Image taken from: https://www.amazon.co.uk/100pcs-BC547-TO-92-NPN-

Answer: V0 = -22.59V
Transistor/dp/B00CYYMPN0
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Recap
• Series and parallel connections
• Voltage Division
Rm
vm = v
åR n

• Current Division

Gm
im = i
åG n
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Example
• Find I2, I4, and V2. (different solutions will arrive at the same
answers)

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω
12 V +
– + i2

V2 R R5
2 3Ω R3 6Ω 5Ω
– Answers:
iS = 3.5 A
i4 = 1.5 A
i2 = 1.33 A
v2 =4 V
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Thevenin’s Theorem
Consider a circuit which can be represented by two networks: A
which is linear and B, which may be linear or non-linear.

Any dependent source in network A is controlled by a current or

voltage in network A. The same is true with network B.
x
Linear
Network
Network
B
A
y
Network A can be replaced by a voltage source Vth which is
connected in series with a resistor Rth. -> Thevenin equivalent ckt
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Thevenin’s Theorem
The Thevenin equivalent of network A is shown.
Rth
x
+
Network
Vth
- B
y
where

Vth= Thevenin voltage = open-circuit voltage from terminal x to

terminal y, with network B removed.

Rth= the equivalent resistance from terminal x to terminal y, looking

into network A, with all independent sources reduced to zero.
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Linear Electric Circuit

• Consists of the ff:
• Independent sources
• Linear dependent sources
• Linear passive elements
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Linear Elements
• Linear element – a passive element with linear voltage-
current equation
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Linear Dependent Sources

• Linear dependent source - the controlling quantity should
be proportional only to the first power of some voltage or
current variable in the circuit, or to the sum of such
quantities

+ +
kvx kiy kvw kiz
- -

Linear Dependent Linear Dependent

Voltage Sources Current Sources
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Finding Vth
x
Linear 1. Remove Network B.
Network
Network
B 2. Find the voltage across
A terminals x and y. (This
y voltage is commonly referred
to as the open-circuit voltage
Rth
x VOC).
+
Network The Thevenin voltage is equal
Vth 3.
- B the open-circuit voltage.

y
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Finding Rth
• Method 1:
1. Remove Network B.
2. Zero out all independent sources. That means if there is a voltage
source, replace it with a short circuit. If there is a current source,
replace it with an open circuit.
3. Find the equivalent resistance across terminals x and y. That
resistance is equal to Rth.

• Method 2:
1. Remove Network B.
2. Find VOC - the voltage across terminals x and y.
3. Connect terminals x and y using a conductor (this means ‘shorting
out’ x and y) and find ISC - the current that will pass through the
conductor.
4. Rth is the ratio of VOC and ISC.
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Finding Rth
• Method 3:
1. Remove Network B.
2. Deactivate all independent sources in Network A, if any.
3. Between terminals x and y, insert an independent voltage source
with voltage VS (usually equal to 1 Volt for easy computation).
4. Find IS - the current that will pass through the inserted voltage
source.
5. Rth is equal to the ratio of VS and IS.
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Example Application
• Find the value of the current i2:

iS i4
R1 4Ω
R4 3Ω
12 V +
– + i2

V2 R R5
2 3Ω R3 6Ω 5Ω
–

Simplify the shaded network to easily solve for i2.

Answer: Vth = 7.2 V; Rth = 2.4 Ohms; i2 = 1.33 A

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Finding Rth

Case Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

Network A has
independent and
dependent sources  ✓ ✓
Network A has
independent
sources only ✓ ✓ ✓
Network A has
dependent sources
only   ✓
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Norton Equivalent Circuit

• Recall source transformation

Rth
x
+
Network
Vth
- B
y

Network
In Rn
B
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Summary
1. Analysis of large circuits can be simplified using the principle of
equivalence, esp. if we are not interested with individual quantities of
each element.
2. Series elements have equal currents passing through them. Parallel
elements have equal voltages across them.
3. Series resistors can be summed up to get the equivalent resistance. To
get the equivalent conductance (= 1/REQ) of parallel resistors, sum up
the individual conductances.
4. Voltage division may be done for series resistors. Current division may
be done for parallel resistors.
5. Any voltage source in series with a resistance may be replaced by a
current source in parallel with the same resistance.
6. Thevenin’s Theorem states that any large network across two
terminals may be reduced to an equivalent voltage source (VTH) and
equivalent resistance (RTH).