MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

Homework 8 Solution
Chapter 29 - Symmetry, Counting, and Group action.
due: Nov. 7.

1. Let G be a group. Suppose that G acts on a set X.

(a) Define a relation on X as x ∼ y ⇔ ∃ g ∈ G, g · x = y. Show that this is an

equivalent relation.

First of all, e · x = x, so x ∼ x. If x ∼ y, then there is g ∈ G such that g · x = y.

Then g −1 · y = g −1 g · x = e · x = x, so y ∼ x. Finally, if x ∼ y and y ∼ z, then
there are g, h ∈ G such that g · x = y and h · y = z. Then hg · x = h · y = z.
Therefore x ∼ z. Thus ∼ is an equivalent relation.
(b) Show that the equivalent class ȳ is precisely orbG (y).

Sol 1.

ȳ = {x ∈ X | x ∼ y} = {x ∈ X | ∃g ∈ G, g·x = y} = {x ∈ X | ∃g ∈ G, x = g −1 ·y}

= {g −1 · y | g ∈ G} = {g · y | g ∈ G} = orbG (y).
Sol 2. Suppose that x ∈ ȳ. Then there is g ∈ G such that g · x = y. Then
x = g −1 g · x = g −1 · y ∈ orbG (y). Therefore ȳ ⊂ orbG (y).
Conversely, if x ∈ orbG (y), then x = g · y for some g ∈ G. Now g −1 · x =
g −1 g · y = y so x ∼ y and x ∈ ȳ. Therefore orbG (y) ⊂ ȳ and ȳ = orbG (y).

2. The group G := GL(2, R) acts on R2 as the matrix multiplication A · v := Av.

" #
0
(a) Compute stabG ( ).
0
" # " # " #
0 0 0
For every A ∈ G, A = . Therefore stabG ( ) = G.
0 0 0
" #
1
(b) Compute stabG ( ).
0
" # " # " # " #
a b 0 a 0
For A = ,A = . So A ∈ stabG ( ) if and only if
c d 0 c 0
a = 1 and c = 0. So
" # (" # )
0 1 b
stabG ( )= ∈G .
0 0 d

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MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

(c) Find all orbits.

" # ( " # )
0 0
We claim that there are only two orbits. By (a), orbG ( )= A |A∈G =
0 0
(" #)
0
.
0
" # " #
a a 0
Suppose that is nonzero vector. If a 6= 0, then A := ∈ G and
b b 1
" # " # " # " # " #
1 a a 1 1 a
A = . If b 6= 0, then B := ∈ G and B = .
0 b b 0 0 b
" # " #
a 1
In any cases, ∈ orbG ( ).
b 0
Therefore there are two distinct orbits,
(" #) (" # ) (" #)
0 a 0
, | a 6= 0 or b 6= 0 = R2 − .
0 b 0

3. Let G be a group. Define a G-action on G itself as

g · h := ghg −1 .

This action is called the conjugation action, and each orbit orbG (h) is called the
conjugacy class of h.

(a) Show that for h ∈ G, |orbG (h)| = 1 if and only if h ∈ Z(G).

If |orbG (h)| = 1, then orbG (h) = {h}. So for every g ∈ G, g · h = h. This

implies that ghg −1 = h for all g ∈ G and gh = hg for all g ∈ G. Therefore
h ∈ Z(G). Conversely, if h ∈ Z(G), then g · h = ghg −1 = hgg −1 = h for all
g ∈ G. So orbG (h) = {g · h | g ∈ G} = {h} and |orbG (h)| = 1.
(b) Show that for h ∈ G, stabG (h) = C(h), the centralizer of h.

stabG (h) = {g ∈ G | g·h = h} = {g ∈ G | ghg −1 = h} = {g ∈ G | gh = hg} = C(h).

(c) Two elements in the same orbit share a lot of common properties. Here is
one instance. For k ∈ orbG (h), show that |k| = |h|.

Sol 1. If k ∈ orbG (h), then there is g ∈ G such that k = g · h = ghg −1 .

Define a map φg : G → G as φg (x) = gxg −1 . This is an automorphism and
φg (h) = ghg −1 = k. Therefore |k| = |h|.
Sol 2. If k ∈ orbG (h), then there is g ∈ G such that k = g · h = ghg −1 . If
|h| = n < ∞, then k n = (ghg −1 )n = ghn g −1 = geg −1 = gg −1 = e. So
|k| ≤ n = |h|. If |h| = ∞, obviously |k| ≤ |h|. Now k ∈ orbG (h) implies
h ∈ orbG (k), because orbG (h) = orbG (k). So if we change the role of h and k,
we have |h| ≤ |k|. Therefore we obtain |k| = |h|.

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MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

4. The conjugation action tells us some interesting results on the structure of finite
groups. Suppose that |G| = pn for some prime number p. Show that |Z(G)| > 1.
(Hint: Except g ∈ Z(G), |orbG (g)| is a multiple of p. Deduce that |Z(G)| is also a
multiple of p.)

By orbit-stabilization theorem, for any g ∈ G, |orbG (g)| | |G| = pn . So |orbG (g)| =

pk for some 0 ≤ k ≤ n. So except the case that |orbG (g)| = 1, |orbG (g)| is a
multiple of p. Furthermore, by (a) of previous problem, |orbG (g)| = 1 if and only
if g ∈ Z(G).
Because G (as a set) can be decomposed into the disjoint union of orbits,

G = orbG (g1 ) t orbG (g2 ) t · · · t orbG (gr )

where g1 , g2 , · · · , gr are elements making distinct orbits. So we have

|G| = |orbG (g1 )| + |orbG (g2 )| + · · · |orbG (gr )|.

If g1 , g2 , · · · , gs are elements in Z(G), then

|G| = |Z(G)| + |orbG (gs+1 )| + · · · |orbG (gr )|

and
|Z(G)| = |G| − |orbG (gs+1 )| − · · · − |orbG (gr )|.
Note that all numbers on the right hand side are multiples of p. Therefore |Z(G)|
is a multiple of p. Because e ∈ Z(G), |Z(G)| =
6 0 so |Z(G)| ≥ p.

5. Let α ∈ Sn . Write α as a product of disjoint cycles α1 α2 · · · αr where `(α1 ) ≥

`(α2 ) ≥ · · · ≥ `(αr ). We say that α is of type b1 + b2 + · · · + br if `(α1 ) = b1 , `(α2 ) =
b2 , · · · , `(αr ) = br where `(αi ) is the length of the cycle αi . For instance, α =
(152)(638)(47) is of type 3 + 3 + 2.
Consider the conjugation action on Sn .

(a) Show that if α, β ∈ Sn are in the same conjugacy class, then α and β are of
the same type.

Write α = (a1 a2 · · · ar )(b1 b2 · · · bs ) · · · (c1 c2 · · · ct ) as a product of disjoint cy-

cles. Suppose that β = σ · α = σασ −1 for σ ∈ Sn . We claim that

β = (σ(a1 )σ(a2 ) · · · σ(ar ))(σ(b1 )σ(b2 ) · · · σ(bs )) · · · (σ(c1 )σ(c2 ) . . . σ(ct )).

Indeed, β(σ(ai )) = σασ −1 (σ(ai )) = σ(α(σ −1 (σ(ai )))) = σ(α(ai )) = σ(ai+1 )

for 1 ≤ i ≤ r − 1. Also β(σ(ar )) = σασ −1 (σ(ar )) = σ(α(σ −1 (σ(ar )))) =
σ(α(ar )) = σ(a1 ). So β has a cycle (σ(a1 )σ(a2 ) · · · σ(ar )). For the other cycles,
the computation is same. Then it is clear that β is of the same type with α.
(b) (Optional) Show the converse, i.e., show that if α, β ∈ Sn are of the same type
then they are in the same conjugacy class. (I highly recommend to compute
some simple examples first.)

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MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

Write α and β as products of disjoint cycles with decreasing orders, say, α =

(a1 a2 · · · ar )(b1 b2 · · · bs ) · · · (c1 c2 · · · ct ) and β = (d1 d2 · · · dr )(f1 f2 · · · fs ) · · · (g1 g2 · · · gt ).
Note that the length of corresponding cycles are same because α and β are
of the same type.
Take σ ∈ Sn such that σ(ai ) = di , σ(bi ) = fi , · · · , σ(ci ) = gi . We claim that
σ · α = σασ −1 = β. Indeed, for 1 ≤ i ≤ r − 1, σασ −1 (di ) = σασ −1 (σ(ai )) =
σ(α(σ −1 (σ(ai )))) = σ(α(ai )) = σ(ai+1 ) = di+1 . Also σασ −1 (dr ) = σασ −1 (σ(ar )) =
σ(α(σ −1 (σ(ar )))) = σ(α(ar )) = σ(a1 ) = d1 . The computation for the other
cycles is same. So β ∈ orbG (α) and α, β are in the same conjugacy class.
(c) By using (a) and (b), count the number of orbits in S5 and find the size of
each orbit.

By (a) and (b), there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of orbits
in S5 and the set of all type of permutations in S5 (or equivalently, the set of
partitions of 5). We have the following types: 5, 4 + 1, 3 + 2, 3 + 1 + 1, 2 + 2 +
1, 2 + 1 + 1 + 1, 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1. So the number of orbits is 7.
For the type 5, the corresponding permutations are cycles of length 5. There
are precisely 5!/5 = 24 elements in this orbit.
For the type 4 + 1, to find an element, we need to choose four elements in
the length four cycle and give them a cyclic order. So there are 54 · 4!/4 = 30

elements.
For the type 3 + 2, we need to pick 3 elements for the length 3 cycle and give
them a cyclic order. So the number of elements is 53 · 3!/3 = 20 elements.

For the type 3 + 1 + 1, the idea of computation of the number of elements is

same with the previous orbit. There are 20 elements.
For the type 2 + 2 + 1, we need to pick two elements for the first 2-cycle
and to pick two elements for the second 2-cycle from remaining 3 elements.
Because there is redundancy because of choosing the order of two 2-cycles,
we need to divide the obtained number by two. So the number of elements
is 52 · 32 /2 = 15.

For the type 2 + 1 + 1 + 1, it suffices to take two elements in the 2-cycle, so

we have 52 = 10 elements.

Finally, obviously there is only one element in the orbit of type 1+1+1+1+1.
The table below is a summary of this computation.
type size
5 24
4+1 30
3+2 20
3+1+1 20
2+2+1 15
2+1+1+1 10
1+1+1+1+1 1

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MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

6. Determine the number of ways in which the four corners of a square can be col-
ored with two colors. Two colorings are equivalent if one can be obtained from
another by applying symmetry group permutation (D4 ). (It is permissible to use
a single color on all four corners.)

Let X be the set of all colorings. Then |X| = 24 = 16.

For R0 ∈ D4 , fix(D4 ) = X and |fix(D4 )| = |X| = 16. For R90 , if a coloring is in
fix(R90 ), then every corner has to be colored by the same color. So |fix(R90 )| = 2.
Similarly, |fix(R270 )| = 2 as well. For R180 , a coloring is in fix(R180 ) precisely
when the opposite corner is colored by the same color. So |fix(R180 )| = 22 = 4.
For H or V , two make a fixed coloring, it is sufficient to color half of the square.
So |fix(H)| = |fix(V )| = 22 = 4. For D or D0 , to make a fixed coloring, two vertices
on the reflection axis can have arbitrary color, but two other vertices have to have
the same color. Therefore |fix(D)| = |fix(D0 )| = 23 = 8.
In summary, by Burnside’s theorem, the number of distinguishable colorings is
1 X 1
|fix(g)| = (16 + 2 + 4 + 2 + 4 + 4 + 8 + 8) = 6.
|D4 | 8
g∈D4

7. Determine the number of ways in which the faces of a cube can be colored with
three colors.

There are 6 faces on a cube. So if we denote the set of all colorings by X, |X| =
36 = 729. The rotation group G of a cube, which is isomorphic to S4 , acts on X.
For id ∈ X, |fix(id)| = |X| = 729. Suppose that gθ ∈ G is a rotation by θ degree
along the axis perpendicular to a face of the cube. Then for g90 or g270 , if a col-
oring is fixed then two faces intersecting the axis can be colored freely, and the
other faces have to be colored by one color. So |fix(g90 )| = |fix(g270 )| = 33 = 27.
Note that there are 6 such rotations. For g180 , if a coloring is fixed then two faces
intersecting the axis can be colored freely, and for the rest four faces, two oppo-
site faces must have the same color. So |fix(g180 )| = 34 = 81. There are 3 such
rotations.
Now let hθ be a rotation along a diagonal by θ degree. Then if a coloring is fixed
by h120 or h240 , then three faces adjacent to one of two vertices on the rotational
axis must have the same color. So |fix(h120 )| = |fix(h240 )| = 32 = 9. There are 8
rotations of this type.
Finally, let k be a rotation (by 180 degree) along a line connecting two midpoints
of two opposite sides. Then for a fixed coloring by k, two faces adjacent to a point
on the axis must have the same color. Also two faces disjoint from the axis also
have the same color. Therefore |fix(k)| = 33 = 27. There are 6 such rotations.
In summary, the number of distinguishable rotations is
1 X 1
|fix(g)| = (729 + 6 · 27 + 3 · 81 + 8 · 9 + 6 · 27) = 57.
|G| 24
g∈G

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MATH 3005 Homework Han-Bom Moon

8. Four dwarves and four elves are going to discuss how to protect Middle earth
from the attack of Sauron. On a round table with eight seats, how many distin-
guishable ways can they be seated?

Let X be the set of all arrangements of four dwarves and four elves on the table.
Then the number of elements of X is 84 = 70, because it is sufficient to choose

four chairs for dwarves. Because if one takes a rotation of the table, then we
obtain an indistinguishable arrangement, a cyclic group G = hR45 i ≈ Z8 acts on
X.
For id, fix(id) = S and |fix(id)| = 70. For R45 , there is no fixed arrangement
because for a fixed arrangement, all seats have to be assigned for dwarves only
or elves only. So |fix(R45 )| = 0. By the same reason, |fix(R135 )| = |fix(R225 )| =
|fix(R315 )| = 0.
For R90 , there are two fixed arrangements, which are alternating seatings. So
|fix(R90 )| = 2. Similarly, |fix(R270 )| = 2 also.
For R180 , a seating is fixed when the opposite seat is possessed by the same tribe.
So it suffices to assign the half of the table. Therefore |fix(R90 )| = 42 = 6.

In summary,

1 X 1
|fix(g)| = (70 + 0 + 2 + 0 + 6 + 0 + 2 + 0) = 10.
|G| 8
g∈G

Therefore there are 10 distinguishable seatings.