RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Dr. Wesley K. Kirui Ph.D.

 Introduction
• Research methodology is the study of conducting research. May be understood as a
science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the various steps
that are generally adopted by researcher in studying his research problem along with the
logic behind them.
• Research Methods:- Refers to the methods/ techniques researchers use in
performing research operations.
• Definition of Research – Research comprises of two terms ‘Re’ meaning to do again and
‘Search’ meaning examine closely and carefully.
• Webster Dictionary
• Careful or diligent search
• Studious inquiry or examination; especially: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery
and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws
• The collecting of information about a particular subject
• Research is a process carried out to acquire new knowledge.
• To research is to carry out diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given
phenomenon.
 Introduction
• Research involves critical analysis of existing conclusions with regard to newly
discovered facts. This is very important in the changing world with advances in
technology continually creating new possibilities.
• Research is search for knowledge.
• Research is scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic or subject.
• Research is a movement from known to unknown.
• Research comprises defining and redefining a problem, formulating hypothesis or
suggesting a solution; collecting, analysing and evaluating; making deductions
and reaching conclusions and at last carefully testing the conclusion to determine
whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.
• Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for
its advancement.
• Pursuit of truth with help of study, observation, comparison and experiment.
 Introduction
• Research is search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding a solution to a problem.
• Research is simply the process of arriving at dependable solution to a problem
through the planned and systematic collection, analysis and interpretation of
data. Research is the most important process for advancing knowledge for
promoting progress and to enable man to relate more effectively to his
environment to accomplish his purpose and to resolve his conflicts. Although it is
not the only way, it is one of the more effective ways of solving scientific
problems.

• Research is oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among

phenomena of the world in which we live. The fundamental assumption is that
invariant relationship exists between certain antecedents and certain
consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain consequents can
be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.
 Introduction
Further definition of Research
• According to Rusk
• “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks
questions which have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by
following a fairly definite procedure. It is not a mere theorising, but rather an
attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have been assembled. Research is
likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a
readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how
unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific
knowledge of the subject.
• According to George J. Mouly
• He defines research as, “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific
method interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal
problems; conversely, any systematic study designed to promote the development
of social studies as a science can be considered research.”
 Introduction
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his
hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be
unpopular and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.
 Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application
of scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has
its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a
number of following broad groupings:
• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies
with this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies).
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies).
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies)
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
 Motivation in Research
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental
importance. The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of
the following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
This is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to carry out research.
Government directives, employment conditions, curiosity to explore new findings
etc.
 Classification of Research
Research is conducted at different levels and for different immediate purposes. The
level at which a person operates in the field depends on the objectives he intends to
accomplish. Generally research has two levels:
• Basic level
• Applied level
Basic Level
• Designed to add an organized body of scientific knowledge and does not
necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.
Applied Level
• Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem and the
goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary. A common mistake is to
assume that levels differ according to complexity and that basic research tends to
be complex and applied research. Some applied research is quite complex and
some basic research is rather simple.
 Types of Research
• Pure Research (Basic or Fundamental Research) - Gathering, knowledge is
termed as ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. Just to gather knowledge in order to formulate
or generalize theories or policies. Example - Research on mathematics or some
natural phenomenon. This type of research adds knowledge to the already existing
organized body.
• Applied Research: Aims at finding solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industry/ business organizations or to discover a solution for some
pressing practical problem. The researcher has to use facts or information already
available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
• Descriptive Research: Means description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. Researcher only reports what has happened or what is happening. It
includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over
the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• Analytical Research: Researcher has to use facts on information already
available and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
 Types of Research
• Quantitative Research: Based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
Applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
• Qualitative research: Based on qualitative phenomenon i.e. phenomena relating
to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is important in the behavioural
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour.
• Conceptual Research: Related to some abstract ideas or theory. Used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or re-interpret existing ones.
• Empirical Research: Relies on experience or observations alone, often without
due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We
can also call it as experimental type of research.
 Sources of Knowledge
Methods of Knowledge Acquisition
• Research is an important source of knowledge
• Experience – Common mode of obtaining knowledge. Human beings learned
through experiences in life.
• Tradition is another source of knowledge- All human inherit a culture. Culture is a
reflection of an adopted system of rules, norms, standards and values.
• Tenacity - Accepted because the idea has been accepted for so long
• Intuition – Is perception or explanation or insight into phenomena by instinct. In
other words it is the ability to gain knowledge without conscious reasoning or
rational process. Acceptance based on no process of interpretation or
assessment. A “gut feeling”; intuition.
• Authority – Takes the form of an expert in a given area giving his opinion.
Accepted due to the high standing of the source.
• Rationalism - The practice or principle of basing opinions and actions on reason
and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response.
Empiricism - Reaching a conclusion through logic. This is acceptable, only if the
resulting question/interpretation is treated as a hypothesis and tested.

Examples with your field????

• Empiricism - Knowledge gained by observation.
Examples within your field????
Naïve empiricism - , “I will not believe it until I see it”.
Sophisticated empiricism - , When indirect measures are used as evidence for
the intended observation.
 Purpose of Research
• To discover new knowledge. Involves discovery of new facts, their correct
interpretation and practical application.
• To describe a phenomenon. Accurate identification of any event involves thorough
description, for example size, shape, age, weight, colour, height, change over time.
• To enable prediction. Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomenon A, given
phenomenon B.
• To enable control. In scientific research, control is concerned with the ability of
regulate phenomenon under study. Scientific experiment are designed to achieve
this objective.
• To enable explanation of phenomena. Explanation involves accurate observation
and measurement of a given phenomenon. In order to explain a phenomenon one
should be able to describe it, predict its occurrence and observe factors that cause
its occurrence with certainly and accuracy.
• To enable theory development. Theory development involves formulating
concepts, laws and generalisations about a given phenomenon.
 Research Terminologies
• Population – Refers to an entire group of individuals, events or objects having a
common observable characteristic. Example all standard three pupils in a county.
First a researcher has to define the population to which generalization of results
will be done. To get the whole population might be costly, therefore an accessible
population is set from the absolute population.

• Sample – Small group obtained from the accessible population. Each member in
the accessible population is referred to as a subject.

• Sampling – Is the process of selecting a number of individuals for the study in

such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group from which they
were selected. The individuals selected form the sample and the large group from
which they were selected is the population. The purpose of sampling is to secure a
representative
 Terms
• Variables – measurable characteristics that assumes different values among the
subjects. It is a logical way of expressing a particular attribute in a subject. Some
variables are expressed quantitatively e.g age or weight. Others are put in
categories e.g farmer, teacher
Operational Definition of Variables
• Data – All information a researcher gathers for his or her study. Primary data –
Refers to information a researcher gets from the field i.e from the subjects in the
field
Secondary data – information a researcher refers from books, research articles,
casual interviews, data is classified into quantitative or qualitative
Parameter – A characteristic that is measurable and can assume different values in
the population
Statistics – Science of organizing, describing and analyzing quantitative data. It also
refers to indices derived through statistical procedures.
 Terms
• Descriptive statistics – Indices that describe a given sample. Examples descriptive
statistics are: measures of central tendency – mean, mode, median), measure of
dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance), distributions (percentages,
frequencies), relationships (correlations).
• Inferential statistics – A branch of statistics which researchers use to draw
inferences about a given phenomenon in the population. The purpose of
inferential statistics is to test hypotheses and enable the researcher generalize
the results from the sample to the population.
• Objectives – Any kind of the desired end or condition. Refers to the specific
aspects of the phenomenon under study that the researcher desires to bring out
at the end of the research study.
 Terms
• Literature review - This involves the locating, reading and evaluating reports of
previous studies, observations and opinions related to the planned study
• Problem statement- A specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the
research study
• Units of analysis – refers to those units that we initially describe for the purpose of
aggregating their characteristics in order to describe some larger group or abstract
phenomenon.
• Units of observation – is the subject, object, item or entity from which we measure
the characteristic or obtain the data required in the research study
• Hypothesis is the researcher’s anticipated explanation or opinion regarding the
result of the study.
• Theory – set of concepts or constructs and interrelations that are assumed to exist
among those concepts. Theory provides the basis for establishing hypotheses to be
tested in the study.
• Deductive logic – Process of developing hypotheses from theories and then
testing these hypotheses through observations or experiments.
• Inductive logic – Process of constructing hypotheses and then theory from
repeated observation.