settle) or expand (dilate).

Loads applied by a building, for example, will cause the mineral particles to
be forced closer together, reducing the volume of voids and changing the orientation of the structural
framework. Consequently, the building settles. The amount of settlement depends on how much we
compress the volume of voids. The rate at which the settlement occurs depends on the interconnectivity
of the voids. Free water, not the adsorbed water, and/or air trapped in the voids must be forced out for
settlement to occur. The decrease in volume, which results in settlement of buildings and other structures,
is usually very slow (almost ceaseless) in fi ne-grained soils because these soils have large surface
areas compared with coarse-grained soils. The larger surface areas provide greater resistance to the fl ow
of water through the voids.
If the rigid (mostly quartz) particles of coarse-grained soils can be approximated by spheres, then
the loosest packing (maximum voids space) would occur when the spheres are stacked one on top of
another (Figure 2.10a). The densest packing would occur when the spheres are packed in a staggered
pattern, as shown in Figure 2.10b. Real coarse-grained soils consist of an assortment of particle sizes and
shapes, and consequently the packing is random. From your physics course, mass is volume multiplied
by density. The density of soil particles is approximately 2.7 grams/cm 3. For spherical soil particles of
diameter D (cm), the mass is 2.7 3
pD3
6
. So the number of particles per gram of soil is
0.7
D3 . Thus, 1 gram
of a fi ne sand of diameter 0.015 cm would consist of about 207,400 particles.
(a) Flocculated structure—saltwater environment (b) Flocculated structure—freshwater environment
(c) Dispersed structure
FIGURE 2.9 Soil fabric.
(a) Loose (b) Dense
FIGURE 2.10
Loose and dense packing of spheres.
THE ESSENTIAL POINTS ARE:
1. Soils are derived from the weathering of rocks and are commonly described by textural terms such
as gravels, sands, silts, and clays.
2. Physical weathering causes reduction in size of the parent rock without change in its composition.
3. Chemical weathering causes reduction in size and chemical composition that differs from the
parent rock.
4. Clays are composed of three main types of mineral—kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite.
5. The clay minerals consist of silica and alumina sheets that are combined to form layers. The bonds
between layers play a very important role in the mechanical behavior of clays. The bond between
the layers in montmorillonite is very weak compared with kaolinite and illite. Water can easily
enter between the layers in montmorillonite, causing swelling.
6. A thin layer of water, called adsorbed water, is bonded to the mineral surfaces of soils. This layer
signifi cantly infl uences the physical and mechanical characteristics of fi ne-grained soils.
What’s next . . . In most soils, there is a distribution of particle sizes that infl uences the response of
soils to loads and to the fl ow of water. We will describe methods used in the laboratory to fi nd particle
sizes of soils.
2.5 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE
OF SOILS—ASTM D 422
2.5.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils
The distribution of particle sizes or average grain diameter of coarse-grained soils—gravels and sands—
is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of sieves of progressively fi ner mesh
size. A typical stack of sieves is shown in Figure 2.11.
FIGURE 2.11
Stack of sieves.
2.5 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS—ASTM D 422 15
16 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS
Each sieve is identifi ed by either a number that corresponds to the number of square holes per
linear inch of mesh or the size of the opening. Large sieve (mesh) openings (25.4 mm to 6.35 mm)
are designated by the sieve opening size, while smaller sieve sizes are designated by numbers. The
particle diameter in the screening process, often called sieve analysis, is the maximum dimension of
a particle that will pass through the square hole of a particular mesh. A known weight of dry soil is
placed on the largest sieve (the top sieve) and the nest of sieves is then placed on a vibrator, called
a sieve shaker, and shaken. The nest of sieves is dismantled, one sieve at a time. The soil retained
on each sieve is weighed, and the percentage of soil retained on each sieve is calculated. The results
are plotted on a graph of percent of particles fi ner than a given sieve size (not the percent retained)
as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the particle sizes, as shown in Figure 2.12. The resulting plot
is called a particle size distribution curve or, simply, the gradation curve. Engineers have found it
convenient to use a logarithmic scale for particle size because the ratio of particle sizes from the
largest to the smallest in a soil can be greater than 104.
Let Wi be the weight of soil retained on the ith sieve from the top of the nest of sieves and W be
the total soil weight. The percent weight retained is
% retained on ith sieve 5
Wi
W
3 100 (2.1)
The percent fi ner is
% finer than ith sieve 5 100 2a
i
i51
1% retained on ith sieve2 (2.2)
You can use mass instead of weight. The unit of mass is grams or kilograms.
2.5.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils
The screening process cannot be used for fi ne-grained soils—silts and clays—because of their extremely
small size. The common laboratory method used to determine the size distribution of fi ne-grained soils
is a hydrometer test (Figure 2.13). The hydrometer test involves mixing a small amount of soil into a suspension
and observing how the suspension settles in time. Larger particles will settle quickly, followed
by smaller particles. When the hydrometer is lowered into the suspension, it will sink into the suspension
until the buoyancy force is suffi cient to balance the weight of the hydrometer.
Poorly graded
0.001
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle size (mm) – logarithmic scale
% Finer
Gap graded
Well graded
FIGURE 2.12 Particle size distribution curves.
The length of the hydrometer projecting above the suspension is a function of the density, so it is
possible to calibrate the hydrometer to read the density of the suspension at different times. The calibration
of the hydrometer is affected by temperature and the specifi c gravity of the suspended solids. You must
then apply a correction factor to your hydrometer reading based on the test temperatures.
Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small quantity of a dry, fi ne-grained soil (approximately
50 grams) and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to form a paste. The paste is placed in
a 1-liter glass cylinder, and distilled water is added to bring the level to the 1-liter mark. The glass cylinder
is then repeatedly shaken and inverted before being placed in a constant-temperature bath. A hydrometer
is placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is simultaneously started. At different times, the hydrometer is
read. The diameter D (cm) of the particle at time tD (seconds) is calculated from Stokes’s law as
D5Å
18mz
1Gs 2 12rwgtD
(2.3)
where m is the viscosity of water [0.01 gram/(cm.s) at 208C], z is the depth (cm), rw is the density of water
(1 gram/cm3), g is the acceleration due to gravity (981 cm/s2), and Gs is the specifi c gravity of the soil
particles. For most soils, Gs < 2.7.
In the application of Stokes’s law, the particles are assumed to be free-falling spheres with no collision.
But the mineral particles of clays are platelike, and collision of particles during sedimentation is
unavoidable. Also, Stokes’s law is valid only for laminar fl ow with Reynolds number (Re 5
vDgw
mg
, where
v is velocity, D is the diameter of the particle, gw is the unit weight of water, m is the dynamic viscosity of
water at 208C, and g is the acceleration due to gravity) smaller than 1. Laminar fl ow prevails for particle
sizes in the range 0.001 mm , Ds , 0.1 mm. By using the material passing the No. 200 sieve (average
particle size ,0.075 mm), laminar fl ow is automatically satisfi ed for particles less than 0.001 mm.
Particles smaller than 0.001 mm are colloids. Electrostatic forces infl uence the motion of colloids, and
Stokes’s law is not valid. Brownian motion describes the random movement of colloids.
The results of the hydrometer test suffi ce for most geotechnical engineering needs. For more accurate
size distribution measurements in fi ne-grained soils, other, more sophisticated methods are available
(e.g., light-scattering methods). The dashed line in Figure 2.12 shows a typical particle size distribution for
fi ne-grained soils.
2.5.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size
The grading curve is used for textural classifi cation of soils. Various classifi cation systems have evolved
over the years to describe soils based on their particle size distribution. Each system was developed for
Hydrometer
Soil
suspension
Increasing density
FIGURE 2.13
Hydrometer in soil–water suspension.
2.5 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS—ASTM D 422 17
18 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS
a specifi c engineering purpose. In Figure 2.14, four systems are compared. These are the Unifi ed Soil
Classifi cation System (USCS), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (a modifi cation
of the USCS system), the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO), and the British Standards (BS). We will discuss soil classifi cation in more detail in Chapter 4.
In this book we will use the ASTM system. Soils will be separated into two categories. One category
is coarse-grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the soil is greater than 0.075 mm
(No. 200 sieve). The other category is fi ne-grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the soil
is fi ner than 0.075 mm. Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and sands, while fi ne-grained
soils are divided into silts and clays. Each soil type—gravel, sand, silt, and clay—is identifi ed by grain
size, as shown in Table 2.1. Clays have particle sizes less than 0.002 mm. Real soils consist of a mixture
of particle sizes.
The selection of a soil for a particular use may depend on the assortment of particles it contains. Two
coeffi cients have been defi ned to provide guidance on distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the
particles. One of these is a numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity coeffi cient, Cu, defi ned as
Cu5
D60
D10
(2.4)
where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are fi ner, and D10 is the
diameter of the soil particles for which 10% of the particles are fi ner. Both of these diameters are
obtained from the grading curve.
TABLE 2.1 Soil Types, Descriptions, and Average Grain Sizes According to ASTM D 2487
Soil type Description Average grain size
Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky hard rock, Coarse: 75 mm to 19 mm
coarsely divided Fine: 19 mm to 4.75 mm
Sand Rounded and/or angular hard rock, Coarse: 4.75 mm to 2.0 mm (No. 10)
fi nely divided Medium: 2.0 mm to 0.425 mm (No. 40)
Fine: 0.425 mm to 0.075 mm (No. 200)
Silt Particle size between clay and sand. Exhibit 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
little or no strength when dried.
Clay Particles are smooth and mostly clay ,0.002 mm
minerals. Exhibit signifi cant strength
when dried; water reduces strength.
FIGURE 2.14 Comparison of four systems for describing soils based on particle size.
Sand
BS
USCS
AASHTO
ASTM
Gravel
Gravel
Silt
Sand
Sand
Gravel
Gravel
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Medium
Medium
Coarse
Fine
Fine
Fine
Fine
Medium Coarse
Coarse
Fines (silt, clay)
Coarse
Coarse
Fine Medium Coarse
Clay Cobbles
Cobbles
Boulders
Boulders
Cobbles Boulders
Clay Silt Boulders
Clay Silt
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
0.005
0.075
2
0.425
4.75
300
75
Sand
Grain size (mm)
The other coeffi cient is the coeffi cient of curvature, Cc (other terms used are the coeffi cient of gradation
and the coeffi cient of concavity), defi ned as
Cc5
1D30 22
D10D60
(2.5)
where D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 30% of the particles are fi ner. The average particle
diameter is D50.
A soil that has a uniformity coeffi cient of ,4 contains particles of uniform size (approximately one
size). The minimum value of Cu is 1 and corresponds to an assemblage of particles of the same size. The
gradation curve for a poorly graded soil is almost vertical (Figure 2.12). Humps in the gradation curve indicate
two or more poorly graded soils. Higher values of uniformity coeffi cient (.4) indicate a wider assortment
of particle sizes. A soil that has a uniformity coeffi cient of .4 is described as a well-graded soil and is
indicated by a fl at curve (Figure 2.12). The coeffi cient of curvature is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils.
The absence of certain grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is diagnosed by a coeffi cient of curvature outside the
range 1 to 3 and a sudden change of slope in the particle size distribution curve, as shown in Figure. 2.12.
Poorly graded soils are sorted by water (e.g., beach sands) or by wind. Gap-graded soils are also
sorted by water, but certain sizes were not transported. Well-graded soils are produced by bulk transport
processes (e.g., glacial till). The uniformity coeffi cient and the coeffi cient of concavity are strictly applicable
to coarse-grained soils.
The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil and was described by Allen Hazen (1892)
in connection with his work on soil fi lters. The effective size is the diameter of an artifi cial sphere
that will produce approximately the same effect as an irregularly shaped particle. The effective size
is particularly important in regulating the fl ow of water through soils, and can dictate the mechanical
behavior of soils since the coarser fractions may not be in effective contact with each other; that is,
they fl oat in a matrix of fi ner particles. The higher the D10 value, the coarser the soil and the better the
drainage characteristics.
Particle size analyses have many uses in engineering. They are used to select aggregates for concrete,
soils for the construction of dams and highways, soils as fi lters, and material for grouting and chemical
injection. In Chapter 4, you will learn about how the particle size distribution is used with other physical
properties of soils in a classifi cation system designed to help you select soils for particular applications.
THE ESSENTIAL POINTS ARE:
1. A sieve analysis is used to determine the grain size distribution of coarse-grained soils.
2. For fi ne-grained soils, a hydrometer analysis is used to fi nd the particle size distribution.
3. Particle size distribution is represented on a semilogarithmic plot of % fi ner (ordinate, arithmetic
scale) versus particle size (abscissa, logarithmic scale).
4. The particle size distribution plot is used to delineate the different soil textures (percentages of
gravel, sand, silt, and clay) in a soil.
5. The effective size, D10, is the diameter of the particles of which 10% of the soil is fi ner. D10 is an
important value in regulating fl ow through soils and can signifi cantly infl uence the mechanical
behavior of soils.
6. D50 is the average grain size diameter of the soil.
7. Two coeffi cients—the uniformity coeffi cient and the coeffi cient of curvature—are used to characterize
the particle size distribution. Poorly graded soils have uniformity coeffi cients ,4 and steep gradation
curves. Well-graded soils have uniformity coeffi cients .4, coeffi cients of curvature between 1 and 3, and
fl at gradation curves. Gap-graded soils have coeffi cients of curvature ,1 or .3, and one or more humps
on the gradation curves.
2.5 DETERMINATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF SOILS—ASTM D 422 19
20 CHAPTER 2 GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS AND PARTICLE SIZES OF SOILS
EXAMPLE 2.1 Calculating Particle Size Distribution and Interpretation of Soil Type from a
Sieve Analysis Test
A sieve analysis test was conducted on 650 grams of soil. The results are as follows.
Sieve no. 9.53 mm (3/8”) 4 10 20 40 100 200 Pan
Opening (mm) 9.53 4.75 2 0.85 0.425 0.15 0.075
Mass retained (grams) 0 53 76 73 142 85 120.5 99.8
Determine (a) the amount of coarse-grained and fi ne-grained soils, and (b) the amount of each soil type based on
the ASTM system.
Strategy Calculate the % fi ner and plot the gradation curve. Extract the amount of coarse-grained soil (particle
sizes .0.075 mm) and the amount of fi ne-grained soil (particle sizes ,0.075 mm). Use Table 2.1 to guide you to get
the amount of each soil type.
Solution 2.1
Step 1: Set up a table or a spreadsheet to do the calculations.
ABCDEF
Mass retained
Opening (grams) % Retained Σ (% Retained) % Finer
Sieve no. (mm) Mr (100 3 Mr /Mt) (Σ column D) (100 2 column E)
9.53 mm (3/8”) 9.53 0 0.0 0.0 100.0
4 4.75 53 8.2 8.2 91.8
10 2 76 11.7 19.9 80.1
20 0.85 73 11.2 31.1 68.9
40 0.425 142 21.9 52.9 47.1
100 0.15 85.4 13.1 66.1 33.9
200 0.075 120.5 18.5 84.6 15.4
Pan 99.8 15.4
SUM 649.7 100.0
Mt 5 649.7
Note: In the sieve analysis test, some mass is lost because particles are stuck in the sieves. Use the sum of the mass after the test.
Step 2: Plot grading curve. See Figure E2.1.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
% Finer
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Particle